Victimized Majority: Latent Politics of Ethnic Discrimination in post-Soviet Russia

• Kirill N. Babichenko

Riassunto Questo articolo analizza brevemente uno dei problemi più significativi della Federazione Russa e cioè i conflitti etnici. Tale fenomeno assume diverse dimensioni e differenti manifestazioni: dalla discriminazione nell’ambito del mercato del lavoro agli eventi estremi della pulizia etnica durante le guerre in Cecenia. L’autore focalizza l’attenzione su di un aspetto alla base del problema: l’oppressione strutturale esercitata dalle minoranze contro la maggioranza culturale del paese con particolare riferimento alle repubbliche del Caucaso del nord ove l’obiettivo e l’intensità della lotta etnica hanno assunto forme assolutamente pericolose ed esplosive in grado di minacciare lo stato tramite la sua disgregazione.

Résumé Cet article fournit une brève analyse de l’un des problèmes les plus importants de la Fédération Russe, c’est-à-dire les conflits ethniques. Ce phénomène se manifeste de plusieurs manières : de la discrimination dans le marché du travail aux événements extrêmes du nettoyage ethnique pendant les guerres en Tchétchénie. L’auteur s’intéresse à l’un des aspects du problème jusque-là inexploré : l’oppression structurelle exercée par les minorités ethniques contre les communautés majoritaires du pays et en particulier le cas des républiques du Caucase du Nord où la portée et l’intensité des conflits ethniques ont présenté les formes les plus dangereuses et extrêmes pouvant menacer l’état par sa désintégration.

Abstract This paper represents the brief analysis of one of the most important problems of the Russian Federation – the ethnic conflicts. Such a phenomenon has various dimensions and manifestations: from discrimination on the labor market to the extreme of ethnic cleansing during wars in Chechnya. The author focuses on the previously unexplored side of the problem: structural oppression conducted by minorities against the cultural majority of the country with a special regard to the republics of North Caucasus where the scope and intensity of ethnic strife found the most dangerous and explosive forms threatening with disintegration of the state.

• Ph. D., Attorney at Law. From 1998 to 2008 he has worked as a volunteering legal assistant in the “Migration and Law network” of the Human rights center “Memorial” under the aegis of UNCHR. From 2005 till 2013 has collaborated with various European, US and Asian NGOs including UNITED against racism, Federation of Young European Greens, Cooperation and Development Network, Asian-European Foundation as an expert and trainer. He was elected as Sakharov human rights fellow at Harvard University (2006). He has taught international public law at Russian State Humanitarian University.

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1. Introduction. Soviet legacy of ‘ethnic tend to analyze ethnicity as a social construct and engineering’. more like an ethnic identification than a fixed An ambitious revolutionary project set up by the identity . Bolsheviks and continued by the Soviet The ‘ titular ’ status reflected the Soviet policy of government was not limited to the political positive discrimination: many ethnic groups dimension solely. Trapped with the need to pacify “oppressed by the Tsarist regime” were promoted and unite an amalgam of cultural and religious by the new revolutionary authorities in nearly groups of population (400 ethnic groups identified every aspect of social life – mostly using politics in the 1989), from Estonian Lutherans to Yakut of indigenization (until late 1930-s) 4. Such a Animists, the new rulers spent decades trying to group was usually designated as ‘titular’ – i.e. solve these tasks 1. Among many theoretical having “special ethnic rights” for the certain constructs brought to life there were two most territory, financial support, various social benefits relevant for the purpose of this article: reified and focused state care. From the legal point of ethnicity and the ‘ titular ’ concept. view it is difficult to define ‘titular’ with Ethnic status was reified through the state mathematical precision and this term will receive machinery: from the ethnic attachment in the a detailed explanation throughout the article. In internal passport 2 (one had to choose an ethnic the framework of political science and social origin from a limited list of options) to the ethnic anthropology ‘titular’ could be defined as “an quotas in the universities and armed forces, thus ethnic minority privileged by the state on the becoming an essential attribute of any Soviet expense of other groups”. citizen. Official ethnological studies 3 were based Paradoxically this uneven treatment of Soviet on Marxist ideas combined with primordial theory citizens favoring ‘titular’ minorities 5 co-existed (ethnicity is archaic, fixed and unchanging). In with the concept of “friendship of peoples” which society ethnicity was roughly understood in most declared color-blind equality of all Soviet (and common terms: physical appearance and/or non-Soviet) people 6. After the dissolution of the distinctive language. This simplified kind of USSR the “friendship of peoples” has obviously understanding still persists in the nowadays disappeared after numerous armed ethnic conflicts Russian Federation while the author of this article but the deeply-embedded system of ‘titular’ privileges still goes on bringing about dangerous

1 Martin T., Suny R.G. (eds.), A State of Nations: Empire and Nation-Making in the Age of Lenin and 4 Martin T., Imperiia “polozhitel'noi deiatel'nosti”. Stalin , Oxford University Press, New York, 2001; Natsii i natsionalizm v SSSR, 1923–1939 , ROSSPEN, Kadio Zh., Laboratoriia imperii: Rossiia / SSSR, 1860- Moskva, 2011. On the later period, including postwar 1940 , Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie, Moskva, 2010, pp. ethnic turn see: Blitstein P.A., Stalin's Nations: Soviet 148–267; Marshall A., The Caucasus under Soviet Nationality Policy between Planning and Rule , Routledge, London, 2010, pp. 147–243. Primordialism, 1936–1953 , Ph.D., University of 2 Interestingly the chosen ethnic origin in the passport California, Berkeley, Fall 1999. not always coincided with the ethnic origin stated in 5 Hosking D., Praviteli i zhertvy. Russkie v Sovetskom the Communist Party member card . The Party had its Soiuze , Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie, Moskva, 2012. own rules of self-identification and allowed politically 6 A classical analysis of this contradiction: Slezkine Y., secure “ethnic passing”. “The USSR as a Communal Apartment, or How a 3 The seminal work: Bromlei Iu.V., Etnos i etnografiia , Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism”, Slavic Nauka, Moskva, 1973. Review , Vol. 53, No.2, Summer 1994, pp. 414–452. Rivista di Criminologia, Vittimologia e Sicurezza – Vol. VIII – N. 2 – Maggio-Agosto 2014 47 and painful problems. Ethnic tensions took place represented that studying of the specified problem in Soviet Union as well but only as incidental, needs to start with the cornerstone of political short-lived and isolated events 7 while after 1989 architecture defining development and the ethnic discrimination and ethnic conflicts were direction of public and administrative processes in unleashed on a nationwide scale 8 especially in the a number of territorial subjects of the RF, with region of Northern Caucasus 9. concept of “the titular nation”. So-called “the titular people”, “the titular nation” or “the state- 2. Silent apartheid. building people” – concepts little-known the Analyzing vectors and dynamics of discrimination Western scientists 10 and absolutely alien to the in the Russian Federation (RF), it is worth paying language of international law 11 (most attention on peculiar “vow of silence” of the approximately “titular” can be translated as ethnic academic and human rights communities seniority/superiority). But after disintegration of concerning a situation in some “ethnic” subjects the Soviet Union, the term “titular nation” which of the state. This long-term (and politically is formally designating “native/dominating” caused) omertà was broken by rather recently population of the republics of the RF, began to when situation in the specified regions of Russia mark not only a form of the social capital, but also on many parameters became critical. And, it is a peculiar right to the legalized discrimination concerning “not titular” fellow citizens.

7 Laitin D.D., “The National Uprisings in the Soviet In texts of republican constitutions (“infused with Union”, World Politics , Vol. 44, No. 1, October, 1991, the spirit of secessionism” 12 ) there is no definition pp. 139–177. Kozlov V.A., Neizvestnyi SSSR. Protivostoianie naroda i vlasti 1953–1985 , Olma- of “the titular nation”, but it is successfully Press, Moskva, 2006, pp. 187–233. Hale H.E., The Foundations of Ethnic Politics – Separatism of States and Nations in Eurasia and the World , Cambridge 10 In the Western researches the titular status University Press, New York, 2008, pp. 93–118. On [titul’nost’] is used as the specific term, relevant only dissident ethnic networks in the post-Stalin USSR see for the former Soviet Union. See e.g. Locher L., e.g.: Alekseeva L., Istoriia inakomysliia v SSSR. “Migration in the Soviet Successor States”, IZA Noveishii period , ZAO RITS, Moskva, 2001, pp. 7– Discussion Paper No. 602, Institute for the Study of 122; Zisserman-Brodsky D., Constructing Labor, Bonn, October 2002; Hazans M., Ethnopolitics in the Soviet Union: Samizdat , Trapeznikova I., Rastrigina O., “Ethnic and Parental Deprivation and the Rise of Ethnic Nationalism , Effects on Schooling Outcomes before and During the Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2003, pp. 111–147. Transition: Evidence from the Baltic Countries”, 8 Beissinger M.R., “Nationalist Violence and the State: Journal of Population Economics , Vol. 21, No. 3, Political Authority and Contentious Repertoires in the 2008, pp. 719–494; Smith B., Separatist Conflict in Former USSR”, Comparative Politics , Vol. 30, No. 4, Eurasia and Beyond: Exploring Communist Bloc July, 1998, pp. 401–422; Semionova E., Na etnicheskoi Exceptionalism , Annual Meeting Paper, American voine… (Genotsid russkikh v byvshikh respublikakh Political Science Association, Washington, 2010; SSSR) , Traditsiia, Moskva, 2010. Gruzina I., “Relationship between History and a Sense 9 “Relationships between nations and ethnic groups in of Belonging – Russian Speaking Minority Integration the Caucasus throughout history have been extremely in Latvia”, CEU Political Science Journal , Vol. 6, No. complicated, in many cases quite tense, if not outright 3, 2011, pp. 397–432. hostile. Ancient feuds and land disputes abound in 11 Sokolovskii S., “Kontseptualizatsiia etnicheskogo v many regions. Under the Soviet regime, old passions rossiiskom konstitutsionnom prave”, In Voronkov V., were held in check by the tight control of Moscow O. Karpenko O., Osipov A. (eds.), Rasizm v iazyke authorities. Now, old grievances and latent animosities sotsial'nykh nauk , Aleteiia, Sankt Peterburg, 2002, p. have surfaced, and the Caucasus has become one huge 99. area of instability”. Mirsky G.I., On Ruins of Empire – 12 Sharlet R., “Russian Constitutional Crisis: Law and Ethnicity and Nationalism in the Former Soviet Union , Politics under Yel’tsin”, Post-Soviet Affairs , Vol. 9, Greenwood Press, Westport, 1997, p. 61. No. 4, October–December 1993, p. 321. Rivista di Criminologia, Vittimologia e Sicurezza – Vol. VIII – N. 2 – Maggio-Agosto 2014 48 replaced in some cases by such combinations as respective territory 17 . Thus “today the all-Russian, “the native nation” and “native ethnos” 13 . As all Petersburg, Moscow elite of business and the former Soviet republics are formed on the power it is obvious not ethnocratic 18 ”, unlike their doubtful “ethnic” principle, they represent only ‘colleagues’ form North Caucasus. Like that, in radical ethnocracies 14 with a claim for a titular territories many citizens are deprived of the democratic mode. But the situation in Russia is an political, civil, economic and social rights. The exception, because despite the constitutional subject of a separate research is the discrimination principle of equality of all citizens before the law, of “not titular” population at receipt in higher existence of special “unlawful” regions – the education institutions. These discriminatory republics and autonomies (making more than a practices having institutional character and half of the territory of the country) where titular conducting to a unofficial ghettoization of the Russians “are more equal than others”, transforms Russian population is possible to characterize as a the country in a kind of confederative archipelago soft regional apartheid. “Titular citizens” composed from the separate subjects allocated supervise not only authorities, but also posses all with different status and rights. In the words of infrastructure while having no relation to its Ben Fowkes: “a hierarchy of autonomies (such as establishment. Here it should be noted that exactly existed also in the Soviet Union) with places like “not titular” specialist built plants and factories, Tatarstan at the top, enjoying very far-reaching developed agriculture, created the metalworking autonomy, and with the purely Russian provinces enterprises, food, timber and wood-working at the bottom” 15 . One of the examples is a steady industry. It is necessary to add that all scientific dictatorship of “ethnic legal personality”. Only institutions in the Caucasus – from agricultural “titular” persons have the right to hold positions in experimental stations to universities are an local administrations and parliaments: for exclusive contribution of “not titular” experts. example, in the Republic of Adygea “not titular” Situation is aggravated with that the “titular” citizens (Russian Slavs) constitute nearly 60% of territories striving for the de facto economic and population but representatives of “the titular political sovereignty, in the majority appear to be nation” hold practically all leading posts and depressive regions-recipients while many Russian places in legislature 16 . donor regions, on the economic, demographic, It is extremely difficult for “not titular” citizens to social and intellectual potential repeatedly be engaged in business, to get appointed/elected in surpassing republics, have rather low political republican bodies of power and even to live in the 16 Polubota A., “Russkikh vydavlivaiut iz Adygei, chtoby sozdat' «Velikuiu Cherkesiiu»”, Svobodnaia pressa , 25.11.2012. 17 Kazenin K., «Tikhie» konflikty na Severnom 13 Sokolovskii S., op. cit., pp. 94–117. Kavkaze: Adygeia, Kabardino-Balkariia, Karachaevo- 14 See in detail: Toshchenko Zh.T., Etnokratiia: Cherkesiia , REGNUM, Moskva, 2009, pp. 13–55. istoriia i sovremennost' (sotsiologicheskie ocherki) , 18 Arutiunov S., “Etnokratiia ili demokratiia? Traditsii ROSSPEN, Moskva, 2003. Severnogo Kavkaza”, In Traditsii narodnoi diplomatii i 15 Fowkes B ., Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflict in the Post- normy povedeniia vo vremia voiny i konfliktov na Communist World , Palgrave Macmillan, New York, Kavkaze , Kavkazskii Forum NPO, Tsakhkadzor, 31.05. 2002, p. 147. – 2.06.2001. Rivista di Criminologia, Vittimologia e Sicurezza – Vol. VIII – N. 2 – Maggio-Agosto 2014 49 status and are restrained in their possibilities 19 . In villages 23 . Other messages were more specific: on such a paradoxical way discrimination of “not memoirs of inhabitants of Grozny (the capital of titular” population is also sponsored by the federal Chechnya), the most popular slogan of those years center. sounded as follows: “Russians do not leave – we The cultural and linguistic majority making more need slaves and prostitutes”. Since 1989 the hate- than eighty two percent of the population, in many motivated crimes: robberies, beatings, regions of Russia is declared “not titular” and kidnappings 24 , gang-rapes 25 and public murders of contrary to the Constitution of the RF is exposed persons of Slavic and other non-Chechen origin to a discrimination on ethnic and language basis 20 . steadily gained scope of the organized terror 26 Thus, in legal sense, “titular” regions of the RF under liberal accompaniment of “parade of represent the encapsulated ethnic territories. In sovereignties” and indifference of the democratic this regard a set of measures for elimination government of Boris Yeltsin. suppression concerning migrants (which number Here it is necessary to emphasize, that not all steadily grows in legal regions) has to be added ‘titular’ inhabitants of Chechnya took part in this with drastic measures on the termination of terror: it was encouraged by Jokhar Dudayev’s institutional discrimination of “not titular” warlords and supported by sympathizing Islamists population (which number, for example, in the and separatists, marginal youth, and also the North Caucasus, is steadily declining 21 ) in ethnic criminals let out from prisons. But also the territorial subjects of the RF. numerous facts of murders of the Russian families

3. Separatists’ ethnic cleansing and 23 Sokirianskaia E., “Ideology and conflict: Chechen administrative dereliction. Political Nationalism Prior to, and During, Ten Years Such discrimination got an extreme form in the of War”, In Gammer M. (ed.), Ethno-Nationalism, Islam and the State in the Caucasus: Post-Soviet Chechen republic in the late eighties – the Disorder , Routledge, New York, 2008, p. 116. 24 About the Chechen “culture” of hostage-taking see: beginning of the nineties. Many graffiti targeting Tishkov V.A., Chechnya: Life in a War-torn Society , non-titular citizens of Chechnya like: “Russians University of California Press, Los Angeles, 2004, pp. 107–126. Consider historical description of Chechen [go] to Riazan, Tatars to Kazan, Ingush to territories: “travelers with no bona fide hosts were 22 considered as hostile and were usually taken as Nazran! ” could be seen in Chechen cities and prisoners or slaves” Jaimoukha A., The Chechens: a Handbook (Caucasus World, Peoples of the Caucasus), Routledge, New York, 2005, p. 142. 25 Rape has been frequently used in various conflicts as 19 Filippov V.R., “Etnopoliticheskie paradoksy i krizis a symbolical tool of domination over oppressed rossiiskogo federalizma”, In Ismagilova R.N., Filippov population of other ethnic origin when conditions N.R. (eds.), Federalizm i regional'naia politika v guarantee anonymity and impunity of perpetrators: polietnichnykh gosudarstvakh , XXI Vek-Soglasie, Thornhill R., Palmer T.C., A Natural History of Rape: Moskva, 2001, pp. 23–38. Biological Bases of Sexual Coercion , MIT Press, 20 Filippov V.R., Op. cit., pp. 30–35. Cambridge, 2000, pp. 66, 134, 194. See in details: 21 Vladimirov A., “How many Russians are left in Sharlach L.B., Sexual Violence as Political Terror , Dagestan, Chechnya and Ingushetia?”, Vestnik Ph.D., University of California, Davis, September Kavkaza , 3.05.2010. 2001, pp. 157–253; Herzog D. (ed.), Brutality and 22 Riazan’ is a city generally and wrongly considered to Desire: War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth be ancestral home of all Russian Slavs. Kazan’ is the Century , Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2009. capital of Republic of Tatarstan. Nazran’ was the 26 Bugai N.F., Russkie na Severnom Kavkaze: capital of Republic of Ingushetia until December 2000. sotsial'noe polozhenie, transformatsii etnicheskoi Rivista di Criminologia, Vittimologia e Sicurezza – Vol. VIII – N. 2 – Maggio-Agosto 2014 50 by their ordinary Chechen next-door neighbors Paris Match the president of Russia Vladimir with whom “not titular” families lived in peace for Putin declared: “In recent years in the territory of decades were recorded 27 . In total some tens of Chechnya we observed large-scale genocide thousands of Russians were killed (not including concerning the Russian people, concerning the victims during military operations) and more than Russian-speaking population. Unfortunately, 46 thousand Russian-speaking citizens were nobody reacted to it. Nobody reacted even to the turned into slaves 28 . Ethnic cleanings committed attacks on the Russian territory which were by Chechen separatists targeted also other carried out all these years. The authorities did not representatives of not “titular” groups of the react to mass kidnappings” 31 . In this statement the population: Jews 29 , Armenians, Greeks, Tatars, phrase “we observed” is remarkable – it means Roma people. These tragic events for years were that authorities well knew about events taking suppressed by mass media. But during the First place in Chechnya. It is characteristic that “in Chechen campaign many Russian journalists recent years” V. Putin served as the director of romanticized the separatists, creating image of the Federal Security Service and then as a head of the “noble rebel” which has not occasionally government of the RF. Why genocide supervision coincided with the plans of Chechen propaganda. from such a high-ranking official was not beyond For example, prominent Russian scientist V.A. philosophical contemplation and for what reason Tishkov after conducting field researches in “nobody reacted” in the state apparatus under his Chechnya gave the following assessment to control remains unclear. actions of a film crew of NTV Broadcasting In 2002 V. Putin declared that in “result of ethnic Company: “Elena Masyuk and Pavel Luskanov’s cleanings in Chechnya up to 30 thousand people reportings won on the party of the Chechen perished, and possibly even more”. “This will combatants for the whole [army] division” 30 . never happen again”, – added the head of the Only in July, 2000 the federal authorities admitted state 32 . Certainly that this political declaration was the fact of ethnic cleansing of the Russian not followed by real actions on investigation and population. In interview to the French weekly accountability of the perpetrators. Investigation teams and groups of experts were not formed; the obshchnosti (1990-e gody — nachalo XXI veka) , Grif i permanent commission on investigation of acts of K, Moskva, 2011, pp. 210–225. genocide concerning the Russian population in the 27 Sokolov-Mitrich D., “Zabytyi genotsid”, Izvestiia , 28.01.2005. See also: Esses V.M., Vernon R.A. (eds.), Chechen Republic was not established in the Explaining the Breakdown of Ethnic Relations: Why Neighbors Kill , Blackwell Publishing, Malden, 2008. federal parliament. This absence of political will 28 Bondarenko M., “Kazaki Chechni ishchut zashchity is especially strange given that the RF is obliged u Vladimira Putina. Vytesnenie russkogo naselenia v respublike prodolzhaetsia pri popustitel'stve to fulfill certain international obligations. federal'nykh chinovnikov”, Nezavisimaia gazeta , 23.05.2003. 29 About Chechen anti-Semitism incited under the influence of radical Islamism and a pro-Arab orientation see: Tishkov V. A., Op. cit., pp. 207–209. 31 V. Putin’s interview to the French weekly magazine 30 Tishkov V.A., Obshchestvo v Vooruzhennom Paris Match on 06.07.2000 Available at: Konflikte: Etnografiia Chechenskoi Voiny , Nauka, http://archive.kremlin.ru/appears/2000/07/06/0000_typ Moskva, 2001, p. 181. e63379_125007.shtml Rivista di Criminologia, Vittimologia e Sicurezza – Vol. VIII – N. 2 – Maggio-Agosto 2014 51

Authorities have to provide effective protection of failure of the police authorities to take appropriate citizens from racially motivated attacks even from steps to protect the Roma amounted to unofficial persons, prevent similar manifestations acquiescence to these acts, since the police of aggression, consistently make independent and authorities were informed of the immediate risk effective investigation in case of committing such facing the Roma and were even present at the crimes. The International Convention on the scene of events – thus Article 16 of the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination International Convention on the Elimination of All clearly obliges the signatory states to take all Forms of Racial Discrimination was violated 33 . appropriate measures directed on prohibition and Ethnic cleansing of “not titular” population of elimination of all forms of racial discrimination, Chechnya as well continued in 1995 and nothing carried out by any persons, groups or the prevents Russian NGOs to provide legal support organizations, including and protection of persons to the survivors to appeal to the international against violence or causing injuries from informal organizations but for the unclear reasons it still persons. The International Covenant on Civil and does not take place. Moreover, there is no consent Political Rights demands to provide protection of concerning the recognition of ethnic cleansing. the right not to be exposed to torture or to cruel, For example, the Chechen researchers do not inhuman or degrading treatment even from the agree with this assessment. In particular, the persons acting in their personal quality. Not editor of the Groznenskoe Obshchestvo [Grozny casually the Convention against Torture and Society] newspaper T. Aliyev considers that no Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or genocide and even ethnic cleansings took place, Punishment establishes responsibility of the state evidences of the forcefully displaced Russian are for the acts of torture made “with the consent or fictions, and a mass exodus of non-Chechens from acquiescence of a public official or other person this republic before the war 34 happened without acting in an official capacity”. Therefore, the any particular reason 35 . However, the same unwillingness of the state to provide protection attitude is widely promoted in other editions of from racially motivated violence can be Chechens: Vainakh , Orga , Dosh – typical samples interpreted as criminal negligence of government of journalism of ethnic offenses and revanshism. bodies and indulgence to carrying out tortures. By the way, Dosh is the quarterly magazine with a The precedents of independent and effective circulation of 5000 copies. In this regard it is investigation of such discrimination are available. important to underline that the Chechen Diaspora In the decision of November 21, 2002 UN in Moscow makes about 300 thousand people, Committee against Torture held that the burning down of Roma houses by a mob of non-Roma th neighbours in 14 of April 1995 constituted an act 33 Hajrizi Dzemajl et al. v. Yugoslavia, 21 November of cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment. The 2002. (Case No. 161/1999) UN Doc. CAT/C/29/D/161/2000. 34 Sokirianskaia E., Op. cit., p. 116. 32 Vladimir Putin: Rossiia ne poidet na peregovory s 35 Aliev T., “Iskhod russkikh iz Chechni”, Polit.Ru , banditami i terroristami v Chechne, 19.12.2002. 17.12.2007. Available at: Available at: http://www.vesti.ru/doc.html?id=16758 http://polit.ru/research/2007/12/17/escape.html Rivista di Criminologia, Vittimologia e Sicurezza – Vol. VIII – N. 2 – Maggio-Agosto 2014 52 constantly increases and remains one of the most the population of Ingushetia 40 and in 2010 there criminalized 36 and influential in the capital. were only 0,7% of them left 41 . It is obvious that the situation was extremely intense all these years 4. Subsidized oppression in other republics. and now only reached an extreme point 42 . Unfortunately, in recent years the Republic of In Dagestan – “an overwhelmingly Muslim, and Ingushetia became a sad model of pushing out the overwhelmingly non-Russian, republic 43 ” – there persons of “not titular” origin with the methods is an amalgam of “titular” groups 44 and which are not leaving any doubt in intention of the languages 45 with a slight prevailing of Avars (27, criminals. Addressed arsons, tossing of explosive 5 percent of the population). In this largest devices and demonstrative murders are typical republic of the North Caucasus (2,5 million of hate crimes justified and directed by “titular” inhabitants) replacement of the Russian status 37 . According to the Human rights center population happens not so considerably46 , but “Memorial” only during the period from July 16 ethnic profiling targeting Slavic people and to November 12, 2007 twenty four persons of not dismissals on the basis of a “non-titular” origin titular origin were murdered in Republic of accompanied with house racketeering helped to Ingushetia: Russians, Armenians, Roma and expel Russian inhabitants from the areas of Koreans 38 . The expert of “Memorial” notes: traditional accommodation of the Slavic “These murders and attacks are a part of system population – Kizlyar and Tarumovsky disctricts. pressure upon the non-Vainakh population of the The derussification occurred also in the republic” 39 . It is indicative that precipitancy of multicultural city of Khasavyurt. This city became flight from this republic long before the beginning widely known in 1993 after the act of symbolical of “titular terror” looks amazing even on the violence when ‘titular’ activists desecrated a general background of an outcome of “not titular Christian cemetery and using an excavator dug citizens”. In 1989 Russians constituted 13, 2% of

40 Belozerov V., Еtnicheskaia karta Severnogo Kavkaza , OGI, Moskva, 2005. p. 247. 36 Chechens’ criminal impact after 1989 is described by 41 Data provided according to the All-Russian one of the Western scholars in the following words: “In population census of 2010 [Section 4. “Population by Moscow and other major cities, a powerful Chechen ethnic origin”]. Available at: Mafia shaped up. [t]heir share in criminal activities in http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc Russia has by far exceeded their proportion in the /Documents/Vol4/pub-04-04.pdf population. According to official data, one of every 42 According to the journalist and specialist in three people charged with counterfeiting has been a Caucasian studies O. Alenova: “The last Russians former resident of Chechnya, as well as 42% of the escape from Ingushetia. The situation there is now persons involved in embezzlement and machinations in worse, than it was in Chechnya before the war. But the sphere of finances and credit operations. The nobody wants to restore order as it was made in due protection racket was thriving, murders and time in Chechnya”. Alenova O., Chechnia riadom. kidnappings became a regular feature of life.” Mirsky Voina glazami zhenshchiny , ID «Kommersant», ID G.I., Op. cit ., p. 84. «Piter», Moskva, Sankt Peterburg, 2008, p. 450. 37 The continuous chronicle of 2006–2014 terrorist 43 Fowkes B ., Op. cit. , p. 147. acts, shootings and kidnappings: Ingushetiia: khronika 44 But only 14 largest groups are presented in the State teraktov, obstrelov, pokhishchenii. Available at: Council of Republic of Dagestan. http://www.kavkaz-uzel.ru/articles/122475 45 Inhabitants of this republic speak twenty-six 38 Ingushetiia: 2007 god. Kuda dal'shche?, Memorial, different languages and tens of local dialects. Moskva, 2008, pp. 17–19. 46 In fact unofficial practice of pushing out non-titular 39 Ibid. citizens was observed already in 1960-s. Rivista di Criminologia, Vittimologia e Sicurezza – Vol. VIII – N. 2 – Maggio-Agosto 2014 53 out coffins with deceased 47 . Similar tactics is Moscow. But, consider an opinion of a well- applied in the republican capital Makhachkala and known historian who has conducted scientific the ancient city of Derbent therefore the total researches in Dagestan for many years, “federal number of the Russian population in Dagestan programs keep silence about mass flight [italics was reduced with twelve to four percent (about added] of Russians from this region to the Central 80-90 thousand people). Remained became object and the Southern Russia and Mountainous Jews to of labor and household discrimination, Israel” 50 . representing the cheap service personnel which is These programs had been crafted for financial completely dependent on a whim not only of a support of the Dagestan sportsmen and material local government but also ordinary “titular” security of the unemployed and unwilling to work neighbors. Moreover, among these four percent population of a “titular” origin. But gradually mutual suspiciousness and informing with the Dagestan neo-tribalism gains character of a direct purpose to avoid possible repressive measures are political challenge to the federal center. So, in spread. Deputy head of the Makhachkala February, 2009 Vladimir Radchenko, the new Commission on problems of Russians (sic!) chief of the department of Federal Tax Service in Abdurakhman Guseinov frankly says that “in the Dagestan could not start fulfillment of his duty in mid-nineties Russians were simply kicked out out Makhachkala because of aggressive local from their houses or were forced to sell them at counteraction to its appointment. V. Radchenko's the ridiculous price” 48 . Traditions of a resolution ethnic [Russian] origin did not suit ruling circles of conflicts looked as follows: “For example, at of Republic of Dagestan that caused the planned banal car accident, even a minor one, the crowd of actions of “a national protest”, the false report on friends of the injured dzhigit [here – male “titular” prepared explosion in the building of the person] immediately arrived (that he was not republican office of the Federal Tax Service, guilty was not discussed at all) and Russian was threats of homicide and in the end – the given the car keys with words: “Take this [car] kidnapping of Mr. Radchenko with the use of away, I do not need it, tomorrow you will bring firearms 51 . It is worth emphasizing that the high- me a new one!” 49 It is quite obvious that ranking federal official underwent such a authorities and public organizations had to pay treatment. The reaction of Kremlin did not follow attention to this scandalous discrimination of the and Mr. Radchenko was recalled back to Moscow. Russian population – it is enough to imagine the Thus, the informal contract of the federal center reaction of the state and human rights NGOs on with the republican “elite” (ostentatious loyalty hypothetical exile of the Dagestan Diaspora from

47 Karpov Iu.Iu., Kapustina E.L., Gortsy posle gor. 50 Bobrovnikov V., “Islamofobiia i religioznoe Migratsionnye protsessy v Dagestane v XX – nachale zakonodatel'stvo v postsovetskom Dagestane”, In XXI veka: ikh sotsial'nye i etnokul'turnye posledstviia i Aleksandrov Iu.G. (ed.), Еtnicheskii natsionalizm i perspektivy , Peterburgskoe Vostokovedenie, Sankt gosudarstvennoe stroitel'stvo , Institut vostokovedeniia Peterburg, 2011, p. 292. RAN, Natalis, Moskva, 2001, p. 250. 48 Kots A., Steshin D., “Vernutsia li russkie na 51 On “Radchenko affair” see e.g. Ionov O., Kavkaz?”, Komsomol'skaia pravda , 07.06.2006. “Radchenko shchitaet, chto za ego pokhishcheniem 49 Ibid. stoit syn prezidenta Dagestana”, Kavkazskii uzel , Rivista di Criminologia, Vittimologia e Sicurezza – Vol. VIII – N. 2 – Maggio-Agosto 2014 54 and the necessary counting of votes on elections 5. “Titular” framework and defining. in exchange for federal subventions and Addressing the history of migratory processes, it inviolability) received the next – the extremely is necessary to notice that replacement of “not convincing confirmation. Certainly that the titular” population from the republics of similar configuration of ‘division of powers’ takes Transcaucasia and autonomies of the North place not only in Dagestan but in all republics of Caucasus began in Soviet period and lasted the North Caucasus. Herewith, subsidized North decades. And after disintegration of the USSR this Caucasian clans become more and more isolated – process only sharply amplified 53 . And both from Moscow, and from the population in derussification process in the Caucasian region the regions. It is important to stress that federal went with much higher intensity, than in any other subsidies do not reach ordinary citizens and territory of the country 54 . Moreover, as a result of become a basis of illegal enrichment of the ‘pro- rash administrative-territorial transformations a Kremlin’ ruling circles. Moreover, the ruling clans number of the Russian areas become a part of the usurp access in executive, judicial and legislative North Caucasian republics. Thus the indigenous branches of power; business and the sphere of the Russian people in national autonomies underwent higher education which inevitably blocks all pressure and the discrimination considerably channels of vertical mobility especially for the surpassing that test on itself ethnically ‘other’ in North Caucasian youth. As a result, inhabitants regions of Russian Ciscaucasia 55 . And the are compelled to migrate to other (non Caucasian) expelled population is exposed to powerful regions, to look for an exit in extreme nationalism processes of desocialization and marginalization: or to choose a ‘religious approved’ way of the it was literally pushed out of society. It is armed violence under the leadership of the foreign necessary to underline that most actively “titular Muslim instructors that leads to tens killed and rights” are used and reproduced by the criminal wounded every week 52 . (religious, extremist, separatist, politically active) part of certain cultural and linguistic group. Certainly, if this group has “the ethnic ownership” of a certain territory, resources, the constitution,

09.02.2009; Poliakov S., “Lezginka pod dulom quasi-state attributes, the paramilitary structures. pistoleta”, Komsomol'skaia pravda , 13.02.2009. Unfortunately, today “titular status” as the major 52 According to Grigorii Shvedov the editor-in-chief of “Caucasian Knot” news agency Dagestan is captured socio-political identifier, and also the by civil war. The situation in this republic is the most intense. In 2011 in Dagestan violence growth was criminological phenomenon, is not limited any observed again: total number of victims of the conflict more to a geographical position of this or that raised up to 824 persons, from them 413 got killed and 411 got wounded. (In 2010 the number of victims was republic and is perceived by its holders as 685 persons, of them 378 killed and 307 wounded) See: Shvedov G., Malashenko A., Severnyi Kavkaz: essential attribute and the privilege. Now this itogi 2011 goda , Moskovskii Тsentr Karnegi, Moskva, status is repeatedly strengthened by new 19.03.2012. Available at: http://carnegie.ru/events/?fa=3667 Weekly statistics on victims of violent struggle in North Caucasus is 53 Belozerov V., Op.cit ., p. 186. available at http://voinenet.ru/voina/ezhenedelnye- 54 Op.cit ., p. 187. hroniki/ 55 Op.cit ., p. 211. Rivista di Criminologia, Vittimologia e Sicurezza – Vol. VIII – N. 2 – Maggio-Agosto 2014 55 dimension – the radical Islam based on binary (including group identification) and opposition “Muslims v. infidels”. nationalism” 58 . Here it is important to note that Islam as a Here it is worth stating the main signs of a complicated religious system is not necessary to phenomenon of the “titular status” which is the most fanatical “titular” activists. They distort setting the principles of definition of social reality and emasculate the rich cultural and historical for separate groups of the population: background of Islam to the level of the primitive i. Cultivated feeling of ethnic and historical Salafi doctrine of the military-political character superiority and “presumption of aimed at achievement of destructive, tactical rightness” in any social transactions, results 56 . Such ideology is the general religious including conflict situations. and extremist dogma and an important condition ii. Mountainous version of male supremacy of the ‘supra-ethnic’ unity which for the first time and ‘body politics’ as a traditional way of makes possible the steady consolidation of life 59 . “titular” groups and further radicalization of the iii. Primary following religious [“peoples’ North Caucasus. Among radical Muslims in the Islam”, locally – Sharia 60 ] or traditional North Caucasus self-identification as members of [e.g. adat 61 ] norms instead of official legal international ummah and fighters of Worldwide obligations. Jihad amplifies. And, anyway, they make part of iv. Translation of negative objectives of accruing activity of religious extremism 57 . Thus, parents through family upbringing. Islam from the neutral and general denominator of v. Socialization through criminal practice of the Caucasian groups of the population (the so- consanguineal complicity. called “funeral Islam”) is intentionally distorted, vi. Long-term experience of successful and adjusted to short-term objectives, becomes radical unpunished discrimination of “not titular” and turns into a dangerous point of assembly

(“permanent jihad”) of the new consolidated 58 Avksent'ev V., Babkin I., “Islam i natsional'nye underground. It became obvious during the konflikty na Severnom Kavkaze”, Ab Imperio , No. 2, 2000, p. 203. Second Chechen campaign when researchers 59 See in details: Karpov Iu. Iu., Dzhigit i volk: muzhskie soiuzy v sotsiokul'turnoi traditsii gortsev noted, “that some peoples of the North Caucasus Kavkaza , Rossiiskaia akademiia nauk, Muzei developed a peculiar lifestyle, thinking, antropologii i etnografii im. Petra Velikogo (Kunstkamera), Sankt Peterburg, 1996, pp. 7–148. perception of reality in which Islam is shown as 60 Official Sharia justice existed in the Northern Caucasus until 1927. See in details: Bobrovnikov V.O., one of the main lines of self-identification Musul'mane Severnogo Kavkaza: obychai, pravo, nasilie (ocherki po istorii i etnografii prava Nagornogo Dagestana) , Vost. lit., Moskva, 2002, pp. 217–261. .[habit, custom] َدة A term borrowed from Arabic 61 For centuries in certain Muslim societies of Northern Caucasus Arabic was used as a language of religion, 56 Wilhelmsen J., When Separatists Become Islamists: law and power. See e.g. Kemper M., “An Island of the Case of Chechnya , FFI/Rapport–2004/00445, Classical Arabic in the Caucasus: Dagestan”, In Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, Kjeller, Companjen F., Marácz L., Versteegh L. (eds.), 2004, pp. 9–45. Exploring the Caucasus in the 21 st Century. Essays on 57 Malashenko A., Kak vybirali v Chechne , Mosk. Culture, History and Politics in a Dynamic Context , Тsentr Karnegi, Moskva, 2006, p. 30. Pallas Publications, Amsterdam, 2010, pp. 63–90. Rivista di Criminologia, Vittimologia e Sicurezza – Vol. VIII – N. 2 – Maggio-Agosto 2014 56

(mainly Slavic or Christian) population in ii. Use of the “contractual” authorities: the USSR and RF. from adjustment of “contact” with the vii. Existence of the “ethnic” territory. local employee of police to lobbying viii. Pseudoscientific, political and publicistic in the Federal Parliament. legitimization of the “titular status” iii. Passive, defeatist and often including consciousness of historical collaborative position of the local “not insults of “colonial oppression” and titular” people of Russia. “deportation” (for separate groups of iv. Actual colonization, including population) 62 . criminal and demographic of certain ix. Radical Islam (for Muslim groups of (non-Caucasian) regions/cities and population) 63 . monopolization of commercially x. Neo-tribal or religious community as a favorable fields of activity. basic social unit: teip (or parts of teip – Thus, the “titular status” is possibly to define as gar, nek ʺiy, ts а), tukhum, jamaat, vird and the mobilizing form of affective group belonging Diaspora. based on a negative complex of cultural, xi. Ethnic uniformity and inviolability of ideological and educational practices, fixed in republican “elite”. public consciousness, legislation and reproduced

The following factors help to keep “a permanent as a strategy of socio-political domination . titular status” outside traditional areas of dwelling: Certainly that the most educated, urbanized and i. Diasporic support – within the secular representatives of North Caucasian groups country and from abroad (long- of the population, as a rule, do not share “titular” distance nationalism) 64 . dogmas. Unfortunately, such citizens can not influence domestic policy in the republics therefore not only ordinary life, but also law- 62 Gadzhiev M.S., Kuznetsov V.A., Chechenov I.M., Istoriia v zerkale paranauki: Kritika sovremennoj enforcement practice in “titular” territorial etnotsentristskoi istoriografii Severnogo Kavkaza , I ЕA subjects of the RF has sharply negative RAN, Moskva, 2006. 63 Certain scholars and experts consider that radical specifics 65 . Islamists can provoke religious war in the RF. See. e.g.: Silant'ev R., Noveishaia istoriia islama v Rossii , Algoritm, Moskva, 2007, pp. 470–96; Suleimanov 6. Academic attempts to “respond”. Rais: “Vlasti Tatarstana navedut poriadok v respublike – shariatskii”, Al'manakh «Na voine» , 27.11.2012. But why the problem of “titular” territories did not 64 On increased role of diaspora communities in violent intra-state conflicts see e.g. Demmers J., “Nationalism receive close attention of the academic and expert from Without: Theorizing the Role of Diasporas in Contemporary Conflict”, In Atabaki T., Mehendale S. (eds), Central Asia and the Caucasus: Transnationalism and Diaspora , Routledge, New 65 See e.g. Albogachieva M., “Iz istorii bor'by s krovnoi York, 2005, pp. 10–20. On highly politicized activities mest'iu v Ingushetii”, Antropologicheskii Forum , No. of Circassian Diaspora see e.g. Grebennikov V., “Is 4, 2011, pp. 3–21; Albogachieva M., “Osobennosti Leviathan Back? Circassian Ethnic Mobilization after vzaimodeistviia rossiiskoi sudebno-pravovoi sistemy i the 2012 Presidential Elections in Russia”, CEU traditsionnykh pravovykh institutov ingushkogo Political Science Journal , Vol. 8, No. 2, 2013, pp. obshchestva (XIX—XXI vv.)”, In Karpov Iu.Iu. (ed.) 234–256. Obshchestvo kak ob”ekt i sub”ekt vlasti. Ocherki Rivista di Criminologia, Vittimologia e Sicurezza – Vol. VIII – N. 2 – Maggio-Agosto 2014 57 circles? The opinion of one of the most objective to be used by default and turned into an integral researchers of nationalism in Russia is part of a political landscape. Thus, beating of the characteristic: “Frequently those who speak and North Caucasian person in Moscow causes a write about the Russian nationalism have been predictable resonance in mass media and public asked about why such attention is not paid to the condemnation as a hate crime whereas murdering nationalisms of ethnic minorities. Truly they are of the Russian family in Ingushetia receives given disproportionately less attention” 66 . Further muffled interpretation in mass media and the he claims that “regional separatism ceased to be a irritated response of the republican authorities. It real aim long ago” and “nationalisms of minorities is worth giving opinion of the M.P. of the RF V.I. pose a minor influence on a way of development Alksnis: “The other day the group of deputies of of the country” 67 . the State Duma, representatives of all fractions, Formally it is true: firstly, it is much more left in official journey, and during this trip we had favorable for the “titular” regions to be parts of a meeting with one high-ranking head, will tell so, Russia under conditions of generously donated regional level. And here this person with tears in subjects of federation. Secondly, visible signs of the eyes told us that he was compelled to leave the nationalism are not present: consigned to the past national republic where he was born only because ethno-xenophobic slogans of the “titular” there Russians are not appointed to higher authorities, demonstrative formation of ethnic positions. If someone tells that it is slander, – I do paramilitaries, fighting dances on city squares and not want to call here the republic, but... It is the other attributes of primitive nationalist practice which has developed in Russia. If movements. Republican “elites” realized long ago someone thinks that it does not promote kindling that the current legislation and ostentatious loyalty of national discord and hostility in Russia, these to the federal center allow them to operate and people are mistaken. I can imagine that the young discriminate “not titular” population with real man who for years observes deprivation of rights impunity. Here Immanuel Wallerstein’s of his nation … He asks why family of his comparison is applicable: “The object of racism is relatives was slaughtered in Chechnya and no not to exclude people, much less to exterminate criminal charges on this fact were brought? Why them. The object of racism is to keep people the murderers of this slaughtered Russian family within the system, but as Untermenschen, who were not punished? He asks why his friends had can then be exploited economically and used as to run from Tajikistan and Moscow looks at this political scapegoats” 68 . Repressive practices began indifferently? He asks himself why even more often on the streets of his city he gets insulted by politicheskoi antropologii Kavkaza , Peterburgskoe some ‘guests from mountains’? With radicalism Vostokovedenie, Sankt Peterburg, 2012, pp. 142–208. 66 Verkhovskii A., “Ideinaia evoliutsiia russkogo peculiar to youth, having convinced that is useless natsionalizma: 1990-e i 2000-e gody”, In Verkhi i nizy to wait from the authorities that they will begin to russkogo natsionalizma , Тsentr «Sova», Moskva, 2007, p. 7. pursue policy in interests of the majority of the 67 Verkhovskii A., Op. cit., p. 8. people, he decides to restore social justice 68 Wallerstein I., “The Racist Albatross. Social Science, Jörg Haider and Widerstand”, Eurozine , 14.09.2000. Rivista di Criminologia, Vittimologia e Sicurezza – Vol. VIII – N. 2 – Maggio-Agosto 2014 58 independently, on his terms … And all this forced What kind of opinions is offered by the academic certain radicals to see the only way to change science? something – that is to revenge, having taken a Investigating a problem of “national” subjects, baseball bat, the weapon or explosive materials” 69 . A.N. Malinkin considers that territorial subjects of Such reaction in the form of protest extremism the RF formed on an ethnic basis have to be received definition of “the Russian nationalism”. liquidated with all their (artificial) borders and the But is it only such “nationalism” is worthy quasi-feudal privileges stimulating formation of studying and condemning? Whether only crimes ethnocratic republican regimes 71 . In his opinion, “majority v. minority” could be caused by hatred? withdrawal from the pseudo-federal state system And why administrative and political which is based on ethnic federalism, and transition discrimination and direct exile of “not titular” to originally democratic federalism allowing only population is considered normal, according to administrative-territorial differentiations and various researchers? For a long time there are all guaranteeing the actual civil equality and grounds to believe that “the constitutional observance of human rights is necessary 72 . nationalism” in “titular” territorial subjects of the However such a suggestion despite the visible RF is more dangerous both to society and to the argumentativeness does not take into state, than notorious “Russian consideration realities of modern Russia. In what nationalism/fascism”. After all even the North way is it really possible to liquidate “ethnic” Caucasian scholar writes that: “This fascism is a territorial subjects? Considering level and pathological result of national humiliation of prevalence of the anti-Russian moods in these Russians, including the humiliation suffered by “titular” subjects such elimination will be Russians in the Caucasian periphery… Possibly, impossible without consent of the local not any other “colonial nation” in history population. And this decision at all would not be happened to be so deprived, in comparison with peaceful. But even with a hypothetical agreement the colonized natives as in situation Russians of “titular elites” to replace the status of their found themselves in the territory of the national territorial subject from ‘republic’ with ‘region’ republics of the North Caucasus” 70 . political ‘rebranding’ would not change And what are the benefits of having these administrative and ethnic balance in such “national” republics within Russia? What is the extremely conflict region as Dagestan, religious price of keeping the “titular” territories as a part and clannish character of the local authorities in of the Russian state? Whether there is a way out Ingushetia, feudal and class stratification of from this inverted empire where remote ethnic society in Karachay-Cherkessia and anywhere regions colonize and exploit the federal center? would not eliminate deeply embedded traditions

69 Vystuplenie na zasedanii Gosudarstvennoi Dumy Rossii, 15.11.2006. Available at: 71 Malinkin A.N., “«Novaia rossiiskaia identichnost’»: http://www.akdi.ru/gd/PLEN_Z/2006/11/s15-11_u.htm issledovanie po sotsiologii znaniia”, Sotsiologicheskii 70 Тsutsiev A., “Russkie i kavkaztsy: po tu storonu zhurnal , No 4, 2001. druzhby narodov”, Druzhba Narodov , No 10, 2005. 72 Malinkin A.N., Op. cit. Rivista di Criminologia, Vittimologia e Sicurezza – Vol. VIII – N. 2 – Maggio-Agosto 2014 59 of a “titular” superiority 73 . And whether Therefore other scientists offer radical options of “originally democratic federalism” is eventually overcoming of this problem. So, the known possible given existing political system? Russian geographer Vladimir Kagansky Many practical scholars have learned by the reasonably considers that “from the point of view experience the impossibility of such “liquidating of the positive spatial analysis, it is always reforms”. So, according to Nikolay Petrov, “many possible to specify the territories which existence elements of political engineering, even seemingly as a part of the state brings harm for this state. easy gained, are absolutely irreversible. That is, if What has to do the responsible state in these you created ethnic statehood, if you told that such cases? It has to declare off these territories at any ethnicity since now has any pseudo-statehood, it is cost. And not to wait when these territories will almost impossible to take it back without blood, want to separate. You perfectly understand that without disastrous conflicts. It is already there are a number of territories 75 which presence unimportant further, whether there was once a as a part of Russia is a burden. And what do we history, – if it was not it is constructed. Already see? That the state tries to hold these very no matter how ethnically salient they are, how territories, which presence as a part of Russia is ethnically distant are these or those groups from extremely harmful to it. The matter is that from their neighbors. If you made it you already started history of the North Caucasus it is known: wars a certain mechanism which practically has no always take place there. The reason is not so clear reverse motion. [e]thnic should never get attached to me: whether it is a civilization break, whether with territorial. Because as soon as borderlines something else – wars always take place in this start, even if in heads of people, to get any ethnic territory. The question is: did not Russia make a content, instantly any most insignificant conflict fatal mistake in the XIX century having annexed can turn into inter-ethnic collision what we have these territories? It did. What does it do now? It witnessed in enormous quantity of cases in the tries to repeat this fatal flaw. But at the same time territory of the former Soviet Union” 74 . N. Petrov we see a brilliant example of remarkable is absolutely right and it is necessary to add only geographical engineering – abandonment of that “the mechanism which practically has no Alaska. It was that territory which was too costly reverse motion”, nevertheless continues the to hold” 76 . This radical option offers counter- progress, and the territories being outside the separation – separation from burdensome republics, promptly are exposed to the “titular territories and groups of the population Reconquista” by means of migration from the corresponding to them 77 . But abandonment of North Caucasus.

75 Better say – the local population of these territories. 76 Kaganskii V., Neizvestnaia Rossiia (Publichnaia lektsiia), Polit.Ru, Moskva, 19.04.2007 Available at: 73 Kazenin K., Еlementy Kavkaza: zemlia, vlast' i http://polit.ru/article/2007/05/04/kaganskiy/ ideologiia v severokavkazskikh respublikakh , ID 77 Similar views are characteristic not only for modern REGNUM, Moskva, 2012. Russia. In Italy since 1991 there is North League for 74 Petrov N., O regionalizme (Publichnaia lektsiia), the Independence of Padania – the political party Polit.Ru, Moskva, 9.02.2006 Available at: demanding separation from “undeveloped and criminal http://www.polit.ru/lectures/2006/02/13/petrov.html South” with formation of the independent state with the Rivista di Criminologia, Vittimologia e Sicurezza – Vol. VIII – N. 2 – Maggio-Agosto 2014 60

Alaska which had the dubious colonial status the numerous North Caucasian Diasporas which supported only with a few hundreds of Russian have been strongly fixed in the heartland of the hunters, besides being on the other continent and Russian state? A final partition will logically possible separation from integrated, strategic part require frontier arrangements which will demand of the Russian territory have not much in huge funds on direct formation of the whole common. The North Caucasus is the frontier complex of infrastructure and not lesser sums of macro-region with the population of 17 million money for the inevitable corruption expenses: so- people which is an integral part of the vital called “kickbacks” to federal and local infrastructures of federal level: military and bureaucrats. And transparency of internal borders logistic, energy, industry, finance and economics, in the CIS makes such isolation a mere formality transport, education, public health, not to mention – in the conditions of boundary transparency even inclusiveness in uniformed cultural and linguistic similarity of the protected perimeter (limes) will space. Hundreds of thousands of Russian “not be impossible. And the more so it is unclear how titular” citizens live in the Caucasus with no place to consider the question of citizenship: “titular” to come in the post-Caucasian Russia. Unclear inhabitants are citizens of Russia, and deprivation what arguments of legal character will form the of nationality is forbidden by the current basis for such a suggestion, after all ideas of this legislation (item 3 of Art. 6 of the Constitution of sort have to be supplemented with detailed the RF) and norms of international law. constructive program. Meanwhile “disposal” of “titular” regions is There is also some other doubts in correctness of a possible only in case of state disintegration. But position of V. Kagansky. Will any Slavic enclaves the situation when the federal authorities remain in the North Caucasus? How to “exclude” financially support the constitutional Republic of Adygea which is territorially discrimination of “not titular” citizens is in any encircled by Krasnodar region? What will be case inadmissible and allocates “titular” citizens reaction of ruling circles and the population of the with the exclusive status of subsidized form of mountainous republics and what will happen with exterritoriality. capital in Milan. Later, for better electoral appeal, the requirements were softened to the gradual 7. State’s aggressive professional impotence. federalization of the Italian state. It is remarkable that Whether there is a probability of a social protest ideologists of North League are not limited to the arguments of populist and economic character, but also of the oppressed Russian population in the North develop their own “political geography” and ethno- cultural mythology. See e.g. Huysseune M., “Imagined Caucasus – a stigmatized community of “loosing Geographies: Political and Scientific Discourses on and suffering”? Most likely, no: years of Italy's North-South Divide”, In Coppieters B., Huysseune M. (eds.), Secession, History and the discrimination proved that people prefer flight to Social Sciences , VUB Brussels University Press, Waversesteenweg, 2002, pp. 207–26. Comparison of resistance. Leaders, the positive program and high centrifugal regional tendencies in Italy and Belgium level of consolidation of suspect group are see in: Huysseune M. (ed.), Contemporary Centrifugal Regionalism: Comparing Flanders and Northern Italy , necessary for fight. Thus it is necessary to Koninklijke Vlaamse Academie van België voor Wetenschappen en Kunsten, Brussel, 2011. consider that the discontent which has accepted

Rivista di Criminologia, Vittimologia e Sicurezza – Vol. VIII – N. 2 – Maggio-Agosto 2014 61 organized forms, was already presented in mass informal jurisdiction, living out of uniform legal media as manifestation of “the Russian and cultural framework of the country, nationalism” and even fascism. If the direct provocatively ignoring the standard norms, laws protest is excluded, there is a need of the all- and rules”. The abovementioned enclaves in the Russian campaign in protection of the rights of form of the republics and Diasporic “branches” “not titular” population. Unfortunately, this option comfortably exist over twenty years out of a too is unpromising as serious efforts of non- uniform legal and cultural framework of the governmental organizations (having absolutely country and with an accruing challenge ignore the other priority) are for this purpose necessary and standard norms, laws and rules enjoying at the continuous covering of events in mass media same time systematic budgetary support from the (now it partially occurs in “the black market of federal center. It is doubtful to believe that the information” – in a blogosphere accessed by a few next presidential performance will cause cardinal percent of the population of the RF) 78 . While the change of current situation or at least will serve as problem of “the internal abroad” of Russia (and a signal for revision of policy of “titular not only the North Caucasus, but also, for privileges” in the RF. On October 5, 2013 during example, Republic of Tyva where the XIV Congress of “United Russia” governmental considerable part of the Russian population was political party prime-minister of the RF Dmitry expelled at the beginning and the middle of the Medvedev underlined that: “[w]e should not let 1990-s) continues to be aggravated, creating new ethnic enclaves to appear, especially in the preconditions for reaction of protest extremism in cities” 79 . In other words it means that Russia got regions and reproduction of hate culture in even more disunited since 2012. society. Reaction of the federal authorities continues to 8. Conclusion. Russian prospects and remain sporadic and declarative. Consider an European political risk management. example from the Dispatch of the President of It seems that the possible solution of Russia V. Putin of December 12, 2012 to the abovementioned problems (again linked with Federal Assembly: “We will not allow emergence terrorism as the end of 2013 has gruesomely of the closed ethnic enclaves in Russia with the proved) manifests itself not in the isolated regional approach 80 but in the careful process of

78 On political exploitation of blogosphere see e.g.: Aday S. et al., Blogs and Bullets: New Media in Contentious Politics , United States Institute of Peace, Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Washington, August 2010. Analysis of Russian protest Violence, London, March 2013. capacity managed online: Alexanyan K. et al., 79 Stenogramma S ʺezda. Available at: Exploring Russian Cyberspace: Digitally-Mediated http://er.ru/news/2013/10/6/xiv-sezd-partii-edinaya- Collective Action and the Networked Public Sphere , rossiya/ Berkman Center for Internet and Society, Harvard 80 See e.g. Vassilieva O., “Conflict Management in the University, Cambridge (MA), March 2012. Overview Caucasus via Development of Regional Identity”, In of extremist activity in social networks: Berger J.M., Koehler J., Zürcher C. (eds.), Potentials of Disorder: Strathearn B., Who Matters Online: Measuring Explaining Conflict and Stability in the Caucasus and Influence, Evaluating Content and Countering Violent in the Former Yugoslavia , Manchester University Extremism in Online Social Networks , International Press, Manchester, 2003, pp. 174–192. Rivista di Criminologia, Vittimologia e Sicurezza – Vol. VIII – N. 2 – Maggio-Agosto 2014 62 nation-building 81 – taking into account North- strictly monitored by Western partners 86 . The last American and European experiences, rethinking but not the least is the new conditions of nation- traditional understanding of ethnicity 82 , migration building. Old instruments of XIX century might and citizenship 83 . To begin with there is a need to not work properly in the age of fading nation- grasp the initiative from extreme forces and start a state, globalization, mass migrations and public dialogue, bringing together the antagonists alternative discourses of influential non-state as it takes place in other countries 84 . The next step actors. – is to revise the educational programs imbedding It is hard to say whether the RF is capable to positive unification over shared symbols and manage this heavily complicated task of political ideals (if it is ever possible without strong engineering combined with multi-leveled social common ideology or desired secular utopia). One constructivism given the fact of twenty-three of the most difficult and explosive tasks is to years lost in transition and snowballing problems. bring back the tradition of laïcité freeing society One should also keep in mind the disastrous brain- from explosive and opposing religious ideologies drain of nineties and general degradation of (first of all – to stop radical Islamist expansion 85 ). humanities in the country, including inertia of Logically it is crucial to replace ethnic dimension meanings, simulation of thought move and from mass media and public consciousness with absence of independent scientific analysis. But if other forms of identity and representation. And it the government has desisted from attempts of is very important to underline that because of the solving these problems being preoccupied with international obligations of the RF all these organizing international sport events, political objectives have to be implemented liberally – parties remain merely commercial entities and the according to the high standards of human rights so third sector is invalid – who remains in the position of a (collective) ‘crisis manager’? Could it be an external actor? The answer is unclear but

81 On persistent yet unsuccessful nation-building efforts the time is short for the RF and the next decade in post-Soviet Russia see e.g. Shevel O., “Russian will ultimately demonstrate either serious Nation-building from Yel'tsin to Medvedev: Ethnic, Civic or Purposefully Ambiguous?”, Europe-Asia improving either a failing state with the violent Studies , No. 63 (2), 2011, pp. 179–202. 82 See e.g. Brubeiker R., Etnichnost' bez grupp , Izd. disintegration of the country. Such a catastrophe dom Vysshei shkoly ekonomiki, Moskva, 2012. will obviously affect not only post-Soviet 83 An attempt of such a holistic view: Malakhov V., Kul'turnye razlichiia i politicheskie granitsy v epokhu republics so probably the EU in its political global'nykh migratsii , Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie, Institut filosofii RAN, Moskva, 2014. strategy towards the Russian Federation should 84 See e.g.: Roleff T.L. (ed.), Hate Groups: Opposing take a closer look at this explosive situation Viewpoints , Greenhaven Press, San Diego, 1999. 85 Though RF is not a country with the dominant directly facing European borders. Muslim population the Russian government could learn some key lessons from the positive experience of de- radicalization in various Muslim societies from Algeria to Malaysia: El-Said H., De-Radicalising Islamists: 86 On general contradictions between nation-building Programmes and their Impact in Muslim Majority based on human rights and cultural peculiarities see States , International Centre for the Study of e.g. Weston H.B., “Human Rights and Nation-Building Radicalisation and Political Violence, London, January in Cross-Cultural Settings”, Maine Law Review , Vol. 2012. 60, No. 2, 2008, pp. 318–346. Rivista di Criminologia, Vittimologia e Sicurezza – Vol. VIII – N. 2 – Maggio-Agosto 2014 63

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