Figuraciones Del Yo En El Cómic Contemporáneo

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Figuraciones Del Yo En El Cómic Contemporáneo Departamento de Filología Española Programa de doctorado en Teoría de la Literatura y Literatura Comparada Tesis doctoral Figuraciones del yo en el cómic contemporáneo Tesis de doctorado presentada por Alfredo Carlos Guzmán Tinajero Directora Ana Casas Janices Tutor David Roas Deus Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Catalunya 2017 Segunda parte: tipología del autocómic 225 226 4. Autocómics factuales Habiendo separado el autocómic en dos grandes categorías, pasaremos a analizar la primera de ellas: el autocómic factual, que, a su vez, dividiremos en tres tipos generales: la autobiografía, el diario y el (auto)cómic documental. A pesar de que los tres tienen como origen común la enunciación factual, veremos cómo plantean distintos proyectos discursivos que, además, conllevan determinadas formas y estructura narrativas, así como temas particulares. Por ello, sin querer diseccionar minuciosamente cada categoría, daremos cuenta de ciertos rasgos comunes que permiten diversos métodos de abordar el autocómic de acuerdo con el modelo de lectura que planteamos en los capítulos anteriores. En el primer apartado veremos cómo se manifiesta el cómic autobiográfico en un sentido más clásico, para luego dar paso al diario y, por último, al cómic documental. Esta clasificación prescinde de ofrecer una definición rigurosa de cada uno de los tipos, los cuales se presentan más bien como propuestas de lectura a partir de determinados dispositivos recurrentes. Uno de los principales argumentos para la segmentación del autocómic factual es la clase de pacto de lectura que se propone. Aunque los tres tipos que estudiaremos en este capítulo plantean una enunciación factual (que comporta un pacto referencial), el pacto de lectura se articula de un modo diferente en cada uno de ellos. Por un lado, en la autobiografía, según la entiende Lejeune (1975; 1998), el autor y su vida son el centro del relato. Por el otro, el diario plantea la transcripción de la vida del autor, pero no como una sucesión de hechos, sino como un proceso de escritura continua. Por el último, el cómic documental utiliza la 227 enunciación factual como mecanismo de verificación de la realidad, para con ello desterrar al autor, en muchas ocasiones, a un papel de mero enunciador. A continuación desarrollaremos más a fondo cada una de estas diferencias y veremos cómo el autor (y su yo-gráfico) se manifiesta de distintas formas en cada una de estas categorías. 4.1 Cómic autobiográfico Actualmente el concepto de autobiografía parece haberse diluido en la vastedad de términos que han tratado de definir las escrituras del yo. Desde la teoría literaria, donde se ha trabajado con mayor amplitud, se ha propuesto incluso su imposibilidad (De Man, 1979; Deleuze, 1993), y se ha afirmado, asimismo, que toda obra con intención autobiográfica contiene un grado de ficción (Sprinker, 1980; Eakin, 1985), o que en el acto de la escritura se instaura la ficción debido a su incapacidad mimética (Jay, 1987; Walsh, 2003). Al contrario del ámbito literario donde el debate ha sido amplio y minucioso,204 en los estudios de cómic, el término autobiografía sirve, de un modo general para referirse a todo aquellos cómics en los que el autor tiene alguna participación personal en el relato (lo que nosotros entendemos como autocómic205). Considerando lo anterior, en este apartado nos referiremos a la autobiografía como un tipo narrativo dentro del autocómic, cuya principal intención es narrar la vida del autor de forma veraz. A pesar de que hemos insistido en que el término autobiografía en el cómic ha sido utilizado de forma profusa como marca comercial (y que, por momentos, parece haber perdido su significado o haber sido utilizado de forma errónea), no es del todo equivoco si lo ubicamos dentro de nuestra tipología, en tanto que forma habitual del autocómic. La voluntad autobiográfica como el impulso de narrar la propia vida parece haber estado presente en la sociedad desde el comienzo de la escritura (Weintraub, 1978: 821). Y aunque está claro que las prácticas autobiográficas preceden al término, los académicos han establecido que las Confesiones de San Agustín son el germen de la autobiografía (Anderson, 2001: 18) como la forma de establecer un relato privado de uno mismo. De igual forma, las 204 Estas investigaciones son de muy diversa índole y en extremo extensas. Debido a que esta tesis no versa sobra de la autobiografía literaria obviaremos, por espacio y tiempo, gran parte de los estudios autobiográficos. Sin embargo, creemos necesario mencionar que para un estudio de lo autobiográfico deben de retomarse los análisis de James Olney (1972, 1976), Georges May (1979), Paul Jay (1984), Paul Eakin (1985), Georges Gusdorf (1991), Anna Caballé (1995), Ángel Loureiro (2000), Leigh Gilmore (2001), Linda Anderson (2001), Jeremy Popkin (2005) o Joser María Pozuelo (2006), entre otros. 205 Recordemos que gran parte de la conceptualización del término autocómic se origina en el debate sobre la pertinencia del término autobiografía, por lo que no profundizaremos de nueva cuenta en ello. 228 Confessions (1789) de Rousseau estaría en el inicio de lo que actualmente entendemos por autobiografía (Miraux, 1996: 26), en tanto que narración de la vida de un autor por sí mismo. A partir de entonces –y a lo largo de todo el siglo XIX–, la autobiografía cobró un impulso cultural en todo el mundo (Álvarez, 1989: 440), permitiendo que su publicación creciera exponencialmente, y situándose como una lectura común. Este auge de la escritura autobiográfica favoreció, a su vez, el resurgimiento de otros géneros afines, como los diarios, las memorias, las confesiones o las cartas, que, hasta nuestros días, continúan siendo parte del amplio catálogo de las escrituras personales e íntimas. A pesar de esta tendencia creciente por la escritura autobiográfica, ésta se ha mantenido hasta mediados del siglo XX como un objeto limítrofe de la literatura, como un apéndice personal o como pieza anecdótica personal del autor (Hubier, 2003: 41). No fue sino hasta pasada la Segunda Guerra Mundial bien cuando la humanidad dio un giro intimista, que la autobiografía asumió una posición relevante en la literatura y en la cultura. Es evidente que este giro hacia lo personal ha bebido de muchas tradiciones filosóficas. Si bien cada periodo y cultura tienen una forma distinta de acercarse a la autobiografía (Brockmeier, 2001: 247), podemos afirmar que en la segunda mitad de siglo XX la convergencia de la crisis del sujeto, el auge de las narrativas testimoniales y poscoloniales, las trasformaciones en el Psicoanálisis y el arribo de la Posmodernidad provocaron que se prestara atención a la escritura autobiográfica como un objeto-documento relevante, tanto creativo como testimonial (Smith y Watson, 2001: 104-111): “El siglo XX, por su parte, ha producido una avalancha de textos autobiográficos de una nueva índole” (Jirku y Poza, 2011: 15), como la autobiografía experimental o los testimonios de guerra, que han llevado los límites del género a lugares impensables; esto ha favorecido a su vez la aparición de la autoficción. Asimismo, la consolidación del género en el ámbito literario y comercial también ha provocado que otros medios como en el cine o el cómic comenzarán a utilizar narrativas equivalentes adaptadas a sus lenguajes.206 La revitalización y expansión creativa de la autobiografía trajo consigo una intensa actividad crítica,207 en especial a partir de mediados de los años setenta, con la publicación del seminal Le pacte autobiographique (Lejeune, 1975), en el que se asentaron las bases teóricas para el estudio del género. Éstas han sido seguidas y cuestionadas, incluso para para 206 Como en el primer capítulo, es justo recordar que el cómic no ha sido ajeno al deseo autobiográfico y que, aunque existen algunos acercamientos en los albores del medio, no fue hasta los años sesenta, en esta prosperidad de las narraciones del yo, que el cómic comenzó a preocuparse por este género de forma clara. 207 El estudio de la autobiografía tiene un largo recorrido. Aunque es verdad que los grandes avances se dan a partir de la década de los sesenta, es indispensable mencionar los trabajos de Georg Misch (1950) y K. J. Weintraub (1978b). 229 dar cabida a otros géneros literarios como la autoficción, sobre el cual regresaremos en el siguiente capítulo. Siguiendo la propuesta de Lejeune, consideramos de manera general y en primera instancia que la autobiografía es una narración factual en la que un autor cuenta su vida. En ocasiones los términos y su definición teórica son rebasados por los conceptos que éstos nombran; sin embargo, consideramos que un buen punto de partida para nuestro análisis puede ser la palabra misma. De este modo, entenderemos la autobiografía a partir de su etimología, es decir: la escritura de la vida propia por uno mismo,208 aunque la noción resulta más compleja que el análisis de la composicional de una palabra. Sin embargo, esta es la base de la explicación de Lejeune (1975, 1986, 2005), a partir principalmente de la distinción entre la autobiografía y la novela desde de elementos textuales y pragmáticos. A pesar de que Lejeune no es el único que ha presentado un modelo de análisis de la autobiografía, en esta investigación tomamos como referente sus nociones, especialmente las expuestas en Le Pacte autobiographique (1975), ya que, al combinarlas con los elementos narrativos que hemos desglosado en los capítulos anteriores, podemos delimitar de buena manera cómo opera la autobiografía en el cómic.209 Lejeune ha dado
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