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The Informal Learning Review - No. 84. May - June 2007 ENGAGING FACULTY testing ideas with experimental trials, refining CONTENTS ideas systematically-and Wieman reported SCIENTISTS IN K-12 research from his group as informed by others EDUCATION in the physics education and broader cognitive Nature Museums science community. From my perspective as a COLLABORATIONS science educator who has met more than a Nearly Relic handful of scientists who think that their scientific Themselves Elizabeth K. Stage accomplishments allow them to ignore the data Page 8 in science education, this was a refreshing point 2001 Nobel Prize winner Carl Wieman has of view. attracted considerable attention in recent months The Politics of by leaving the University of Colorado, where he As part of the visit, Wieman visited the Lawrence has been for more than twenty years, to go to the Hall of Science. The “Hall” is a public science Creativity University of British Columbia to focus on improv- center and organized research unit; our mission Page 10 ing undergraduate physics education. In May, he is to inspire and foster learning of science and visited Berkeley and his lecture, “Using the tools mathematics for all. We incorporate research of science to teach science,” brought an overflow about teaching and learning in our development Book Review: crowd to the lecture hall; faculty and students of exhibits, programs for the public and teachers, Everything Bad is were asking themselves, “How could a person and instructional materials that are used widely with Wieman’s research accomplishments walk across the United States and increasingly interna- Good for You away from physics research and devote the rest tionally. Hall staff work very hard to involve scien- Page 14 of his professional career to physics education?” tists in our work for a variety of reasons; involving faculty helps us to improve the quality of every- The main point of the lecture was that education thing that we do, particularly to fulfill our goal of Exploratorium can and should be improved by applying scientif- See “K-12,” continued on page 2 Awards ic methods-using evidence instead of anecdote, Page 15 ing lot in front of the entry plaza, which is domi- CREATION MUSEUM nated by a life-sized, well-photographed, model NOW OPEN IN of a sauropod dinosaur. The property is entered Defining and KENTUCKY through a gateway dominated by sheet metal Measuring Visitor outlines of a Stegosaurus. The museum is flanked by a well-landscaped garden/park/pic- Robert Mac West Experience nic area, replete with dinosaur, bird, and sea- monster topiaries. Page 16 The newest “museum” devoted to demonstrating the literal truth of Biblical creationism opened in After purchasing their tickets in a well-managed Petersburg, Kentucky (a suburb of Cincinnati), on Looking at Bones queue, visitors enter the main gallery, also domi- May 28, 2007. Owned and operated by the nated by dinosaurs, this time animatronic. Here is Page 19 evangelical creationist ministry “Answers in where the natural history museum first runs up Genesis,” The Creation Museum is a $27 million, against the Bible: in an impressive open diora- 60,000 square foot confabulation of a natural ma, two animatronic human children are happily Public history museum and a life-sized, three-dimen- playing alongside a pair of juvenile carnivorous Understanding of sional illustration of the book of Genesis. I visited dinosaurs (obviously, a scene from before the on July 5, five weeks after opening, and thus saw Some Earth Science Fall). This is the form of a natural history/science it in reasonably typical operating mode. Concepts museum with the substance of Biblical infalibility. A Triumph of Form over Substance Page 24 Therefore, the die is cast – dinosaurs, paleontol- ogy, and geology are the tools for demonstrating The museum sits adjacent to Interstate Highway the literal truth of the Bible and the egregious 275, only a few miles from the Greater What is Social errors and, in fact, dangers of modern evolution- Cincinnati International Airport and, as AIG ary science. And the Creation Museum uses all Media? explains, within a one-hour flight or a one-day the tools of the modern museum to do so Page 26 drive of two-thirds of the U.S. population. It is an imposing colonnaded building with a huge park- See “Creation,” continued on page 4

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“K-12,” continued from front cover drafts of our curriculum materials for their of Broader Impact, researchers can con- scientific accuracy before they are sent to tribute to a larger enterprise, rather than publication. doing some small thing on their own.

Carl Wieman asked the Hall staff how we A different starting point may be the go about recruiting scientists for this work. opportunity to share their intellectual Since he is focused on being systematic in assets at the same time as they are the improvement of science education, he strengthening their research base, such was clearly surprised by our answer, as the Museum Informatics Project, where “One by each.” Scientists are singular in Berkeley’s Natural History Museums are their focus, have very definite and well- collaborating on a database that will honed opinions; while there are some enhance their research and other schol- generalizations that we can share, the ars’, their teaching and other instructors’, first is to form partnerships with individu- and have the intentional byproduct of als rather than looking for a formula. making their collections available to the Since we ran out of time to elaborate, this general public, with a special emphasis essay could be viewed as a follow-up on teachers. The National Digital Library note to Professor Wieman and an open is a larger and more comprehensive letter to other physicists who are interest- example of a shared resource that bene- Carl Wieman ed in thinking about ways to involve col- fits scholars and teachers. leagues in K-12 education work. As luck giving visitors a window onto the campus would have it, the Berkeley Outreach Closely related to altruism and evange- research and to provide a service to the Roundtable met a few days later and that lism is intellectual engagement. One has campus. Sometimes we benefit economi- discussion of faculty involvement in out- to take advantage of any initial window cally from being written into a proposal; reach enhanced my thinking. of interest to get faculty to see how chal- sometimes we use our core resources to lenging education is, perhaps even more make the collaboration possible. Incentives challenging than their discipline. K-12 work can give them an opportunity to try Our most obvious examples of UC For most faculty, the starting point for out their ideas about curriculum, teach- Berkeley faculty involvement are our their involvement in K-12 activities is altru- ing, and learning in a place that is more exhibits; for example, Ian Carmichael, a ism, doing the right thing, particularly open, perhaps, than their own depart- geologist, conceived Forces that Shape when it comes to equity and diversity ment. Berkeley’s charter school, Cal Prep, the Bay, our outdoor exhibit that helps to goals, or evangelism, sharing their enthu- is a place where faculty from a range of explain our breathtaking view. Recently, siasm for the discipline and wanting oth- disciplines have become involved Lisa Pruitt held the final exam for ers to share in the excitement. Many sci- because it provides a test bed for innova- Mechanical Engineering 117, Structural entists like to spread the word to the pub- tion. Collaborations with the Hall provide Aspects of Biomaterials, on our exhibit lic about the work that they do and how another venue on campus that provides floor by her having students explain the important it is. NASA was the first federal access to schools, teachers, and the pub- engineering behind hip replacements, science-funding agency that realized that lic. Work in K-12 provides faculty with an heart valves, and dental implants. In our the survival of their public support opportunity to fulfill a service requirement, professional development institutes for depended on public understanding of the whether imposed by funding agency or teachers, it is not uncommon for faculty results of their missions; they have set encouraged by promotion criteria. It used to give lectures on their areas of exper- aside a percentage of the budget for to be said that you shouldn’t ask a faculty tise; less common, but particularly valued, every scientific mission for Education and member to work in outreach activities is mathematician Hung-Hsi Wu, who co- Public Outreach (EPO). until he or she had attained the level of teaches with a teacher leader for a full full professor, as such work would be month’s session. Less obviously, but as The National Science Foundation has considered negatively in promotion deci- important in improving quality, scientists also figured out that public support for sions. After years of debate, in July 2005, like General Atomics’ Larry Woolf review research will diminish if only one hundred the UC Academic Personnel Manual people can appreciate the results of the added the following paragraph: research that they fund; Criterion 2, “Broader Impact,” is a placeholder for The University of California is commit- the idea that more than those 100 peo- ted to excellence and equity in every ple need to appreciate the results of the facet of its mission. Teaching, research, research. By putting their time and fund- professional and public service contri- ing into existing mechanisms, such as the butions that promote diversity and Center for Science Education at equal opportunity are to be encour- Berkeley’s Space Sciences Institute for aged and given recognition in the eval- EPO, or activities at the Hall or the uation of the candidate’s qualifications. Forces that Shape the Bay Graduate School of Education in the case These contributions to diversity and

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equal opportunity can take a variety of is paid directly to faculty, to be able to say ing for opportunities to support institu- forms, including efforts to advance what it’s paying for. tional goals of equity and diversity or equitable access to education, public more general public relations. service that addresses the needs of More important than money, per se, is California’s diverse population, or money that gives faculty members support • Put your cards on the table. Partnerships research in a scholar’s area of expertise for their research and their graduate stu- are two-way; be clear about what you that highlights inequalities. dents. Course release, for example, can want or need from the scientist and give faculty members time and can some- what he or she can expect to gain. Contributions to equity and diversity were times be bought out at a reduced, added to each of the promotional crite- replacement cost, making that a win-win. • Use time wisely. Doing your homework ria—research, teaching, and service— Relieving a graduate student from being a about a scientist’s areas of interest, even including examples of activities that count teaching assistant for an introductory reading his or her publications, can as evidence. It is too soon to see if this course for the sixth semester in a row is allow you to make requests in specific explicit recognition is taken seriously by not only doing the faculty member a favor, areas of expertise. Don’t let scientists review committees, but it is certainly a it’s providing the student with an opportu- spend their time on administrative step in the right direction, and should at nity to consider teaching and learning at a duties; it’s the surest way to dampen least reduce the negative weighting different age level and motivation. Money their enthusiasm. Do leverage their time assumed to have been applied in the that allows the faculty member and his or by making an interview into a video, a past. (The section is available online at her graduate students to attend and pre- piece of software, or a childrens’ book www.ucop.edu/acadadv/acadpers/apm sent at educational conferences will not so that they don’t have to come in per- /sec2-pdf.html .) usually be in the lab’s budget, but can be son to have their story told. considered a valued opportunity. At some point, however, altruism runs out • Make it as easy as possible to get their of steam, grants have been obtained, and Strategies feet wet, but bring scientists in early in a promotions have been achieved; there’s project, not to review at the end. They research to be done! For work in outreach • Listen for motivations. Some scientists don’t want to be stuck grading your to be sustainable, more compelling and are interested in fame and fortune, oth- paper after you’ve decided what the systemic rewards have to be provided. ers are interested in “doing good” or important concepts are and what activi- One tangible reward is money for the becoming more effective educators. It ties or investigations best exemplify faculty member, such as stipends, hono- helps to match opportunities to speci- them. raria, or summer months. (You should fied goals. investigate the rules for additional com- • Ask! (and not just the usual suspects.) pensation for faculty within your institution • Be the solution to somebody’s problem. Before he went to the National before you make an offer that you cannot Individuals need to do something for Academy of Sciences to become its fulfill.) And, increasingly one needs to be “Broader Impact” or public service; careful to be accountable for money that department chairs and deans are look- See “K-12“, continued on page 7

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“Creation,” continued from front cover various soft openings. Opening day and one incorrect. The correct one, attracted 4,003. God’s Word, is laid out in Genesis and – well-crafted dioramas and immersive requires adherence to Biblical literacy, a exhibits, numerous actual fossils, over 50 • It is anticipated that 70% of visitors will six-day creation of everything by God, a video presentations, high-tech theater come from over 250 miles away. massive change in animal and human and planetarium shows, and sculpted behavior after Adam’s sin, formation of dinosaurs, both skeletal and fleshed-out. • The Director of Design is Patrick Marsh, virtually all of the physical features of the formerly of Universal Studios Florida earth (e.g., the Grand Canyon, continen- This is by far the most professional and where he designed the Jaws and King tal positions, etc.) and all fossils as a best marketed of the creationism muse- Kong attractions. result of the Noachian flood, a 6,000- ums scattered around North America, year-old earth, a spontaneously-created including one recently opened in What is “Answers in Genesis?” universe (as far as astronomers can now Alberta, Canada. see and likely beyond), and acknowl- “Answers in Genesis” is an independent, edgement of a multitude of social ills Facts and Figures nonprofit, international ministry based in caused by mankind’s rejection of Biblical Petersburg, Kentucky, with headquarters truths. The incorrect one, Human Reason, • The announced cost of the building and at the Creation Museum. It originated in is what is generally understood as science exhibits is $27 million, all of which was Australia and moved to the U.S. in 1994 and, in particular, any form of evolution. privately raised. The museum claims with its president, Ken Ham, a former that it opened debt-free. In addition, high school teacher. It has formally sev- The required route through the museum countless volunteer hours were donated ered ties with the original Australian (which is rigidly unidirectional once one to the production of the museum. organization, which is now suing AIG leaves the Main Hall) introduces visitors to over misrepresentation of its members’ this dichotomy. The “Dinosaur Dig Site” • The building is 60,000 square feet, magazine. shows two paleontologists, one a cre- with exhibits on two levels, the upper ationist (an older, bearded Caucasian transitioning seamlessly to the lower. The mission of “Answers in Genesis” is to man) and one an evolutionist (a younger “support the Church in fulfilling its com- Asian man), working on an excavation of • There are four theaters (including a spe- mission; to bring reformation by restoring a dinosaur skeleton but coming to very cial effects show titled Men in White, the the foundations of the Christian faith different conclusions based on their Six Days of Creation Theater, the Last which are contained in the book of opening assumptions (the Bible vs. pale- Adam Theater, and the Dragon Theater) Genesis; and to provide answers from ontology/evolution). Graphic panels here, and a 78-seat 3-D planetarium. Genesis and the rest of Scripture to make and elsewhere, point out that we live in Jesus Christ, our Creator and Redeemer, the present and have information, even • Noah’s Café offers both indoor and relevant to the Church and world today.” about fossils, only in the present, and thus outdoor seating with regular and (IRS Form 990, 2005) the past is open to immensely different express service. interpretations. The gallery immediately AIG employs about 300 people at its following this reinforces this point by ref- • The 49-acre property includes over a headquarters and in the museum. The erence to numerous aspects of the scien- mile of walkways through gardens and most recently reported annual income is tific interpretation of geology and paleon- quasi-natural areas. $5,429,923 (from June 30, 2005, IRS tology. Thus, the museum “presents both Form 990). sides” as if science actually consciously • The annual operating budget is about considers the merits of “Human Reason” $7 million, equally divided between Before a person is hired in the Answers against “God’s Word.” admissions and sales on the one hand in Genesis ministry, or the Creation and contributions on the other. Museum, s/he must sign a Statement of Shortly after this is a gallery that very Faith. According to the Answers in bluntly and aggressively attributes the ills • The place is pricey – $19.95 adult, Genesis Web site, the worker agrees of current society (divorce, incest, pornog- $14.95 senior, $9.95 children 5-12; that s/he believes, among other things: raphy, secularism, teen pregnancy, with the planetarium an extra $5.00. that “Scripture teaches a recent origin racism, homosexuality, stem cell research, Annual and lifetime memberships are for man and the whole creation,” and etc.) as a direct result of the rejection of available. “no apparent, perceived or claimed evi- God’s word. dence in any field, including history and • At the time of opening, the Creation chronology, can be valid if it contradicts This is followed by an expansive diorama Museum claimed some 8,500 charter the Scriptural record.” of the Garden of Eden (including an members. iguanodont dinosaur) in which Adam is The Presentation naming the animals; in the next scene • The business model is based on an Eve is created from Adam’s rib (no belly annual attendance of 250,000. The The basic premise of this presentation is buttons visible). The next diorama is the museum drew 31,711 visitors in its first that there are two alternative ways of fateful scene in which the forbidden fruit month, plus some 9,000 who attended viewing the natural world, one correct is consumed, followed by enormous

4 THE INFORMAL LEARNING REVIEW, May - June, 2007 behavioral changes in dinosaurs (e.g., visitors talking about the live which have established themselves as those with long sharp teeth now are Archaeopteryx purportedly recently cap- places to experience the best and most meat-eaters), a behavioral change for tured by the Smithsonian. accurate interpretations of science, art, Adam’s family (they now have to farm for history, and human culture. a living), and the introduction of pain and The stairs from the Palm Plaza lead into suffering (e.g., death, the pain of child- the Dragon Hall Bookstore. Here one “Answers in Genesis” has very effectively birth, etc.). encounters various logo merchandise used public fascination with dinosaurs (hats, T-shirts, etc.) as well as an impres- and other creatures of the past. Among There then is a very impressive immersive sive array of curriculum materials, books, their slogans are “Prepare to Believe” and area devoted to building the Ark, with videos, CDs, etc. “We’re Taking Dinosaurs Back.” This is a animatronic Noah directing his anima- very effective use of scientific icons on tronic laborers as they painstakingly ham- Observations behalf of a decidedly non- and anti-sci- mer and saw to make the massive boat entific message. To top it off, the entry that will carry the created kinds of ani- I must make a personal statement here. lobby features a small-scale ceratopsian mals (no worry about plants – they float- My PhD is in vertebrate paleontology, I dinosaur with a child-sized saddle on its ed as mats of vegetation which inciden- taught paleontology and evolution at sev- back – perfect for that great photo-op. tally carried all insects as well) when God eral universities as well as worked for sev- releases the Flood. The consequences of eral natural history and science museums, Interestingly, AIG realizes that the “muse- the Flood are laid out in the “Flood and devoted my scientific life to collecting um” cannot rely upon the usual public Geology Room” which graphically shows and interpreting fossils and geology in the school field trip audience. Given the high- visitors how the Grand Canyon was western U.S., northern Canada, and parts ly religious nature of the message, public formed, with examples of post-eruption of Nepal and Pakistan. Thus, I feel quali- schools will not be able to use this facility. erosion on the flanks of Mount St. Helens fied to evaluate the quality of Creation However, they anticipate it being a Mecca used to demonstrate how major geologic Museum exhibits (and assumptions) relat- for home-schoolers and religious schools. features (especially at high elevations) ed to paleontology and evolution. were brought into existence by the Flood Finally, this “museum” is tapping into the and the subsequent retreat of the Flood The Creation Museum is just what its significant portion of the American popu- waters (to where?). The gallery also dis- name says it is. It is NOT a science muse- lation that is predisposed to be non-scien- cusses the flotation of continental plates um, despite the trappings it assumes. It is tific. Numerous recent polls indicate that into their current positions during the an anti-science institution that deprecates half or more of the U.S. population Flood. Post-Flood diversification (but not hundreds of years of work by many thou- accepts a young-earth creationist expla- speciation) of life (e.g., horses from sands of scientists and asserts instead that nation in one form or another. Initial Hyracotherium to Equus, and all marsupi- the Bible is a science/history textbook, and attendance at the Creation Museum als) followed when ecological niches mul- that the results of intensive and extensive appears to reflect this, in that the place is tiplied as the world dried out scientific research can be distorted to sup- packed every day. port a literal Biblical interpretation (one The final theater experience, The Last which, by the way, is not even accepted by Publicity and Participation Adam, brings us Jesus’ crucifiction and ris- all creation ministries/museums). ing, with the ultimate consummation left to The Creation Museum’s opening attract- the visitor’s imagination. Upon completion The “science” in this place is mind-numb- ed an astonishing amount of attention, of that presentation, visitors are informed ingly bad. Not only does it reject virtually both within the U.S. and internationally. that there are counselors available to all of geology, paleontology, astronomy, Much of the international commentary those who are in emotional need. biology, archeology and who-knows- was rather bemused, taking the form of what-else, but it attributes numerous neg- “look at what those peculiar Americans The linear exhibits open into the Palm ative aspects of modern (and historical) are doing now.” Within the U.S. it was a Plaza, with an upscale coffee stand, society to them. It appropriates the lan- mix of curiosity about the resources being which includes several cases filled with guage of science to further a specific fun- poured into creationism and deep con- fossils that illustrate pre-Flood marine damentalist Christian agenda, implying cern about the Creation Museum as a organisms such as Paleozoic ammonites, that to accept evolution as the predomi- metaphor for poor public understanding as well as numerous Eocene Green River nant theory explaining the universe, our of science as well as the insidious influ- fish specimens which purportedly confirm planet, and the life on it is to be anti-God ence of fundamentalist religion on society abrupt preservation as a consequence of and anti-Christian. in general. the Flood. Adjacent is the Dinosaur Den, with models and skeletons of animals That said, I find it perfectly acceptable for The museum was very busy the day I was which existed during the Mesozoic Era adherents of any religious perspective to there and conversations with several staff (about 2,500 years ago), were obligatory makes themselves heard. What is both suggested that this has been the norm herbivores prior to the fall, and which objectionable and deceitful is to portray since opening. The afternoon entry queue were included on the Ark (as juveniles) those views in the guise of a museum, was a hundred yards long, License plates and did persist for a while after the Ark thus appropriating the hard-won position landed. It was in this area that I heard of museums, in the U.S. and worldwide, See “Creation,” continued on following page

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“Creation,” continued from previous page Further information http://news.nky.com/apps/pbcs.dll/section?C ategory=creationmuseum in the crammed parking lot indicated visi- Please refer to the following web sites for http://scienceblogs.com/evolution- tation from most of the eastern U.S. as additional information and commentary: blog/2007/06/the_creation_museum_3_gen well as several states well west of the eral.php#more Mississippi. People were enjoying their vis- http://travel.nytimes.com/2007/05/24/arts/2 http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/arti- its, despite the slow slog through many of 4crea.html cles/1411_the_antimuseum_an_overvie the galleries, especially early in the linear http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp- w_a_7_6_2007.asp experience. The audience that day includ- dyn/content/article/2007/05/26/AR200705 ed many extended families, seniors, and 2600908.html a surprising number of teens and twenty- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creation_Museum Robert Mac West is the editor and pub- somethings. Notable by their virtual http://crazytalk.typepad.com/bluegrass- lisher of The Informal Learning Review. He absences were non-caucasians, though I roots/2007/06/fun_at_the_crea.html may be reached at did see a bus carrying a musical group http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wzjjxi7f0 [email protected]. from India. Oc&mode=related&search=

Main plaza with dinosaur

Entry Gate

Non-religious decadence

Past vs. Present

Post-flood organic changes

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Deer and iguanodont dinosaurs in the Garden of Eden Building the Ark

Mount St. Helen’s explains post-flood geology Children with dinosaurs in Main Hall Diorama

Human Reason vs. God’s Word Dinosaur excavation diorama

“K-12,” continued from page 3 • Consider an institutional home. Many would welcome your comments or sug- research institutes have outreach offices, gestions. You can learn more about the president, Bruce Alberts used to say that such as the Berkeley Space Science Lawrence Hall of Science at he never turned down an invitation Laboratory’s Center for Science www.lawrencehallofscience.org. from a teacher. Education, Some universities, such as Stanford, have established offices to Elizabeth K. Stage is the Director of the • Identify funding opportunities, such as support faculty involvement in outreach, Lawrence Hall of Science; she may be NSF’s GK-12, that allow sustained http://oso.stanford.edu. reached at [email protected] . engagement. Hopefully this article has provoked you to This article is reprinted, with permission, • Document contributions, write thank think about getting involved in K-12 edu- from Forum on Education of The you letters suitable for promotion cases, cation (it’s both challenging and reward- American Physical Society Summer 2006 and otherwise celebrate success. ing) or recruiting others to work with you. Newsletter. We are still learning at the Hall and I

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NATURE MUSEUMS adapted or failed as their environments Chicago as the Big Three of natural histo- have changed? What’s happening now? ry exhibits and research, has had to NEARLY RELICS Biologists say those questions are vital in economize. The museum has reduced its THEMSELVES coping with today’s challenges, and they staff about 11% this decade, although can’t be answered fully without museum curators were untouched, spokesman Mike Boehm collections. Steve Reichl said.

The great American natural history muse- “With some major exceptions, there’s Universities aren’t a strong alternative, sci- um could be headed for the vulnerable been a 20-year retraction” in museum- entists say, because many have given up species list, alongside the polar bear and based natural history research, said their expensive-to-maintain natural history the redwood tree. Leonard Krishtalka, who directs the collections and focused their efforts else- museum at the University of Kansas. where, including biomedical research, A national survey last year showed nature “We’re slowly witnessing, by the whit- genetics and technology. museums’ annual bottom lines sinking tling of curatorial positions, the extinc- chronically into the red by $300,000 on tion of incredible knowledge. For many The Los Angeles museum, which vies with average, while art museums outper- organisms there are only one or two San Francisco’s California Academy of formed them by nearly half a million dol- world experts, and they retire with no Sciences for fourth place in national rank- lars. Some of the leading institutions have one to replace them.” ings, turned to shock therapy in 2003, winnowed their staffs since the decade laying off 7% of its staff to save $2 million began, among them the Natural History Officials with the American Association of and reverse a long string of deficits. Most Museum of Los Angeles County. Museums, which conducted the 2006 remaining employees endured a wage survey that tags natural history as an freeze that ended this year. underperforming sector, cautioned against drawing strong statistical conclu- The museum’s scientists have been sions, because the report was based on studying things like parasitical bee- median results from 43 institutions over killing Peruvian flies, or attempting to three years, compared with 197 art sort out the evolution and global distrib- museums. But there’s no shortage of ution of gobioids, small ocean fish anecdotal woe. important to the diet of the seafood humans eat. How can such research fit The Milwaukee Public Museum lies fiscally into what investment company executive prostrate, its net assets having fallen to Paul Haaga Jr., president of the muse- minus-$14 million last year, according to um’s board, calls “the elevator speech” Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County its 2006 tax return. The Academy of — the pithy hook, deliverable in the Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, the course of an elevator ride, that’s need- deficit-ridden, 195-year-old granddaddy ed to recruit donors? And finding big Science leaders worry that financial pres- of American natural history museums, donors is more crucial than ever for an sures and demands to boost attendance sold some of the family jewels to prop up institution that’s revving up a $115-mil- could prompt natural history museums to its finances last year, earning $1 million lion fundraising campaign. self-lobotomize, cutting away brain mat- for a chunk of its mineral collection. ter — the pure scientific research that’s The museum’s public face is simple largely hidden from the public — to save The Smithsonian Institution’s natural histo- enough to comprehend — the main the exhibits and educational programs ry museum in Washington, D.C., which building in Exposition Park, with its dio- that are the institutions’ visible cash gen- draws more than 5 million visitors a year ramas, dinosaur fossils and a darkened erators. and has the nation’s largest collection, gem and mineral hall that glows like with more than 126 million specimens, is Aladdin’s cave; and the George C. Research is what makes natural history seen as deeply troubled; the staff has Page Museum on Wilshire Boulevard, museums special: the mandate to venture shrunk almost a third since 2000. showcasing extinct prehistoric mammals into nature and bring back new finds and whose bones were dug from the ooze fresh questions, while maintaining mil- “It’s a real concern to see continued of the neighboring La Brea tar pits. lions of specimens. diminishing ranks of scientists there,” Together, they draw 800,000 to said Robert Gropp, director of public 900,000 visitors a year; about a third Some scientists say that amid global policy for the American Institute of are groups of children from public warming and a rapid die-off of species, Biological Sciences. “We hear routinely schools that get in free. these collections encompassing the from folks who work there that morale is world’s life forms, living and extinct, have really down.” The harder part to explain happens on become especially valuable for the clues the third floor of the Exposition Park they might hold. Even the American Museum of Natural building. It’s where most of the curators History in New York, which stands with are — PhD scientists trained to go out in How have creatures through the eons the Smithsonian and the Field Museum in the world, find critters, critter remains and

8 THE INFORMAL LEARNING REVIEW, May - June, 2007 anthropological artifacts and bring them 45% of the funds. of greenery designed by Renzo Piano, back as specimens. The 33-million-piece could be the canary in the coal mine. If collection is not shelved and forgotten but Even with the cuts, about 24% of the nat- a leading institution that has had a requires ongoing care. ural history museum’s spending goes to chance to reinvent itself with almost half research and collections. Pisano noted a billion dollars can’t score a hit, the “Collections are expensive to keep and that exhibits, education and other public future for all natural history museums are not revenue-generating,” said the programs got 23% combined. “Clearly, could be a real dodo. museum’s Regina Wetzer, who studies we need research,” she said. “It lets us tiny, bug-like crustaceans. say, ‘We create knowledge here.’ It Driving the project, for which about $385 grounds our work.” million in mostly private donations has Joel Martin, the crustaceans curator, who been raised, was the realization that peo- has been at the museum nearly 20 years, There’s nothing specifically for research, ple had become bored with natural histo- worries that with every cutback, the however, in the $115-million construction ry museums, said curator John Patrick chances to win grants worsen. Ambitious campaign. It addresses what the public Kociolek, the former executive director research often depends on scientists sees: refurbishing the 1913 rotunda who spearheaded the rebuilding. “Before being able to win highly competitive building and creating six galleries, includ- you’d go, you could write down what you grants from outside sources. ing a near-doubling of the space for were going to see. The same stories were dinosaurs. being told.” “They’re not likely to put a lot of money into an institution that itself is not funding Experts even worry that the very name The new museum, he said, aims to stay it,” he said. “natural history museum” has a Victorian fresh by uniting its public face with its hid- tinge that makes it harder to compete for den brain, clearly linking research to In the three years before 2003, the Los audiences and funding. what visitors see by basing exhibits on the Angeles museum landed $2.4 million work of the museum’s scientists. from the National Science Foundation. In “It harks back 300 years and doesn’t res- the three years since, Los Angeles’s share onate anymore,” said Leonard Krishtalka, For that to succeed, Kociolek said, there dropped to $1.6 million. the University of Kansas museum director has to be a better exchange of ideas who reclassified his venue as a “biodiver- within the museum. The austerity measures also snuffed what sity institute.” The challenge and potential some saw as a promising youth move- salvation, he believes, lie in making visi- That’s why Piano was asked to design ment that had begun in 2001, when four tors and donors understand the connec- hallways, office wings and other staff young biologists and three researchers tion between the fate of the Earth and all areas so that formerly “siloed” scientists specializing in the history, anthropology those seemingly inert specimens tucked would mingle routinely with colleagues in and archeology of the American West into drawers or arrayed on back-room other departments. and Mexico were hired as curators. “It shelves in jars of alcohol. created a lot of energy,” recalled one for- Terry Yates, president of the National mer curator, who asked not to be named “Our collections and knowledge help Science Collections Alliance, hopes envi- for fear of alienating colleagues. inform solutions to the problems the ronmental consciousness and civic com- “Research and collections was on the planet’s facing,” Krishtalka said. “Our petitiveness will light a spark among Los upswing, and the sky was the limit.” time is now, and museums that reach out Angeles’s philanthropists, who never have and grab that mission strongly will be the supported the city’s museum of natural Now, just one of the seven remains. ones who survive.” history on a scale approaching their Kenneth Johnson, who studies coral reefs, counterparts in New York, Chicago and went to the Natural History Museum in A completely rebuilt California Academy San Francisco. London; he noted dryly that it becomes of Sciences is due to open next year in easier to find opportunities when wages San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park. The The museum, Yates said, “continues to be have been frozen. museum, which will have a “living roof” a vital force on the West Coast, but it’s facing problems. Do you want New York The Los Angeles museum has 20 bud- to continue to show up Los Angeles? geted curatorial positions, down from Come on, guys, get going.” 24 in 2000, and only 16 are occupied or being filled. The American Museum Copyright, 2007, Los Angeles Times. This in New York has 42 curators, up from article appeared on June 3, 2007, and is 39 in 2000. republished here with permission. Mike Boehm is a Los Angeles Times staff writer. Cutting curators was “like ‘Sophie’s He may be reached at Choice,’ “ said President Jane Pisano, but [email protected]. the museum couldn’t keep outspending its income. This year’s budget is about Rendering of the new California Academy of $26 million, with the county providing Sciences

9 THE INFORMAL LEARNING REVIEW, May - June, 2007

THE POLITICS OF utility of a suggestion (and by the old def- the approach – perhaps the problem lay inition, its creativity) cannot be judged by elsewhere. Perhaps it lay in the way in CREATIVITY: contemporary measures. The use to which we look at the notion of creativity in INTERACTIVITY AND which a novel idea may be put may lie – the first place. CREATIVITY IN like so many creative ideas – far in the future. Oftentimes, the utility of a seem- Creativity and interactivity both suffer CONTEMPORARY ingly mad idea only becomes clear with from confusion between object and sub- SOCIETY time, as technological, social or political ject – exhibits are referred to as interac- possibilities change to remove the con- tive, spaces and toys as creative. I think Dr. James M. Bradburne straints that stood in the way of its realiza- we can make our task much easier, and tion. What seems patently ridiculous our work more effective, if we see interac- PREAMBLE. This paper was first delivered today may be blindingly obvious tomor- tivity and creativity as properties of users, at the Hands On! conference held in row. Even so, surely creativity is more not of things. People are creative, children Milan, Rome and Naples in October than mere novelty – truly creative ideas are creative, creative people are able to 2003. Since then, the Next Generation seem to manifest an internal coherence, find solutions to seemingly intractable Foundation was successfully launched in and almost invariably, this coherence problems. March 2004, and initiated a series of comes at the expense of internal tensions. innovative projects, including the Map of Novel, yes, but also useful. Impractical, Let us look at this point in more detail. Creativity and Making Playful Learning certainly, but also possible. Visible (with the generous support of the Tools can certainly confer certain proper- Esmée Fairburn Foundation). The Next Generation Roundtable, a ties on their users. By use of tools, one Unfortunately, at the same time, the for- panel of experts assembled in 1998 by can see farther, lift heavier weights, tunes of the LEGO company (whose CEO LEGO Company and the House of manipulate objects more precisely. By Kjeld Kirk Kristiansen initiated the Next Monday Morning, a Danish think tank, means of tools our voices can become Generation Foundation) were suffering in struggled with the challenge of defining louder, our eyes sharper, our arms the marketplace, and in 2006 it was creativity, and formulated a series of indi- stronger. Strength, accuracy, precision – decided reduce the ambitions of the foun- cators for whether or not a project was these are properties that can be conveyed dation and to gradually transfer the oper- creative. These indicators took the form by tools. But creativity is not a property ations of the company from London to of a series of ‘twosomes’ that tried to that can be conveyed by a tool. A creative LEGO’s headquarters in Billund, capture the tension between opposites chef works better with good tools. Denmark. The website is still visible that seemed to characterize creativity. She is faster, more accurate, more pro- online, and discussions are underway to Briefly described, the twosomes were: ductive. But a sharper knife does not ensure that it remains a vital platform for Balancing Utopia and Reality, Balancing make a chef more creative. A sharper innovative educators worldwide. The other Challenge and Support, Balancing knife allows a creative chef to imagine projects originally imagined have been Freedom and Structure, Balancing more possibilities. put temporarily on hold. Notwithstanding Variation and Focus, Balancing Individual this setback, the views expressed in this and Collective, and Balancing Action By the same reasoning, environments can paper remain valid, and Next Generation and Reflection. Each pair gave rise to certainly suggest particular uses, encour- Foundation’s calls for a ‘creativity agenda’ indicators that would allow researchers age certain behaviors, and support cer- remain as urgent as ever. to spot creative projects. tain activities. But the most it can do is to provide a context in which the human The word creativity is notoriously difficult Despite the thoroughness of the analysis, actor can better explore the skills of cre- to define. The starting point is almost the result was nonetheless not completely ativity – which include innovation, imagi- invariably innovation or novelty, but when satisfactory. The twosomes were an nation, risk-taking and play. A creative confronted with the far-fetched, ridiculous attractive way to describe the creative ten- chef blossoms in a well-equipped and or silly, most try to leaven the definition sions in existing projects, but difficult to well-arranged kitchen, but the kitchen with a measure of utility. Surely mere nov- use predictively. How much Utopia did a does not make the chef creative. elty cannot capture the essence of project need to have in order to be con- Even if a new tool suggests a new prac- Leonardo’s helicopter, Mozart’s minuets, sidered creative? A little, a lot? None? tice or if the kitchen makes possible new or Van Gogh’s Sunflowers. Nevertheless, The twosomes were even more unwieldy preparations, it is the chef – not the tool when it comes to determining the extent as analytical tools. Was a project unsatis- or the kitchen – who does the cooking, to which a novel idea, invention or pro- factory because it had too little Dystopia? and it is the chef who is creative. posal is creative, the question of how Too much? Could the ‘Freedom’ of a much utility is appropriate becomes project be reduced in order to improve it? Einstein often said ‘imagination is more vexed. Creativity is often argued to be At the end of the day, as effective as the important than knowledge.’ Nevertheless, both novel and useful. I think this leads us twosomes were in providing a framework he believed that it was critical, first, to into error. Creativity by definition is novel for specific indicators of creativity – things grapple with a body of knowledge, to – even if it means a new rendering of a to look out for – the approach never real- understand it in depth. This knowledge Bach cantata – but utility is a judgment ly functioned as a grounded theory of was not only the knowledge of physics that can only be passed with time. The creativity. Perhaps the problem wasn’t in ‘for the critical thinking of the physicist

10 THE INFORMAL LEARNING REVIEW, May - June, 2007 cannot possibly be restricted to the exam- negotiation – with the physical world, the to modify school policies so as to give ination of the concepts in his own field,’ social world, and the world of ideas. higher priority to the cultivation of creativi- but a profound reflection on the whole of Creativity – when seen as a property of ty can run into conflict with partisan poli- knowledge. The tension, between the human actors – is the way we describe tics. It also runs into conflict with conserv- constraints of knowledge and creative the innovative negotiation between ative ideas in education establishments freedom is at the heart of the scientific human desires and the constraints about the relative importance and priority process – and of all creativity. Richard imposed by the environment. This envi- of issues, with the cultivation of creativity Feynman put the same point differently. ronment includes the natural world, the often being eclipsed by the teaching and ‘The whole question of imagination is social setting, and the legacy of past testing of rote skills.’ misunderstood by people in other disci- human activities we carry with us in the plines. They overlook the fact that what- form of memory, culture and tradition. There are many arguments in favor of sup- ever we are allowed to imagine in sci- Creativity is masterful negotiation, and porting creativity in both children and adults. ence must be consistent with everything our goal as educators should be to sup- else we know’’ Scientific creativity, he port the acquisition of this mastery. The first and most common argument is said, ‘is imagination in a straightjacket.’ that creativity represents a personal value. Confronted with an unyielding mass of How Can Creativity Be Political? Individual creativity is without a doubt a source of fulfillment, pleasure and inspi- If creativity can be defined, at least in ration. Children encouraged to explore part, as the innovative negotiation their creative skills and undertake activi- between human actors and the con- ties in which their creativity is valued, straints they encounter, it means that often develop to be healthier, well-adjust- both creativity (and interactivity) as ed and happier adults. Our world is human behavior should also serve enhanced by the output of creative indi- human needs. Creativity itself need not viduals. Living in a world filled with the be good or bad, but the uses to which products of creative individuals – culture – creativity is put are human uses, and are is something most people enjoy. therefore deeply political. To act political- ly means to act within a framework of The second argument, fashionable in the values. Ideally creativity is innovation in last decade of the 20th century, is that service to a set of values – to the needs creativity is indispensable for the new of society, to the well-being of the envi- economy. The argument runs as follows: ronment, to the cause of peace. While With information – notably in the form of Albert Einstein creativity can be put to terrible uses – the business-to-business ‘e-commerce’ – invention of new weapons or new means playing an increasingly important role in of enslavement, creativity tends to be a delivering products more effectively and positive characteristic. Creativity more efficiently, we have seen the demands that one imagine the world European economy moving from a prod- other than it is, and inherently mitigates uct-based economy toward a service- against dogmatism, fundamentalism and based economy – much as it earlier extremism, which all tend to constrain moved from an agrarian economy to an thinking. Creativity is unusual as it has industrial one. In a sense we could no imperative form. Like the verbs ‘learn’ describe this as a shift from a ‘high-vol- or ‘play,’ it makes no sense to shout at ume’ economy, wherein industry makes a someone ‘create!’ Creativity is instrumen- lot of products and sells them each at a tal – and inherently subversive – it does profit – to a ‘high-value’ economy, not accept the world the way it finds it. wherein profit is made by being more flexible, more responsive, more creative. In their 1969 classic Teaching as a If we are to continue to justify our Euro- Subversive Activity Neil Postman and lifestyle - and pay our Euro-taxes - it is Richard Feynman Charles Weingartner argued that each imperative that this shift toward a high- marble, Michelangelo may well have student should have an ‘automatic, built- value economy be made as quickly as though the same thing. in bullshit detector’. The educator and possible. It is now taught in management So what is creativity? I would suggest that computer scientist Seymour Papert writes, schools that, in the words of Arie de the essence of creativity is the ability to ‘as a political issue [creativity] has the Geus, ‘the only sustainable competitive innovate within constraints, and the ability potential to generate political conflict. advantage is to learn faster than the to imagine ways in which constraints can Actions to promote creativity will have competition.’ The market now clearly be reduced, redefined, or eliminated to repercussions that will please some and favors brains over brawn (as can be seen create solutions to user-defined problems displease others. For example, in some by the market value of a firm such as – what Tom Bentley called desired out- countries school policies are highly politi- comes. In effect, every creative act is a cized with the consequence that attempts See “Creativity,” continued on following page

11 THE INFORMAL LEARNING REVIEW, May - June, 2007

“Creativity,” continued from previous page center located in downtown Vancouver. It ed in an interactive voting theatre called struck us that there were two clear alter- “Hotseat!” Visitors were given the oppor- Microsoft) – and the skills needed by the natives to tackling the subject. On the one tunity to learn a wide range of scientific new workforce are those of flexibility and hand, the earth sciences could be treated information, not all of it in agreement. the ability to respond to change, but as they have been in traditional science They were invited to explore this informa- above all, creativity. centers. Visitors would learn about geo- tion through debate and develop skills logical time, the development of rocks, that would help them to understand, and A third, and in my opinion compelling, faulting and continental drift. Following to alter, the political process in the argument has gained in strength with the example of other science centers, we province. As a consequence, Science rise of fundamentalism. Creativity by def- could link geological themes to newswor- World became the focal point of a inition demands that the creative actor thy geological events that captured the unique social experiment that lasted over imagine the world other than it is. Even a public’s interest - volcanoes and earth- three years. musician preparing to deliver a faithful quakes. By treating the earth sciences as rendition of a Bach fugue must imagine a subset of geophysics, we would follow In May 2000, the Museum for Applied it in myriad ways before choosing to play a traditional path: separating scientific Art in Frankfurt was ‘relaunched’ as it in a particular way. Creativity mitigates fact from social issues. mak.frankfurt. As part of its Digital Craft against dogma. Creativity gives free rein program, mak.frankfurt developed the to questions and questioning. Why can’t The alternative was clearly more chal- kids.in.motion project. The project had a person fly? Why must grass always be lenging. Instead of an exhibition on the four phases in which the children worked colored green? Why can’t the world be earth sciences, we proposed to look at with dancers of the celebrated Ballett other than it is? Creativity is the opposite how the geological sciences are applied Frankfurt, under the leadership of chore- of fundamentalism – it welcomes differ- in a political and economic context: in ographer William Forsythe, and with digi- ence, it embraces change. Creative peo- short, we suggested an exhibition on min- tal artist and educator Paul Kaiser to ple can be very threatening. Educator ing. This exhibition, entitled “Mine explore the quality and nature of their Seymour Papert writes ‘It cannot be over- Games,” would deal with the issues sur- own movements. At first they imagined all emphasized that a society based on cre- rounding the mining industry in our the different ways they could cross a ativity may challenge fundamental edu- province, issues that have been increas- room – they could squiggle, squirm, slith- cational concepts. In a slowly changing ingly the subject of heated debate in the er, skibble, skip or scoot, they could hop, society schooling can be designed to hobble, harrumph or handspring. They provide youth with the skills they will then explored how to translate these need for the jobs they will do. The goal movements into LOGO procedures – could be to produce citizens who can do operations that can be performed by the what they were taught. In a rapidly LEGO Mindstorms building system changing society where most people are (donated to the project by LEGO, which doing jobs that were not invented when will also provide advanced programming they were young a different need may assistance). become decisive: citizens who can do what they were NOT taught.’ The children then constructed Mindstorms Science World, Vancouver, BC robots that combine these movements Almost certainly, creativity cannot be press, on television, in parliament, and in into sequences, exploiting the system’s taught, at least in the sense that mathe- the streets. This single change - from unique use of sensors to allow the robots matics, geography, or history can be earth science to mining - entailed a com- to respond to touch, light, heat, and taught. Nevertheless, if creativity is seen plete re-examination of the way in which movement. The program was so popular as a property of actors, then, like music the exhibition would be planned and that it was invited to participate in dance or art, it can be encouraged. Settings can designed. With a mining exhibition, we expositions combining children and robot be designed that provide tangible could initiate a debate about the future of dancers, in particular the 3rd World rewards for seeking innovative solutions. the province, teaching visitors to evaluate Summit on Media for Children in Objects can be designed that encourage scientific positions arrayed in support of Thessaloniki, Greece, in March 2001. the development of the imagination. any number of competing positions. An Opportunities can be constructed in exhibition on mining would call into ques- Let me give you a final example. In my which the barriers to imaginative play are tion the role the science center should office in Frankfurt was a vitrine, specially lowered. I would like to briefly give a few play in the life of the community, suggest- designed for the Richard Meier monu- examples of ways in which the skills of ing that the role of the science center is to ment of which I was steward. In the vitrine creativity can be encouraged in different prepare visitors to participate in the social was a selection of beautiful glasses, from contexts. and political life of their community. a 16th century Venetian masterpiece to a set of Boris Sipek glasses. I often used the In 1990 the Canadian anthropologist The exhibition was designed as a series vitrine to test new text panels – after all Drew Ann Wake and I were invited to of games to enable the visitor to advise a were not a hands-on center! I had one develop a new gallery on the earth sci- fictitious community on whether or not to text panel with the title ‘Glasses through ences for Science World, a large science allow a mine to proceed, and culminat- the centuries’. It is amusing, informative,

12 THE INFORMAL LEARNING REVIEW, May - June, 2007 and written in a popular style. Visitors to Foundation. This proposal was accepted going on around the world. my office often stop to read it, and chuck- and I was hired to establish and direct the le at the humor. I also had another text Next Generation Foundation as a private A second consequence of making the panel, with another title. This title read initiative of Kjeld Kirk Kristiansen, LEGO’s community of learners visible is to create ‘One of these glasses is a fake’. The dif- owner and CEO. the possibility of coordinated action, des- ference in behavior was striking – often perately needed to combat the forces of visitors stood for ages closely inspecting The Next Generation Foundation exists to educational conservatism, the armies of the glasses. Nor is the question trivial– promote a ‘culture of creativity’ by provid- right-wing educators who insist that the after all, what is a fake glass anyway? All ing exceptional educators working in only learning that matters is that which that has changed is the direction of the marginalized communities with opportu- can be tested – and the earlier the better! learning process – from top-down, to nities to learn new skills, by supporting It is against these forces, which now have bottom-up. It is important to emphasize exemplary projects around the world, and the ear of many governments, that those that interactivity and creativity are in the by providing a platform for dialogue, of us who work in the field of educational mind – not just in the hands. debate and exchange of ideas. In con- innovation must work. But in order to crete terms this means providing three- engage effectively, we must realize that What the three examples above all have month fellowships to exceptional educa- we are not alone. The Next Generation in common is that they deliberately creat- tors, initiating and supporting best prac- Foundation is an activist initiative, and the ed settings in which the creativity of the tice projects, and hosting discussions, Map of Creativity is one small tool in the user was encouraged by posing chal- debates, seminars and summits around fight against the rising tide of educational lenges that were relevant, and their ability the theme of creativity, informal learning fundamentalism. to innovate enhanced by recognizing and civil society. their capacity for independent action. It is the position of this paper that among One of the first projects of the Next the fundamental skills of a democratic Making A Map Of Creativity Generation Foundation is to create an society are creativity, flexibility, and the interactive, user-driven ‘Map of ability to innovate. Moreover, I believe In 1998, the Next Generation Forum was Creativity’. Given the difficulties defining that it is the responsibility of the commu- formed by the LEGO Company and the exactly what creativity is, it was decided to nity of educators to develop environments House of Mandag Morgen with the “aim create a tool that would identify innova- that allow the public to experience these of creating among central decision mak- tive projects on the basis of peer recom- creative forms of thought. Projects that ers in society, a new global commitment mendation. have as their goal the communication not to children’s learning, creativity and only of facts, but of skills, encourage new imagination.” The purpose of this initia- If someone thought a project was innova- audiences – people often at the periphery tive was to explore the idea that children tive, and served the triple objectives of of the museum culture due to the lack of are a largely undiscovered human creativity, learning and play, then we confidence, background or skills. resource in modern society, that their would put it on the Map. As of this writ- Projects that put the accent on creative potential must be set free, and that ing, we have over 300 projects in four skills especially encourage children, the opportunities for children’s learning and continents. The Map of Creativity ground in which every generation must creativity must be expanded as the world (http://www.ngf.org.uk/map/map.html) plant the memory of its past for the enters the 21st century. An international was launched in March 2004, and pro- future, in order that new ideas flourish. group of experts within the fields of child jects will be evaluated on a peer review The Next Generation Foundation was development and education, including basis. New projects can put themselves founded to promote a ‘creative society’ Carla Rinaldi, Seymour Papert, Mitch ‘on the map’, and the Map’s users will and it is towards this end that its efforts Resnick and Dorothy Singer was formed continually vet and review the quality of will be directed. to provide perspective and direction on projects. The fundamental goal of the Next Generation Forum’s strategy and Map of Creativity is to make the commu- James Bradbourne is Director General of activities. nity of educational innovators visible to the fondazione Palazzo Strozzi, Florence, itself. My experience in UNESCO, Italy. He may be reached at Called the Next Generation Round Table, UNICEF, universities, and museums has [email protected]. its aim was to prepare and discuss the shown amply that there is an enormous drafts for the first Next Generation amount of innovation going on – but that Annual Report, to prepare an agenda for the different educational ‘tribes’ – formal the first Next Generation Summit, and to education, informal education, museums, serve as the expert panel and advisory science centers, children’s museums, aca- group for the secretariat and the LEGO demic research, private research – not Group in the planning of the Next only don’t talk to each other, they often Generation Summit. In 2001, the Next don’t even know of each other’s exis- Generation Roundtable proposed that an tence. As a consequence, every day, the independent, non-profit foundation be wheel is being re-invented. Imagine what established in order to better fulfill the would happen if we could take advan- mission of the Next Generation tage of the opportunities latent in projects

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Book Review find so deeply engaging? Johnson sions. Should you shoot or not shoot? makes a strong sense that we need a What kind of city do you choose to build? EVERYTHING BAD IS good neurological model of video game What characteristics are you going to give users while they are engaged in the activ- the characters? Video game players have GOOD FOR YOU: HOW ity. He focuses largely on the brain’s to make explicit decisions, which is not a TODAY’S POPULAR dopamine reward system, which keeps requirement in reading or in other com- CULTURE IS ACTUALLY track of rewards and sends out alerts mon activities. Johnson writes, “…learn- about whether or not the rewards are ing how to think is ultimately about learn- MAKING US SMARTER arriving. Thus, the brain motivates video ing how to make the right decisions: game users to seek out sources of weighing evidence, analyzing situations, Robert L. Russell rewards in the environment. You might consulting your long-term goals, and call that the physical manifestation of then deciding.” The videogame revolution has been with “intrinsic motivation.” us for years now, but still represents a Video game users have to probe. The new frontier for informal learning orga- Most video games provide a constant rules of games like Monopoly or Chess nizations. Yet, a simple Google search stream of explicit, although virtual, are explicit, whereas video games define of “informal learning” plus “video rewards. For example, Sim City allows some ways of getting started, but beyond games” results in nearly 200,000 hits, so users to create their own communities, that, users must “probe” and find out the the topic is hardly ignored. The National but provides rewards (e.g., new activities, rest – the implicit rules, how the game is Science Foundation has funded confer- new elements that can be added to the played – by playing the game. Much of ences and research projects on the sub- environment) only until certain goals, the discovery process may operate ject. So why are millions of our youth so such as population, are reached. “below consciousness” and involves an deeply engaged in videogaming and Likewise, Grand Theft Auto allows users intuitive process of probing, testing what is it about video games that mes- to drive around somewhat aimlessly, but hypotheses, trying it again. Pac Man merize them? provides access to new areas of the city offers a very simply example. The object after certain missions are completed. of this ancient game was to avoid getting Fortunately, there is a new book that Initially, the virtual environments may eaten by monsters, then (after earning addresses the topic: Everything Bad is immerse users, but eventually it is the enough rewards) eating the monsters. Good for You: How Today’s Popular seeking of the implicit rewards that may Users discovered that the monsters Culture is Actually Making Us Smarter, by come next that motivates users to contin- roamed the environment through pre- Steven Johnson. While there are argu- ue. You want to experience another part dictable behaviors, which were discov- ments that video game activity is a use- of the virtual world, you want to see what ered through “probing,” or testing. less waste of time and encourages vio- happens. While the plot lines may be lence, the author presents a very engag- simplistic and hackneyed (e.g., shooting, Visitors have to “telescope.” Video game ing analysis of why videogames may princess rescuing, etc.), Johnson argues users are addressing multiple, simultane- encourage the development of thinking that the specific content isn’t so important. ous, and nested objectives. In the sec- and skills that receive little emphasis in ond-most recent version of Zelda, players schools or interactive museums. (Although Johnson takes a step back from the con- want to rescue their character’s sister, but Johnson’s book explores the broad range tent of many games (e.g., Grand Theft to do that, they must obtain legendary of popular culture, such as changes in the Auto) and quotes John Dewey from his weapons, get pearls to get the weapons, nature of television program formats, in book Experience and Education, “Perhaps cross the ocean to find the pearls, etc. this review I will focus primarily on his the greatest of all pedagogical fallacies is Meanwhile, players must keep the hero analysis of video games.) that a person learns only about the par- alive. Players are not consciously aware ticular thing he is studying at the time. of all of these objectives while involved in Trainers in business, industry, and war- Collateral learning in the way of the for- playing; to merely outline the objectives fare are increasingly using videogaming mation of enduring attitudes, of likes and would take pages and pages. Johnson and simulations to develop the skills that dislikes, may be and often is more impor- describes handling these multiple and are important for their workers to devel- tant than the spelling lesson or lesson in multi-level objectives as “telescoping,” op on the job. Soldiers going to Iraq geography or history that is learned. For which he distinguishes from “multi-task- may play, in effect, war videogames so these attitudes are fundamentally what ing.” Telescoping means staying involved they can develop essential survival skills. count in the future.” In other words, it is and focused on the game while handling Likewise, the airlines have long used not what you are thinking about, it is the these multiple objectives and tasks, while flight simulators to develop essential way you are thinking. multi-tasking is simply doing several dif- piloting skills. Many video games goes ferent things at the same time (e.g., talk- far beyond these kinds of immediate What is different about video games from ing to friends, watching TV, shopping). In experiences and add a strong narrative reading books or watching movies? the game, if you don’t stay focused, you or storyline to the mix. Here are some fundamental distinctions may get killed and at least, you won’t get Johnson makes: the rewards you are seeking. Another What is it about video games and other point Johnson makes is that in the game, elements of popular culture that millions Video games force users to make deci- it is happening to you. Unlike reading a

14 THE INFORMAL LEARNING REVIEW, May - June, 2007 story about someone else, you are play- during the past several decades. He calls 30TH ANNUAL ing the game and, in a sense, driving the this the “Sleeper Curve.” He makes a narrative of the game. strong case that mass culture has does EXPLORATORIUM result in real cognitive benefits and gains AWARDS Johnson continually emphasizes that it is and that movie goers, television watchers, not the content of the narratives of games and gamers are developing intellectually On April 4, 2007, the Exploratorium like Zelda or Grand Theft Auto that and learning, even if the focus is Grand hosted the 30th Annual Awards Dinner. engages users. Instead, it is the probing Theft Auto or Survivor. Carol Bartz, Executive Chairman of the of the environment, the fast-paced and Board at Autodesk was presented with complex problem-solving nature of the Informal educators cannot afford to the prestigious Director’s Award; Natalie games that engages the brains of the ignore the nature of contemporary mass Angier, Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist for users. In brief, Johnson says it is about culture and to take advantage about the New York Times, received the Public “finding meaning and order in the world, what it is about new forms of media and Understanding of Science Award; and Dr. and making decisions that help create gaming that so engages participants. It is Kenneth Miller and Dr. Eugenie C. Scott, that order.” only with a more explicit analysis and scientists both active in the evolution vs. understanding of these new forms of intelligent design debate, received the Not content to analyze video games, media that exhibit designers and pro- Outstanding Educator’s Award. The Johnson devotes a majority of his book to gram developers can incorporate useful Exploratorium has honored leaders in looking at how narrative structures of elements of these media into the experi- technology, science and education for television programs have changed. He ences they design for informal learners. over a quarter century. contrasts dramas and comedies form the past that may have had one simply and There is a growing wealth of research The Awards Dinner Event Committee straightforward storyline (e.g., finding the and other literature on video gaming. A includes, among others, President and criminal or killer in Dragnet or Gunsmoke) good place to start is an electronic jour- CEO of Autodesk Carl Bass; Daryl that was completed in one program to nal like Game Studies (http://gamestud- Austen, Chairman and CEO of Cisco; current series like the Sopranos, where ies.org). I would also encourage readers John Chambers, Chairman Emeritus of multiple storylines progress during one to take another look at John Dewey’s Intel Corporation; Gordon and Betty episode and a story segment may refer classic, Experience and Education, which Moore, Chairman of NetApp Don simultaneously to several of the plotlines. has been the focus of a number of arti- Valentine and Rachel Valentine; and CEO In brief, watching these shows requires cles by Ted Ansbacher and me in the of NetApp Dan Warmenhoven and much more active involvement that previ- Informal Learning Review. Charmaine Warmenhoven. ous dramas. Johnson, Steven, Everything Bad is Good Funds generously provided through the In his notes to further reading, Johnson for You: How Today’s Popular Culture is Exploratorium Awards Dinner are used to outlines an interesting set of parameters Actually Making Us Smarter Riverhead develop and maintain the 400+ educa- that informal education designers and Press, New York, New York. 2005, 256 tional exhibits that are the heart of educa- educators might consider: pp. $23.95 hardcover, $14.00 paper tional programming for training teachers in the Greater Bay Area, as well as in Narrative structure: the storyline of the Robert L. Russell is Science Advisor of the 862 school districts in 39 states. The “work” involved in the activity. Self-Reliance Foundation. He also consults funds also enable the Exploratorium to on the design and evaluation of exhibits reach out to underserved audiences in Media theory: the nature of the plat- and other informal learning media. the community, and to make science con- form of the activity. Russell can be reached at tent easily understandable and freely [email protected]. available to the 20 million annual visitors Economics: the market environment to our Website. for the activity. The Exploratorium honored Carol Bartz Sociology: the characteristics of the for her work in revolutionizing design audience. software and for her commitment to encouraging young women and girls in Neuroscience: how the brain works, math and science. Ms. Bartz is the execu- what is going on in the heads of partic- tive chairman of the board of Autodesk, ipants. Inc. She held the position of chairman, president and CEO of Autodesk for 14 Out of his analysis of the increasing com- years, stepping down in April, 2006. plexity of video games, television dramas, Autodesk revolutionized the design world the Internet, and television reality pro- with its AutoCAD (computer-aided design) gramming, Johnson tries to make the program used to assist engineers, archi- case that this may have contributed to raising the average “IQ” of Americans See “Exploratorium,” continued on following page

15 THE INFORMAL LEARNING REVIEW, May - June, 2007

“Exploratorium,” continued from previous page Darwin’s God: A Scientist’s Search for DEFINING AND Common Ground between God and tects and other design professionals in Evolution and served as a key witness for MEASURING VISITOR their work, eventually including designers the plaintiffs in the Dover, Pennsylvania EXPERIENCE in the manufacturing and infrastructure intelligent design case. He has received fields. Their numerous software programs numerous honors including 5 teaching Sylvia Matiko are used all over the world by designers awards and the President’s Citation in the building, infrastructure, manufac- Award for Distinguished Contributions to “Visitor Experience” seems to be some- turing, media and entertainment fields, Biology Sciences. thing that many organizations struggle to including even the exhibit designers at the define and measure. Ask people for their Exploratorium. A leader in the technology Dr. Eugenie C. Scott is Executive Director definition of visitor experience and you’ll field for over 20 years, Ms. Bartz has of the National Center for Science get a variety of answers. How would you been recognized by numerous organiza- Education, Inc., a not-for-profit member- define visitor experience? Typical defini- tions and publications including Fortune, ship organization of scientists, teachers, tions usually include how visitors enjoyed Wall Street Journal, Barron’s, and Forbes. and others that works to improve the their visit – was it good or bad? teaching of evolution, and of science as a Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist Natalie way of knowing. One of the country’s For many of us, the easy part is recount- Angier was honored for her passionate foremost experts on evolution and intelli- ing in detail when an experience is poor. and successful life writing about science. gent design, Dr. Scott has leant her But it becomes more difficult when two Currently a science writer for The New expertise to numerous organizations, people may have an entirely different York Times, Ms. Angier has also con- foundations, school boards and acade- experience in the same environment or tributed to over 25 magazines including mies including the ACLU and the situation. So what can make one person Discover and Time. An accomplished National Science Foundation. She has rate an experience poor while another author, Ms. Angier has published three received numerous honors including the rates it great? How can you possibly books, including the critically acclaimed Bruce Alberts Award of the American define and address this? Woman: An Intimate Geography. Her 4th Society for Cell Biology and the Isaac book, The Canon: A Whirligig Tour of the Asimov Science Award from the We would suggest that visitor experience Beautiful Basics of Science is slated for American Humanist Association. She has can actually be broken down into thou- release in May 2007. held elective offices in the American sands of elements but has three major Anthropological Association and the components that make up the experi- Brown University Biology Professor, Dr. American Association for the ence: the Audience, the Physical Assets, Kenneth Miller, is an expert in cell mem- Advancement of Science. and the Interactions. brane structure and function. A prolific writer, Dr. Miller is the author of more From an Exploratorium press release “The audience” takes into consideration than 50 scientific papers and reviews. He many facets such as age and other demo- also coauthored three different high graphics such as educational level, occu- school and college biology textbooks that pation, household income, etc. Couple are used by millions of students nation- that with the psycho-demographics such wide. Dr. Miller is the author of Finding as beliefs and values, the country that they grew up in, personal likes and dislikes, learning styles, and you can see how com- plicated just this one component can get.

“The physical assets” deals with the visi- tor’s experience in and around your facili- ty. Is there too much reading or program- ming content? Are the exhibits appropri- ate for the target audience? Are there enough parking spaces and bathrooms and are they clean and safe? Is there appropriate theming, too many sound effects, not enough for an 8-year old to do? Are there enough amenities, are they situated in the right places? Is the carpet clean? Do the exhibits resonate with the audience? The list can go on.

“The interactions” component deals with how your visitors interact with your staff, Dr. Kenneth Miller Dr. Eugenie C. Scott

16 THE INFORMAL LEARNING REVIEW, May - June, 2007 exhibits, volunteers, website, etc. Are gists, statisticians, and market researchers your volunteers positioned correctly? Are scientifically identified key issues in visitor Visitor Flow identifies how the visitor your staff visitor-friendly or surly? experience in over 19 countries around moves around an attraction, how long the world. For example, they know how they stand in lines, how long they spend You can see how quickly these elements add long an 8 year old can tolerate standing looking at something, how much time up to make an extremely complex situation. in line versus a 40 year old and which they spend walking. country has the least tolerance for queu- Each of these components can be mea- ing. They know what psychological ele- Visitor Journey takes a look at the psycho- sured using various tools such as exit sur- ments are necessary for visitor enjoyment logical journey visitors are taken on. Are veys, tracking studies, formative and sum- by age group and country. They under- there too many things that over stimulate mative evaluation of exhibits or focus stand what a 4 year old loves and hates them or not enough things for them to groups. These tools can certainly help compared to a 17 year old. engage in? Is their experience too linear but what is needed is a more sophisticat- (looking at exhibits over and over again)? ed, holistic analysis. Experience DNA is not just another poll Does the journey have enough peaks and or exit survey. It is a comprehensive and vallies as they walk through? Are parents Then the bigger question comes to light: complicated process. First, each country bored? Is there enough staff interaction? Why bother measuring visitor experience was analyzed and data collected about at all? Why is this important? The the general psychological profile of its citi- Experience Quantity looks at how many resounding answer we got from everyone zens. (The US data was collected within experiences per hour the attraction offers we spoke to was that understanding what the last 6 months.) Next, this experiential compared with how many the visitor visitors want and designing an experience information was fed into a giant data- actually needs. Everyone knows that a 7- for them leads to outstanding visitor base. The team of researchers can then year old needs more activity than some- experience and therefore sustainability. to go into any attraction and break it one aged 50 but how much experience The non-profit attraction can then live up down into a variety of different compo- should each get? to its mission and the for-profit attraction nents and psychological elements. These can improve its bottom line. results are then compared to the national Experience Quality looks at the actual data. Experience DNA reports how an quality of experience the visitor receives. So if we can agree that visitor experience attraction performs in relation to what vis- We find the chart on the following page is worth measuring, how can we possibly itors really want in a particular country by to be really helpful. It indicates which measure it accurately when there are so 8 different age groups. psychological elements need to increase many facets to it? In addition, is there or decrease. So for example in the chart something that can be used before the Experience DNA takes into consideration below, which happens to be a zoo, the project gets built which will shape the visi- not only the psychological appeal of the contact with animals needs to increase for tor experience before design plans start attraction, but also other issues which 3 – 10 years olds and also for 17 – 66 being executed, preventing costly mis- impact visitor enjoyment. Are there years old. This example also shows us takes and disappointing outcomes? enough amenities? Are they located in that there is too much “hearing” and the right places? What is the capacity of “entertainment you look at”. Experience DNA comes as close to each exhibit, and can everyone see it? answering these questions as possible. How does a bottleneck affect visitor Learning Style assesses how the visitor Experience DNA has been used by over enjoyment? What journey is the visitor rates the experience and is becoming a 70 attractions worldwide. It has recently taken on? Does the attraction have too predominant ingredient in determining been introduced into North America but much reading and not enough creative the quality of an experience. Each visitor has already had resounding success with play? Is pricing in line with the experi- learns using a combination of four differ- such world class organizations as the ence visitors are receiving? Are revenue ent learning styles, often having a pre- Natural History Museum in London, Two opportunities being missed that visitors ferred dominant style. Experience DNA Oceans Aquarium in South Africa, Bristol would actually enjoy? Are visitors receiv- identifies which of the four learning styles Zoo in the UK, the Manchester Museum ing too much experience or not enough? is predominant and perhaps which ones of Science & Industry and most recently What’s the overall quality of the experi- need to be balanced out. Dubailand. The first North American ence and where does it fall short? organization to use this service was the What’s the age suitability of the exhibits? Psychological or Market Appeal assesses National Aquarium in Baltimore. which components in an attraction are There are 8 parameters of Experience DNA: the most psychologically appealing. This What is it? Experience DNA, according • Visitor Flow is done by rating the elements according to its clients, is the world’s most compre- • Visitor Journey to their relative popularity. So it can, for hensive visitor experience model, which • Experience Quantity example, tell you which displays and delves into every level of visitor experience • Experience Quality exhibits are the most appealing for each pinpointing exactly what works and what • Learning Style age group. doesn’t. Developed in the United • Psychological appeal Kingdom by a company called Vision XS, • Price Value their team of mathematicians, psycholo- • Capacity See “Experience,” continued on following page

17 THE INFORMAL LEARNING REVIEW, May - June, 2007

“Experience,” continued from previous page understood when applied to various Antarctica is a bit nebulous and unless practical situations. you have a more adult understanding of Price Value will calculate what the experi- what Antarctica is all about – its size, ence value is and compares it to current Ice Station Antarctica, Natural History impacts etc., then it will be a difficult sell pricing. It can then also determine what Museum in London to the younger audience. elements may need to be added to bring the experience value into line with the The Natural History Museum (NHM) was The NHM in-house exhibition staff com- price charged. one of the first museums to use this tool piled a “wish list” of everything that they to help them model the experience visi- felt they wanted to include in this exhibi- Capacity deals with bottlenecks, price per tors would get for a planned temporary tion and came up with a design concept square foot, and, in terms of investment, exhibition called “Ice Station Antarctica.” of zones, flows and contents. It fit within a capacity per hour and compares it to It was a temporary exhibition to be theoretically infinite space. similar attractions. repeated in up to 20 different countries for the family market. The NHM wanted to This outline design was provided to Vision As you can see Experience DNA provides make sure that any such exhibition had a XS (the creators of Experience DNA) and a comprehensive service but the “rubber positive resonance for the family market. NHM asked for the concept to be run meets the road” when we interview peo- against three models: ple who have used it. It is also better The NHM were aware that the concept of • The UK market • The Polish market • The US market

Vision XS reported back on each of the three models and presented their findings that included both detailed statistical evi- dence – graphs and narrative – and most usefully a “one liner” suggestion that stemmed from the analysis of each topic.

Amongst other things the outcomes showed that their proposed product exceeded visitor expectations in the Polish market, was about right for the UK mar- ket, and was below visitor expectations for the US Market.

This helped inform the Natural History Museum as to which markets were appropriate for the exhibition.

The report back from Vision XS provided extremely useful guidance on the opti- mum layout and content for the exhibition itself; it informed:

• The need to have high interactivity zones and low interactivity zones [the initial thinking had been to have very full content one zone after another]. Visitors need to have the chance to ‘graze’ and not be assailed with high volume content throughout the experi- ence. The ‘pacing’ of an exhibition needs to be right to ensure enjoyment.

• There were recommendations on which zones should be kept high activity and rich and which zones should have a slower pace. Changes were made in the thinking and planning to absorb

18 THE INFORMAL LEARNING REVIEW, May - June, 2007

this recommendation. Content was psychological drivers needed to be animals in their mind and talk about the reorganized so that the exhibition deliv- enhanced or taken away. skeleton as if it were a whole animal. ers a consistent level of interactivity for They have few powers of observation and all visitors. The list goes on but what Experience fail, either spontaneously or with prompt- DNA does not do is try to evaluate con- ing, to relate structure to function. • There was feedback about the quality tent and learning outcomes of exhibits. Furthermore, the data reveal that home of the experience to varying age pro- This is an area of evaluation that Science and school are acknowledged as sources files of visitors which enabled the Centres and Museums have used effec- of information, depending on the species. Museum’s interpretation team to maxi- tively for a long time. However, “Text echoing” of the standard statements mize the potential of each zone and Experience DNA can help designers bet- about functions of the skeleton which balance learning objectives, interactivi- ter understand how their designs play out teachers use are heard in responses of ty, and atmosphere. in the minds of the visitor and what over- older primary and secondary pupils. all experience they will have before • There was feedback about some prob- design plans get built. Introduction lems in terms of dwell times/pinch points and overly complex areas. This This is certainly one of the most compre- There are few museums which are dedi- led to changes in the design to remove hensive tools we’ve come across to mea- cated to skeletal exhibits. The Grant these and make the visitor flow more sure overall visitor experience and one Museum of Zoology at University College effective. that is built on science, not just gut feel- London is one. However, many natural ing. To learn more about this visit history museums do have galleries of • There was feedback on the value for www.experiencedna.com. skeletons (e.g. The Natural History money – a matrix of entrance fees Museum, London) or some skeletons and charged against concomitant visitor Sylvia Matiko is Principal at a Different bones in their other galleries. We know expectations. This confirmed the View. She can be reached at that visitors to museum looking at taxider- Museum’s primary objective to provide [email protected]. mically preserved animal specimens a rich and engaging experience for a name the animal in nearly all conversa- family audience. tions. Comments about obvious physical LOOKING AT BONES - features such as shape, size, scars, horns, The report itself has enabled the exhibi- hooves and so on and comments about tion staff to not only amend their practi- DO CHILDREN ‘SEE’ the behavior of the animal shown by the cal plans but has also provided a very MEANING? pose in which the animal is displayed in useful statistical basis to engage and occurred over a third of conversations motivate the internal steering committee, Sue Dale Tunncliffe and Angela (Tunnicliffe, 1995). and to link that data to the resource LaGrange Scott arguments within the Museum to finance Few studies have looked at people’s the overall activity. understanding of what is inside ani- Abstract mals—skeletons and other organ sys- The staff found the process easy and use- tems. This is surprising because of the ful and Ice Station Antarctica opened on What do children notice when they do to central significance of the endoskeleton May 25th. It will be on display at the have a focused task and look at animal for the chordates and the inclusion of the Natural History Museum until April 2008. skeletons as exhibits? We know that their skeleton in many science curricula and It then leaves on its world tour including spontaneous conversations at museum the exhibition of skeletons in many muse- countries in Europe and Asia. animals focus on the salient features of ums. The few studies about internal anatomy and the behavior displayed by anatomy of vertebrates have investigated Experience DNA also has the ability to pro- the pose of the specimens as well as nam- pupils’ knowledge about animal skele- vide scientific evidence of need which can ing the animal to their satisfaction. There is tons (Tunnicliffe & Reiss, 1999) or the be helpful in fundraising efforts. The little work that refers to their observations structure of animal organ systems (Driver Manchester Museum of Science and and interpretation of skeletons. et al., 1994; Reiss and Tunnicliffe, 2001). Industry used the Experience DNA report to Most in-depth work has been done only help support their $25M grant application. Primary aged children were interviewed on human bodies (Gellert, 1962; at four different skeleton exhibitions in a Williams, Weston & Moon, 1989; Woburn Safari Park in the UK used natural history museum. Spontaneous Osborne, Wadsworth & Black, 1992; Experience DNA to model their existing conversations were so few that an inter- Cox, 1997; Teixeira, 1998), or on human attraction to see where it fell short and view questionnaire was designed. The skeletons only (Guichard, 1995). Much of what the price vs. value proposition answers were analyzed according to a the research about skeletons or organs should be. modified systemic network worked out has been in the form of interviews or has from reading and re-reading of the used drawings in some way and has The National Aquarium in Baltimore used transcripts. occurred in the classroom. Tunnicliffe and Experience DNA to better understand how to engage their visitors and what The data reveal that children clothe the See “Bones,” continued on following page

19 THE INFORMAL LEARNING REVIEW, May - June, 2007

“Bones,” continued from previous page Methodology conversational content. The numbers at the right of Figure 1 label the most specif- Yonally (1999) inquired whether skeletons We made initial observations at various ic level of table categorization, the small- had a role in live animal collections in skeleton exhibits within the Natural est categories as it were. A bar, “[,” indi- zoos and considered that they comple- History Museum, London. We observed at cates that an attribute may be either/or ment the live animals, often being a python skeleton (in a special exhibition), but not a member of both categories, “clothed” by the visitors. the brachiating gibbons on the upper while a bracket, “{,“ indicates one of a level, a whale skeleton in the mammal number of categories which the response Young learners selectively give value to hall, and the dinosaur in the entrance about the skeleton may be allocated. new sensory information (Osborne and hall. We observed both primary school Further information about systemic net- Wittrock, 1983) so the generative learn- pupils and family groups. works used in this way may be found in ing process arising from observation is Tunnicliffe, 1995. not silent but hugely assisted in by the We found that visitors rarely made any nature and construction of language. comment about skeletons. Thus, we In the analysis process, the text on the Science educators and teachers tussle decided that we would have to interview questionnaire was marked with the appro- with this process of writing and talking rather than record spontaneous com- priate number of the terminal for each about what was observed (Millar and ments (Tunnicliffe, 1995). An interview topic mentioned, the number taken from Driver, 1987; Woolough, 1994, Laws questionnaire was drawn up as follows. the network. Thus, if the respondent men- 1996).

Observation is a fundamental cognitive ability (Millar, 1994) and is enshrined (in some countries including the United Kingdom) within the contemporary idea of Key skills (DEE, 1995). Although obser- vations underline the scientific process, it is not just a matter of looking—it clearly precedes the formation of ideas about what to investigate (Tomkins and Tunnicliffe, 2000). Millar (1994) argues that observation is not a process unique to the methods of science but just one of the approaches that people take from time to time to make sense of the world. It is a skill that will not be improved by any practice that considers it as separate The questionnaire responses were analyzed tioned the name of the animal, that refer- from the mental processes that go with it. using a systemic network approach. This ence to the name would be scored as a Just looking at something does not mean was based on the categories that formed response in category 5. However, if the useful observation is occurring. the responses within the topics of the ques- respondent said it was ‘the skeleton’ of the tions asked. The network is based on those animal, it would be counted in category 7. used in a study of the conversations of chil- In a similar manner, if the respondent dren’s zoos, museums, and a farm by replied that they had learned about skele- Tunnicliffe (1995) from where fuller details tons at school, the response was counted may be obtained. in category 14 within the superordinate category of source of information. The Essentially, the elements of a conversa- total score of all the responses were tallied. tional exchange are allocated to a cate- gory that has been given a number within Results the coding network. The incidence of each category was entered into a data- Interviews were conducted with 261 prima- base and the totals were found. The net- ry aged children, 147 of whom were visit- work concept is like that of Russian dolls, ing with their school and 114 with their each subordinate category fitting inside a families. Key stage one is the age group 5 larger one. At one extreme of the contin- to 7 years in English primary schools and uum along which the conversations were Key stage two is 8 to 11 years when they categorized are highly specific items; move on to secondary school. while at the other end is the main Diplodocus skeleton at the Natural History descriptor, in this case “group’s com- School Children Museum, London ments.” The final network required 50 terminals to describe all the children’s 147 interviews with primary school chil-

20 THE INFORMAL LEARNING REVIEW, May - June, 2007 dren (with an accompanying adult who Responses related to the environment, at the gibbons where comments reflected did not respond) were conducted. Forty- which is what we were particularly interested on the position of the arms and the four were at the whale, thirty at the in, were disappointing. Significant differ- resemblance to the human skeleton. dinosaur, twenty-four at the gibbons, and ences occurred in the responses to the loca- forty-nine at the python. Fewer visitors tion where the animal had lived and the Similar sources of knowledge were cited went upstairs to where the gibbon skele- dinosaur was the lowest (33%). One boy for all skeletons, of which “school” was tons were displayed and fewer stayed in replied “It must have lived in a very hot cited most with regard to whales and the the entrance hall. place because its bones are burnt” reflecting primates, while “home” was cited for the the concept that dinosaurs as a living entity dinosaur. “The media” was referred to sig- Most children referred to the criteria they were in skeletal form. When the children nificantly less than ”home” with regard to used for identifying the skeleton and few were asked for clues that helped them real- the whale as the remembered source of mentioned the label. Over three quarters ize in which locations the animal had lived, information. The museum, and occasion- of the replies referred to using salient fea- none were received for the python. ally a zoo, were mentioned as the source tures of the skeletons of which length was Comments were passed regarding its physi- of information significantly more for the referred to in about half of the responses cal form and its imagined behavior. Pre- whale and “Just know” was mentioned for except for those about the gibbon where knowledge of the animal was cited signifi- the python. Functions of the skeleton being no reference to length was made. cantly more for the whale (39%), the “for other people” were mentioned signifi- Significantly more references to the shape dinosaur (20%), and the python (28%). cantly more for the dinosaur and the role of the skeleton were made with reference Other clues, such as its similarity to humans, of the skeleton in support mentioned least to the dinosaur. Significantly more chil- were mentioned particularly for the gibbon. for the python (p>0.005). dren referred to other features with respect to the primate than they did to Family Groups Questions about the environment any other animal skeleton. revealed significantly less comments for One hundred and fourteen interviews the python and the correct location, e.g. Sources of learning were referred to similar- were conducted with primary aged chil- “Sea,” was given for the whale signifi- ly overall but significantly more referred to dren in family groups visiting as a leisure cantly more for the whale and the gib- home as their source at the dinosaur skele- excursion. bons. The most incorrect locations were ton (63%) than at the whale (45%). In the cited for the dinosaur. Respondents subcategory of “home,” the media were Significantly fewer of the families identi- replied significantly less about the clues in referred to with respect to whales and fied the gibbon by its name but referred the skeleton that were picked up by the dinosaurs. School was mentioned as a to it as a gibbon’s skeleton. No families children for the python but the whales’ source of knowledge significantly most often called the dinosaur skeleton such but skeleton provided significantly more clues with reference to the primate. The museum referred to it as a dinosaur. Significantly to its habitat than do the other skeletons. or a zoo were mentioned significantly more more families referred to the shape of the for knowledge about the whale. dinosaur than they did to that of the other Analysis of responses from interviews with skeletons and most comments about children from primary school groups and The function of the skeleton was men- other aspects of the skeletons were made families tioned less for the skeleton of the dinosaurs than for the whale and the primate. Significantly more children said that the function was for other people to see. Yet more children responded that the python skeleton was for people to learn from. Significantly fewer responses replied that the skeleton had a function for the animal itself for the whale than the other three skeletons. The role of the skeleton as a support function was heard least for the whale. No other categories were significant and movement was cited as the next most frequent function. Sometimes what appeared to be “text echoing” or remem- bered “teacher talk” was heard. For exam- ple, a year 4 (8 years old) girl replied “the skeleton is to support and to produce red blood cells” whereas year 9 pupils (14 years old) provided slightly more informa- tion telling us for example, that “skeletons provided attachment for muscles.” See “Bones,” continued on following page

21 THE INFORMAL LEARNING REVIEW, May - June, 2007

“Bones,” continued from previous page “Home” was the place mentioned as their source of knowledge more often than schools even for pupils interviewed on a school visit. However, the only significant difference in this group of answers (Table 2) was that family children mentioned school and the media as a source of knowledge. Over 90% (92% and 97% respectively) referred to their source of knowledge about skeletons, which was home 40% and 39% respectively by the school and family groups. The source of knowledge indicated in approximately equal amounts were books 12% / 18%, media 15% / 16%, and being told (9 and 10%). School was mentioned as the source of information (47% and 33%). Both groups mentioned books in 8% of replies, which was the single highest specified source of information irrespec- tive of location. Museums and zoos were mentioned relatively little (11% and 15%, respectively).

Almost all interviewees mentioned a func- tion for the skeletons. However, 16 % and 13% said that the function of the skele- tons was as an exhibit for other people to see (Table 3), indicating that the question should have been formed more succinct- ly. Yet we did not wish to cue the children by using the word ‘skeleton’ in the inter- views. More family children said that the skeleton was for the animal than did school children although both responses were high in number. About 69 % of family children stated that the skeleton was for supporting the animal. 19% and 23 % of the respondents referred to movement as a function for the skeleton, other functions such as protection were scarcely mentioned. None of these cate- gories were significantly different between family and school children

When asked if the skeleton provided any clues to where the animal lived when alive (Table 4), significantly more (p>0.01) family children gave a correct response although this was after some When the data from the interviews of mentioned other criteria for naming the cuing (86%, 68%). More school children school and family children are com- animals significantly more than did family gave incorrect answers (P>0.005) than pared, they reveal that both family and children yet family children mentioned did family children. Why this should be so school children named the animal (60%) other sources of knowledge significantly is the cause for some speculation. rather than describe the exhibits as the more (Table 1). Those respondents men- Moreover, significantly more family chil- skeleton of an animal. When two per- tioning the skeleton specifically as a dren (p>0.025) 90% and 80% said what centages are given in these data, the first skeleton were just under 20%. 20% called clue the skeleton provided in working out figure refers to the responses of school it the skeleton of that particular animal. where the animal had lived. Sixty percent children and the second to those of chil- The salient features of the skeleton were in each group referred to a physical clue dren with their family. The school children mentioned by over 80% of both groups. such as the brachiating position of the

22 THE INFORMAL LEARNING REVIEW, May - June, 2007 gibbons indicating that they live in trees particular clues in the skeleton, which can they are obtained as an advanced orga- or paddle like limbs of the whale indicat- provide them with information. The skills nizer to skeletal exhibits would be useful ing that they lived in water. of observing with meaning need to be learning resource for visitors. taught in school from the earliest years. Family groups mentioned the shape of Skeletons need to be taught as functional The majority of children “clothed” the ani- the skeleton significantly more than did units, not as an anatomical exercise. mals when looking at the skeleton and the schools as one of the criteria issued While school is a source of information the majority did not refer to the skeleton in identifying the type of animal from about skeletons, home seems to be as a part of the animal. While a popular which the skeleton came but more recalled as of more importance. Why type of exhibit, this category of visitors school groups said that they “just knew.” should the school children give more revealed only basic knowledge of skele- Family groups surprisingly mentioned incorrect responses regarding the natural tons with a rudimentary understanding of school as a source of information signifi- environment of the animals (Table 4)? We form and functions. Even in exhibits which cantly more than did the school groups can only speculate that when on a school are interactive, with explanatory diagrams and mentioned media more. Again, sig- visit they felt they must give an answer of form related to function, visitors nificantly more responses from families even if they were unsure of the veracity of acquire little increase in their zoological mentioned the skeleton’s functions being it. Hence, combined with the above com- knowledge (Tunnicliffe and Laterveer, for the animal and gave the correct ments, there are implications for teachers. 2002). So it is not surprising that, just habitat location and significantly more using their own knowledge with which school children gave incorrect locations. Implications for Teachers and Museums they come to an exhibit about skeletons, More families mentioned the clues they they interpret that which they see at a very used in identifying the animal habitat Skeletons, especially those of dinosaurs, basic everyday level, with overtones of with families mentioning known behav- are a popular museum exhibit for chil- work learned in school. ior significantly more (p>0.005) more dren. However, these data presented in but schools mentioning previous knowl- this paper indicate that the children, The study of vertebrate skeletons can edge about the animal significantly pupils or leisure visitors, do not always enhance the observational and hypothesis more (p>0.005). understand skeletons in museums as part skills of the viewers. With school children, of a once living animal and that the form this is an important part of inquiry science. Discussion and function of a skeleton as biological Once an hypothesis is postulated, the stu- evidence are not appreciated. Teachers dents can be challenged to research The majority of children “clothed” the ani- need to ensure that their pupils do under- answers through a variety of media. mals when looking at the skeleton and stand the role of the skeleton and how it Skeletal observations can assist students in the majority did not refer to the skeleton is adapted to the way of life of the ani- grasping the role of the skeleton in move- as a part of the animal. The dinosaur mal. They should have practice before a ment, and hence neural behaviors of the skeleton was an exception. Children museum visit at reading clues through animal when it was alive, as well as devel- apparently considered that the skeletal both form and function. oping a clearer undertaking of the anato- structure is the dinosaur and that is how it my as the skeletal structures relate to soft existed. One boy said that the dinosaur Furthermore pupils need to be aware of tissue. Although the children interviewed “Must have lived in hot places because the basic vertebrate plan for skeletons, were poor at analyzing and ‘reading’ a his bones were burnt brown.” including the quadruped limb and the skeleton, with assistance from teachers and vertebral columns with the skull at the museum educators they could work out The role of skeletons in the working of an leading end. It is salutary that home is and learn further about adaptation to the animal seems scantily understood. The the source of information mentioned environment of the animals. Furthermore, function of the skeletal vertebrate organi- most and that in this work the media is the study of skeletons leads to other scien- zation in both movement and support of cited as used more at home than at tific studies, particularly physics, where, for the animal was mentioned surprisingly school. However, this may reflect the instance, the role of parts of the skeleton infrequently. Furthermore the children’s varied socio-economic groups who paid as levers, forces and stability, cantilevers understandings of form and function to visit the museum because at the time and arches can be studied. Moreover, link- related to habitat was rudimentary and this work was undertaken there was an ing science with the self creates an under- we obtained responses only after simplify- entrance charge for the museum. This standing of form and function of the skele- ing the questions to “Did this animal live need for a payment does preclude some ton of an animal and can contribute to the in the air, on land, or in the water?” for children from certain backgrounds from understanding of first aid management of the skeletons other than those of the gib- visiting and schools from organizing accidents, particularly of fractures in bons. Thus the way in which the skeleton such visits. humans. Hence, studying skeletons and is positioned and arranged can provide helping students view them with meaning vivid clues to the visitors but a convention- Museums need to be aware of the way in can contribute, not only to the science edu- al display posture does not. which children respond to the skeletons cating of students, but also can contribute and pay attention to the resources they to the development of an awareness of cit- The conventionally posed skeletons do provide for schools and families to work izenship in the students. not tell a readable story unless the with skeleton exhibits. An explanation of observer has been trained to look for the role of the skeleton and from where See “Bones,” continued on following page

23 THE INFORMAL LEARNING REVIEW, May - June, 2007

“Bones,” continued from previous page old pupils undertaking science investiga- PUBLIC tions.” International Journal of Science References Education. 23 (2001): n. 8, 791-813. UNDERSTANDING OF SOME EARTH SCIENCE Department of Education and Tunnicliffe, S. D. Talking about animals: CONCEPTS RELATED TO Employment. Key stages 1 and 2 of the studies of young children visiting zoos, a national curriculum. London: HMSO. museum and a farm. Unpublished PhD CLIMATE CHANGE 1995. thesis. King’s College, London. 1995. Robert L. Russell Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. Tunnicliffe, S. D., and M. Laterveer-de In an article in the previous issue of the Wood-Robinson. Making Sense of Beer. “An interactive exhibition about ani- ILR, I discussed several studies of the pub- Secondary Science: Research into chil- mal skeletons: did the visitors learn any lic’s understanding of the science underly- dren’s ideas, Routledge, London. 1994. zoology?” Journal of Biological Education. ing climate change. Plate tectonics and 36 (2002): n. 3, 130 – 134. geological time (sometimes called “deep Gellert, E. “Children’s conceptions of the time”) are also important concepts for the content and functions of the human Tunnicliffe, S. D., and M. J. Reiss. public to understand to have a full appre- body.” Genetic Psychology Monographs “Student’s understandings about animal ciation of one important influence on cli- 65 (1962): 293-405. skeletons.” International Journal of mate change (i.e., the location of earth’s Science Education. 21, no. 11 (1999): land masses). It is also important for the Guichard, J. “Designing tools to develop 1187- 1200. general public to have an appreciation of the conception of learners.” International the time scales that have been involved in Journal of Science Education 17 (1995): Tunnicliffe, S. D., and D. Yonally. “Do climate changes in the earth’s past, so 243-253. skeletons have a role in live animal col- that current climate change can be lections?” Newsletter of International understood in context. This article pre- Laws, P. M. “Investigative work in the sci- Association of Zoo Educators. 2 (1999): sents brief overviews of some studies of ence national curriculum.” School Science 8-9. public understanding of plate tectonics Review 77 (1996): 17-25. and of geological time. Williams, T., N. Wetton, and A. Moon. A Millar, R. “What is scientific method?” In Picture of Health: What do you do that Plate tectonics Teaching Science, edited by R. Levinson, makes you healthy and keeps you 41-48. London: Routledge, 1994. healthy? London: Health Education A major factor in the presence of polar ice Authority, 1989. caps on Earth is the location of the conti- Millar, R., and R. Driver. “Beyond nents. As plate tectonics steer landmasses process.” Studies in Science Education. Woolnough, B. Effective Science Teaching. toward the poles, ice forms easily and ice 14(1987): 33-36. Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1994. ages are more prevalent. As the conti- nents mass toward the equator, ice cannot Osborne, J., P. Wadsworth, and P. Black. Sue Dale Tunnicliffe is Research Officer at form as easily. The uplift of the Himalayas Processes of Life: Primary Space Project the Institute of Education, London, and and the Tibetan plateau caused major Research Report. Liverpool: Liverpool can be reached at [email protected]. changes in global circulation patterns University Press, 1992. Angela LaGrange Scott is Director of leading to the current cool period. Project Development at The Children’s Popper, K. Objective Knowledge. Oxford: Museum of Houston (TX), and can be In a small-scale front-end study done for Clarendon Press, 1972. reached at [email protected]. a museum exhibition, Borun (1995) found that museum visitors were familiar Reiss M. J., and S. D. Tunnicliffe. with natural phenomena such as earth- “Students’ Understandings of Human quakes but knew little about the causal Organs and Organ Systems.” Research factors. A number of studies show that in Science Education. 31 (2001). many teachers have naïve or alternative conceptions of various earth science con- Teixeira, F. M. “What happens to the food cepts. For example, Dahl et. al. (2002) we eat?: Children’s conceptions of the found that, in general, “teachers lack structure and function of the digestive sys- adequate subject matter knowledge for tem.” Paper presented at the Conference teaching geoscience concepts,” as exem- of European Researchers in Didaktik of plified by their inadequate understanding Biology at the University of Gothenburg, of concepts regarding the composition Sweden, 1998. and interior of the earth. Kusnick (2002) found preservice teachers to lack a good Tomkins, S. P., and S. D. Tunnicliffe. understanding of rock formation, even “Looking for ideas: observation, interpre- after they had taken a college-level tation and hypothesis making by 12 year

24 THE INFORMAL LEARNING REVIEW, May - June, 2007 course in earth science. There are also mental science. For example, understand- Implications for the Subject Matter numerous studies of children’s naïve ing the dramatic changes in the earth’s Knowledge of Future Teachers.” understanding of various earth science atmosphere since the beginning are fun- International Research in Geographical concepts (e.g., Agan and Sneider, 2004; damental to understanding how life and Environmental Education 10, no. Lightman and Sadler, 1988). began and how life interacted with other 3(2002.): 298-321. earth systems to change the proportion of It should be noted that plate tectonics has oxygen in earth’s atmosphere. Robert L. Russell is Science Advisor of the only recently matured as an area of Self-Reliance Foundation, and consults on research and was not a significant part of Conclusions the design and evaluation of exhibits and K-12 science curriculum until recently. other informal learning media. He can be Plate tectonics is now an important ele- Museum exhibitions should continue to reached at [email protected]. ment in the National Academy of introduce plate tectonics to the general Sciences K-12 National Science public and explain why it is an important PRESIDENTIAL Standards. Organizations such as the factor in understanding the radical cli- American Geophysical Union have also mate changes that have occurred in the LIBRARY/MUSEUM developed various efforts, such as Earth earth’s past and how they are different ATTENDANCE Week, to educate the general public from current warming due to human about geosciences. activities. Likewise, it is important for the The National Archives spends almost public to understand the scale of geologi- $100 million each year maintaining pres- Geological time cal time so that past climate changes are idential libraries for former commanders- understood in context. in-chief from Herbert Hoover to Bill We generally understand time on a Clinton. The Nixon, whose Library was human scale and in terms of our every- References Cited privately managed until July 12, 2007, day experiences – seconds, days, thus attendance data is not readily avail- decades, recent history. There is general- Agan, L. and C. Sneider. “Learning About able. All pre-Hoover libraries and muse- ly a break between this relatively intuitive the Earth’s Shape and Gravity: A Guide ums are organized and maintained by understanding of time and understand- for Teachers and Curriculum non-federal agencies. ing what some call “deep time,” that is, Developers.” The Astronomy Education looking at geological events for the past Review 2, no. 2 (2004):90-117. Now President G. W. Bush is in talks to 4.6 billion years. Natural history muse- locate his library at Southern Methodist ums have long had difficulties in present- Borun, M. Front-end Study Conducted for University, his wife’s alma mater. While ing geological time scales in exhibits on Powers of Nature Exhibition. the libraries are a helpful tool for histori- dinosaurs or other geological topics. Philadelphia: Franklin Institute Science ans and academics, some are also big Museum, 1995. tourist attractions. According to Dodick (2003), no systemat- ic studies have been carried out concern- Dahl, J., S.W. Anderson, and J.C. Larkin. Here is a ranking of presidential ing students’ understanding of deep time. “Digging into earth science: alternative libraries/museums by 2006 tourist atten- However, Trend (2001) cites other studies conceptions held by K-12 teachers.” dance: to support the view that students and Journal of Science Education; 6 (2005):2. Ronald Reagan, Simi Valley, California – 440,301 teachers are familiar with a relatively small number of geological events and Kusnick, J. “Growing Pebbles and William J. Clinton, Little Rock, Arkansas – 302,151 that they categorize these events in two or Conceptual Prisms – Understanding the Lyndon B. Johnson, Austin, Texas – 210,473 three broad eras, such as “extremely Source of Student Misconceptions about John F. Kennedy, Boston, Massachusetts – 191,986 ancient” and “less ancient.” He found Rock Formation.” Journal of Geosciences that seventeen year-old British students Education 50, no. 1 (2002): 31-39. George H. W. Bush, College Station, Texas – demonstrated some fundamental miscon- 140,674 ceptions of geological time: they confused Lightman, A. and P. Sadler. “The earth is Harry S. Truman, Independence, Missouri – the Big Bang with asteroid impacts; they round? Who are you kidding?” Science conflated the recent Ice Age with general and Children 25 (1988): 24-26. 135,316 climatic cooling; and they connected Franklin D. Roosevelt, Hyde Park, New York – dinosaur extinction with the Ice Age. Trend. R. “An Investigation into the 108,589 Likewise, in its periodic survey of science Understanding of Geological Time literacy, the National Science Foundation among 17-year-old Students.” Dwight D. Eisenhower, Abilene, Kansas – 69,248 (2002) found that only about half of International Research in Geographical Jimmy Carter, Atlanta, Georgia – 62,223 Americans answered correctly (true) “The and Environmental Education10, no. 3 Gerald R. Ford, Grand Rapids, Michigan – 58, 784 earliest humans did not live at the same (2001): 298-322. time as dinosaurs.” Trend (2002) points (greatly increased after his 2007 death) out that understanding of deep time is Trend, R. “An Investigation into the Herbert Hoover, West Branch, Iowa – 50,077 not only relevant for understanding geo- Understanding of Geological Time Source: Washingtonian Magazine science, but also geography and environ- among 17-year-old Students, with

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WHAT IS SOCIAL social media affords time-shifting, and mass marketing of a single product for place-shifting while presenting a common all, in a quick burst of time (see Figure 1 MEDIA? view of the content to all participants. below). The long tail of social media as Babak Afshar a medium becomes the message through Communal: Social media is community Editor’s note: The so-called “new media” user interaction. Social media technolo- oriented. Whereas traditional media aims – blogs, wikis, RSS feeds – are becoming gies fall in the long tail of this curve in to communicate to individuals and increasingly important for the informal that they build communities of trust households, social media tries to build learning community. Conventional infor- among loyal members who contribute as communities of interest based on quick mation-based media (e.g. network news), well as create content. and effective communication. It provides traditional cultural experiences (e.g., a place to gather with anyone, anywhere, Various forms of social media exist, all of museum visits, symphony concerts, etc.), at anytime sharing any common interest. which cannot be covered at once. But and pre-packaged information products Communities of interest exist and prolifer- some of the main forms we can discuss (e.g., CD’s, books) are facing increasing ate around any concern or curiosity that here include blogs, podcasts, social nets, competition from new media. Informal two or more people share. folksonomies, wikis, and some web learning organizations, including muse- aggregators and mashups. Almost all ums, need to take advantage of new Interconnected: Although the early world types of social media bring various forms media and incorporate it as an integral wide web introduced the notion of hyper- of media such as audio, video, text and part of learning resources. New media is textual connectivity, social media takes so on together and make it simpler for a a natural for informal learning; much of it that one step further. It accelerates the community of users to interact with the depends on self-directed exploration and speed and simplicity for gathering and content as well as with one another. learning. For example, instead of buying presentation of seemingly disparate tech- a set of encyclopedias, you go online and nologies such as audio, video, telephony The most well known of the technologies find what you need and perhaps even and print all in one place intertwined for of social media, blogs, essentially chroni- contribute some of your own information instant participation, conversation, collab- cle on a regularly updated basis, the or creations. This article provides a “New oration, syndication, and community common thoughts, interests and actions Media 101” overview for those of us who building. of an individual or a group of people. are still beached in the old media. “Blogs” or “web logs” evolved from daily A new form of media has emerged Although these characteristics may sound updated online journals kept by some online, generally referred to as ‘social very familiar individually and in fact they internet users in the early 90s who later media.’ As many things nascent and net- are, they have never been brought began to develop code to automate their born, there is no cookie cutter definition together collectively with technologies that daily publishing process. The new pub- of what social media is but the essence of are so accessible, inexpensive and rela- lishing systems were soon to be known as what it does can be summarized as a tively simple to use in order to serve what blogs, their authors as bloggers and the group of technologies that share certain has been called the long tail. process as blogging. The blogosphere traits. These collective attributes of social refers to the discourse generated and dis- media are: The “Long Tail” originally discussed in cussed in the blogging universe. Blog Wired Magazine (Anderson, 2004) point- readers are what make this form of tech- Democratic: Social media is based on ed out the increasing relevance of smaller nology a type of social media; the read- participation of contributors and users in distribution channels of more varied ers are active contributors to the conver- an open and transparent environment. products for longer periods of time to a sation by freely commenting and continu- The medium’s audiences are constantly greater number of niche communities as ing the discussion on any blog post, often contributing to the message. Through opposed to the short head of traditional with the author of the post as well as feedback and open participation social media effectively eliminates the traditional media boundaries that separate specta- “The Long Tail”, as illustrated in Chris tors from the spectacle. To be a spectator Anderson’s Wired Magazine 2004 article or a lurker is discouraged while partici- of the same name pating, voting and making your voice heard is the goal.

Collaborative: The most striking differ- ence with traditional media’s unidirection- al broadcast of content, is that social media is bidirectional; a two way conver- sation dependent on user generated con- tent. If traditional media takes the form of diction by broadcaster to the consumer, social media is a back-and-forth cooper- ative discussion. As a collaborative tool

26 THE INFORMAL LEARNING REVIEW, May - June, 2007 other readers. An example of blog is the types of databases with higher relevancy ticular folksonomy, content generators or newly launched Tech Council blog locat- factor as each piece of content is tagged users are the first and foremost audience ed at www.drtvtechnology.org. by its most critical user or creator. As whose conversation should inform mar- these tags and labels are generally shared keters and not the other way around. If As a particular form of audio narrow- knowledge among users of a particular advertisers listen to these communities casting, “podcasts” are similiar to blogs in folksonomy, the generated databases sim- before they broadcast a message of one- that they can be syndicated and users ply future searching, retrieval, discovery, size-fits all mediums, then they will be can subscribe to the audio stream of the navigation and even repurposing of the duly rewarded by the loyal long tail of the podcast to receive regular updates auto- content. Famous examples include communities in which they want to matically. A podcast is distinguished from del.icio.us for social bookmarking of web- become a part. other forms of downloadable or stream- sites and flickr.com for photo sharing. ing audio files in that the subscribed pod- Reference cast is automatically downloaded to a “Wikis” (pronounced “We-Keys”) are con- device using standardized feeds. Once tent management systems that allow for Anderson, C. “The Long Tail.” Wired.12 , the user has subscribed to the syndicated easy reading, writing, deleting, and gen- no. 10 (October, 2004). feed of a podcast, they can choose the eral editing of the available content with- http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12. type of device on which to play back the out necessarily having to register as a 10/tail.html audio file. The podango.com website new user. Its goal is easy collaborative offers an array of free daily podcasts for authorship and it accomplishes this by Babak Afshar is Principal, Xionec Media. feed-based subscription. allowing collective writing to become an A graduate in Science and Technology act of exceedingly simplified interaction Studies from the University of California, “Social nets” refer to online social net- within a web browser. As with other forms Sant Cruz, he consults on a variety of new working communities built around indi- of social media, all wikis are user gener- media and online video production for vidual nodes and their relationship or ated and user-maintained. The best corporations and non-profits, with a focus degrees of separation to other points or example of this is the free online encyclo- on social and web applications. He can nodes on the social network. Key individ- pedia located at Wikipedia.org. be reached at [email protected]. uals placed at a nexus point around which a cluster of users gather on the net- There are other forms of social media work tend to have higher relevance and such as mashups and aggregators that greater sociocultural clout on the social collect various sources of news and infor- net. Examples can be social networks mation and present it in a different yet formed around particular interest such as useful manner. These are sites such as MySpace’s initial focus on independent digg.com (social news), popurls.com music and partying, or around particular (popular urls), deals.com (shopping institutions such as LinkedIn’s focus on deals), retrevo.com (product reviews), work and business networks, or originalsignal.com (blog aggregator) and Facebook’s focus on educational institu- the mashup site mappr.com. They essen- tions. Another aspect of social network- tially gather information and repurpose it ing is its unintended effect of regional using open programming standards or popularity which forms a new type of the notion of “wisdom of the crowd”. social net as it grows. For instance the Both group intelligence and an open popularity of Google’s Orkut grew expo- exchange of information on these web- nentially higher in Brazil and Iran as sites lead to a more integrated web appli- compared to other regions of the world. cation, a better social media. Later when Iran censored the site, Orkut became somewhat synonymous with a All of these forms of social media are Brazil-centric social network. shaped around communities which are extremely passionate and individuals who “Folksonomies” form another type of are experts within the community in which social media by collectively labeling and they participate. In our research at Xionic categorizing content in an open environ- Media we have found time and again ment for later retrieval by any user of that that the loyal long tail of this participation content. Folksonomies stand in sharp has significant value for the advertising contrast to the other human endeavor of world by allowing the wisdom of the knowledge organization known as taxon- crowd or the community to be a part of omy. In a folksonomy the authors and the conversation which forms the mes- users are typically one and the same, and sage being delivered. Whether the mes- the content is often created by the author sage is in the form of an expert business who ‘tags’ his or her creation. This label- blog, a daily podcast, greater presence ing or ‘tagging’ process generates new and recognition in a social net or a par-

27 TheInformalLearning Review

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ship use sonar to measure ocean currents In addition to the university-based SCIENCE ON A SHIP and marine organism populations. research, Royal Caribbean encourages private industry to test new prototype A creative partnership between Royal Data is gathered and processed in two research equipment and ideas. Caribbean Cruise Lines and the laboratories, one devoted to atmospheric University of Miami’s Rosenstiel School of sciences and one to ocean sciences. Scientists working on the Explorer of the Marine and Atmospheric Research is pro- Seas give public presentations to interest- viding valuable data on ocean and cli- The economics of this partnership are ed passengers and provide guided tours mate conditions in the western Caribbean stunning. Royal Caribbean invested $3 of the laboratory facilities, in addition to Sea and Atlantic Ocean. It also gives pas- million into the laboratories, and sets interacting with guests in informal set- sengers on the elegant Explorer of the aside one cabin on every cruise for the tings. This has proven to be an interesting Seas a first-hand look at scientific scientists. Since the program started in inducement for travelers to book on that research in action. 2000, 280 scientists have conducted ship – and some return multiple times to research on the Explorer, and are able to watch the science in action. With funding provided by the National send their data to the University of Miami Science Foundation (NSF) and the labs via the ship’s satellite link. The uni- It is also quite a change of pace for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric versity’s annual budget for such research scientists as well. Not all oceanographers Administration (NOAA), high-tech labora- is about $600,000. Under normal cir- work in such luxury, with the temptations tories process and report out on data cumstances it would have to lease a of the midnight buffet, floor shows and gathered continuously as the Explorer research vessel for about $30-$40,000 casino! Scientists from around the world carries its 3,000+ passengers on their per day, using up that budget in two to are eligible to get their projects onboard. cruises from Miami to the Bahamas and three weeks. Under this arrangement, sci- According to a recent CNN report, the Puerto Rico as well as to Jamaica and the entists are at sea for about forty weeks waiting list for positions is about five Yucatan Peninsula. per year. months long. Instruments on the ship’s masts measure wind speed and direction, barometric pressure, relative humidity, air tempera- ture, and solar radiation. The scientists also study the concentrations of gases and particulate matter in the air, leading to better understanding of the origin, con- centration, and variability of air pollu- tants. Sensors in the bow of the ship col- lect data on the ocean’s salinity, tempera- ture, oceanic plant life, and oxygen con- tent. Lastly, tools on the underside of the The Explorer of the Seas

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