Gender & Behaviour 2015, 13(1), 6522-6534 Copyright © 2015 Ife Centre for Psychological Studies/Services, Ile-Ife, Nigeria ISSN: 1596-9231 An Exploration of the Impact of ’s 2005 Operation Murambatsvina on Women and Children

Everisto Benyera* & Chidochashe Nyere Department of Political Sciences University of South Africa Pretoria, 0003 Republic of South Africa *Corresponding author: [email protected]

The article considers the impact of an urban clean-up exercise which was carried out by the Zimbabwe government in 2005. It focuses mainly on the impact of the exercise on urban women and children. The methodology of the article is predominantly literature review, and the major findings are that the Zimbabwean state has a long history of targeting and victimising women. Officially known as Operation Restore Order, Operation Murambatsvina was a police-led operation to rid the urban cities of informal structures, both housing and business. However, human rights activists argue that it was a covert operation targeting voters who had shown a preference for the opposition party, the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC). The ensuing demolition of structures designated illegal had devastating effects on the family unit and, as this article argues, violated the core tenets of sovereignty. The state solution to the demolition, which was in the form of another operation known as Operation Garikai/Hlalani Kuhle, was a failure as it lacked a genuine, legitimate and ethical authority and the political will to remedy the situation caused by Operation Murambatsvina. The paper concludes by noting that the government of Zimbabwe, through its continued and consistent operations that specifically target and affect women, perpetuates male dominance, patriarchy and discrimination against women and children in Zimbabwe.

Keywords: Zimbabwe, Operation Murambatsvina, women and children, victimisation and discrimination.

The use of violence as an instrument of (War of Independence 1965-1980), Hondo governance predates independence in Yeminda (land reform programme 2000), Zimbabwe. Its use towards specific groups Operation (genocide in the two is equally not a new phenomenon. Thus regions of Matabeleland and Midlands violence must be analysed not as episodic 1983-1984),and Operation Mavhotera Papi? but rather a continuum which was (election-related violence, meaning literally perpetuated by the various administrations ‘where did you place your vote?’ 2008) since the formation of modern day (Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2010: 281-295; Sadomba Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe was colonised 2011: 229). through the use of violence, colonial If, broadly, the use of violence is part of Zimbabwe was ruled by violence and the the statecraft, then many episodes of threat of violence, the country was liberated violence in Zimbabwe which the state through violence and continues to be ruled considers an instrument of governance may through violence. Hence it can be argued be construed as human rights abuse that, in Zimbabwe, the preferred method of elsewhere. This raises the very contentious governing is through violence. Episodes of notion of sovereignty. Whose sovereignty state violence can be enumerated as matters? Is it that of the individual or that follows: First Chimurenga (War of Primary of the state? Closely linked to this is the Resistance 1896-1897), Second Chimurenga notion of independence. Whose 6522

Gender & Behaviour, 13(1), 2015 independence is it? Is it the independence another operation that specifically targeted of the state so that it can behave as it likes, women was conducted by the City of that is like a sovereign, or is it the in 1991, which was justified as a independence of the individuals in the preparation for the visit of Queen Elizabeth state? This analysis enables one to II to attend the Commonwealth Heads of understand the two divergent Government Meeting (CHOGM). Vambe interpretations of Operation (2008: 137) concur with this observation Murambatsvina. However, an exploration of and notes that the operation was police operations that specifically targeted ‘conducted just before the Commonwealth women will first be undertaken in the Heads of Government Meeting in Harare to following paragraphs as a precursor to the give the impression to the visiting Queen of contextualisation of Operation England that Zimbabwe was a clean Murambatsvina. country’, albeit that this operation was targeted at people, particularly women, in Police operations targeting women in Mbare, one of Harare’s oldest high-density Zimbabwe suburbs. In 1986, when Zimbabwe was The Zimbabwean police have a long history preparing for the Non-Aligned Movement’s of running operations that have targeted meeting, ‘women walking alone at night women. The Solidarity Peace Trust were the targets as they were presumed to (2010: 16) records that as far back as be prostitutes’ (Vambe 2008: 137), and October 1983 ‘unaccompanied women in further clean-up exercises were done in urban areas were suddenly deemed to be preparation for the visit to Zimbabwe of prostitutes and were routinely arrested, in Pope John Paul the Second (Vambe 2008: another version of “operation clean up”’. 137) and in the 1991 ‘Clean up’ campaign Specific episodes of violence which have (Musiyiwa 2008: 65). targeted women include Operation Chipo On 2 March 2007, the Zimbabwe Chiroorwa (ladies, get married) of 2 March Republic Police launched Operation Chipo 2007. Operation Chinyavada (Scorpion) of 2 Chiroorwa, which was meant to rid urban June 1983 specifically targeted hundreds of areas of prostitutes by encouraging them to women found walking on the streets after get married, as the name of the operation 6pm; they were taken to detention centres. suggested. This operation used the Sexual During the operation, any women found Offences Act to criminalise women and walking alone in the urban areas was charge them for loitering and soliciting for deemed to be a prostitute soliciting for sex, sex. Most of the women arrested were hence contravening Section 8 of the accused of contravening Section 8 of the Criminal Law (Codification and Reform Law) Criminal Law (Codification and Reform Law) Act, Chapter 9:23. Operation Chinyavada of Act, Chapter 9:23. The operation was 1983, also known as Operation Clean-up, biased as it targeted only women and not was meant to clean the streets of the men who formed the bulk of their ‘pfambi/mahure’ (prostitutes) and force clients. This puts an ironic twist on the them to the rural areas where they patriarchal belief that women cannot be ‘belonged’ (Harris 2008). The government of independent; they have to have a man to be Zimbabwe wants Zimbabweans and the rest valued and legitimated. This reduces of the world to believe that ‘there is no women to nothing but the property of men. Zimbabwean without a rural home’. This The intention of Operation observation is affirmed by the police officer Murambatsvina, as argued by the commanding Harare Province, who told government of Zimbabwe, was ‘to rid the journalists that ‘no one in Zimbabwe comes country of illegal structures, crime, filthy from nowhere. Everybody belongs stalls and squalor’ (Musiyiwa 2008: 65). In somewhere’ (in the Daily Mirror 21 June doing so, the operation ‘evicted thousands 2005). of people deemed to be illegal squatters Musiyiwa (2008: 65) also notes that country-wide, particularly in urban centres’

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Benyera, E. & Nyere, C.: Zimbabwe’s 2005 Operation Murambatsvina in a bid to ‘restore order in the country of this paper. However, in that regard, since hundreds of thousands of people the then Chairperson of the government- displaced by the 1970s war of appointed Harare Town House Ms independence had settled illegally in urban Sekesai Makwawarara stated centres and commercial farms’. These categorically that Zimbabwe was within included large numbers of the ‘squatters the bounds of the law when it instituted and vagrants in Epworth, Mbare Musika and executed the operation and other parts of greater Harare’ (Nyamanhindi 2008: 119, citing The (Musiyiwa 2008: 65). Herald, 19 May 2005: 1). Makwavarara Another women-specific operation was further asserted that the government of launched on 1 January 2011 and code- Zimbabwe was right in claiming that it named Operation Chengetedzai Hunhu was within its sovereign rights to (maintain your dignity). It had similar determine its trajectory concerning objectives as its predecessor, Operation urban dwelling structures and Chinyavada, and also targeted urban commerce. As quoted by the United women. This was followed by Operation Nations Human Settlements Programme Dyira Bonus Kumba (spend your annual (UN-Habitat 2005) in Chibisa and bonus at home) launched on 1 December Sigauke (2008: 31), the Zimbabwean 2012. The latest in these series of government argued that it was ‘arresting operations is Operation No Loitering, which disorderly or chaotic urbanisation was launched on 1 February 2013 and has including its health consequences; the objective of ridding urban areas of stopping illegal, parallel market prostitutes. transactions, especially foreign currency dealing and hoarding of consumer Contextualising Operation Murambatsvina commodities in short supply; and On 19 May 2005, with little if any reversing damages caused by warning at all, the Zimbabwean inappropriate urban agricultural government embarked on the operation practices’. it called Operation Murambatsvina1 If the operation was legally (Chari 2008: 105; IDMC 2008: 18; constituted, the manner in which it was Mhiripiri 2008: 149; Nyamanhindi 2008: executed, especially the brutality of the 118). It is claimed that Operation evictions and the resultant damage to Murambatsvina was officially announced property cannot be argued to be legal. as having ended on 25 June 2005 (Chari The ferocity of the Operation 2008: 110), exactly 37 days after its Murambatsvina left the most vulnerable official commencement, yet the negative groups of the Zimbabwean societies, effects of the operation are arguably still particularly women and children, even felt and experienced today. The Vice more vulnerable. The timing of the President of Zimbabwe, Joyce Mujuru, is operation was also not a coincidence also said to have announced that given that it was executed in the middle Operation Murambatsvina ‘was now of a bitter winter leaving room for complete’ on 28 July 2005 (COIS 2006: asserting that this was a move meant to 165). This exposes the uncertainty that inflict the maximum damage, loss and surrounded Operation Murambatsvina. suffering on the victims. The legality of Operation The execution of Operation Murambatsvina is a contentious issue Murambatsvina was rightly challenges by a which unfortunately is beyond the scope number of governments and organisations such as The Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat), the Labour and Economic Development 1 Murambatsvina is translated to mean ‘drive out the filth’ in Research Institute of Zimbabwe (LEDRIZ), the Shona language of Zimbabwe. It is officially translated as ‘Operation Clean-Up’ (Chari 2008: 105; Harris 2008: 40; the Country of Origin Information Service Musiyiwa 2008: 65). 6524

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(COIS 2006: 68), and the Internal Murambatsvina on the population of Displacement Monitoring Centre (2008: 22). Zimbabwe. Other studies focused on the These organisations publicly and policy weaknesses that surrounded vehemently spoke out against Operation Operation Murambatsvina (Maroleng 2005). Murambatsvina, citing its multiple human Yet others investigated the political context rights abuses specifically Article 25 of the and impact of the operation on Zimbabwe Universal Declaration of Human Rights2 (Chari 2008) and the southern African and Article 11(1) of the International region (Tibaijuka 2005). Operation Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Murambatsvina was also studied and Rights. explored in relation to migration (IDMC The Zimbabwe Catholic Bishops’ 2008), urban developmental control Conference (ZCBC) and the Zimbabwe (Chipungu 2011) and human rights (Centre Association of Doctors for Human Rights on Housing Rights and Evictions & (ZADHR) are some of the institutions within Zimbabwe Lawyers for Human Rights Zimbabwe who provided opposing views to 2007). Vambe (2008) investigated some the operation (Ncube, Bate & Tren 2005: 8). economic implications of the operation on There were also discerning voices from ordinary Zimbabweans, particularly within the ruling party, Zimbabwe African women, and similarly Nyamanhindi (2008) National Union Patriotic Front (ZANU PF). focused on the gender implications of One such disapproval of the cruelty of the Operation Murambatsvina in the operation came from Professor Jonathan Zimbabwean context. Of the studies Moyo, who noted that Operation conducted on Operation Murambatsvina Murambatsvina was ‘an inhumane, barbaric thus far, only two analysed the demolition of properties belonging to the phenomenon strictly from a gender weak and poor in our society’ (Ncube, Bate perspective, namely Vambe (2008), who & Tren 2005: 9). In other words, contrary to focused mainly on the economic the government of Zimbabwe’s denial of implications of Operation Murambatsvina committing human rights abuses and for women, and Nyamanhindi (2008), who contraventions in its Operation focused on gender. This article seeks to Murambatsvina, as described by the investigate the impacts of Operation aforementioned civil society organisations, Murambatsvina from a gender perspective the impact and consequences of the focusing on how women and children were operation indicate gross human rights affected by this operation. abuses, as was claimed and proven by various other international, regional and Beauty Vambe (2008: 76), citing the report local civil society organisations. by Tibaijuka (2005:45), concedes that most of the victims were already Current discourse on Operation among the most economically Murambatsvina disadvantaged groups in society … A number of studies have been conducted particularly among widows, single on Zimbabwe’s Operation Murambatsvina. mothers, children, orphans, the Some studies, for example by the Internal elderly and the disabled persons. Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC Vambe (2008: 77) further contends that 2008) and Potts (2008), concentrated on the these violations of the Constitution sociological impacts of Operation of Zimbabwe by the authorities [of Zimbabwe] put in doubt the legality of Operation Murambatsvina. Also and more importantly, they lead one 2 Article 25 of the UDHR states that, ’ Everyone has the right to infer that it may have been to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing conducted in order to undermine and medical care and necessary social services, and the right black women’s economic activities. to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control’ 6525

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It can thus be argued that Operation Murambatsvina, in the words of Vambe National legal and policy frameworks (2008: 81), ‘actually targeted women in It is hard to conceive the effects of the order to undermine their efforts, in the operation given that Zimbabwe passed more process depriving people [particularly than 17 separate pieces of legislation aimed women] of their money, livelihood and at advancing gender equality. If these legal property’. Vambe premised her developments are anything to go by, then pronouncement on the injustices Zimbabwean women should be among the committed against women by state organs most legally protected in the world. and state machinery which ought to protect Specifically the Zimbabwean constitution them. This position of the government of protects women (both the 2005 and the Zimbabwe contradicts what the government 2013 constitutions). Specific sections worth once stood for, i.e., the emancipation of noting are: women. Ironically, Zimbabwe is part of  Chapter 2 on National Objectives many legal and policy frameworks that  Chapter 4 on the Bill of Rights specifically protect women and children. If Zimbabwe has such an array of legal These policy frameworks, policies and instruments how then did it convince itself protocols will be discussed below. to undermine these laws and go ahead to execute the operation with such negative International gender policy frameworks effects. This becomes even more difficult to Zimbabwe is a part to the following interpret given the government’s earlier call fundamental conventions which were to women in the 1990s, to build cabins in designed to protect women by aiming to their backyards to generate income through achieve and uphold gender justice: rentals as part of women empowerment,  the Convention on the Elimination (Human Rights Watch, in Chibisa & of all Forms of Discrimination Sigauke 2008: 35). Against Women (CEDAW) (1991),  The Beijing Declaration on the The impact of Operation Murambatsvina on Platform for Action (1995); children and women  The Convention on Civil and The extent of the effects of the operation Political Rights (CCPR); was noted in a combined report by Action  The Convention on the Elimination Aid International in collaboration with the of the Worst Forms of Child Labour Counselling Services Unit, Combined  The Convention on Economic, and Harare Residents’ Association and Social and Cultural Rights Zimbabwe Peace Project (2005a). The report (ECOSOC). showed that the total number of the victims of Operation Murambatsvina was 1 193 370 Regional policy frameworks (Action Aid International 2005b: iii). Of Regionally Zimbabwe is a part to a plethora these as much as 70% lost their source of of protocols that promote and preserve the livelihood as a result of the operation. Of rights of women. These include the that 70%, the majority were women who following: were engaged in informal enterprises. These  2003 African Charter on Human enterprises included flea markets, tuck and People’s Rights on the Rights of shops and roadside vending. Since Women, Operation Murambatsvina targeted flea  2004 Solemn Declaration on Gender market traders, most of whom were women and Equality in Africa (Chibisa & Sigauke 2008: 40; Human  Southern African Development Rights Watch 2005), it in essence and by Community’s (SADC) Gender and implication targeted women specifically. Development Protocol (later ratified Demographically the report pointed out that in 2008 after the operation) the total number of children affected  the COMESA Gender Policy comprised 56 % of the operation’s total 6526

Gender & Behaviour, 13(1), 2015 victims. It is a fact that women form the the operation were purportedly to be bulk of the informal sector, and McPherson achieved through the provision of affordable puts their share at 57% in Zimbabwe (in government housing. However, only a Chibisa & Sigauke 2008: 5). couple of thousand units of the houses The United Nations has estimated the were built and most of them were not number of those left homeless as a result of inhabited (IDMC 2008: 5). The allocation of Operation Murambatsvina to be around the houses was also mired in controversy, 570 000, most of them being women and especially around the choosing of children (cited in IDMC 2008: 4 & 10). beneficiaries, which was subjected to The effects of Operation Murambatsvina patronage politics and favouritism. This on women and children can be enumerated further exacerbated the plight of women as loss of shelter, loss of livelihoods and and children, as the housing allocation income, loss of education for children, loss system favoured and benefited those with of property. In terms of property loss political connections. Thu the failure of government figures released on 7th July Operation Garikai to provide proper 2005, '32 538 small and medium size housing for the victims of Operation enterprises were demolished figures of the ' Murambatsvina exacerbated the plight of (Chibisa & Sigauke 2008: 40). Another women and children as it compounded impact was also felt in the health sector other challenges associated with the lack of where cases of loss of access to health care shelter, such as lack of security for both facilities, food insecurity, and the general persons and their belongings. disintegration of families increased after the According to the Country of Origin operation. It can further be argued that Information Service (COIS 2006: 147), women and children, especially orphans citing the Daily Telegraph of 4 December and vulnerable children (OVCs), suffered 2005, ‘people evicted from their homes increased vulnerability, with those on following Operation Murambatsvina were medication suffering loss of quality and struggling to obtain sufficient amounts of continued care. This is in addition to the food’. The report noted that, as an trauma that the whole operation brought to alternative, women without food resorted to them. Without any psychosocial support eating chafer beetles, whose botanical name being administered to the victims, most of is Rhizotrogus majalis, to stay alive. Whilst them are still to recover from the trauma of the consumption of Rhizotrogus majalis (or their abrupt, forced and at times violent mandere as they are known in Shona) is not evictions. Women suffered a double tragedy a new phenomenon, it was shocking that as the option of seeking alternative whole families lived entirely on Rhizotrogus dwellings in the rural areas was not an majalis as their only source of nutrition. obvious and automatic choice owing to the This created new challenges of land rights in Zimbabwe being skewed in malnourishment, diuresis and the favour of men. possibility that Rhizotrogus majalis may Three years later (2008), the government become an endangered species. Other launched the panacea to the problems beetles and caterpillars that became the brought by Operation Murambatsvina, main source of nutrition to the victims of particularly . This was in the Operation Murambatsvina included form of Operation Garikai/Hlalani Kuhle3, madora, magandari, nhowa, harurwa, which when translated means Operation harati. ‘live well’. Operation Garikai was aimed at By the year 2006 the government had mitigating, if not covering up the failures of not kept its promise to provide decent and Operation Murambatsvina. The objectives of affordable housing to the victims of Operation Murambatsvina, thereby rendering Operation Garikai/Hlalani Kuhle a still birth (COIS 2006: 69). Commenting 3 Operation Garikai/Hlalani Kuhle derives its name from a combination of Shona (garikai) and Ndebele (hlalani kuhle), on the devastation caused by Operation words meaning live well. 6527

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Murambatsvina, the United Nations Special demonstrates the magnitude of the Envoy to Zimbabwe, Mrs Anna Tibaijuka, suffering and at times abuse that women noted that endured during and after the operation. while there is a degree of overlap Their plight notwithstanding, the between those who lost their homes demonstration and subsequent arrest of the and those who lost their businesses, women illustrated that women were the total figure of 650,000 to prepared to fight against the 700,000 people directly affected by marginalisation and victimisation inherent the Operation is considered in both Operation Murambatsvina and plausible’ (Tibaijuka 2005: 34). Operation Garikai/Hlalani Kuhle. The majority of the 650 000 to 700 000 These demonstrations and resultant people directly affected by Operation arrests indicate that women and children Murambatsvina were women and children were not only directly affected by Operation (IC Publications 2013: 60-63). This resulted Murambatsvina but were also further in an escalation in the rate of social ills abused by the system of governance that such as prostitution. This development was was supposed to protect them but ended up confirmed by the Internal Displacement criminalisin their agitation for respect of Monitoring Centre, which noted that young their human rights. women were turning to prostitution in a bid The specific suffering experienced by earn a living (IDMC 2008: 24). This created children as a result of Operation downstream challenges such as those Murambatsvina related to the following associated with HIV, AIDS and sexually destabilisations: schooling, parental care, transmitted infections, further nutrition and security. When their parents compounding the risk of contracting them. or guardians were forcibly moved, children Operation Murambatsvina had already had to move as well. This resulted in the created challenges for those on disruption of their schooling. Although antiretroviral drugs, as they were forced to there were no figures of the aggregate or move abruptly to new habitats, leaving estimated number of children whose many of them to struggle with access to schooling was disrupted by the operation, their antiretroviral therapy. OVCs that were most school authorities in areas affected by benefiting from certain donor-funded the operation testified to the huge programmes were suddenly displaced to movement of pupils away from their new geographical areas, creating challenges schools. This created a host of other of access to regular OVC interventions. It challenges, such as attaining the famed can therefore be argued that, under these Millennium Development Goals and other circumstances, OVCs suffered a double government programmes to increase tragedy, namely the loss of parents and the literacy levels. Children whose schooling loss of support they were receiving from needs were met by special programmes donor agencies. such as the government-run Basic Female victims of Operation Murambatsvina Education Assistance Module (BEAM) also were also victimised by state security encountered further challenges in trying to agents in the aftermath of the operation. enrol in new schools. The same can be said These include women who were brutally about pupils whose schooling was paid for repressed by the police for demonstrated by aid donor agencies. against the negative effects of the operation An example of the suffering endured by on their livelihoods. This development was children, particularly OVCs, as a result of confirmed by the online Zimbabwean the operation was the demolition of an newspaper, ZimOnline, on 14 July 2005, orphanage run by Roman Catholic which reported that ‘28 members of Women Dominican nuns in the Hatcliffe suburbs, of Zimbabwe Arise (WOZA) were arrested in rendering the 180 resident orphans June 2005 while protesting against homeless (COIS 2006: 119, citing the Daily Operation Murambatsvina’. This Telegraph, 19 June 2005). The Daily

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Telegraph article noted that many of the Given that almost 55% of the population of orphans had lost their parents to HIV and Zimbabwe is female, it is apparent that AIDS and now had practically nowhere to women bore much of the burden of the go. This demonstrated that Operation consequences of Operation Murambatsvina. Murambatsvina uprooted people from their Action Aid International (2005: 13a) bears social settings and in the process disturbed witness to this fact as they recorded that a wide range of people ecosystems. 47% of the homesteads visited in assessment of the impacts of Operation Analysis Murambatsvina were female-headed, of Sekesai Makwawarara, Chairperson of which 34% were actually widows. It is Harare Town House, announced officially generally the norm as tradition would have on 19 May 2005 that Operation it in Zimbabwe that women tend to Murambatsvina was ‘a programme to children, so women are more involved enforce by-laws and to stop all forms of directly with children’s rearing and illegal activity in the city’ (Nyamanhindi upbringing. What affects women inevitably 2008: 119, citing The Herald, 19 May 2005: affects the children who depend on them. 1). Of particular interest in the statement ‘Many divorced, widowed or separated that was issued on 28 May 2005, nine days women have migrated to town because they after the official commencement of have been squeezed off the land and their Operation Murambatsvina by Makwavarara, social links in rural areas have become is that prostitution was identified as a dysfunctional’ (Solidarity Peace Trust 2010: factor that contributed to operationalising 18). In the year 2010 ‘37% of household Murambatsvina. The statement said: heads in the informal settlement of These violations of the by-laws in Killarney in , consisted of areas of vending, traffic control, widowed, divorced or single women’ illegal structures, touting/abuse (Solidarity Peace Trust 2010: 18). In Harare of commuters by rank marshals, alone 37% of interviewed households street life/prostitution, vandalism acknowledged that ‘women and children of property infrastructure, stock had become more vulnerable to abuse’ theft, illegal cultivation, among (Mwaniki 2005: 10). Most of the people others have led to the settled at Killarney are victims of Operation deterioration of standards thus Murambatsvina. This gives evidence that negatively affecting the image of women and children were affected more as the city. (The Herald 28 May 2005 they constitute the majority of the general cited in Harris 2008: 45) populace of Zimbabwe. Of the sampled population nationally, Harare had the Allegations of prostitution are mainly highest number of orphans and recorded levelled against women as they are believed 31%, with Bulawayo at 25% and Mutare to be the dischargers of carnal services 23% (Action Aid International 2005: 11- sought by mainly men, and in the process 12a). they are often abused and sometimes even Operation Murambatsvina affected killed. It could be argued that it was women healthwise more than men. It precisely to curb this and liberate women appears not to have occurred to the from such perils that Operation authorities that the destruction of people’s Murambatsvina targeted prostitution. This, houses and dwellings in winter would affect however, is tantamount to treating the their health. The Country of Origin symptoms as it ignore the very reason why Information Service (COIS 2006: 62), citing women to go into prostitution in the first the World Health Organisation (WHO), place. The very framing and crafting of ‘noted in Summary country profile for Operation Murambatsvina seems to be HIV/AIDS treatment scale-up (2005) that biased towards women and children. “women are disproportionately affected by HIV/AIDS, constituting 51% of the

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Benyera, E. & Nyere, C.: Zimbabwe’s 2005 Operation Murambatsvina population and 53% of people living with development was supported by the HIV/AIDS in 2003 … Other groups severely Integrated Regional Information Network affected by HIV/AIDS include women who (IRIN) on 3 August 2005, when it reported engage in sex work, uniformed personnel that people suffering from HIV and AIDS and orphaned children”’. Given these and caught up in Operation Murambatsvina numbers, it is evident that disturbing were forced to abandon antiretroviral women’s social settings in the face of treatment. A clinic, a crèche and an HIV/AIDS would be likely to disturb their orphanage run by Missionary Sisters, the intake of HIV/AIDS-fighting drugs and Dominicans, were demolished in Hatcliffe, medication. Because the displacement Harare, leaving the children vulnerable and caused by Operation Murambatsvina was exposed to abuse (Ncube et al 2005: 5). A unanticipated, it is likely that many people list compiled by directors in the education were caught unaware and therefore could sector in Zimbabwe revealed that about not make alternative arrangements for 300 000 children had dropped out of school acquiring their antiretroviral medication as a result of Operation Murambatsvina (ARVs). In fact, the civic protest movement (Ncube et al 2005: 6). Sokwanele also noted that ‘on 2 December This analysis will further divulge the 2005 people whose HIV and AIDS treatment impact of Operation Murambatsvina as had been disrupted by Operation evidenced in Zimbabwe’s three major cities, Murambatsvina in June 2005 were still Harare, Bulawayo and Mutare. Harare’s unable to access ARVs or treatments for TB projected affected population was pegged at and other opportunistic infections by 851 434 people by Action Aid International October 2005’ (COIS 2006: 64). Action Aid (2005a: iii). Harare’s affected population International (2005a: vi) corroborated this constituted 71% of the total affected by observation, reporting that ‘approximately Operation Murambatsvina. A survey by 15% of surveyed households reportedly had David Mwaniki (2005) in collaboration with lost ARV treatment as a result of the Global Crisis Solutions, Action Aid Operation’ and that as a result 14% of the International and Combined Harare surveyed population claimed that they had Residents’ Association (CHRA) visited lost home-based care (HBC). 14 137 homesteads in Harare to compile It is well documented that Operation the following information (Mwaniki 2005: 5- Murambatsvina was ill prepared; if indeed 8): 32% of the population, which is almost a any planning was involved in its execution third of those surveyed, claimed to have at all. Displacing people, or resettling them been hosting an orphan, while 41% were as the government of Zimbabwe claimed, female-headed households, indicating that without giving them alternative females bear much of the burden. Of the accommodation is plain evil. Most people households surveyed, 13% admitted to who were evicted from their urban hosting a chronically ill person, and this dwellings were forcibly taken and dumped figure could be an underestimation due to in open spaces without water, electricity, the stigma still attached to HIV/AIDS. housing and health facilities. Their food Women-headed households constituted security was compromised and they faced 44% of the surveyed population, and 14% starvation. The consequences of such of those were widows. Children of school evictions and displacement ‘include an going age were reported to have stopped increase in vulnerability to HIV/AIDS and a attending school as a result of Operation disruption in HIV/AIDS services Murambatsvina, and 22% of the households particularly Anti Retro Viral (ARV) interviewed bore testimony to this fact. A Treatment, home based care and further 45% were destabilised by the prevention. In cases where ARV treatment operation to the extent that accessing has been disrupted, this could result in schools had been very difficult if not drug resistance, declining health and impossible. ultimately death’ (COIS 2006: 64). This Bulawayo is the second largest city in

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Zimbabwe (Action Aid International 2005b: One issue brought to the fore by the 13) and the projected affected population execution and effects of Operation was 196 635 people in August 2005, Murambatsvina is the contested notion of contributing to 16% of the total number of sovereignty in Zimbabwe. The nodal people affected by Operation question to be asked is whose sovereignty Murambatsvina in Zimbabwe (Action Aid matters? Is it that of the state or that of the International 2005a: iii). Mutare is the third individuals who collectively make up the largest city after Harare-Chitungwiza and state? In the same vein, who got Bulawayo (Chibisa & Sigauke 2008: 43). independence in Zimbabwe? Was it the After the infamous Operation state or the citizens? It can be inferred that Murambatsvina, the Manica Post (in Chibisa the state’s interpretation of sovereignty and & Sigauke 2008) claimed a ‘decline of 50% independence is a statist one in which the in crime rate’ (Manica Post June 2005); this state presumes that it became independent newspaper is viewed as a mouthpiece of the to behave as it wishes. In terms of government in Mutare and the greater sovereignty, the state feels that it is the one Manicaland. A survey carried out by subject of sovereignty and not the citizens. Chibisa and Sigauke (2008: 46) revealed Balogun (2011: 4) articulates well the that 72% of the 200 respondents who concept of individual sovereignty when he participated in the exercise were females writes that ‘the interest of the individual is whereas 28% were males. This gives further served when s/he enjoys maximum freedom evidence that women were the most affected to decide matters which concern her/him in the so-called Operation Restore Order. and nobody else’. In convergence with The survey by Chibisa and Sigauke (2008) Balogun’s view, Reus-Smit (2001: 213) assessed specifically how Operation asserts that ‘individuals are the source of Murambatsvina impacted people’s economic their own conceptions of the good. Actors livelihoods and particularly informal [individuals] are also self-interested, traders; and it concluded that ‘Operation concerned primarily with the pursuit of Murambatsvina worsened urban poverty’ their own interests’. This encapsulates the (Chibisa & Sigauke 2008: 60). Operation core of what individual sovereignty is about Murambatsvina affected mainly – the ability to make unrestricted choices Zimbabwean citizens (Zimbabweans by and pursue one’s own interests and birth), as foreign flea-market traders may preferences as predicated on the social have been forced to leave Mutare because of contract (Boucher & Kelly 1994: 1; Shelton Operation Murambatsvina (Chibisa & 1992: 85). Sigauke 2008: 47). Another survey carried out by Action Aid International through its Conclusion Southern Africa Partnership Programme This article has chronicled a brief history of (SAPP) in August 2005 revealed that Mutare operations that have targeted and alone had a projected affected population victimised women in Zimbabwe since its pegged at 92 481; this figure amounts to independence in 1980. The article has 8% of the population affected by Operation specifically highlighted the impact of Murambatsvina (Action Aid International Operation Murambatsvina especially on 2005a: iii). women and children in Zimbabwe in 2005. Nationally women, children and orphans It is argued that despite the justification have become more vulnerable to abuse due that Zimbabwean government officials to Operation Murambatsvina as evidenced offered in the face of criticism of the by 35% of the interviewed households, operation, it was inhumane, illegal and which indicated that the highest proportion unethical. The general populace of of these were female-headed households Zimbabwe was severely affected, but it was (Action Aid International 2005a: vi). the women and children, who form the majority of people infected with HIV and Whose sovereignty matters? AIDS, who were left most exposed and

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