Locus: The Seton Hall Journal of Undergraduate Research

Volume 3 Article 13

October 2020

At the Hem of Government: First Ladies and Political Sociability in the Early Republic

Alexandra Wells

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Recommended Citation Wells, Alexandra (2020) "At the Hem of Government: First Ladies and Political Sociability in the Early Republic," Locus: The Seton Hall Journal of Undergraduate Research: Vol. 3 , Article 13. Available at: https://scholarship.shu.edu/locus/vol3/iss1/13 Wells: First Ladies and Political Sociability in the Early Republic

At the Hem of Government: First Ladies and Political Sociability in the Early Republic

Alexandra Wells Seton Hall University

Abstract torical figures from the Revolutionary generation gathered for a reception during the Washington From 1789 to 1817, three ladies—Martha Administration. Martha Washington stands ele- Washington, Abigail Adams, and Dolley vated on a raised platform as the central figure, her Madison—all contributed to the creation of husband George Washington standing amongst an American political culture that relied on the crowd with his arm outstretched towards his the participation of women to run smoothly. wife. His strikingly tall figure is, for once, smaller To help with the establishment of the fledging and shorter than Martha as she stands above ev- American government, the Republican Court was ery other major figure in the room. The scene is created. This social institution allowed for open full of grandeur, men and women dressed in their discussions and cordial relationships between finest and whispered discussions in every corner, politicians all under the guidance of women. The but most of the faces are turned towards the stage. topic of this paper is the evolution of the Republi- They look to Martha Washington as a leader in this can Court through four administrations and three gathering: she is the authority in the room, and this First Ladies. This paper looks at the influential is her court. John Jay, John Adams, and Alexan- political role women played in the early republic, der Hamilton serve as accent pieces in a trio to the French influence on American politics and Mrs. Washington’s right and another crowded American women, as well as the partisan back- group of men, including Thomas Jefferson, stand lash women involved in politics received and the in the back corner to her right. Other prominent importance of etiquette to political functions. Ul- members of America’s high society seem to orbit timately, this thesis examines how the Republican Martha rather than her husband. The women are at Court was integral to the search for an American the forefront of this historical painting, including political culture after the American Revolution Abigail Adams and Elizabeth Hamilton, and fre- and how the Republican Court became its most quent participants in the titular Republican Court, successful version under the command of First such as Anne Willing Bingham, Pamela Dwight Lady Dolley Payne Todd Madison. Her skills at Sedgwick, and Sophia Chew Philips. politicking and her charming personality allowed the Republican Court to become an essential and Here stands Martha Washington as a leader of settled part of American political culture in the Americans, as she began the creation of an Ameri- early republic. can set of manners and social functions that would make up the Republican Court. The court and In 1861, American painter Daniel Huntington the women who ruled it evolved over the course completed a large oil painting titled The Republi- of four administrations and these ritualized infor- can Court. It depicted sixty-four identifiable his- mal gatherings became a powerful institution of

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Figure 1. Daniel Huntington, The Republican Court (Lady Washington’s Reception Day), 1861, Oil on canvas, 66 x 109 1/16 in., Brooklyn Museum, https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/487.

American political culture. The 1861 production Elizabeth Fries Ellet, and Anne Hollingsworth of Huntington’s painting reveals the cultural im- Wharton looked back to what made the United portance of Martha Washington’s receptions, as States successful in the first place, finding an an- they were once called. This large piece was com- swer in the social life of early American capitals pleted at the beginning of the Civil War and people and the role of women in their cohesion. Gris- across the nation deeply felt the fracturing of ev- wold’s work, The Republican Court or American erything the Revolutionary generation had fought Society in the Days of Washington “proffered a to create. structure for the origins of the republic that placed primacy on feminine presence and on well-bred 1. Historiography social intercourse tempered by feminine sensibil- ity.”1 Though this work was limited to the Wash- A look back at the genteel conduct and hon- ington administration, Griswold thoroughly ex- orable figures of America’s early days was part of amined the origins of the nation and how well- the reason The Republican Court was created, as mannered conversation, led by women, could al- painters as well as historians tried to capture what low for more bipartisan cooperation that led to less exactly made the United States so unique. It was divisive government. part of a wave of nostalgia for the early repub- Elizabeth Fries Ellet in her 1869 work The lic, and around the same time this painting was Court Circles of the Republic underlined the im- completed, a trio of historians addressed the set 1David S. Shields and Fredrika J. Teute, “The Republi- of practices and manners that became the Repub- can Court and the Historiography of a Women’s Domain in lican Court. In a time of extreme uncertainty over the Public Sphere,” Journal of the Early Republic 35, no. 2 the future of the country, Rufus Wilmot Griswold, (2015): 11.

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portance of female-run spaces as, “deportment in Fredrika J. Teute, clearly defines the Republican the drawing-room was a reflex of temper in the Court. It was the gatherings of men and women Cabinet and the Senate; and styles of living and which were attended by and accessible to, “per- conversation were continually referred to as evi- sons connected with the government and their dences of political tendencies.”2 Ellet also exam- families, to distinguished strangers, and indeed to ined how women helped set political precedents all men and women whose social position entitled and standards, and how, “in spite of republican- them to a recognition in polite and cultivated soci- ism’s best efforts to segregate women from the ety.”4 The function of this Court was to “institute public sphere by privatizing their influence within a practice of polite conversation flexible enough the home, elite women continued to exert political to enable social civility around the new national influence in court circles well into the nineteenth government.”5 Shields and Teute make it clear century.”3 Ellet fully recognized the power that that the Republican Court was celebrated by the elite women held in politics, even more so than nineteenth-century historians but was very contro- Griswold, but it was Anne Wharton who high- versial from the time it debuted. This Republi- lighted the complexity of that power. can Court was attempting to establish an authority Through Colonial Doorways was written in of government in a society where the government 1893 by Anne Wharton. Her work underlined how was unstable and it was necessary to the smooth the delicate combination of a republican govern- functioning of the government. To create that au- ment and an aristocratic style found in the Re- thority the Washington Administration looked to publican Court by early American women created the power structures that they were familiar with, an atmosphere of “stately courtesy and dignity, which were those of the European aristocracy. combined with a certain simplicity” that Whar- Major authors that followed Shields and Teute ton felt had never been recaptured since. Wharton were Catherine Allgor, Susan Branson, and Rose- engaged in an early feminist history that did not marie Zagarri. Allgor focused on the impact of situate women outside of male-controlled power elite women in the politics of the early repub- structures, but instead highlighted how women op- lic in Parlor Politics: In Which the Ladies of erated within them. Her understanding, along- Washington Help Build a City and a Govern- side the works of Griswold and Ellet, initiated the ment and, more specifically, the life of Dolley study of the Republican Court for future histori- Madison as First Lady and her role in the cre- ans, though the subject took a hiatus for almost a ation of the Republican Court in the politics of century until it was reignited in the 20th century. Washington City in her work A Perfect Union: The first work to kick off the most recent Dolley Madison and the Creation of the Ameri- wave of interest in the Republican Court, “The can Nation. Susan Branson examines the influ- Republican Court and the Historiography of a ence of France on the women of the early repub- Women’s Domain in the Public Sphere,” a pa- lic, specifically in Philadelphia, and the develop- per presented in 1994 by David S. Shields and ment and evolution of the French Salon in Amer- ica in her work These Fiery Frenchified Dames: 2 Elizabeth Fries Ellet, The Court Circles of the Repub- Women and Political Culture in Early National lic: Or, the Beauties and Celebrities of the Nation, Illustrat- ing Life and Society Under Eighteen Presidents, Describing the Social Features of the Successive Administrations from 4Rufus Wilmot Griswold, The Republican Court of Washington to Grant (Philadelphia: Philadelphia Publishing American Society in the Days of Washington (New York: D. Company, 1872), 41. Appleton & Company, 1854), 165. 3Shields and Teute, “The Republican Court and the His- 5Shields and Teute, “The Republican Court and the His- toriography of a Women’s Domain in the Public Sphere,” toriography of a Women’s Domain in the Public Sphere,” 180. 172.

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Philadelphia. The partisan “backlash”, mostly were established to connect the President to other from Democratic-Republicans, against the influ- politicians and to his constituents, as well as con- ence of female politicians on the government is nect politicians to each other and create a hos- examined by Rosemarie Zagarri in her work Rev- pitable environment for brokering deals and pass- olutionary Backlash: Women and Politics in the ing laws. Government leaders needed informal Early American Republic. venues to gather support for their projects, gather “At the Hem of Government” brings together information from all over the country, gather sup- these three authors’ works, especially Allgor’s port from state representatives, and to create a work on the Republican Court and the influen- unified sense of government for the public.7 So- tial political role that women played, with Bran- cial events were a place for the high tensions of son’s stress on the French accent these practices early American politics to relax under the guid- had, and Zagarri’s emphasis on the partisan reac- ance of women. While these events served male tion against female politicians. This work exam- politicians, they were also a place for women to ines the development of the early American pub- combine the public sphere with the private and lic space called the Republican Court through the influence politics in a time when they were for- course of four administrations, three cities, and bidden from voting and holding office.8 These three First Ladies. The Republican Court was events were primarily attended by elite Amer- part of the search for identity that Americans be- icans and so they gained much criticism from gan when they became independent from England Democratic-Republican politicians who felt that and this paper will argue that Dolley Madison, the this was a step on the path to a corrupt and tyran- third First Lady of the United States, used her ex- nical government. The Republican Court never periences of politicking and her charming person- existed without constant criticism of its function ality to create a Republican Court that was, more and of the women’s involvement in politics. The than any before it, an essential and settled part origins of the Republican Court in France’s old of American political culture. To understand the regime added to Republicans claims of Federal- Republican Court, European influences (mostly ists’ monarchical tendencies and corruption. French) are examined as well as the origins of the The early American salon, the center stage of salon that the Republican Court is based on. the Republican Court, was based on the Euro- pean Enlightenment salon. Historian Susan Bran- 2. Origins: Martha Washington, Abigail son writes that it can be traced back to French Adams and Dolley Madison influences as “the American salon was a prod- uct of American culture, but not exclusively so,” The search for an American culture began as as it “owed some of its features to French influ- soon as the country declared its independence and ence as well.”9 The French did not discuss poli- the women of the Republican Court played a key part in developing how leading Americans were ation of an Iconic American Role (New York: New York going to act beyond the halls of Congress. But University Press, 2018), 70. what exactly was the Republican Court? At first, it 7David S. Shields and Fredrika J. Teute, “The Court of was Mrs. Washington’s Friday night salons, which Abigail Adams,” Journal of the Early Republic 35, no. 2 lasted from eight to ten in the evening as well as (2015): 231. 8Jeanne E. Abrams, First Ladies of the Republic: Martha George Washington’s formal Tuesday afternoon Washington, Abigail Adams, Dolley Madison, and the Cre- 6 levees and Thursday night dinners. These events ation of an Iconic American Role, 18. 9Susan Branson, These Fiery Frenchified Dames: 6Jeanne E. Abrams, First Ladies of the Republic: Martha Women and Political Culture in Early National Philadelphia Washington, Abigail Adams, Dolley Madison, and the Cre- (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001), 126.

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tics during their salons but instead gathered both sophical idea of “complementarity,” which under- men and women in a sociable way to have in- stood that “autonomous, rational beings (gendered tellectual conversations. Women were especially male) were not sufficient to the attainment of the important to these types of gatherings, as they ends they sought by nature, whether philosophi- held the position of “salonniere”,` which was a cal, social, or political.”14 Women were needed to “civilizing force” in a female-centered, mixed- temper the emotions and thoughts of men and to gender setting.10 Women wielded domestic and help guide them with a gentle hand to the enlight- harmonizing powers to keep conversations going ened and intellectual discussion that they were while multiple points of view were expressed at pursuing. And so, French women dominated the the same time. Women “were essential, not pe- position of salonniere` and that allowed them to ripheral, to this enterprise.”11 This social setting not only participate but control conversations of established a place within the private sphere that culture and education.15 By the last decade of the women were in charge of, so when the concept eighteenth century, the French salons faded during of the salon crossed the Atlantic, it “assumed a the political upheaval and violence of the French character unique to the time and place.”12 The one Revolution. aspect that set salons in the early republic apart In the United States, the salons of the Re- from their European and colonial British counter- publican Court were the same in that women parts was the intentional inclusion of political dis- were the main hosts, led intellectual conversa- cussion that salonnieres` often avoided. Because tions, and acted as a civilizing force against hot of this unique difference, women not only had ac- male tempers. However, the American salons cess to political discussions in the early republic were much more politically oriented than French but were situated at the forefront of the discussion salons. What made the American salons so politi- as they controlled the venue and conversation. cally focused versus the French salons was the so- The establishment of the federal government cial season that they followed. The social season and of the Republican Court created a new place was dictated by the months when Congress was in for women to be active in public, social, and polit- session rather than any climate or weather-related ical life. The salon, with its French origins, was calendar. The practice of the social season be- a place where “gender, politics, and society in- ing decided by Congress began in New York City tersected” and allowed women access “to public and later followed in Philadelphia and Washing- political space through the vehicle of social occa- ton, D.C. The very nature of the American salon sions for the nation’s political elite.”13 The Amer- was politically based on its members, the mem- ican salon was a political institution in a way that bers of Congress and their wives and families and the French salons were not. The French Enlight- based on the season that it occurred. enment salon was instead a place for men and women to gather and discuss culture or pursue 3. Martha Washington: A Reluctant Sa- intellectual topics. This Enlightenment era event lonniere` brought women to the forefront, as they were a The Republican Court began with Martha civilizing force in intellectual discussions. The Washington, though her Friday evening event was idea that women were not only present, but essen- scheduled before Martha had ever set foot in New tial to these gatherings, was based on the philo- 14Dena Goodman, The Republic of Letters: A Cultural 10Ibid., 126. History of the French Enlightenment (Cornell University 11Ibid., 126. Press, 1994), 4-9; quoted in Branson, These Fiery Frenchi- 12Ibid., 127. fied Dames, 126. 13Ibid., 125. 15Branson, These Fiery Frenchified Dames, 127–128.

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York City, then capital of the United States gov- ter comes when she expresses, “I think I am more ernment.16 Martha had supported her husband like a state prisoner than anything else” because George throughout the Revolutionary War, visit- “there [are] certain bounds set for me which I must ing him as often as she could and arriving in- not depart from.”21 However, Martha Washington fallibly every winter to spend time with him be- was not someone to fall into despair easily, and fore the fighting began anew in the spring, though though her daily activities and social events were the constant years of war and travel did wear her limited from what she was used to in Virginia, she down so that by the time the war with England found ways to make peace with her situation. By had ended, she was ready to settle down at Mount December of 1789 in a letter to Mercy Otis War- Vernon.17 Martha was unhappy about reentering ren, Martha expressed how she wished she and public life from the General’s wife to the Pres- George had “been left to grow old in solitude and ident’s wife and her unhappiness comes through tranquility togather”, but ultimately conceded, “I her letters. Martha was unprepared for the atten- will not, however, contemplate with too much re- tion she would have to give and how little time gret disappointments that were enevitable. . . I can- she would have to herself. In a letter to her niece, not blame him for having acted according to his Martha complained that “I have been so much ideas of duty in obaying the voice of his coun- engaged since I came here. . . I have not had one try.”22 Though Martha’s life had been turned up- half hour to myself since the day of my arrival.”18 side down ever since the colonies went to war with Martha’s entire relaxed style of living in Virginia England, she knew that her husband had made was turned upside down in New York City, as “her an honorable decision in the service of his coun- hair had to be set and dressed every day by a visit- try. Her letter to Warren shows how Martha ap- ing hairdresser, and she attended much more to her proached her life and her Republican Court. She clothes.”19 Martha was quite suddenly the host- wrote, “I am still determined to be cheerful and ess of the nation and had to help contribute to the to be happy in whatever situation I may be, for I making of an American identity through her social have also learnt from experianence that the greater events, a role that she had neither signed up for nor part of our happiness or misary depends on our was thrilled about. dispositions, and not upon our circumstances.”23 Martha’s enthusiasm about her new life was Martha’s court had been announced even before low. The First Lady felt trapped in her new role, she had arrived, it was something she did not or- quite literally, as she wrote to her niece again in ganize herself, but she found a way to adapt into October, writing, “I live a very dull life hear and the role quickly as she had years of experience as know nothing that passes in the town — I never a hostess and had the right attitude to take on the goe to the publick place. . . and as I can not doe task. as I like I am obstinate and stay at home a great She began on the day after she arrived in New 20 deal.” Her most poignant statement from this let- York City, hosting “the first of one of the many formal dinner parties. . . where primarily members 16Patricia Brady, Martha Washington: An American Life (New York: Penguin Group, 2005), 165. of Congress were hosted on a rotating basis to 17Brady, 158. ensure that men from all factions and states had 18Martha Washington to Fanny Bassett Washington, June 8, 1789, in “Worthy Partner”: The Papers of Martha Wash- ington, ed. by Joseph E. Fields, (Westport, CT: Greenwood 21Martha Washington to Fanny Basset Washington, Octo- Press, 1994), 215. ber 23, 1789, in “Worthy Partner”, ed. by Fields, 220. 19Brady, Martha Washington, 164. 22Martha Washington to Mercy Otis Warren, December 20Martha Washington to Fanny Bassett Washington, Oc- 26, 1789, in “Worthy Partner”, ed. by Fields, 223. tober 23, 1789, in “Worthy Partner”, ed. by Fields, 220. 23Ibid.

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an opportunity to interact with the president.”24 respectable person to call on the President to dis- These events were different than the ones she had cuss their issues.28 This event was an affair of hosted in the past, as they were mostly for polit- stiff formalities and protocol which lasted from ical invitees instead of friends and families. That three to four in the afternoon. George Washing- week marked the first gathering of the Republi- ton waited inside his house for visitors, with “his can Court on Friday. This also marked the begin- hair in full dress. . . yellow gloves on his hands; ning of an interconnected female network that ran holding a cocked hat with a cockade in it, and the through Martha, Abigail Adams, and other various edges adorned with a black feather about an inch wives of politicians. Alongside the events hosted deep.”29 The fine dress that Washington wore sig- by Martha were “separate dinners and drawing nified his position as a leader, as well-made and rooms. . . hosted by Abigail Adams, and lesser fashionable clothing symbolized authority. This functions. . . given by the wives of Congress or was another holdover from the days of aristocracy those who held other political posts.”25 This was and it was a way for Washington to demonstrate the start of a new system that functioned alongside that he was an authority in his new federal gov- the official federal government. Martha Washing- ernment in the best way he knew how. Tuesday ton had accepted her role as cheerfully as possible ceremonies continued as the visiting men entered and was now the leader of a group “of female elite the room and stood in a circle until the doors were social leaders who fostered the behind-the-scenes closed fifteen minutes past the hour. At this time, interactions that helped define the character of the Washington would greet each visitor and have a new style of federal government and that enhanced brief conversation with them until he had spoken more effective communication, which was so cru- with everyone and returned to his original spot. cial in those early days.”26 But this system was After Washington was finished, each man bowed entirely new, just like the federal government it to him and filed out of the room.30 accompanied, which had copied some of the aris- This formal ritual was part of the effort to cre- tocratic traditions from Europe to strengthen the ate the image of a reliable government with regu- authority of the federal government and the Pres- lar functions and a sense of authority for the pub- ident while also trying to promote the republican- lic to trust in. Establishing public times for the ism that had been fought for during the Revolu- men, even if those men were strictly higher-class tion, and Martha Washington’s Republican Court citizens, to interact with the president and have followed suit.27 a chance for their voices to be heard in this new In addition to salons, the Republican Court republican experiment was an important point for consisted of the weekly afternoon levees and creating trust. Washington needed to gather sup- evening dinners hosted by the Washingtons in port for the union he had helped to create and find New York City. Thursday dinners were for mem- a way to make congressmen and senators come to- bers of Washingtons administration, foreign dig- gether despite their regional and political differ- nitaries, and congressmen and senators who were ences. To create that sense of authority that was all carefully invited based on their region and po- so important to the fledgling federal government, litical disposition as to avoid signs of favoritism he needed help. He needed women. for any group. The dinner was by invitation only, but Tuesday levees were for any white, male, and 28Brady, Martha Washington, 165. 29William Sullivan, Familiar Letters on Public Charac- 24Abrams, First Ladies of the Republic, 69. ters, and Public Events: From the Peace of 1783, to the 25Ibid., 70. Peace of 1815 (Boston: Russell, Odiorne, and Metcalfe, 26Ibid., 70–71. 1834), 89. 27Ibid., 71. 30Ibid., 90.

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Martha’s Court copied many traits from the give it me.”37 Abigail knew that this matter of rank courts of Europe, with fine dress and sometimes was an aristocratic matter and so she asked Mary introductions required for entry. In fact, “at Smith Cranch, in a facetious tone, to keep “this first, Tuesdays and Fridays from nine to three between our selves, as all distinction you know is o’clock had been open to appropriately dressed unpopular.”38 As a Federalist, like her husband, male individuals without formal appointments.”31 Abigail mocked the exaggerated reactions against At the Friday night levee, Martha greeted incom- the Washingtons’ levees and dinners. ing visitors on a “raised seat,” which struck many Americans judged each other and their enter- Democratic-Republicans as dangerously close to tainment by European standards and the Federal- a monarchical convention, while the guests either ists understood this. Abigail Adams believed that curtseyed or bowed to Martha and briefly greeted she deserved her place next to Martha Washing- with the president.32,33 Martha did try to distance ton because of her rank as the Vice President’s her events and herself from anything too aristo- wife but knew that if her place were officially cratic, by serving simple and republican refresh- situated that Democratic-Republicans would re- ments like “Ice creems & Lemonade” as well as act. Despite the claims that aristocratic func- dressing in “simple white muslin gowns at the tions destroyed societies, “appropriating elements events she hosted” as to appear as republican a of European gentility provided a means by which figure as possible.34 Martha’s court did fall into elite families could demonstrate their elevated so- some aristocratic tendencies of rank and dress. In cial status.”39 European styles of conveying power a letter to Mary Smith Cranch, Abigail Adams de- were all that the Washingtons knew, as they were scribes a very crowded Friday night at “mrs W– both members of Virginia’s elite class and so they – s publick day”, remarking on the crowd’s ap- both struggled with the complaints from repub- pearance in “diamonds & great hoops”, though lican newspapers. Martha kept her opinions on the matter of rank is what mattered at this particu- the matter mostly to conversation and letters to lar levee.35 Abigail noted that she, as the wife of those close to her, but George anguished over the the Vice President, expects her “station. . . always public attacks more.40 In a conversation with at the right hand of Mrs W.” but some other ladies Thomas Jefferson, Washington “expressed the ex- in attendance, “through want of knowing what is treme wretchedness of his existence while in of- right” sometimes take her seat, “but on such an fice, and went lengthily into the late attacks on occasion the President never fails of Seeing that it him for levees” while explaining “how he had is relinquished for me.”36 This unofficial mistake been led into them by the persons he consulted was made enough that President Washington “re- at New York, and that if he could but know what moved Ladies Several times,” but by the time the the sense of the public was, he would most cheer- letter was written, “they have now learnt to rise & fully conform to it.”41 The Washingtons were at

37Ibid. 31Abrams, First Ladies of the Republic, 72. 38Ibid. 32Brady, Martha Washingtion, 167. 39Samantha Sing Key, “Aristocratic Pretension in Repub- 33Abrams, First Ladies of the Republic, 79. lican Ballrooms: Dance, Etiquette, and Identity in Wash- 34Abigail Adams to Mary Smith Cranch, 9 August ington City, 1804,” Early American Studies: An Interdisci- 1789 in Founders Online, http://founders.archives.gov/ plinary Journal 16, no. 3 (2018): 466. documents/Adams/04-08-02-0214. 40Shields and Teute, “The Court of Abigail Adams,” 233. 35Abigail Adams to Mary Smith Cranch, 5 January 41Thomas Jefferson’s Notes on a Conversation 1790, in Founders Online, https://founders.archives.gov/ with Washington, 7 February 1793, Founders On- documents/Adams/04-09-02-0001. line, National Archives. http://founders.archives.gov/ 36Ibid. documents/Washington/05-12-02-0071.

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a loss regarding what they should do and so they Esteem, a most becomeing plasentness simply continued their events while trying to keep sits upon her countanance, & an unaf- away from as many aristocratic pretensions as fected deportment which renders her the they could. One of the biggest defendants of the object of veneration and Respect, with Martha Washington’s Republican Court was Abi- all these feelings and Sensations I found gail Adams, whose letters often described the Fri- myself much more deeply impressed day night levees and praised both Washingtons on than I ever did before their Majesties of their style of governing. Britain.”43 Martha Washington did her duty to the Re- publican Court. She and her husband followed Abigail Adams respected both Washingtons through with what they believed to be best for their immensely and valued her place next to them, country, but Martha was not interested in the poli- as displayed in her letter about her right-hand tics of the new federal government and did not uti- seat. The month after Abigail took up her place lize the space the Republican Court created to ex- at the head of the Republican Court, she wrote ercise any sort of power through power brokering to Martha to ask for advice, writing that Martha with political appointments or writing campaigns had left the position on the good side of the like her two successors did. Martha established public and had “universal satisfaction Love es- the Court, but she was not interested in its func- teem and Respect. . . from all Ranks of persons” tions beyond helping her husband because, above and that her calm reactions to criticism, which all, Martha valued her private life and valued her Abigail describes as “the Tongue of Slander the husband’s happiness and health. pen of Calumny. . . nor the bitteness of envy have never once to my knowledge assailed any part of 4. Abigail Adams: A Politician in Writing your conduct” were admirable enough that Abi- gail wanted to be “so exemplary a Character” as Abigail Adams was a strong defender of the well.44 Her fears came through in this call for Washingtons’ Friday night levees and criticized help, as Abigail wrote that the Martha’s legacy the popular Democratic-Republican hatred of aris- “cannot fail to excite an Emulation in the Bo- tocratic practices. She wrote to her sister, saying som of your Successor, must at the Same time “faction and Antifederilism may turn every Inno- 42 fill her mind with an anxious Solicitude least she cent action to evil.” Abigail believed that the re- should fall far short of her most amiable predeces- actions to the levees by politicians like Thomas sor.”45 Abigail asked for Martha to “communicate Jefferson were overblown and she believed in the to Me those Rules which you prescribed & prac- good character of George and Martha Washing- tised upon as it respected receiving & returning ton. She described George in a letter to her sis- visits, both to strangers and citizens as it respected ter as “a singular example of modesty and dif- invitations of a publick or private nature.”46 Abi- fidence. he had a dignity which forbids Famil- gail looked to her predecessor for guidance, and iarity mixed with an easy affibility which creates Abigail’s admiration for Martha influenced her Love and Reverence” and compared Martha to the monarchs of Europe, writing, 43Abigail Adams to Mary Smith Cranch, 12 July 1789, in Founders Online, http://founders.archives.gov/ “Mrs Washington is one of those unas- documents/Adams/04-08-02-0210. suming Characters which Creat Love & 44Abigail Adams to Martha Washington, 9 February 1797, in Founders Online, http://founders.archives.gov/ 42Abigail Adams to Mary Smith Cranch, 27 July documents/Adams/04-11-02-0289. 1790, in Founders Online, http://founders.archives.gov/ 45Ibid. documents/Adams/04-09-02-0044. 46Ibid.

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style of running levees, but her own personality friends and families to contribute to and coun- and life experiences also influenced what would teract the Democratic-Republican and Federalist change for the next four years. newspaper battles. In a letter, Abigail complained The capital had moved to Philadelphia during of a one-sided newspaper printing, writing, “I see the Washington administration and so when Abi- by the Chronical that you, only have one side of gail took her place as First Lady on May 6, 1796, the Question.”51 She then enclosed with the let- she arrived at the house previously occupied by ter a print that explained her husband’s side of the the Washingtons. Born in Massachusetts, her New current foreign affair, writing simply, “make the Englander upbringing influenced her tastes to be Chronical insert it.”52 As the divided press con- more republican and so the Republican Court re- tinued to rile both sides over foreign affairs, Abi- flected her tastes. Abigail was much more in- gail took it upon herself to set records straight terested in politics than Martha, a fact known to and made use of her connections for political pur- friends and family, as Mercy Otis Warren once poses.53 She also used these connections as a wrote in letter from 1776, “I write in a very political sounding board to gain a sense of what Great Hurry or I should touch a Little on poli- the general public would think about an issue, as ticks, knowing you Love a Little seasoning of that she once sent a copy of John Adams’s speech for Nature in Every production.”47 Both women were Congress to her sister for her to share so that Abi- married to men who were, officially or not, Feder- gail and John could “learn the comments upon it, alist and so the first two First Ladies shared a sim- with a veiw to discover the Temper and sentiments ilar political leaning and they had similar feelings of the publick mind.”54 This shows twofold the ad- towards their family as “both tended to be most mirable aspects of how Abigail Adams acted as comfortable among family and were somewhat First Lady. First, she utilized her family connec- reluctant participants in the necessary sociopo- tions to help her husband’s political career and, litical whirl of the early republic.”48 They both secondly, she took it upon herself to act upon John also dressed similarly in a conservative fashion, Adams’s behalf and was earnestly invested in his though Abigail Adams had gained an appreciation policies and actions as president. While Martha of beautiful clothing and jewelry.49 Martha Wash- Washington cared deeply for her husband and his ington had spent her entire life in the colonies but wellbeing, she was never as intimately involved Abigail had traveled and experienced the Euro- in the inner workings of his political life. Her pean aristocracy in person. She was not a fan of Republican Court was about making connections courtly functions, as the formality and ceremony between people to create a smoothly functioning were exhausting and the cold attitude of royalty system for the new federal government to operate gave Abigail an appreciation for American repub- with. Abigail, without changing much, found a lican simplicity and a dislike for courts and preten- way to manage opinions using “her own consid- sions.50 The major difference between the ladies erable critical faculties, canny political instincts, was the amount of time they dedicated to politics and their pens. 51Abigail Adams to Mary Smith Cranch, 3 June 1797, in Founders Online, (University of Virginia Abigail Adams used her connections of Press), http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/04- 12-02-0088. 47Mercy Otis Warren to Abigail Adams, 7 February 52Ibid. 1776, in Founders Online, http://founders.archives.gov/ 53Shields and Teute, “The Court of Abigail Adams,” 234. documents/Adams/04-01-02-0226. 54Abigail Adams to Mary Smith Cranch, 16 May 48Abrams, First Ladies of the Republic, 76 1797, in Founders Online, (University of Virginia 49Ibid., 78. Press), http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/04- 50Shields and Teute, “The Court of Abigail Adams,” 228. 12-02-0075.

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and writing ability.”55 She expanded the role of from the rest of the family, including his wife as he the First Lady from only making connections to feared her reaction, saying “this Opinion is a Se- helping her husband improve his political career cret between you and me. – if you divulge it to any through writing. one, it will soon be known to all, and will infalli- The influence on politics that Abigail wielded bly raise a Rebellion against me.”59 John Adams was useful to her husband, but her efforts did not failed to see the irony in trying to prevent a rebel- incite a support for women’s rights in the early lion against laws that others felt were unjust, but Republic. In a letter to James Sullivan about the his opinion was common in the early republic and ever expanding eligibility of voting rights in 1776, remained unchallenged for decades. John Adams expressed his growing apprehension Abigail Adams continued the role that Martha towards voting rights, writing that “it is danger- Washington began and expanded upon its func- ous to open So fruitfull a Source of Controversy tions to help her husbands’ political career, though and Altercation, as would be opened by attempt- her efforts did not coincide with approval for fe- ing to alter the Qualifications of Voters. There will male influence in politics from her husband. The be no End to it. . . Women will demand a Vote.”56 next First Lady, after a hiatus of two terms with Adams does not simply want to exclude women Thomas Jefferson, would push the role past the because they may disagree with his politics, but standards set by Martha and Abigail into a com- because he, like many others, felt that women pletely different era for the Republican Court. were unfit to be involved in politics. The letter Dolley Madison, wife of James Madison, took on also includes Adams’s reasoning for the exclusion the role of First Lady on March 4, 1809. The of women from politics, asking “but why exclude style of dress, manners, and events that Dolley Women? You will Say, because their Delicacy would bring to the role made “Martha and Abigail renders them unfit for Practice and Experience, appear as plain sparrows alongside a peacock.”60 in the great Business of Life, and the hardy En- However, there was one administration in between terprizes of War, as well as the arduous Cares of Adams and Madison, which lacked a First Lady State.” He goes on, writing, “besides, their atten- and took a radically different approach to the so- tion is So much engaged with the necessary Nur- ciability of politics in the new capital of Washing- ture of their Children, that Nature had made them ton City. fittest for domestic Cares.”57 John Adams believed that only elite men should be able to vote, an opin- 5. Interruption: The Jefferson Administration ion that he did not flaunt in front of his wife. In a 1799 letter to his son, John Adams wrote about When Thomas Jefferson came into office on his opinion on women’s place in the family and March 4th, 1801, his first act of business was to in society, writing “there can never be any regular dismantle the Republican Court. In a letter to Government of a Nation, without a marked Subor- Nathaniel Macon, Jefferson declared what would dination of Mothers and Children to the Father.”58 be the order of business now that he had con- This opinion, however, he asked be kept a secret trol. He announced: “levees are done away.”61 55Shields and Teute, “The Court of Abigail Adams,” 235. Its destruction was first on his list, above the 56John Adams to James Sullivan, 26 May 1776, army undergoing reforms or revisions in “Agen- in Founders Online, http://founders.archives.gov/ documents/Adams/06-04-02-0091. 59Ibid. 57Ibid. 60Abrams, First Ladies of the Republic, 78. 58John Adams to Thomas Boylston Adams, 17 Octo- 61Thomas Jefferson to Nathaniel Macon, 14 May ber 1799, in Founders Online, http://founders.archives.gov/ 1801, in Founders Online, http://founders.archives.gov/ documents/Adams/99-03-02-0482. documents/Jefferson/01-34-02-0083.

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cies in every department.”62 One of Thomas Jef- the revolution, the rules of etiquette were clearly ferson’s worst fears was that the new nation he had stated and straight forward, with every social event helped create would fall into the corruption and conforming to the standards set by European mod- decadence of European monarchies. The Feder- els. After the revolution, aristocratic ranks no alist administrations of his two predecessors had longer held sway and so elite Americans looked frightened Jefferson, yet the state had “stood the for new modes of defining the aristocracy. A series waves into which she was steered with view to of events during the Jefferson administration high- sink her.”63 Now the state of ship would be put on light the issue of etiquette in the United States. “her republican tack” with Jefferson.64 What of- Anthony Merry, Britain’s representative to fended Jefferson about salons was not their French the United States, along with his wife Eliza- precedent, but their monarchical one. beth Leathes Merry arrived in Washington City While women represented a calming and civi- in 1803. Merry went to meet President Jefferson lizing force in the role of the salonniere,` they also after his arrival and was alarmed to see the state represented everything that Jefferson wanted to of undress the president was in. Merry, who had avoid in his new republican government. George followed diplomatic code and dressed accordingly Washington had once condemned “Luxury, ef- in his finest clothing, later recalled that the presi- feminacy, & corruption” in a republican nation, dent was half-dressed and, “indicated utter sloven- and Jefferson intended to make good on that liness and indifference to appearances that were promise.65 In the late eighteenth century, ef- in a state of negligence, actually studied.”68 This feminacy was “associated with luxury and self- display was not the end for Jefferson, who dur- indulgence” as well as “timidity, dependence, and ing the meeting, “proceeded to toss a down at the foppishness.”66 All virtues in a republican gov- heel slipper into the air and catch it on the point of ernment were associated with men while all vices his foot.”69 Jefferson’s staunch egalitarian repub- and weaknesses were associated with women.67 lican ideals inclined him to purposefully subvert This led to Jefferson’s banishment of austere eti- Merry’s expectations of etiquette in a show of hos- quette associated with the Republican Court, as tility even though Merry was following a code of it contained every unrepublican signifier, includ- respect. ing women and its Old World roots, though his Following this first meeting were a series of replacement for this developing system was lack- offensive events. Anthony Merry was told by Sec- luster. retary of State, James Madison, “that the rules When the United States was formed, debates of diplomatic etiquette previously followed were about whether to retain aristocratic traditions was not precedents that bound the present administra- an undercurrent in every social gathering. Before tion.”70 Following this strange first meeting was a dinner. In attendance at the dinner that, tra- 62Ibid. ditionally, would have been held in honor of the 63Thomas Jefferson to John Dickinson, 6 March Merry’s, was the French charge´ d’affaires, Louis 1801, in Founders Online, http://founders.archives.gov/ Andre´ Pichon. England and France were then documents/Jefferson/01-33-02-0156. at war and etiquette dictated that neither party 64Ibid. 65George Washington to James Warren, 7 October should attend the same event. The inclusion of 1785, in Founders Online, http://founders.archives.gov/ the French diplomat was not an accidental faux documents/Washington/04-03-02-0266. pas by Jefferson, as he invited Pichon to the din- 66Linda K. Kerber, Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America (Chapel Hill: University 68Ibid., 31–32. of North Carolina Press, 1980), 31. 69Ibid., 32. 67Ibid., 31. 70Ibid., 33.

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ner specifically and even encouraged him to cut cause Jefferson decided to flout what Anthony short his business in Baltimore to attend this din- Merry believed were the traditional and correct ner. Next, Jefferson chose to lead Dolley Madison ways to go about foreign affairs, their relationship into the dinner and sit next to her instead of Eliz- was irreparably damaged. The situation with the abeth Merry. Dolley Madison, thinking this was Merrys never improved and Jefferson kept up his a mistake, quietly whispered to Jefferson, “take haughty republican ideals to the point that, when Mrs. Merry.”71 James Madison then led Elizabeth the United States was celebrating the acquisition Merry into dinner himself, leaving Anthony Merry of territory through the Louisiana Purchase, Eliza- to search for his own seat. Jefferson and Madison beth Merry was denied access to the party because later defended their actions and created a new set she was wearing diamonds and they were deemed of etiquette rules, which they named “pele mele”. “undemocratic.” 74 Jefferson, in an effort to put republican equality The issue of etiquette in the early republic was above what he deemed monarchical etiquette, had pervasive as Louisa Catherine Adams wrote in a in fact tactfully used the rules of etiquette to insult letter to her mother-in-law, Abigail Adams, the Merry and Great Britain in his dining room rather “question [of etiquette] is not yet decided and I than the halls of government. cannot conceive how it will end” and that “some- Anthony Merry later declared the United thing must be done or society will become per- States to be openly hostile to Great Britain. Merry fectly insupportable.”75 This letter, written about wrote, complaining that the “pele mele” style of confusing etiquette in the ballroom, and its state- etiquette was “evidently from design and not from ment on the question of etiquette sum up the issues Ignorance and Awkwardness (though God knows of early American social culture that impacted all a Great deal of both matters even of Common Eti- Americans in all social events which are perfectly quette is to be seen at every Step.”72 Merry ended displayed by the events of the Merry Affair. his letter with the conclusion that “foreign min- Jefferson’s administration was a low point for isters in the United States were placed in a situa- women in politics, as they were not allowed to par- tion so degrading to the countries they represented ticipate in events at the President’s House. Jeffer- and so personally disagreeable to themselves as son’s opinions on the place of women in politics to be almost intolerable.”73 Thus began a social were not unique. The prevailing opinion of the boycott, which included the Spanish minister, and era was that the best way for women to contribute which temporarily ruined sociability in Washing- to politics was through the role of the Republican ton City, which had allowed for easier relations Mother; a woman that might contribute politically between politicians and therefore a smoother run- to the nation by serving her family and raising ning of government. them properly.76 The Republican Mother “was to The dispute between the Merrys and Jefferson encourage in her sons civic interest and participa- had no sound resolution. Anthony Merry served tion” and “educate her children and guide them out his time as British minister quietly and the in the paths of morality and virtue.”77 She had to pele mele style died out as quickly as it was in- walk a thin line however, as “she was not to tell troduced. The Merry Affair served a purpose of her male relatives for whom to vote.”78 The Re- showing the importance of cordial relations be- publican Mother differed from the “female politi- tween nations that relied on good etiquette and manners which were often led by women. Be- 74Allgor, A Perfect Union, 240. 75Ibid. 71Ibid., 34. 76Kerber, Women of the Republic, 283. 72Lester, Anthony Merry Redivivus, 36. 77Ibid. 73Ibid. 78Ibid.

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cian,” which was a term used for women in the and stated that it is the privilege of women to early republic who were increasingly involved in not be involved in politics, writing that, “you will politics. These women were different because in- preserve, from temper and inclination, the happy stead of expressing their opinions by influencing privilege of the ladies, to leave to the rougher sex, the men around them, they “voiced their own po- and to the newspapers, their party squabbles and litical opinions, made their own political choices, reproaches.”82 Jefferson did not only think that he and expressed their own political preferences.”79 was preventing women from interfering in his ad- They were independently stating their political ministration, but that he was doing the right thing views and this gained a fair amount of both deri- by keeping women away from the politics that he sion and praise from men and other women. This himself disliked, as he later stated in the letter that place for women in society did generate some de- “a thorough disgust at these had withdrawn me bate, primarily between political adversaries in from public life under an absolute determination newspapers. Federalist newspapers printed anti- to avoid whatever could disturb the tranquility of feminist literature more often than Democratic- my mind.”83 Through a belief that women truly Republicans, though neither party took a defini- had no place in the realm of politics, Jefferson tive stance on the issue.80 The Register of Salem, used the full extent of his power as president to Massachusetts noted that, keep women separate from the government. This policy ended when James Madison was elected “It is said by one of the federalist pa- president and his wife, Dolley Payne Todd Madi- pers that ‘Women have no business to son, took control of the Republican Court. speak about politicks and that a woman meddling in politicks is like a monkey 6. Dolley Madison: A Republican Queen in a China ware shop, where he can’t do any good but may do a great deal Dolley Madison truly was a peacock of a First of mischief.’ On our part we are of Lady, a woman with an outgoing personality, a a contrary opinion, we can see no rea- sparklingly modern fashion, and a keen sense of son why, with the same evidence before conversation that made her ideal for furthering po- them, they cannot judge on politicks or litical aspirations. Dolley Madison was extremely any other subject equally with men – On likable. She charmed political allies and rivals many subjects they certainly are better alike as well as foreign ambassadors. As the 81 judges.” Washingtons originally emulated the aristocratic qualities of society to demonstrate their authority, The debate was politicized, as Democratic- Dolley demonstrated personal qualities associated Republican newspapers wrote in support for with high class. She was “vivacious, quick, and women but did not act on their behalf. The Found- lively,” all qualities that “members of the upper ing Fathers’ opinions, regardless of party, were class cultivated” to distinguish themselves from mostly unanimous on the issue. Jefferson wrote to Angelica Schuyler Church on May 24th of 1797 82Thomas Jefferson to Angelica Schuyler 79Zagarri, Revolutionary Backlash, 75. Church, 24 May 1797, from Founders Online, 80Kerber, Women of the Republic, 279. http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01- 81Harriet Silvester Tapley, Salem Imprints, 1768-1825: A 29-02-0310. History of the First Fifty Years of Printing in Salem, Mas- 83Thomas Jefferson to Angelica Schuyler sachusetts, with Some Account of the Bookshops, Book- Church, 24 May 1797, from Founders Online, sellers, Bookbinders and the Private Libraries (Salem, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01- Mass.: The Essex Institute, 1927). 29-02-0310.

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the lower classes.84 Her aristocratic personality sonality was aided by her flashy fashion. gave her the respect of higher class individuals, A large part of Dolley Madison’s attractive but she did not run into as much criticism about personality lay in her appearance which meant that being unrepublican because no matter “how great clothing was an important part of her appeal. Just a person greeted her or how comparatively unim- as George Washington used clothing to symbolize portant a guest, her perfect dignity and her gently his authority during his tenure as president, Dolley 85 gracious interest were the same to all.” Dolley Madison dressed to create a persona. She wore a knew how to put people at ease in conversation turban, often with a large feather sticking out of with her innate people skills. People saw and felt the top alongside cutting edge dresses that were her sincerity and that drew them into conversa- sometimes near scandalous. Dolley commanded tion with her until she had fully charmed them. attention with clothing and set herself apart from This was the skill of a politician, as was Dol- crowds of people. At one of her own drawing ley’s ability to never forget a name and face, a rooms, “she wore a satin dress with a train sev- skill that she used often and in public to display eral yards long”, which was “rose-colored, and the 86 her good nature. — Her work in the Republican train was white velvet, lined with lavender satin, Court brought harmony when there was discord, edged with lace” alongside “a gold girdle, neck- which had been a driving function of the Court lace, and bracelet, along with a white velvet tur- ever since its inception with Martha Washington ban, festooned with white ostrich-feather tops and and especially after Jefferson’s time in which he a crown embroidered with gold thread.”89 Dolley instituted “pele mele” etiquette and dismantled wore a different outfit at every one of her draw- the Republican Court. Dolley Madison brought ing rooms because each of her dresses were so the Republican Court that Martha Washington had unique they often could not be redone for mul- started back and gave it a new life with a new tiple uses and the “Madison’s expended a great style. Dolley was an impartial patriot, and de- deal of money on Dolley’s wardrobe.”90 She also spite the fact that her husband was a founder of typically wore pearls, which were sophisticated the Democratic-Republican Party, she was able to and elegant while not straying towards the aristo- create “an atmosphere of openness toward those cratic as diamonds were perceived to be. Dolley who held divergent political views” which made created a style that was queenly and aristocratic it easier for politicians with differing opinions to while not markedly displaying aristocratic fash- 87 join in conversation together. In her actions with ions.91 When not at her Republican Court, Dol- her husband, Dolley knew when she had to soothe ley mostly dressed in plain, but fine, dresses. Her high tempers, as once James Madison and Fran- outfits were well put together but not extravagant cis Jackson, the British Minister, got into a heated in the daytime as she used them to visit or call argument until Dolley sent in refreshments includ- upon the people of Washington City. Dolley used ing punch and cake. She once also calmed an an- her clothing and appearance as part of her political gry Federalist who was arguing with her husband authority, as she dressed in both expensive cloth by inviting him to dinner, using her domestic du- as well as more modest fabrics such as muslin or ties to interrupt the men and remind them through fine linen, which allowed her to tap into the aristo- 88 her actions to remain civil. Her extroverted per- cratic tradition of power through symbolically fine clothing while also remaining a republican Amer- 84Allgor, A Perfect Union, 243. 85Ibid. 86Ibid, 246. 89Ibid., 235. 87Zagarri, Revolutionary Backlash, 133. 90Ibid., 235–36. 88Allgor, A Perfect Union, 246. 91Ibid., 240.

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ican woman.92 Mrs. Madison is a fine, portly, buxom Dolley Madison held a much different type of dame, who has a smile and a pleasant Republican Court than her predecessors. When word for everybody. Her sisters, Mrs. first announcing her Wednesday night events, Dol- Cutts and Mrs. Washington, are like the ley placed a general invite in the newspaper that two merry wives of Windsor; but as to required that guests be first introduced to Dolley Jemmy Madison—ah! poor Jemmy!— and James, but a written introduction would be ac- he is but a withered little apple-John.”95 ceptable as well. Eventually this practice became forgotten and the weekly drawing rooms were Irving perfectly captured the striking difference open to any American that wanted to attend.93 Un- between Dolley and James Madison, the former like past courts, where most guests were seated was tall and extroverted with something to say to throughout the event after formal greetings as they everyone while the latter was quiet, short, and of- entered, Dolley’s drawing room had most guests ten blended into the crowd in his black clothing. standing throughout the events with some chairs This is another key reason why Dolley Madison laid aside for weary visitors. Guests could mingle was so important to James Madison and his politi- and chat without constraint throughout the night cal career, as Dolley drew the much needed atten- with no regulations on them which allowed for tion to James in order for people to connect with unpressured and unfettered political conversation. him and his ideas. James Madison was a brilliant Private conversations could take place between politician in his own right, but he did not have the small groups of people alongside larger open con- people skills necessary to gain support like Dol- versations for politicking to take place all over the ley did. Dolley’s skills at gathering support for space Dolley Madison had created. The draw- her husband stemmed from her status as broker of ing room was also packed, with Margaret Ba- power, mostly through position in the government yard Smith describing how the event had “sel- that she could promise to political allies. James dom. . . less than two or three hundred, and gener- Madison’s position as a Democratic-Republican ally more”94 in attendance. The packed event was also aided Dolley, as she was spared much of the soon dubbed a “squeeze”, after the fact that people heated partisan criticism that had plagued both had to squeeze in and around each other to enter of her Federalist predecessors. Though her own the drawing room. The most vivid description of method of running the Republican Court aided her Dolley’s Court comes from Washington Irving, as in avoiding criticism, her husband’s place in the he described his entrance into the drawing room party that had so relentlessly criticized Martha and and opinions of the Madison’s, Abigail helped her as well. On May 14, 1815, Abigail Adams wrote to “I emerged from dirt and darkness into Dolley Madison to ask her to persuade James the blazing splendor of Mrs. Madison’s Madison to give Abigail’s grandson the posi- drawing-room. Here I was most gra- tion of “secretary of Legation, to the Mission ciously received; found a crowded col- of England.”96 She wrote, “unaccustomed to ask lection of great and little men, of ugly favours of this nature for Friends or connections old women and beautiful young ones, 95Pierre Munroe Irving, The Life and Letters of Washing- and in ten minutes was hand and glove ton Irving (Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific, 2001), with half the people in the assemblage. 263. 96Abigail Adams to Dolley Madison, 14 May 1815, in 92Ibid., 238. The Selected Letters of Dolley Payne Madison, ed. Holly 93Allgor, Parlor Politics, 76. C. Shulman and David B. Mattern (University of Virginia 94Ibid., 77. Press, n.d.), 200.

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– I have the rather addrest you Madam, than the lican Court that no longer depended on the prece- president. . . ”97 The Adams’ were staunch Fed- dents set by European courts, like Martha and Abi- eralists, while the Madison’s were Democratic- gail’s had, but that was part of the new Amer- Republicans, but still the female connection be- ican identity that found the perfect balance be- tween Abigail and Dolley allowed Abigail to ask tween aristocratic markers of power with repub- for assistance in securing a good position for her lican styles of manners and style. grandson. The female connections helped create cordial relationships with their husbands which al- 7. Conclusion lowed for easier policy making and smoother run- ning of government. Abigail’s request was not a From its inception, the Republican Court was unique one, as Dolley was often the broker be- part of the American struggle to create a stable tween women asking for positions for their male system of government that citizens could trust and family members and her husband’s decision mak- that upheld the republican values that had been ing. She could cross party lines with femininity fought for in the Revolutionary War. The role in a way that her husband could not and in that of women in male controlled political structures way her charms were invaluable for gaining sup- was not nonexistent, as the idea of public/private port. Dolley’s political power and influence at- spheres had suggested, and despite efforts by men tracted frequent comment. like Jefferson to keep women separate from poli- The Federalist candidate that ran against tics, their presence proved to be invaluable to the James Madison, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, smooth running of government. Martha Washing- complained that he “was beaten by Mr. and Mrs. ton and Abigail Adams both ran the Republican Madison,” though he may, “have had a better Court and utilized the tenets of aristocracy to sym- chance had I faced Mr. Madison alone.”98 This bolize power but underutilized the institution they Federalist statesman knew that Dolley had con- helmed by not becoming brokers of power or us- tributed to his defeat and that she had been in- ing female connections to rally support for their tegral to the success of James Madison’s cam- political causes to the extent of their successor paign. Dolley’s political influences were not in- Dolley Madison. It was not until 1809 that the Re- visible, but her personable manners and sincerity publican Court was its most successful because it towards others made it difficult for others to dis- was able to blend the aristocratic markers of power like her enough to impact her husband’s political with republican ideals to create a space where pol- career. iticking could happen without restraint under Dol- Dolley Madison took the Republican Court ley’s guidance. Through three national capitals that had been established by Martha Washington, and three First Ladies, the nation had developed slightly expanded upon in its function by Abigail an established and functional political culture, par- Adams, and temporarily retired by Thomas Jeffer- tially created by, and supported by women. son, and created a whole new type of function that Bibliography embraced every American. The lack of dress code, the open invitation to all Americans, and the open Primary Sources mingling that all made up the new Court were en- tirely new and unique. Dolley’s extroverted and Abigail Adams to Dolley Madison, 14 May open personality brought a new era of politicking 1815. The Selected Letters of Dolley Payne for the federal government. She created a Repub- Madison, ed. Holly C. Shulman and David B. 97Ibid. Mattern (Charlottesville: University of Vir- 98Abrams, First Ladies of the Republic, 218. ginia Press, n.d.), 2003.

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Abigail Adams to Martha Washing- John Adams to James Sullivan, 26 May ton, 9 February 1797. Founders 1776. Founders Online, National Archives. Online, National Archives. http://founders.archives.gov/documents/ http://founders.archives.gov/documents/ Adams/06-04-02-0091. Adams/04-11-02-0289. John Adams to Thomas Boyl- Abigail Adams to Mary Smith Cranch, 5 January ston Adams, 17 October 1799. 1790. Founders Online, National Archives. Founders Online, National Archives. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/ https://founders.archives.gov/documents/ Adams/04-09-02-0001. Adams/99-03-02-0482.

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Abigail Adams to Mary Smith Cranch, 27 July Mercy Otis Warren to Abigail Adams, 1790. Founders Online, National Archives. 7 February 1776. Founders http://founders.archives.gov/documents/ Online, National Archives. Adams/04-09-02-0044. http://founders.archives.gov/documents/ Adams/04-01-02-0226. George Washington to James Warren, 7 October 1785. Founders Online, National Archives. Thomas Jefferson to Angelica Schuyler http://founders.archives.gov/documents/ Church, 24 May 1797. Founders Washington/04-03-02-0266. Online, National Archives. http://founders.archives.gov/documents/ Huntington, Daniel. The Republican Court Jefferson/01-29-02-0310. (Lady Washington’s Reception Day). 1861. Oil on canvas, 66 x 109 1/16 in. Thomas Jefferson to Angelica Schuyler https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/ opencol- Church, 24 May 1797. Founders lection/objects/487. Online, National Archives.

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