On the Margins of Heterosexuality! Representation of Queerness in Malayalam Cinema

Home , Balachandra Menon, Lal Jose, Padmarajan, Shyamaprasad, Vinayan

Dr Sony Jalarajan Raj, MacEwan University, Canada Dr. Rohini Sreekumar, Monash University, Australia Dr Swapna Gopinath, SN College, Chempazhanthy, University of Kerala

Abstract regarding morality in a liberal and The conservative social milieu and the official accommodative ways. As society solidified censorship rules prevents any open or its social structures within a distinctly transparent form of creative discourses on the patriarchal ideology, sexuality was also realities of queer population in Kerala, a State taken into its scrutiny. Strict rules of moral having the highest literacy rate in India. This and social propriety were designated and article is an attempt to chronologically map texts like Manusmriti codified them. By the repressed demography of queer within the according sanctity to these social norms, a history of Malayalam cinema. Right from the strict enforcement of the same was assured. early days, there were only meagre attempts It was colonial India that reiterated and in the Malayalam cinema to represent, consolidated these restrictive and oppressive portray and communicate the LGBTQ norms with the aid of Indian social population that silently exist within the reformers enchanted by the Victorian sense literate Kerala society. This article argues that of morality and European modernity. Sexual the Malayalam cinema has a long traditional behavior other than heterosexuality got and discursive practice of normalising stamped as deviant and perverse that heterosexual practices through cinematic demanded ostracism. imageries. The article illustrates that Ancient India like other pre-modern Malayalam cinema carefully places the queer civilizations had a considerably tolerant subtext in the margins of heterosexuality in approach to homosexuality and transgender line with the conservative social order and communities. Their normative discourses norms in the State. provided spaces, often accommodating them through religious practices and myths, Key words in the social structures. In India, this Queer, Malayalam cinema, happened in various forms, through several representation, Keralite, reception, myths and stories. As Dasgupta mentions heterosexuality, Othering, subtexts, “one of the dominant tropes of same sex love in ancient India is through friendship, Introduction often leading to a life of celibacy or the In pre-vedic times, India was one of the forming of some very intimate relationships” civilizations that addressed the questions (652). Mahabharata holds aloft the loyal and ...... March 2018 41 Sari and Karthika with Director Padmarajan on the sets of Deshadanakkili Karayarilla deeply intense friendship between Krishna Kerala, having the highest literacy rate and Arjuna. Dasgupta also considers rebirth and Education Development Index, is one as another trope which is used to justify of those States in India that has atleast same sex love in ancient India. According to recently embarked on an active inclusion of Hindu scriptures, in order to cleanse the LGBTQ community into mainstream social karmas that the past life has done, one has life. However, right from the early days, to take rebirth in a favourable and good there were only meagre attempts in the family, which is not possible in the case of Malayalam cinema to represent, portray same-sex marriage. Vedas considers and and communicate the LGBTQ population validates marriage only between opposite that silently exist within the literate Kerala sex (Jayaraj n.d-web). Another interesting society. Kerala with its magnificent concept was the depiction of queerness performance in socio-economic indices and within the trope of divinity. Divine beings its high literacy rates, has a complex were depicted as fluid in gender identities dichotomy when it comes to social and rise above such categorizations which behaviour. The radically progressive stance permits heterosexual as well as homosexual of the average middle class community is liaisons. ‘Ardhanareeshwara’ as the halves of carefully swept away by puritanical pseudo- Siva and Shakti, Mahavishnu as Mohini and morality when it comes to sexuality. This the birth of Lord Ayyappa as the son of Lord article is an attempt to chronologically map Siva and Mahavishnu (as Mohini) can be the ‘repressed’ demography of queer within mentioned in this context. the history of Malayalam cinema. This

42 amÀ¨v 2018 ...... article argues that the Malayalam cinema direction.(Harvey, 2008). Hijras trace their has a discursive practice of favouring origin to several myths and Puranas heterosexual practises by taking an including the epics Ramayana and the unapologetic stance towards anything Mahabharata. Narrain provides an example deviant. The films analysed here clearly from Ramayana to elucidate the role of illustrates that Malayalam cinema carefully hijras in society: places the queer subtext as an undertone to Rama, while leaving for the forest upon normalise and validate heterosexual order being banished from the kingdom for 14 and norms. years, turns around to his followers and asks all the `men and women’ to return to the Contextualizing Queer city. Among his followers the hijras alone do Presence in India not feel bound by this direction and decide As we trace the history of the nation, we to stay with him. Impressed with their see social structures beginning to solidify devotion, Rama sanctions them the power and heteronormative traditions rising to its to confer blessings on people on auspicious hegemonic position with lesser tolerance occasions like childbirth and marriage, and towards deviation. One such instance was also at inaugural functions. This set the the Bhakti movement in which “by making stage for the custom of badhai in which the deity a lover, new forms of intimacy beyond the confines of marriage and family Deshadanakkili Karayarilla were discovered”. (Dasgupta: 654) ). Queer identities underwent the process of marginalization under the imperialist rule with the puritanical moral ideals imposed upon the natives by the colonizers. Interestingly, nationalist agenda preferred to emulate the moralistic patterns of the rulers as part of embracing modernity. As Bose and Bhattacharya point out, “questions of identity are complex to begin with, and they become even more so when one has to relate questions of sexual identities or preferences with questions of national specificity” (2007 x). The history of the hijra in India is intertwined with religion, general cultural recognition and acceptance of the hijra’s existence within society (Patel 836). Hijras are one among the many transgender communities in India. Though Indian mythology bestows them with special powers to bring luck and fertility which supposedly opens up provisions for superior space in Indian culture, hijras face severe harassment and discrimination from every

...... March 2018 43 hijras sing, dance and confer blessings (n.d, This dilemmatic, undefined and baffled web) identity rarely gets mentioned in the visual However, alternate sexualities struggle arts, and when they do get space, this to maintain their identity in India even in bewilderment is often seen in the this age of globalized communities. This characterisation or in the significance of intolerance remains due to constitutional such characters when considering the laws that came into effect during the British overall plot of the film. regime. In India, legal powers are used to threaten hijra community using Section 377 Lesbians on screen - Early queer of the Indian Penal Code which criminalises attempt in Malayalam cinema carnal intercourse against the order of The earliest depiction of homosexuality nature with any man, woman or animal occurred in a 1978 movie directed by even if it is voluntary. This hints that the Mohan. The film Randu Penkuttikal (Two existence of hijras is always perceived Girls, 1978) deals with two high school girls through the lens of carnal pleasure, and Kokila and Girija, a dancer with the former hence here sexuality is least about sexual emerging as a possessive partner. Kokila orientation and more on sexual pleasure, bestows Girija with gifts in an attempt to thus making this entire lot of marginalised express her desire for her. However, Girija is communities vulnerable to various sorts of fond of a young photographer with whom harassments. Moreover, this not only made she had a brief physical relationship. An their daily existence difficult but resorted overtly jealous Kokila tries to spread them to find alternative ways of living as rumours about Girija to make men stay opposed to a mainstream life. This often away from her. However at the end, the two leave them as a butt of ridicule and sarcasm. girls compromise and decide to conform to

Sancharam

44 amÀ¨v 2018 ...... Sancharam

the dominant heterosexual preferential leanings. Sally the dominant one is pattern of social life. Girija assures Kokila possessive while Nimmy is the submissive that what they felt was just a teenage fantasy one. Padmarajan fails to surrender the and that Kokila need to live like any other archaic tropes of gender identity and creates women. This film was the first attempt in Sally as the short haired, jeans clad, Malayalam film industry to portray the dominant girl with distinct male behaviour concept of homosexuality even if it was a pattern. Nimmy is more feminine wearing frivolous way of identifying the same. As far feminine attires, retains her long hair, is as the Indian film industry is concerned, submissive and weak-willed and later this attempt was a milestone in the Indian develops an emotional attachment to a film history, as the first ever queer-themed male.While gender roles are constructed by film in Bollywood, the flagship industry of the society with male as provider and female India, hit the screen only on 1996 through as nurturer, film makers like Padmarajan Fire, by Deepa Mehta. use these stereotypical roles even in their The next noteworthy attempt was by the portrayal of homosexual relationships. He filmmaker Padmarajan in the film also dropped the theme of homosexuality at Deshadanakili Karayarilla (Migratory birds a tragic and bitter denouement where the never cries,1986) that negotiates the two succeed at destroying themselves. complex question of women and gender Thadani opines on the question of identity. Sally and Nimmy run away ‘lesbian invisibility” (6) thus: rebelliously from school. They are portrayed …this technique of ‘othering’ functions as deviant outcastes with homosexual as a form of exiling, rendering invisible and

...... March 2018 45 Mumbai Police

excommunicating anything which may be and emotionally attracted to one another seen as representative of homosexual and and the treatment is not exaggerated to homoerotic traditions…The ideology of dramatic excesses. When their gender heterosexuality is not merely limited to a orinetation was revealed, Delilah’s parents sexual relationship between opposite arranged to get her married off to a guy as a genders, but is a very complex signifying solution to this ‘disease’. This takes Kiran tot system…The unquestioning of thishe brink of suicide. The concluding scene ideological gaze renders invisible any shows an apprehensive Delilah, in her articulations based on a plural gender self wedding gown, running out of the Church wherein both differences and sameness may screaming for Kiran, while Kiran holding coexist, providing myriad forms of same herself back from the plan of jumping off sex/gender identify cations (6-7). from a cliff. Such an open-end leave the This pervasiveness of theaudience to decide the future of the heteronormative practices and the characters. Shakunthala Devi, the consequent othering of other identities Mathematical wizard from India wrote the prevents a sympathetic response to work The World of Homosexuals as early as homosexuality from the world of cultural in 1976. She interviewed several narratives. Very few films address this homosexuals and same-sex couples around injustice and an offbeat film released in the world, including India. She advocated a 2004, Sancharam (Journey) directed by Lijy progressive approach when she wrote: “On J Pullappally is probably the only film that this level nothing less than full and complete attempts to approach the theme of lesbian acceptance will serve – not tolerance and relationships with compassion. The film not sympathy” (114). This film adopts a uses the trope of “closeting and outing” as stance similar to the one advocated by its core theme (Vanitha 184). The film Shakuntala Devi. It passes no judgments or though not a mass entertainer takes a compromises, rather permits the journey of progressive stance and daringly depicts the the two women into terrains, probably relationship between two girls Delilah and hostile and difficult and leaves them there. Kiran in all its aspects. They are physically Social apathy to this situation is revealed in

46 amÀ¨v 2018 ...... My Life Partner

Kiran’s mother’s statement when she says scenario seems uniform, with a desperate they should be given medical treatment. desire to standardize sexual preferences of Homosexuality thus becomes a pathological every community. Though a realization of ailment that demands a medical the complexity of gender identities and the intervention. A more casual treatment is wide array of sexualities have translated accorded to the theme of homosexuality in themselves into films that tentatively address Papilio Buddha (2013), a film that explored these issues, only a few films have been the subject of dalit’s subalternity in India brazen enough to embrace the people who and created much furor. Lesbian and gay occupy the third space regarding gender. A relations are handled courageously without notable film released in 2015, Rani Padmini, concerning much about its public reception has a striking subtext of queerness. It of the subject and its treatment. Sexual belongs to the genre of road movies and this identities and experiences are welcomed genre permits critiquing and subversing of and treated realistically and the diasporic dominant social conventions. Quest as a identity of the film maker ought to be motif functions well within this genre, and mentioned in this context. offers the perfect medium to depict the But apart from these lone attempts, the journey of self discovery for the two

Unlike other Malayalam films with gay themes or characters, Mumbai Police (2013) subverts the portrayal of gayness as less than masculine. But the constant fear of discovery and the resulting emotions of insecurity results in aggression. The reflection of social prejudices prevalent in Indian society weakens the gay theme in the narrative since the film seems to bind one’s sexual preferences to their moral and psychological well being.

...... MarchFebruary 2018 2018 47 Odum Raja Aadum Rani

protagonists in the film. The film maker survives and triumphs. Any venturing into places one female couple and three male the world of homosexual desires is couples on their route to the Himalayas. considered as deviant social behavior and While the one is on a quest for identity, the the journey of the two women permits a other is a refugee, fleeing from her anger brief detour only to return to the socially and financial crisis. The queer subtext permissible familial structures. emerges as the buddies embark upon their journey and move towards greater intimacy Daring to portray, fearing to through shared moments of adventure. explore - Gay characters in Slices of their past life pull them together. Malayalam cinema Film maker ensures their physical distance As Doty (1993) says “cultural texts offer from one another while they share a tent but the potential for queer readings that focus also allows the audience to experience their on connotative rather than denotative physical intimacy through a casual embrace. meaning, that is, to find credible readings Later in scenes where Padmini meets her hidden in text that a culture of homophobia husband Giri, camera captures in a single and heterosexism bars us from seeing” (17). frame all three of them, heightening the Explorations into popular Malayalam tension through the presence of Rani. cinema offers such possibilities although Though a bold attempt, the stereotypical homosexuality and other alternate sexual dénouement, with Padmini back with her patterns are shunned by the Malayalee husband and a child, draws the film back psyche and cinema adopts the path that is into the heteronormative tradition. Rani’s least challenging. The dread of such initiation into the world of modeling safely ‘deviance’ is visible in the phobia such places her back in a traditionally feminine creative artistic expressions reveal in their world and the picture of her alluring eyes in works. The homophobia that percolates the a magazine reinforces the return to the Malayalee sensibility is perceivable in the patriotically defined role. The queer subtext film maker’s craft as well. This dread of in the film is carefully placed in the margins homosexuality prompts the society to and is quelled at the end where question homosocial behaviour and thus heterosexuality in the guise of marital bliss films about male bonding reveal the subtext

48 amÀ¨v 2018 ...... of fear and suspicion the society exhibits demand closer examination and they are when confronted by such relationships. Rithu (2009) and Mumbai Police (2013). Male bonding with strong undercurrents Both of these films have queer characters suggestive of homosexual behaviour can be that are positioned against heterosexual found in films like Harikrishnans (1998) characters and binaries are built upon this and Salt ‘N Pepper (2011). Harikrishnans framework of homosexual and heterosexual depict a strange case of male bonding positions. “Queer is by definition whatever treated in a ridiculous fashion with Hari is at odds with the normal, the legitimate, completing dialogues begun by Krishnan the dominant. … ‘Queer’ then, demarcated and vice versa. Their heterosexual romantic not a positivity but a positionality vis-à-vis inclination towards the gorgeous Meera the normative” (Halperin 62). Alienation of takes the scene and move as an undercurrent the Other and misrepresentation of the towards the middle of the plot and towards queer community is strikingly visible in the end. Salt ‘N Pepper is another film that these films. Moreover in the interrogates male bonding through the conceptualization of both the stories, characters of Kalidasan and Babu. The gayness emerge as a pointer towards the master and the cook share a warm, intimate weak-willed, morally susceptible characters. relationship which reminds the viewer of Rithu directed by Shyamaprasad narrates the bliss of conjugality. They meet for the the story of three friends, named Sunny, first time during a traditional bride-viewing Varsha and Sarat and the theme is that of ceremony where Kalidasan goes to ‘see’ a betrayal. Of the three, Sunny is gay and prospective bride and returns triumphantly Sarat is a heterosexual who cherishes his with their cook. Throughout the film, they romance with Varsha. On a cursive reading speak in suggestive tones with dialogues of the film, Sunny’s identity as a homosexual and action suggestive of a marital seems to be of little importance but a closer relationship. But utmost care has been taken understanding of the undercurrents of to avoid physical proximity between the human behavior as revealed in the film characters, in both these films. unveil another story. Sunny is introduced in Apart from these films of a suggestive the film with boyfriends partying in nature, there are two other films that Bangalore while Sarat is the subdued, home

Odum Raja Aadum Rani

...... MarchFebruary 2018 2018 49 as gay in the same conversation where he is identified as the betrayer as well. The polarities built upon this theme distinctly reveal the ideological position adopted by this film. The botched attempt at betrayal Mayamohini happens with the help of Jamaal who is clearly a gay stereotype in mannerisms, makeup and gestures and the viewer witnesses the building up of a sexual energy between the two. Homosexuality is placed strategically in the narrative in a more recent film titled Mumbai Police (2013). This film by Rosshan Andrews triggered several debates on the theme of homosexuality and the film deserves merit for foregrounding a much tabooed topic . Homosexuality in this film is as Seidman opined “Constructing the homosexual as loving, straight guy from the US. The film defiled justifies his/her exclusion from public builds upon this binary of a straight and a life. Symbolically degrading the homosexual gay character. The straight guy is the contributes to creating dominated gay selves innocent, morally upright person while the – that is, individuals for whom shame and gay character is weak-willed, struggles with guilt are at the core of their sense of self; his insecurities, is jealous and emerges as public invisibility becomes in part self- the betrayer in the film. Gayness gets enforced”. (353) The film unravels the story criminalized by association. The revelation of male bonding in a disciplined male made by Jithu to Sarat provides the clue to centered world where three police men, the viewer as to the significance of his sexual Farhan, Anthony Moses and Aaryan share a preference in the film. Jithu exposes Sunny steady and strong friendship. Antony is

50 amÀ¨v 2018 ...... designated to investigate the murder of Aaryan and Ardhanari ends up losing memory following an accident moments before revealing the name of the murderer. Farhan assigns the new Antony, alienated from the old self, to complete the investigation. Mystery is unravelled when the new Antony discovers his gay self, and he is shattered and torn between his two selves. Antony finds that it was his old self that had killed his friend in order to maintain his façade as a macho police man. Here, the new Antony is unaware about his sexual inclination; after losing memory, Antony meets his gay partner (unaware of him being his sexual partner), only to feel awkward with his advancements and gestures. The film fails to transcend the heteronormative tradition even though it bravely created a gay character and used a masculine prototype like Prithviraj (actor) for the role. Unlike other Malayalam films safely when Rascal Moses becomes the weak with gay themes or characters, this film and unfaithful one, while Farhan and subverts the portrayal of gayness as less Aaryan remain trustworthy and sane. The than masculine. But the constant fear of reflection of social prejudices prevalent in discovery and the resulting emotions of Indian society weakens the gay theme in the insecurity results in aggression. Antony is narrative since the film seems to bind one’s an authoritative bullying police man, sexual preferences to their moral and ruthless and violent to the core. The psychological well being. Since alternative stereotypical self is the well acted out role sexual behavior patterns are deemed that he plays to hide his homosexual deviant, other forms of deviance are exploits. The film maker decides to tread conveniently clubbed together in popular

...... MarchFebruary 2018 2018 51 Rani Padmini art forms like cinema. Mumbai Police stands the revelation of his gay self and the testimony to this concept. Sanjay – Bobby, accompanying music used for the scene script writers of Mumbai Police says thus in highlights the tragedy. Antony cries out an interview given to The Deccan Chronicle: loud defying his alpha male image and the “Here the initial Antony Moses knows he is agony of this knowledge crushes his spirit. lacking something and tries to cover up by Aaryan’s moment of realization about his over aggressiveness. The second Antony Antony is a similar one where he reacts Moses who loses his memory is more of a violently by breaking their friendship. He normal man”. (“M’Town Goes Offbeat”) accuses him of lacking in manliness and As Mathew says “cinema constructs a blames it as the reason for his violence and normative structural perspective, which criminal tendencies. The subtext of involves the concretised versions of sexual homosexuality as deviance and as the cause behaviour that are showcased and catered to of the hero’s miserable failure is subtly the mass psyche of society … and to meet conveyed to the audience. His heart the spectatorial anticipations”(28). This wrenching cry over his realization of his holds true of films like Mumbai Police as sexual preference reflects the society’s well. The binary of the heterosexual and paranoia about homosexuality. Though the homosexual Antony reveals the ideological film maker shocks the sensibility of the stance adopted by the film maker. Antony is viewer with a homosexual act visible in a a complex, fragmented person, torn by guilt shadowy opaque visual, the film maker and shame and is compelled to enact the plays on a diplomatic terrain. The tentative macho male stereotype thereby alienating adventure into the domain of homosexuality himself from his true self.His identity is to may lead others to venture into this theme be established through performance rather at a later stage. The movie falls short of any than suggestions about his sexual attempt towards breaking stereotypes and inclination. The film suggests a self analysis the narrative remains loyal to the hegemonic of a gay self from the perspective of his own ideological construct. heterosexual identity, as imagined by the My Life Partner released in 2014 employs director of the film. The violent reaction to a similar strategy in its appropriation of

52 amÀ¨v 2018 ...... queer sexuality. Though the portrayal is actor Dileep, of the mainstream cinema sensitive and with empathy, the film maker donning the role of a man confused about fails to consider homosexuality as a normal his sexual identity. His preference for a human sexual preference. Richard and feminine self invites ridicule and his Kiran are two friends who are confronted alienation from the community compels with their deep passionate relationship. him to abandon his home land and his They live together and problems crop up subsequent journey to another place with their decision to adopt a child. Richard transforms him completely. The film who is a bisexual, marries an orphan, reasserts the heteronormative tradition Pavithra and the situation is further complex proscribed by the society and the hero when a pregnant Pavitra realizes the nature returns home after having completed his of the friendship between Kiran and her period of exile when he makes a painful husband. Leela Iyer, a psychiatrist and exploration and discovery of his masculine social activist in the film, opines about the self. His identity is defined by the societal relationship: “This can’t be called real love. reactions in the film and Only an emotional bonding”. The film compartmentalization of gender identities maker emphasizes that circumstances have using classic stereotypes reveals the film played a major role in this relationship. In maker’s desperate attempt to adhere to the an interview given to The Deccan Chronicle, popular notions of conventional sexual Padmakumar, the film maker said: behaviour patterns. In a critical reading of “Homosexuality is a human behavior like the film by Prabhakaran, R and Thomas, N drinking or prostitution and has to be titled “Masculinizing Radha: The Politics of addressed …”. (“M’Town Goes Offbeat”). Representation in Chandupottu”, the writers Since cinematic narrative upholds and concluded their essay thus: “The director of normalizes heterosexuality, it plays a the movie Chandupottu who set out to be significant role in identity construction and, ‘revolutionary’ did not affect any radical by the process of Othering the homosexuals, change in the system. He assumed that the film makers accelerate this process. audience would treat the text as natural, Chandupottu (2005) and Odum Raja Adum obvious and simply there to be enjoyed. The Rani (2014) are films that delineate and unconscious patriarchy has structured the deliberate upon the polymorphous film form. Had the movie challenged this structures of sexualities and sexual autonomy of the viewers, it would have been identities. Chandupottu by Lal Jose has an politically progressive”. Unlike Chandupottu,

Since cinematic narrative upholds and normalizes heterosexuality, it plays a significant role in identity construction and, by the process of Othering the homosexuals, film makers accelerate this process. Chandupottu (2005) and Odum Raja Adum Rani (2014) are films that delineate and deliberate upon the polymorphous structures of sexualities and sexual identities.

...... MarchFebruary 2018 2018 53 Odum Raja Adum Rani directed by Biju ambiguous position when he calls the Varma dealt with the same crisis but journey of the hijra as a futile one that is a approached it with a little more subtlety and quest for an identity lost between a male compassion. The film is sympathetic to the and female self. The journey of the travails of the hero who is fragmented protagonist Vinayan to Vinutha and later to between his real and fake identities and the Manjula is punctuated by emotional and agony of occupying a hostile and insensitive physical upheavals and betrayals along with social space.The film maker used humour to the deeply rooted pangs of identity crisis take the viewer through the angst and faced due to these socially ascribed sexual dilemma of the hero caught between his statuses. homosexual identity and the demands Unlike other sexual deviancies, Hijras thrust upon him by a heterosexually are portrayed quite frequently in Indian patterned society. films, whether it is mainstream or parallel. Ardhanaari (Half-woman, 2012) by Dr This trend is not different in Malayalam Santhosh Souparnika is perhaps the only also. The reason for such an inclusion in the Malayalam film that daringly portrayed the film industry is intertwined with religion, travails of the transgender community. general cultural recognition and acceptance Though the film failed to address the core of the hijra’s existence within society. Thier conflicts and suffered from a weak cinematic presence in obvious in the Indian society framework, the attempt was a bold and and they are bestowed with special powers sympathetic one towards this marginalized to bring luck and fertility, and hence they community. The film added to the shock are given supremacy during marriage and value by casting actors known for their child birth. However with urbanisation, stereotypical masculine identities, accepted their superior role was gradually fading off by the Malayalee sensibility. The film and this community has been pushed into regresses from its progressive intentions poverty and ridicule. This has driven many when it employs stereotypical mannerisms of them into prostitution and begging. and behaviour patterns to portray the While there are a few films like Ardhanaari transgender community. Typical feminine that has portrayed the tyranny of this gestures ascribed to hijras are employed community, in most cases they have been throughout the film. Female identity shrinks conceived as a comic figure. This comes easy to motherhood and a deeply held sexual for the filmmaker as the complex layers and desire which is repeatedly through several codes of sexual and gender politics is almost visual images. The film maker assumes an negated by the slapstick gestures and

Ardhanaari (Half-woman, 2012) by Dr Santhosh Souparnika is perhaps the only Malayalam film that daringly portrayed the travails of the transgender community. Though the film failed to address the core conflicts and suffered from a weak cinematic framework, the attempt was a bold and sympathetic one towards this marginalized community.

54 amÀ¨v 2018 ...... Chanthupottu

physical appearance of hijras. Rather than woman in single scene or more, sometimes as a homosexual, they are portrayed as having no relevance with the plot . Adoor homo-social, which is a safer way of painting Bhasi, a celebrated comedian of commercial them in mainstream films. Hence, as cinema of the 1960s and 70s, has done Gopinath (290) asserts, in Indian films, innumerable drag acts in films like Cochin hijras remain as the general representation Express (1967), Taxi Car (1972), Rest House of any kind of gender and sexual deviancy. (1969) and Kalli Chellamma (1969). Many Osella and F. Osello concluded that of the leading comedians in the later decades gendering process is closely linked to sexual appeared in the guise of women, most often identity in South India, i.e. “the production in a crude and sexually provocative manner. of a normalized and naturalized compulsory Sometimes characters adopt a feminine heterosexuality is what we find to be crucial stereotype that was emulated in gestures, to successful gendering processes” (2). This body language and tone often as an offender results in stiff resistance that cuts across or comedian. Leading stars of the industry religious boundaries and queer community appeared as drags in several films – finds itself ridiculed, shunned and Mohanlal in Ayal Kadha Ezhuthukayanu marginalized. They are often presented as (1998), Jayaram in Naranathu Thampuran psychological or physical deviations from (2001) and Dileep in Mayamohini (2012). the normal and desired heterosexual Heroes established in their masculine patterns. Hence earliest representations of identity is opted here for these adventures. the world of alternate sexuality by Most of these acts were tagged on to the Malayalam cinema was extremely restricted script with no particular contribution to the and can be detected in a few scenes of cross theme or the narrative in these films. While dressing. As with hijras, drags became a cross dressing by men was casually popular comic device used by filmmakers incorporated into the script as superficial where, typical male stereotype hero dress as additions to provide laughter, cross dressing

...... March 2018 55 Harikrishnans by women was less frequent. Ammayane ‘essentialist’, ‘biological’ or ‘God-given’” Satyam (1993) by Balachandra Menon had (Mathew 26). This leads to closeting and a female hero dressed as a young boy self-confinement, resulting in trauma and adopting the mannerisms attributed to a fragmentation of the individual self. Though man by Indian society. But the film maker gender identities are performed to conform reversed the stance later in the film with to socially accepted normative patterns, it is scenes that reiterated the femininity of the perceived as the ‘normal’ and ‘natural’ female hero, thus abandoning the challenges sexual behaviour by the masses. As Butler offered by such a portrayal. posits “compulsory heterosexual identities, those ontologically consolidated phantasms Conclusion of ‘man’ and ‘woman’ are theatrically Gender identity as a cultural construct produced effects that posture as grounds, normalizes and naturalizes the process of origins, the normative measure of the real” marginalizing of everything other than (723). heterosexuality, condemning them as Malayalam cinema responded to the perverse and stigmatizing them by ridicule discursive practices on gender and sexuality or violence. As Mathew asserts for queer by portraying faithfully the unapologetic theorists, sexuality is a “complex array of stance favouring heterosexual practices. An social codes and forces, forms of individual unflinching loyalty towards the dominant activity and institutional power, which position regarding sexuality became visible interacts to shape the ideas of what is deviant in the depiction of gender relations and in any particular moment and which then sexual preferences in films for several operate under the rubric of what is ‘natural’, decades. Queer voices are silenced, due to

56 amÀ¨v 2018 ...... lack of representation or misrepresentation. extremely limited and bounded variation in Queerness remains marginalized as a line with the gendered spectators who have narrative theme for mainstream cultural already consented to the limited gender discourses. As De Lauretis observed in her roles. “Entertainment in many ways is the essay “The Technology of Gender”, though name we give to fantasies of differences …as gender construction by hegemonic much as viewers want to believe in discourses is oppressive and is based on a alternatives, the mainstream film assumes policy of exclusion and condemnation of that they also want to believe that the the other, there are also other possibilities of choices that they made…offer the best constructing gender from the margins. possible options” (Halberstam, 84). This “Posed from outside the heterosexual could be applied to the tropes adopted by contract, and inscribed in micropolitical the Malayalam films mentioned earlier. practices, these terms can also have a part in Though films like Mumbai Police, Rithu etc the construction of gender, and their effects has queer presence, thereby presenting are rather at the ‘local’ level of resistances, in alternatives, the queer characters remain subjectivity and self-representation” (719). only to conform the appropriateness of Though Malayalam cinema presents the heterosexual choice. Hence by providing a perfect platform for such counter- queer inclusive cultural texts masquerading hegemonic practices, such articulations are as a portrayal of alternative sexuality, these nearly absent in this visual media. As with films question the homosexual tropes, by other collectives of a subaltern status, lack making way for the normalisation of of film makers from among the queer heterosexual relationships. community remains a challenge. What we require is as Foucault writes in Sympathetic positions towards queerness “The Gay Science”: “… is a radical break, a are scarce when it comes to film making. change in orientation, objectives, and Muraleedharan opined thus: “The sporadic vocabulary”. (as quoted by Diana Fuss 351) sojourn to the domain of queer intimacies is While the cinematic representations of immediately reiterated in most of the queer have increased in volume, the concern Malayalam films by quick re-establishment lies with the sexual politics implicitly played of a normative order. This is generally within these texts. They speak voluminously accomplished through a reinscription of the of the cultural environment and often fail to main character into the heterosexual matrix apprehend the complex issues of identity that, in most films, constitutes the final and acceptance faced by the queer marriage of the hero and heroine” (79). community. The homophobia exhibited by As Mulvey (837-838) asserts, in classical the community and the normalizing of cinematic trajectories, the pleasure in heterosexuality is aptly mirrored in these looking is always gendered where there is films as well, notwithstanding a couple or always male and female points of more films that tread a path of resistance identification. Cinema activate as well as against the accepted sexual norms. attract certain desiring relationship and concepts, one of the most prominent of References which is the binary of masculine and Butler, Judith. “Imitation and Gender Insubordination”, feminine. Halberstam (84) has taken this Literary Theory: An Anthology , edited by Julie into more detail and claimed that gendered Rivkin and Michael Ryan, 3rd edition, Wiley Blackwell, 2017, 722-30. characters in a film play their part within an

...... March 2018 57 Dasgupta, Rohit K. “Queer Sexuality: A Cultural Poovathinkal. “Masculinizing Radha: The Politics of Narrative of India’s Historical Archive”. Rupkatha Representation in Chandupottu”. Language in India. Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities., 13:8, August 2013. http://www.languageinindia.com/ Vol.3.no.4, 2011. Kolkatta. aug2013/roshnionchandupottufinal.pdf. Accessed on De Lauretis, Teresa. “The Technology of Gender”. 10 May 2015. Literary Theory: An Anthology , edited by Julie Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky. “Between Men”. Literary Rivkin and Michael Ryan, 3rd edition, Wiley Theory: An Anthology , edited by Julie Rivkin and Blackwell, 2017, 713-21. Michael Ryan, 3rd edition, Wiley Blackwell, 2017, Devi, Shakunthala. The World of Homosexuals. New 696-712. Delhi: Skylark Publishers, 1976. Seidman, Steven. “From Identity to Queer Politics: Doty, Alexander. Making Things Perfectly Queer: Shifts in Normative Heterosexuality”. The Interpreting Mass Culture. Minneapolis: U of New Social Theory Reader: Contemporary Debates, Minnesota P, 1993. Print. edited by Steven Seidman and Geoffrey C Foucault, Michel. “The Gay Science” as quoted in Alexander. Routledge, London and New York, 2001. Diana Fuss “Theorizing Hetero- and Homo 353-60. Sexuality”. The New Social Theory Reader: Thadani, Giti. Sakhiyani: Lesbian Desire in Ancient Contemporary Debates. Eds. Steven Seidman and Modern India. London: Cassell, 1996. and Geoffrey C Alexander. London and New York: Vanitha, Ruth. Lover’s Rite: Same-sex Marriage in Routledge, 2001. 347-52. Print. India and the West. Palgrave Macmillan, Ghosh, Shohini. “The Wonderful World of Queer 2005. Cinephilia” BioScope (2010) 1:1, Sage Publications, Vanita, R and Kidwai S. Same Sex Love in India: p.17-20 Readings from Literature and History, Macmillan, Gopinath, Gayathri (2000). “Queering Bollywood: New Delhi, 2000 Alternative sexualities in Popular Indian cinemas”. Vanita, R. Gandhi’s Tiger and Sita’s Smile: Essays on Queer Asian Cinema: Shadows in the Shade, edited Gender, Sexuality and Culture, Yoda Press, New by Grossman A, Harrington Park Press, New York pp. Delhi, 2005 283-297 Halperin, David. Saint Foucault: Towards a Gay Filmography Hagiography. London: OUP, 1995. Print. Papilio Buddha. Dir. Jayan K Cherian. Kayal Films, Harvey, Nick. “India’s Transgenders: The Hijras”, New 2013. Film. Statesman, 13 May, 2008. http://www.newstatesman. Sufi ParanjaKadha. Dir. Priyanandanan. Central com/world-affairs/2008/05/hijras-indian-changing- Pictures. 2010. Film. rights, Accessed on 16 January 2016. Mumbai Police. Dir. Rosshan Andrews. Perf. Hennessy, Rosemary. Profit and Pleasure: Sexual Prithviraj, Jayasurya, Rehman. Central Pictures and Identities in Late Capitalism. Routledge, New York Tricolor Entertainments. 2013. Film. and London, 2000. Rithu. Dir. Shyamaprasad. Perf. Asif Ali. Playhouse Mathew, Anand.. Sexed Celluloid: Queering the Release. 2009. Film. Heterosexual Malayalam Cinema, English: An Autumn in London. Dir. Shyamaprasad. Owl Eye Books, 2013 Navarang Screens. 2013. Film. Mulvey, Laura. “Visual Pleasure and Narrative DeshadanakilikalKarayarilla. Dir. Padmarajan. Perf. Cinema.” Film Theory and Criticism : Introductory Shari, Karthika. Dinny Films. 1986. Film. Readings, edited by Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen, RanduPenkuttikal. Dir. Mohan. Angel Films. 1978. Oxford, New York, 1999, 833-44. Film. Muraleedharan, T. “Queer Bonds: Male Friendships Sancharam. Dir. Lijy J Pullapally. Wolfe Video. 2004. in Malayalam Cinema”. Queering India. Film. Edited by Ruth Vanitha, Routledge, Delhi, 2002. Ardhanaari. Dir. Santhosh Souparnika. MG Sound Narrain, Siddarth. Being A Eunuch. Countercurrents. and Frames Release.2012. Film. org. 14 October,2003, https://www.countercurrents. Chandupottu. Dir. Lal Jose. Perf. Dileep. Lal Release org/gen-narrain141003.htm Accessed on 13 January and PJ Entertainments. 2005.Film. 2016 Prabhakaran, Roshni and Nithya Thomas

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Printed and Published by Mahesh B, Secretary, Kerala State Chalachitra Academy, Sasthamangalam, Thiruvananthapuram, 695010. Printed at Akshara Offset, Vanchiyoor, Chief Editor: Mahesh B ...... IaÂ ]pkvXIw 1 e¡w 8 amÀ¨v 2018 50 sNbÀam³ _o\m t]mÄ sshkv sNbÀt]-gvk¬ No^v -FUn-äÀ atljv ]©p sk{I-«dn tImþ-HmÀUn-t\-änMv FUn-äÀ F³.]n k-Pojv 04 \hXn BtLmj§-Ä¡-v Xncn sXfnª-p Hm¬sse³ {]tam-j³ dnbmkv Al-½Zv Hcp ]m³ C´-y³ \mbnI amÀ¡-änMv 16 {iotZhn ]n. Achnµ-v AJnÂ, a\p. Fw D]-tZ-iI kanXn Xmccmjv{Sobw: Fw.-Sn -hm-kp-tZ-h³ \mbÀ 26 XangI¯ns³d hÀ¯am\w sI.-]n Ip-am-c³ hn-Pp hn.hn sI.Pn tPmÀPv Sn.hn N{µ³ On the Margins of Heterosexuality! tPm¬t]mÄ 40 Dr Sony Jalarajan Raj, iin-Ip-amÀ Dr. Rohini Sreekumar, AarXv KmwKÀ Dr Swapna Gopinath AcpW hmkp-tZhv cRvPn\n aPqw-ZmÀ 60 When Ghosts Come Calling Re-‘Projecting’ ]{Xm-[n-]kanXn the Disappeared Muses of Malayalam Cinema hnP-b-Irjv-W³ Darshana Sreedhar Mini, Vinu Abraham kn.Fkv sh¦n-tS-iz-c³ hn.sI tPmk^v "Úm\mw-_nI' apXÂ \oe³ 72 "\nÀ½e'hsc Pn.]n cma-N-{µ³ k®n tPmk^v kmPp tNe-§m-Sv ZoZn Zmtam-Z-c³ kPnX aT-¯nÂ 76 Úm\mw-_nI a[p P\mÀ±-\³ kRv-P-b³ jmPn F¨v \haebmf kn\nabnse `mh\m`qanIÄ IhÀ Unssk³ & t]Pv te---þHu-«v 80 apl½-Zv dm^n F³.hn in-h-{]-km-Zv _n

FUn-äÀ, Ne-¨n{X kao-£, tIcf kwØm\ Ne-¨n{X A¡m-Z-an, 90 Cine Research imkvX-aw-K-ew, Xncp-h-\-´-]pcw 695010 [email protected], teJ-I-cpsS A`n-{]mbw kÀ¡mcn-tâtXm Ne-¨n{X www.keralafilm.com A¡m-Z-an-bp-tStXm Bbn-cn-¡-W-sa-¶n-Ã. Ah-bpsS Phone: 0471-2310323, 2312214, ]qÀ® D¯-c-hm-Zn¯w teJ-IÀ¡v am{X-am-bn-cn-¡pw. Fax: +91-471-2310322 ...... We are grateful to various film websites from which we have borrowed materials to enrich this magazine. The opinions expressed herein are not necessarily of the Kerala State Chalachitra Academy or the editors