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1989 UA35/11 Student Honors Research Bulletin WKU Honors Program
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This Book is brought to you for free and open access by TopSCHOLAR®. It has been accepted for inclusion in WKU Archives Records by an authorized administrator of TopSCHOLAR®. For more information, please contact [email protected]. WESTER!\; KE:o.onJCKY UHVERSITY STl' LJE:o.oT HO:o.oORS RESEARCH lIlILLET!1\( • 1988-1989
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• WESTERN KENTUCKY UN IVERSITY STUDENT HONORS RESEARCH BULLETIN I 1988-\989 t
The Western Kentucky University Student H OYlOrif Research Builet'in is dedicated to scholarly involvement and student research. These papers are representative of work done by students from throughout the university.
James T. Baker , Director University Honors Program
l /&I,'6C/ UIl P ..... 'W_I>rintina' paid from lI. te fuftd .. KRS &1 . 37~ . I !
PR EFACE
Once again as in past years the 1988- 1989 edition of the Western Kentucky University Student HOllors Bulletin demonstrates both the wide variety and practical value of research being conducted by our students. • This edition co ntains articles by twelve stud ents. under the direction of nine professors from all four of our colleges. What strikes me about this co llec tion is the interest studentsseem to be showing in local problems a nd their sol utions. No better argument can be made fo r greater fu nding of higher education than this proof that Kentucky colleges- particularly Western-are training you ng minds to address social ill s and help create a more en lightened. progressive state of the future.
My congratulations to the students and professors represented here: and I hope that their exam pl e will inspire more such wo rk in years to come. Papers for the 1989-1990 edition may be submitted before May 15, 1989. and will be respectfully considered.
James T. Baker. Director University Honors Program I TABLE OF CO NTENTS ( 1 "Fraud and Abuse by Medical Providers in Medicare a nd Medicaid, " by Vit'ky o,'cgol'U presented t.o Edward Bohlander, Sociology 330.
4 "The Effects of Personality Type and Social Support on Instances of Job Stress," by Becky F'rew, presented to M. A. Rah im. Management 417.
7 "Romanticism and Unromanticism in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight." by Sh awn Marrs presented to Joseph Glaser. English 381.
9 "Earth Sheltered Housing," by La.ura Green. presented to Joyce Rasdal\, Family Living 280. • 12 "Can the White Ash Tell? A Case Study in Dendrochronology," by LaYlie PI'ice Mason presented to Michael Trapasso . Geography 47S T.
Two Studies of Popu lar Cultu re by Students of the University Scholars Program under the direction of J ames Baker:
14 "Subliminal Messages," hi) Joe Shuffett
17 "Superman to Censorship: America's Romance with the Comic Book," by RodlleY J ones
Two Studies of Enrollment at Western Kentucky University:
20 A Comparison of Mu ltiple Regression and Quadratic Trend Forecasting Models for W.K.U. Enrollment," by J ud.y Renfrow presented to Stephen Jarrell. Economics 480.
24 ;' Rcgression Analysis of W.K.U. Fall Enroll ments," by Melissa Simpson presented to Stephen Jarrell. Economic.,> 506.
Two Problems in Elementary School Teaching Analyzed:
27 "Japanese Students in Kentucky Classrooms," by Susan Hignite presented to Dorine Geesl in , Elementary Education 507.
29 "The Mathematically Gifted Child," by MartI/a Hod1l1n presented to Dorine Geeslin, Elementary Education 505.
32 "Management's Attitude Toward Collective Bargaining," by Alan Coates presented to Lou is Ehrcke, Family Li ving 390. FRAU IJ ANI) ABUSE BY MEDI CAL PROVID ERS IN MEDICA RE AN D Mt-:DICAII) I Vicki Gregory (
When I)resident Lyndon Johnson signed into law the reported to Congress that 327 doctors and medical suppliers Medicare and Medicaid pro~rams on July 30, 1965 ,. 1i t~le were removed from the Medicare and Medicaid programs did he reali ze what a Pandora s box he had opened (GImlin, for fraudulent claims in 1984 alone. This reflects a con 1975). Medicare is a federal program that provides heahh siderab[e increase in the number of those who were barred insurance for those sixty-five and older, while Medicaid is from the programs in 1983 (New York Times. 1984a). 3. federa l and state program of health care for the poor In addition to federal allemps to curb fraud and abuse. (Gimlin. 1975). According to best estimates in 1963, the pro a majorit y of st ates have created anti-fraud units in hopes jected cost of the Medicare program alone might. reach $9 of policing what has become a pervasive malady. Convic· billion by 1990 (U.S. Congress, 1981); but that fi gure has tions were obtained in 390 cases in 1982, which represents lo ng since fa llen by the wayside. a 62 percent increase over the preceding year (U. S. News In 1984, the cost was almost $70 bill ion and it cOlllinues and World Report, 1983). to grow (New York Times, 1984b). In fact, Medicare costs According to a law enforcement official in New York slate • are ri sing at three times the inflation rate (U.S. Congress, "between 5% and 20'10 of evcry New York Mcdicaid dollar 1984) . Although inflation accounts for a sizeable portion is si phoned off by fraud and abuse." T his same official of the increase, fraud and abuse are responsible for a con reported that " In one case, fraud was so ram pant that a siderable part o f it. Specifically, in both Medicare and hospital, per se was indicted" (Modem Heallhcare, I 979a). Medicaid, fraud and abuse by medical providers is a signifi Again in New York state it was reported that [25 nursi ng cant and pervasive problem. homes had overbilled Medicaid by $8.6 million . Some o f Instances of fraud and abuse were reported to Congress these nursing home operators used innovative ways in which almost from the begi nning of the programs (U.S. Congress, to spend their illegal earnings. One bought a Rolls Royce 1981). Testimony before the House Government Operations complete with a hired chauffeur, while another used his Subcommittee in 1970 reported that the Medicare program funds to pay alimony to his ex-wife (Gimlin, 1975). Recently, had been overbilled by $27 million by doctors, hospitals and undercover agents in New York were res po nsible for the nursing homes during the first five years of its existance indict ment s of 175 pharmacists on charges o f fraudulen tl y (Gim lin, [975). Recognizing the problem and in an attempt obtai ning money from the state-some through chargi ng for to curb these abusi ve practices, Congress passed legislation brand name drugs but actually filli ng prescriptions with establishing the Office of Inspector General in 1976 (Pepin cheaper generic drugs (U.S. News and World Report. 1983). sky and Jesi[ow, 1984) and the Medicare and Medicaid Anti T he recent trend toward home health care has furnished Fraud and Abuse Am endment s in 1977 (Bromberg and ye t another area in which corrupt schemes have surfaced. Tiplit zky, 1983). It seems obvious that recognizing the prob Investigators revealed a fraudulent operation in Chicago [ern and curing it are two quite different mailers. concerning home hea lth care providers who "bilked the Emphasizi ng the scope of the fraud and abuse a report Medicare program of more than I million dollars" (U,S. from the Senate Special Comm ittee on Aging in 1981 stated News and World Report. 198 1). in parI that: In some a reas of Kentucky, doctors abuse the system by routinely admiHing surgery patients to hospitals on Satur We have fo und evidence of kickbacks, ping-ponging day, even though their operations arc not scheduled un til patients from doctor to doctor, kiting bills and other Monday (U.S. News and World Report, 1983 ). [t is doubt abuses. Virtuall y every provider of category was im ful that Kentucky stands alone in this practice. plicated .... Estimates of the loss due to fraudulent In another inst ance of fraud. a clinic in Michigan over acti vities are staggering ... . In 1977, the commiHee a two year period supposedly had perfor med 6,000 estimated $3 billion annually was being wasted or larynogoscopies for wh ich it billed Medicaid. Upon in stolen from the medicare and medicaid programs alone vestigation, the cl inic re turned $344 .000 to the state for tests (U .S. Congress, 1981). that we re never actually performed (U.S. News and World Report, 1983) . In a report to Congress the ass istant director of the FBI Si milar accounts of widespread fraudulent practices have asserted that "corruption has permeated virtuall y every area been reported in connection wi th pacemaker surgeries . oflhe med icare/ medicaid health-care industry (U.S. News Senator Lawton Chiles, in testimony before the Senate and World Report. 1981) ." To affirm the signi ficance of Special Commillee on Aging, revealed Ihat an esti mated SI fraudu lent acitvities, Richard Kusserow. the inspecto r billion per year may be paid by Medicare for unnecessary general of the department of Health and Human Services pacemaker implants. He stated that: Enough salesmen and doctors find pacemaker profits case the nursing home simply inflated each charge by ob. so alluring that medical experts estimate that as much viously rounding off figures. For example, SIO,OOO 'II. as 30 to 50 percent of all pacemaker implants may not tacked on to salaries, S5,OOO to food and S2,000 to d~Ptec:it be necessary .... The relationship is so d ose that tion. In one year alone, this nursing home blatantly over_ pacemaker salesmen are actually present in the charg~d the gov~rnmenl by S88,OOO (Modern Heallhear., operating room, assisting the surgeon, in up to 75 per 19798). cent of all pacemaker operations done in the country Varying the method of fraudulent schemes, a CalifOrnia (U.S. Congress, 1982). psychiatrist billed Medi-Cal for individual sessions bat treat~d the patients as a group. For th is inventive activilJ During further testimony before the same committee, it he was jailed (Gimlin, 1975). In anmher instance of cheatiaa was disclosed that a small ring of California doctors in col Medicaid, an orthopedic supplier in New York was indicted lusion with pharmacists and laboratories had defrauded for fal se clai ms totaling S200,OOO over a two-year period about SI.5 million from the state's Medi-Cal program (U.S. (New York Times, 1983b). A similar indictment accused.. Congress, 1981). It is important to keep in mind that this former chief of radiology at the Jersey City Medical Center was only one small ring which had been caught and which in a scheme to defraud Medicare and Medicaid for work operated over a period of only a few years. As an overall he never performed (New York Times, 1983a). picture in California, the report estimated that possibly as Another provider of medical care who was convicted of high as "a couple of hundred" million were lost to fraud Medicare fraud is Dr. Richard Kones who practiced in New in the state's Medi-Cal program alone (U.S. Congress, 1981). York and Texas. The case is of particular interest because In addition to the overall picture, there are numerous Dr. Kones was a successful cardilogist and publisher of instances of individual medical care providers committing several well received books and articles on his specialty. la fraud or otherwise abusing the system. Some of these 1977 Dr. Kones billed Medicare for over $ 1 million ia instances are remarkably innovative; others would be quite fraudulent claims. These claims involved about forty elder_ humorous if they were not so serious. Still other cases cause ly patients who were treated a few times fo r minor ailments, one to wonder at the sheer audacity of some professionals but the bills submitted to Medicare were for complex, in their attempts to cheat the programs. expensive surgical procedures and for numerous visits (U.S. For example, a Massachusetts psychologist billed the Congress, 198 1). state's Medicaid program in one month for more than 1,800 One of the more extravagant cases of fraud involved I patients whom he had not treated. For this indiscretion he podiatrist in Illinois who sent the government a bill for received a four to five year prison sentence. Along the same 513,000 for foot surgery when all he had done was trim line, a surgeon in a well-known California hospital sent toenails and remove calluses (U.S. Congress. 1981). Another Medicaid a bill for open heart surgery that he had not per instance evidencing abusive practices was the doctor who formed . Accordingly, he was convicted of grand theft (U.S. treated a patient for a broken thumb and charged the News and World Report. 1983) . government for S300 worth of blood analyses. However. this In Maryland, a dentist, apparently thinking his Medicaid pales in comparison to the gynecologist who swindled the claims would be reviewed only casually, billed the system system out of S2 million by double billing and performin, for numerous false claims-the most interesting one was for so-called abortions on women who were not pregnane a tooth extraction on a patient whose teeth had been re (Medical World News, 1980). Another exotic case of fraud moved previously. As might be expected, he was subsequent concerns a couple of psychiatrists who "were found to have ly jailed for fraud (U.S. News and World Report, 1983). been havi ng sex wit h patients and charging the goverment Another dentist, in an attempt to cheat the government, for the pleasure" (Pepinsky and Jesiiow, 1984). extracted "thirty-two impacted wisdom teeth from one Probably the most presumptuous instance of those related patient because the governOlent paid more for the removal is the case of Dr. William Greco, owner of a nursing home, of impacted teeth than it did for pulling normal teeth" who was convicted of several charges of Medicaid fraud. (Pepinsky and Jesilow, 1984). It appears that his audacity One of the most inventive of the charges for Dr. Greco's was only exceeded by his greed. bill fo r SIIO,OOO for "a transparency of a nude woman OD In Illinois, an optometrist was required to pay damages a highway." It seems Dr. Greco and a partner purchased of $2.2 million to Medicare and Medicaid for "hundreds the photo intending to reproduce it as rare an and then claim of fraudulent medical claims" (U.S. News and World a deduction for depreciation. Of course that would have Report, 198 3). Going well beyond fraud was a greedy been an accepted business practice. but charging it to ophthalmologist who could have seriously injured or killed Medicaid, as the Maryland Assistant District Attorney his patients: he was caught for performing cataract surgery General said, "was not terribly nice" (Sch reiber. 1984). "on healthy eyes because the government would pay S563 Although many of the aforementioned cases involve COD for each eye" (Pepinsky and Jesilow, 1984). siderable amounts of money, in the overall view of fraud In another example of fraud, a nursing home in Ohio was and abuse, in Medicare and Medicaid, what really is respoo found guilt y of fal se reports to Medicaid. In this particular sible for the huge losses are doctors who are " ni ckel-and-
2 · ·ng the program. '. By routinely ordering uncccssary tests patients arc the ones who bear the brunt of Ihese fraudulent du11L • d Upgrading procedures. costs arc greally mflated. Recent activities. Of course, in terms of dollars, it is the average citi zen who eventuall y pays the bill. eslia"'matcd losses due to fraud and abu. se account lor 10 per- I I of every health-care dollar paId by the government Considcring the amount of the loss, whal can be done to ~~~icare and M,edicaid programs. That t,ranslatcs into ~orc force medical providers to abide by the law? Improved t han $7 billion In losses each year (Pepmsky and Jcsllow. management. stricter controls, effective policing-aUlhese ~ 984). By anybody's yardstick, that is a staggering figure. would certainly be helpful; but until the public becomes One reason wh)' losses of this magnilUde occur is that very aware of the problem and demands corrective measures, the few safeguards were built int o the pro~rams. Ap~arently abuse will no doubt continue. It will take many more pea· f deral legislators assumed that the medical pro fessIon was pie like Mrs. Madeline Garmon of Florida, who wrote to c honorable \0 cheal. In light o f ever increasing revela- her senator revealing a Medicare ripoff by medical providers I oo . dons of professional fraud, one hopes that legislators have concerning her own pacemaker surgcry. Concluding her let · since changed their minds. Another compelling reason for ter, Mrs. Garmon slaled that her experience was "one o f the losses is simply the huge size of the programs that makes the ways Medicare is being milked, and I am incensed over them difficull to administer. Medicare now assis ts over 30 il (U.S. Congress, 1982). million AlIlericans-27 million elderly and 3 million disabled No one denies that the objectives of Medicare and (U.S. Congress , 1984). The complexi ty of the system itself Medicaid-the attempt to provide quality health care for leaves it vulnerable to abuse. Further, the government agen· the aged and needy- is a commendable goal. The problem cy created to police the system admits that they have a short· is that far 100 many medical providers have routinely, age of investigators and too much red tape (Medical World blatantly and pervasively abused the system. Perhaps what News, 1980). Many observers believe that from the begi n. is required to solve the problem is more concerned citizens ning poor management is one of Ihe major reasons for abuse like Mrs. Garmo n to become "incensed over it." of Ihe programs (U.S. News and World Repon. 1983). Reinforcing the above views, Senator Jo hn Heinz in lu:;n ;RENCES test imony before the Senate Special Commillee on Aging Bromberg. Koben S .. and Sanford v . TcplilZky stated that: 198) " Targcling Fraud/ Abuse." Hospi/als 57. No. 8:69. Gamlin. Ho)·t (cd.). Richard L. \Vorsnop and John C. Hamcr (asMX:. cds.) Frauds against the Government continue to be 1975 Editorial Research Rcpons. Washington: CongressionaIQllar/t>r lucrative and pervasive. The odds against getting Iy. Inc. caught and punished 3re extremely inviting .... T he Medical World N~tI's public purse is open and easy, the bureaucracy tOO 1980 "FlU Says Medi-fraud Attracts Even the 1o.Iob." 21, No. 18:22 . Mod~rn Heal/hcart: ponderolls and passive to pursue (U .S. Congress, 1979a " K ickba~ks Acoount for MOSt Fraud in Ho.pitals.·' 9, No. 11:32. 19811. 1979b "ChD01ic Medicaid Keporting Sy.tem Doesn'! Jus!ify Fraud, Coun Rules." 9. No. 12:73-74. The prev iously mentioned Dr. Kones adrnilted to senate New York Times investigators Ihal the system was very easy to evade. In many 1983a "Doctor Accused of Fraud." New I'ork Times (January 20): instances he si mply ran off copies of bi ll s on a duplicating II, 6, machine and submitted them for payment. Moreover, he 1983b "Orthopedic D~alcr Indictcd in Thef1." Ne,,' York Times Slated that Ihc forlllS he scnl in were "absolutely out· (AuguS! (1): 11 ,2. 19843 "Health·Care Providers Barred from Medicare." New York rageous" alld when he related his techniques to others they Times (December 2): I, 40. found it "a source of merriment." He further stated that 1984b 'Medicare Il. eview Panels Raise Doctors' Concern." Nl!w York at one time he su bmiued forms with six teen different Til'll' (December 2): I. I. "flags" or alerts on the forms bUI slill received payment Pepinsky, Harold E., and Paul Jesi low for them (U.S. Congress, 1981). 1984 My/hs Thu/ CUIISt Cri"~. Cabin John. :-'ld.: Se,·en Loch Prl:l;s. Xhreiber. Norman In addilion to consideri ng the reasons for abuse. some 1984 " Pop Photo Snapshots." POlmlar PhOlogr"phy91. No. 7:96-97. reflection should be given to who pays for these abusive United Sta!('$ Congress practices. The cost is awesome but not only in terms of 1981 SenaiC. Joint Hcoa ring beforco the Committee on Finance and the money. When doctors perform unnecessary tests and opera· Special Committee on Aging. "O"crsight of HHS Inspector lions, they expose the patient to injury or even death-IO Gconcoral' s Effort to Combat Fraud. \Vute, and Abuse." 1982 Sc:natc. Hearing beforc the Special Commiu« on Aging. "Fraud, say nothing of causing unneeded suffering. Some relevant Waste and Abuse in the Medicare Pacemak cor Industry." examples of these procedures are the aforementioned pace· Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. maker and cataract surgeries. 1984 Senatc, Hea ring before the Special Comminee on Agi ng. "The Additionall y. there arc reports of nursing home operators Crisis in Medicare: E~ptoring the Choiees." Wash ington. D.C.: who charge Medicaid for patient services which are reduced Government Printing Office. U.S. News and Wor/(! Rl!porl ~r not provided . For example. some unscrupulous opera· 1981 "Medicine and Profits- Unhealthy Mi xture? " 91. No. 7:~3. ~~~ s ~ c tuall y recycle untouched portions of patients' meals 1983 "Major Surgcrr for Ailing Medic3id Program." 95. No. 16:91. lmhn, 1975). Obviously, in these instances the THE En ' ECTS OF PERSONALITY TYPE AND SOCIAL SU PPORT ON INSTAN CES OF JOR STRESS
Becky Frew
Job stress and its relationship to both individual and illlernal locus (If control. organizational performance has become an increasingly im Hardi ness is a personali ty type that can be viewed as tbe portant area of study in recent years. Because of the general abi li ty to survive very stressful events and remain healthy. ly adverse personal and organizational outcomes of The Type A personalit y type is seen as a lifestyle or Sl ressors, and the concurrent di fficu lty of eliminat ing these behavioral responses characterized by extremes such as cOlQ. stressors from organizations, increased attention has been pctiti ve ness, pressures for advancement. intense striving ror given to the exploration of variables that mi ght moderate achievement, and aggressiveness; it has been demonstrated Ihis relationship, thus reduci ng negative health and job out to be linked wit h physical and medical symptoms of anxie comes. Among {he kinds of va riables that have been em ty, depression, and work outcomes such as job dissatisrac. pirically identified as potentially imporlant moderators of tion and job te nsion (Abush, 1984). Int ernal locus of COil the effects of job st ress, two have received considerable trol is a personality type that concerns the feeling and belter att ent ion; social su pport and pe rsonality type (Ganellen, that events may be infl uenced rather than feeling helpleu 1984). when confronted with adversity. Most research to Ihis point has co nsidered the stress Interest in on-the-job slress was recen tl y Slimu lated by reducing effects of social support and personality in research funded by the Nationallnslitule fo r Occupational dependenll y (Ganellen, 1984). However, rather than view Safe ty and Health (McGee, 1983). These researchers ar social support and personali ty types independently, it may ticulated the "buffe r hypothesis" and refined the opera.. be fr ui tful to consider their interrelations. But in other terms, tion li zation of social support . The buffer hypothesis ex plaiN might it not be that social support and personality types are int eractions between job stress and social support by pro twO sides of the same coin: Ihe interpersonal and intraper posi ng that job stress will be weakcr fo r those enjoying, sonal sides of the coin of coping resources? high degree of social su pport (McGee, 1983). The resear The purpose of this paper is to test a three-fold hypothesis chers differentiated the supervisor, co-workers. and spouse and explain the interrelationships bel ween social support , as distinct sources of support. Pinneau (1982) found I"" personality types, and job stress. The dependent va riable social support had di rect effecls on job stress reduction, tq, is job Slress and the independent variables arc social sup he concl uded that the inconsistency of the nature of the port and personality type. The first hypothesis is thaI the significant int eraction effects refuted the buffer hypothesis. presence of social support from supervisors, co-workers, and Subsequent work cast additional doubt on the notion tllll spouses will be negatively correlat ed with job stress; second job stress would have less negative effects for indi viduals ly, the presence of hardiness or internal locus of control will with high social suppon . Beehr (1983 ) studied supervisory be negati ve ly correlated with job stress, and Type A per support as a moderator of the negative outcomes of role am sonality type will be positively co rrelated with job stress; biguity, a source of job stress. Resu lts were mixed and in· thirdly, social support and certain personality types will com co nsistent. LaRocco and Jones (1983) examined supervisor bine to red uce the negative effe(tts of job stress . support and work group cooperation as moderators of the Social support has been defined in several ways. It has relationship between a composite ambiguity and job salisfae been generall y characterized as the degree of support pro tion. They found littl e su pport for the buffer hypothesis. vided to individuals, particularl y in times of need, by the but clear evidence of direct relationships between these s u~ persons in volved wi th them-spouse, family, friends. port variables and salisfaction. neighbors, supervisors, and co-workers (Genellen, 1984). Confli cti ng evidence kept the issue al ive. House and Weill These social nelworks serve multiple fu nctions in helping (1 983) found evidence for buffer effects wilh supervisor su~ one adjust 10 the demands of the environment. Involvement port, but not with co-worker support. in a network hel ps individuals by providing infonnation con However, in the last two years, considerable affirmative cerning whal is expected of Ihem. feedback regarding their evidence is mounting with regard 10 the underlying assump behavior, assistance with tasks, and rewards for appropriate lions Ihat social support from co-workers, supervisors, and behavior. spouses can reduce job stress. For instance, several reseat' Allhough the research concerning social support has in chers have reported negative associat ions between co-work« vestigated the moderali ng influences of resources available support and job stress (Davis-Sacks, 1987). Nu merOUI to the indi vidual from the surrounding environment, another studies, including some that simultaneously examined c0- line of resea rch has focused on the resources the individual worker support and job stress, have examined the assodl possesses: personality characteristics. The three types of per tion between supervisor support and job stress (E lzioAo sonalit y considered in this paper arc hardiness, Type A, and 1985). With one exception, the dala from these studies up'
4 Jd Ihe hypothesis that supervisor suppOrt is negatively & Lakey, 1982; Kobasa, 1982; Kobasa & Pueelti, 1983). ~o ocial ed with job stress . Finally, studies of male workers Sandler and Lakey ( 1982) considered the effects of locus of ~ . ~ d ' h ' . manufacturmg Ilrffi an In 01 cr occupations suggest control and social support together on job stress and con I :~~ spouse support is less likel y to affect job related rcae cluded Ihat the co-occurrence of high support and internalit y . IS ,han is supervisor or co-worker support (House. 1986). togel her buffered stress effects. Kobasa (1 982) considered ( 110~lth O U gh it is tempting 10 ge neralize IheS(' findings. House the effects o f hardiness and social support together on job (1986) warns agai nst generalizing from such findings across stress a nd obtained 110 interactions; this must, however, be OCCu pations. He concluded from his review of social sup seen in lighl of the fa ct t hat an exceptiona ll y limi ted index pOrI studies that the person who can give a worker the "most of support was used. Finall y, Ko basa a nd Puceui (1983) con ffectlve support depends o n the kind of work the worker sidered t he effects of hardiness and social support (from boss ~ ocs, and (he kind of stress it imposes" (H ollse, 1986. and spouse) together on job stress and round that social sup 713). And co-worker support may have minimal impact. PO rt from boss and spouse decreased stress effects in high P~co r ding to House (1986). on job st ress in occupations in hardiness subjects. :hiCh ilueract ions with co-workers arc limited or in occupa Thus it appears that the amount of social support . cer dons in wh ich co-workers can' t do much 10 alleviate job tain personality types, and job stress level arc all in terrelated. stresses. In facI, high socia l suppOrt and certain personality types To the extelll that overall patterns may be discerned, it have the effect of reducing job stress. is clear that job stress has been found to have a generall y Since an individual's personality type genera ll y ca nnot be un fa\orablc im pact on workers and that social support has changed, several recommendations arc offered to increase been found to have a generally fa vorable impact on workers. the amOunt of social support, thereby decreasing the level Therefore, evidence has been found for the first hypothesis. of job stress . Supervisors should watch for signs of job stress H is suggested that the inconsistency of the earlier fi nd ings and provide understanding, advice, and feedback when is a likely product o f the wide variation in t he opcrationaliza symptoms o f job stress begin 10 a ppear. Workers sho uld tion of job stress and social support varia bles and may have be encouraged to mee! with each other 10 talk through their led previous rescarchers to conclude falsely [hat Stress and problems either informally or formall y in workshops or in support do not illleract (House, 1986). leaderless suppor! groups. Since 1982 three longitudinal studies in which job stress Increasing support is 1101 the only effective way to reduce le\eJ and hardiness were varia bles have been published undesirable job stress, however. Redesigning jobs and (Kobasa, Maddi. & Kahn, 1982; Ko basa, Maddi, & Cour increasi ng the participation o f workers in organizational in gton , 1982; Ko basa & Puceni, 1983). The positi ve effect decisions may be more effective , particularly if such efforts of ha rdiness was found in all three studies; and the int erac directly address the underlying causes of job stress. tion between job stress and hardiness was significant in one anal ysis (Kobasa CI ai., 1982). The evidence suggests thaI Rrn:RF.NCI::S th e hardy personality type may function to di minish the potentiall y negative effects of job stress. Abu,h. R.E. (1984 ). Job Sl r C~i in mid·lift" "'orkers: rdaliomhip among A significa nt relat ionship between Type A personality a nd personalit)" tn ,>/: and job s tr ~s). JOimm/ of COl/lise/ill /.: Ps)·cll%XY. 3 I. job stress was fo und in a study of mid-life working people 36·44, (Abush, 1984). This suggests that the more ext reme a per Adams. 5.E. (1986). Bur nOlu: a comparative 3 n al y~is of ptnonalir), lind cm~ronr1\cmat .ariablcs. Jallnla/ ofCormsding Psych%gy. 33. tOO- tOS. ~ n 's Type A personality, the more likely he is to perceive Bcehr, LA. (1 983). Pcrcci.cd )uuluiona! modcT3cors of the relationship ten sion at work. This finding together wit h other recent belween ) lrbjt"clil'e roll' ambiguity and st rain. JO II' '' O/ of Applil'll researc h (Boggs, 1984; Highla nd, 1985; Adams, 1986) in Psychology, 67, 135-140. dicates Ihat a positive relationship exists between job stress Boggs, N .A . (1'184) . Type A-B pen.o ll ·work en l' ir omU ~' nt interaction modd and a person's Type A perso nality, for e:l.amining occupalional ) l rt'S~ and consequellccs. Jourllul of Ap· plied Psychology. 68, 491 -573. Se veral studies recently have shown a negative relation Da. is-Sads, M.l . (1987). A comparison of lh.· ~ffeClS of social slIppcm ship between internal locus of control personality type and Oil the incidence of burnout. Sociol Work, 32, 240-244. job stress. For example, Duckiu (1984) studied locus of con Duckiu. J. (1 984). Social support. [lCrsonalit)'. and th e prediction of job trol as a moderator of the negative outcomes of job stress S lr es~ _ Jmmwl of Clinical Psycholog)'. 40, 1199-1205. and found negative associations bel ween internal locus of Etlion, O. (t98S). ~' I ode ra t i ng effects of social support on lhe stress-b urnout rdations hi p. JOImwl of Applied Psychology, 70, 615-622. ~ On tr ol and level of job stress . Evidence suggests that (he Ganellcn, R.J . (1 984). H ard i n~s and socia) support as mod eTa tor~ of the l ~ternal locus o f cont rol personality type may function to cffeclS of job SITC'SS. Joufllal uf Personality oml Social Psychology, 47, dtminish the potentially negative effects of job stress. t56-163. At Ihe beginning of this pape r it was noted that most Hightand . 5.1'. (1985). Type i\ be ha"io T, perceived stress. and illness. Jour Studies considering social support as a job stress buffer have nul of Applit'{/ l's)'ch %gy, 70, 149- 159. HouSl.'. J.5. (t 9116). Wo r~ stress and social support. Jo,m,ul of 1'l')·Ch,UlfY. ~Ol also considered personali ty types a nd vice versa. This 137.71()-7 14. IS a relatively new area of research. Three studies have HOIlSl.', J .5 .. & Wells. J.A. (1983). Occupalional ~t r ess, social )upport. and recentl y appeared which have, to an extent , done so (Sandler health. Journal of Heul,1I ami Social BehUI'ior, 24, t08-1 t9 .
5 Kobua, S.C, (1982). Commilmenl and copin. in "reu rC5i"uce antOrIJ 1)9.150. lawyers. Journal of PHsolfalily lind Sociol P.JycItoIov, 42. 707·711. laRocco, J ,M., .. Jonn, A.P. (1983). Co-worktrl and kader -::::::, Kobua, S.C., Maddi, S.R., &. Courinaton, S. (1912). PmonaIity and 00ft· ftIOderaton of "l'eIHt.-.in rdacion.ttips in work situation. .... llilulion as med illlor~ in the sUes5-iIIneu relallonihip. JOfImd 0/ H81t1t Appiini Ps:tdfolov, 68, 6~ . .Itd Socii" <o~ior, 23, 36&-)78. MdJet, G. W. (191) . The inltraclion of job mess and ~ ~ Kobua, S.C., Maddi, S.R. , &. Kahn, S. (1982). Hardiness and heall:h. JOfIr. " rOAt infermcc i.~,"iaat~ . ACtKMmy 0/ Mono~e~lft Jo..a.c. ..' no/ 0/ Pn"sonollty and Social PsycltolOIY, 42, 161-177. 271·284. KobaA, S.C., &. M.C. PuCffili (19&3). Penonalily and 'lldaI rtsOUrM P;n~u, S.l . (1982). EffC'Cts of social support on stress. JOlt,."",., .... in suess · rC"Si~lan ce. Journal of Personality and Sorial Psycho/OV. 45, pikd Psydwlov. 67, 12·90.
• ROMANTICISM AND UNROMANTICISM IN SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNICHT I Shawn Marrs (
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is considered one of the Into the midst of the smooth workings of the lavish feast. 5t outstanding of English romance peoms. It not only a great green monkeywrench of a kn ight is th rown. Sud· rnantains all the elements of the tradlttona. . I romance but a Iso denly the atmosphere in the dining hal! changes from one ~o s an added dimension. The poem is dualistic in the sense of brotherhood and contentmenl to one of surprise and :at it also contains elements of humor and realism. Rather disbelief. than undermining the romantic nature of the poem, The Green Knight. tOO, is described in superlatives . But ~owevcr, these elements serve to strengthen it by providing his wonders lie not in his demeanor or his fresh cO llntenance. a fruitful contrast to its ideal features. He is described in terms of his outlandish features. Initial It is evident from the outset of the poem that it is a ly, the diners arc so amazed at his size-"from broad neck romance. The narrative begins with an expansive historical to buttocks so bulky and thick/ And his loins and his legs backdrop which relates Sir Gawain and the Green Knighf so long and so great/ Half a giant on earth (they) hold him to the broader English romantic tradition. This historical to be"6-that they fail to associate the color of his skin, prologue, which spans British history " from Camelot to clothes, and horse with the green vegetables on their plates. Troy,"! establishes an arena within which the events of the The Green Knight's manner is also a source of inc redu li narrative unfold. This is an effective strategy because, ty for those assembled in the hall. The large green intruder although it sets a romantic tone, it also lends some historical wastes no time with formalities, shunning Arthur's invita cred ibility to Sir Gawain and the rest of King Arthur's court. tion to "leap lightly down, and linger.'" The knight's The author relates the residents of Camelot to Felix brusque, grandiose attitude offers a striking contrast, to the Brutus, the legendary founder of Britain- a place where polite formality of the feast guests, as evidenced by his re "bold boys (were) bred in broils delighting/ That did ply to Anhur's offer of a fight. "Nay," he answers, "to in their day many a deed most dire. " 2 We are further in fight, in good faith, is far from my thought! There arc about formed that "of those that here built. of British Kings/ King on these benches but beardless children! . . Measured Arthur was counted most courteous of all. " J With these against mine, their might is puny."~ Instead , he wishes lines King Arthur and hi s court become firmly entrenched only to issue his challenge, have his head chopped off, and in the British romantic heritage and the mood is set for Sir leave. Gawain's adventure. The Green Knight's immense size, ridiculous hue, and Right away the poet heightens the reader's burgeoning "exaggerated buffoonery"9 in stating his challenge detract sense of romanticism through a glowing description of from the solemnity of the tone which the author initially Christmas at Camelot. The halls of the castle echo "with establishes. This type of contrast reveals and enlarges its af feasting and fellowship and carefree mirth/ For the feast firmation of romance values."lo Contrasting scenes like was in force full fifteen days/ With all the meat and mirth {his recur throughout the poem. In one episode the poet con that men could devise/ Such gaiety and glee, glorious to structs a tone of classical romantic proportions; then in the hear! Brave din by day, dancing by night! High were their next he introduces an unromantic element wh ich offset s the hearts in hall s and chambers! These lords and these ladies, lone of the preceding scene. for life was sweet! In peerless pleasure passed they their Humor, however, is not the only device against which the days.'" Their description invokes visions of dizzying author balances the romamic tone of the poem . He also in pleasure and rampant hedonism. stills in some scenes a graphic sense of realism. This is most But before the reader can catch the breath he has just ex evident in the poet's description of the harsh weather which haled in a wistful sigh, the author informs him of the perfec· Sir Gawain endures as he searches for the Green Chapel. tion of character of those gathered at Camelot. Surely "the "When the cold clear rains rushed from the clouds! And mOSt noble knights known under Christl And the loveliest froze before they could fall to the frosty earth! Near slain ladies that lived on earth ever! And he the comeliest king by the sleet he sleeps in his irons! More nights than enough, . .. King noblest famed of will . " l deserve such pleasures. among naked rocks/ Where clattering from the crest the cold With these superlative descriptions of the Arthurian court, streams ran! And hung in hard icicles high overhead."!! the author creates the ultimate romantic tone. After reading These lines relate vividly the harsh, cold medieval winters. the first two pages of the poem, the reader is prepared to The poet further enhances this realistic tone with the image enCOunter all of the elements of romantic literature and lose of "many birds unblithe upon bare twigs! That peeped most himself in a world of grandeur, pageantry, virtue, and piteously for pain of the cold."!2 In my experiencc with adventure . But JUSt when these expectations are establish English literature, this image is rivalled only by the limping ed, the author introduces a twist into the traditional plot. hares in Keats' "Eve of St. Agnes" in its realistic evocation
7 of the cruelty of winter. is merely a test of Sir Gawain's vinue-one that provaUtti The stark realism of the winter journey contrasts the no knight , however noble, is perfect . Though Sir Ga.... "mock-serious tone of Arthur's warning. " il to Sir Gawain is shamed by what he views as his failure. the Green KnIcIIr to "take care .. . that your courage wax nOt cold/ When praises him for what he has accomplished and excuse. ... you must turn again/ To your enterprise foretold. " 14 This one slight fau lt . Sir Gawain is initially embarrassed by .. warning is prompted by Anhur's sense of propriety and shortcoming, but he eventually realizes that he is now.-. patronage. The king is radiant in the glow of his gallant ler knight, having overcome his excessive pride. knight and basks in an atmosphere of romance. This may seem 10 the reader a most unfitting endina.te The poem's theme of romanticism versus unromanticism a romantic poem but fo r Sir Gawain and the Green KIIidr. culminates in the contrast between the atmosphere at the it is not. The final scene is merely an extension of the I_ castle where Sir Gawain spends Christmas and that set at which pervades the poem-that of romanticism vftll& the Green Chapel. The author's descriptions of the cast le unromanticis m. Each element of the poem is set ofr by. are as lush as those applied to Camelot at the begin ning of contrasting element and in this manner a meticulous baIIaet the poem. As Si r Gawain is ushered in, he beholds "heavy is mai ntained throughout the narrative. The larger thClDlllc silk hangings hemmed all in gold/ A canopy over the couch, contrast is created by smaller contrasts within each or ... clad all with furl Curtains running on cords, caught with characters as well as setting and tonal contrasts. The G_ gold ri ngs/ (and) Woven rugs on the walls of eastern Knight proves himself a good host during the Chri5~ work ." " As the reader drinks in the finery of this scene, celebration in spite of his treacherous intentions. Sir Ca_ he once more experiences the romantic giddiness lost dur must possess an unromantic characteristic to balance Ilk ing the winter trek . character as an ideal Knight, or the carefully planned sya. The adventure of the hunt scenes evokes romantic images metry of the poem will be disrupted. as well. In these the reader sees the brighter side of nature , as opposed to its earlier bleakness. The animals killed by REn: RENCE..'i the huntsmen provide not only food but also the opportunity ILarry D. Benson. Art a"d TraditiQ" i" Sir Ga"'ui" und Int c... for brotherhood and merriment for the members of the K"i8ht (New Brunswick: Rut,en Universi ty Press. t96$). p. 3. coun. Consequently, nature is portrayed in a positive light 2M .H . Abrams, cd. T"~ NorlOn Amholov o/EngfiJh Lftf'ru'lIrr~ by the poet as he describes the hunt. " The echoing horns York : W .W. Norton and Co .. 1986). p. 234. repeat / Clear in the merry weather ... The lord, now here, ' Abrams, p. 234. now there/ Spurs forth in sheer delight/ And drives, with ~Abram s . pp . 234-2lS. ' Abrams. p. Z3S. pleasures rare/ The day to the dark nighl. tt ' ~ Onee more . Abrams, p. Z36 . the romantic mood permeates the verse . ' Abrams, p. 239. But once Sir Gawain sets out for the Green Chapel, the ' Abrams. p. 240. tone again shifts to realism. Nature assumes its previous ~Do nald Roy Howard, Criticu/ Studies oj Sir Gu ...uin und tM Of.- fearsome countenance as he nears the Green Knight's abode. Kni8hl (London: Universil)' of NOI re Dame P rcs\, 1968). p. UiO. IIlHoward. p. IS'. "The landscape was wild ... With many a ragged rock and II Abrams. pp . 249· ZSO . rough -hewn crag/ The skies seemed scored by the scowling 12Abrams. p. 250. peaks."'7 IlHoward, p. 260. The ultimate opposition to Sir Gawain's knight ly valor, I ~ H oward , p. Z44 . which is the very embodiment of romanticism, is his em I~ Abram s, p. 252. " Abrams. p. 259. barrassment al the hands of the Green Knight. After hav ITAbrams. pp. 28()'281. ing barely drawn blood from Sir Gawain's neck, the Green Knight explains the ruse behind the challenge. The contest •
8 EARTH SHELTERED HOUSING I Laura Green t
One of the most important basic decisions made during and size chosen. These data may be obtained from reliable dulthood is the choice o f shelter. Consumers must choose sources such as cit y engineers, soil-testing firm s, and owners : 'hcther to re nl , buy. or build a home. Once Ihis decision of neighboring properties who have previously obtained has been made, consumers must then decide what fo rm of simil ar information. If the result s of the preliminary in dwelling will fit thei r personal wants and needs. Consumers vestigation are satisfactory, a detailed site investigation ust also consider affordabili ty as well as what housing should be completed before the land purchase is fina li zed ~rrn will be appropriate for the location in which they (4:25-26), choose to livc. Once si te selection is completed with a southern exposure, One form of housing that is regaining popularity in many located preferably in a mild climatic region, co nsumers can ru ral and suburban areas is earth-sheltered housing (ESH). analyze their household energy usage needs (energy demand) Prospective consumers of earth-sheltered homes have a which is to be supplied by solar heat gain . If a direct passive variety of options to consider. along with a considerable solar heating system is to function properly. adequate glaz amount of research to review . The first step consumers ing (windows) must be specified o n the south wall . These should take is to question the practicality as well as history windows should be heat transmission resistant (double o r of this type of dwelling. Consumers will find that ESH is triple paned), with exterior shading devices to control the far fro m being a modern approach to housing . Cave men amount of heat loss or heat gain . Secondly, correctly-sized and North American Indians sought shelter from weather thermal mass must also be designed, isolated from exterior and wild animals in o~njng s in the ground. The earlist winter air and ground, to sto re the heat (5 :82). A typical Europtan settlers in Norih America lacked ready-to-utilize way fo r succeSSfu ll y incorporating thermal mass storage is buildi ng materials (I :43) and chose natural earth-sheltered to utilize concrete walls and/ or fl oors. A third considera d""ellings 10 meet their immediate ho using needs. tion by consumers is utilizatio n of open room arrangement A 1979 on-site stud y and photography of Middle Eastern (open-space planning) to facilitate the imperative but natural fkduoin shepherd families reveals their centuries old prac free now of energy gained. Open space planning with few tice of moving from portable goat skin tents during hot sum interior walls typicall y limits walls to the private-rest zone. mtr days to cooler caveJike housing. Conversely, during the Finally, ensuring adequate vent ilation of air throughout the coolest winter nights these nomads found that the earth's dwelling unit is an important strategy. stable temperatures were more comfortable than that of a Another high-priority factor for consumer evaluation is lent (2). Modern consumers have chosen underground alternative construction techniques and the concomitant ~ h d te r for privacy, energy efficiency, temperature control, analysis of the structure for soundness and humidity con and various other functional, economic advantages. Earth trol. A review of relevant literature reveals that concrete shel tered housing is not new, but it is practical for the pur seems to be the preferred material for construction because pose of providing modern shelter needs. of I) its strength, 2) ease in waterproofing, 3) ready Consumers will find from a re view of literature that availability, and 4) a widespread abundance of experienced mod ern earth-sheltered homes are usually built inlo the side construction personnel (5: 109). Consumers, in this phase of of a slope wit h a southern wall exposed (3 :328). This prac their research. must plan the I) excavation process, 2) the tice ensures I} capturing heat energy from the sun during actual construction of the dwelling unit, 3) the exterior re the winter and 2) preventing excessive wind exposure and taining walls, 4) the foundation and cri tical roof loads, 5) the resultant wi nter heat loss. Summer comfort of the oc proper waterproofing and insulation, and 6) backfill pro CUpants and concomitant minimizing of heat gain can be cesses. These details must all be checked with the appropriate SUcctssful if an adequate roof overhang is employed to shade professionals in order to guarantee congruence with the re t~ south waiL These considerations are integral to the ques quirements of local building codes and to ensure physical tion of site selection. safety of the structure . . Site selection, however, is much more extensive than fin In this planning stage, consumer decision making involves ~g a hill that provides a southern exposure. Other priorities the development of a practical, functional, safe, effi cient, JlIClude I) testing the soil ty~ in order to ascertain infor and aesthetic building design . Consumers, therefore, may Illation for proper struct ural design, 2) checking the ground consider the type of interior layout and select aesthet ic "·ater conditions for select ion of appropriate waterpoofing finishes to compliment a new home. According to one ~ drainage techniques, 3) measuring typical tem~rature s source, however, "Few home-builders perceive it easy to ob rOt ~se in designing shelter for thermal comfort, and 4) tain earth-sheltered des igns that consumers find elating the topographic slope of the land to the design style psychologically easy to live in" (6: 150).
9 Earth sheltered homes that open to daylight only on the constant than that of above grade homes. Thermal unit south wall pose some limitations relevant to layout design. mity is possi ble because ground tem perature in the Urn: Bed rooms and living spaces should be located on the south States remains approximately 55 degrees Farenheit ~ side to provi de the numerous windows which must com pl y round. The exterior temperature above grade could flua"; with building codes. Thus bath, kitchen, mechanica l, and by as much as 100 degrees in one year, and by 30 deare. storage areas should be located on the north wall . If these in one day. In contrast, the most constant temperature or heat-producing areas arc placed along the cooler nort h wa ll , the earth makes for case and economy of hea ting and COol, then more even interior temperatures can be maintai ned. The ing an Underground home uniform ly (3:329). kitchen and dining spaces should be on the nOrlh wall, but In an eval uation of ES H by one popular sourCe of COD. they should have few barriers from the livi ng space if th ey sumer information, numerous advantages were Ci ted. For are to benefit from the heat absorbing wi ndow areas (4:38). example, I) there arc substantial energy savings on DOtat. To discourage the ps)'chological feeling of being held cap tial heating and cooling bills, without incorporating the_ tive , consumers may want to specify a higher ceiling than of ex pensive or unusual high technology, 2) ES H providea is used in standard practice. Using pastel hues tends to increased yard space for personal pleasu re, as well as 1) enl arge rooms as we ll as enhance appearance. Open space parklike views for occupants and neighbors. 4) The IllIII planning is useful in creat ing spacio usness as well. of earth surrounding the house deadens sounds and vibra During the planning phase, consumers often make deci tions. leavi ng ESH interiors remarkably quiet and private, sions concerning the access from the exterior and provisions 5) In comparison with co nventional housing, the fewer Q_ for ample exterior space for parking and maneuveri ng cars. \erior surfaces of ESH req uire less outside maintenance time This dedsion, therefore, leads consumers into the landscape and fi nancial outlay. 6) Interiors arc quite free of drafts IDd designi ng phase of their research. One of the main advan dust because earth sheltering minimizes air infiltration. 7-91 tages of an ES H is the opport uni ty to integrate the visual Masonry ES H are less susceptible to fire risk, rot, and ler. beauty of natural surroundings with the fu nctionalit y of the mites when contrasted with conventional wooden dwe llinp. home. Preserving as much of the natural surroundings as 10) Earth also better protects occupants from ravages oil possible can contribute to a well-blended appearance and variety of storms (hail , wind, tornados, and hurricanes) can provide a beautiful , natural view through the south fac (8:3). Finall y, I I) long li fe expectancies and 12- 13) com ing wall of wi ndows. parative protection from power outages and frozen pipeJ Other relevant issues impending on the consumer choice attracts potential occ upants. of an ESH are initial costs and financing. Initial costs, as Although the advantages of ESH appear numerous as wei with conve nt ional homes, differs according to noor plan and as significant, and although these advantages have been im arc hitectural design, site chosen, and builder employed. In portant historicall y, it is equall y important for the consumer itial costs cont rasted with conventional housing can be to evaluate the potential disadvantages of ESH. Two p0ssi higher for an ES H because of the increased st ructural sup ble disadvantages which have already been cited aTe that or port, waterproofing, earthwork , and landscaping involved. acquiring adequate fi nancing and that of fi nding a suitable However, these initial costs can be offset in the long run building site. Another disadvantage of ESH is regional by the greater operating efficiency and other energy related drawbacks due to climatic extremes (3:27-30). An ESH also advantages. has selected social and lega l constraints, which were According to one university housing special ist, " Many of previously cited in Ihe public policy paragraph. Amona the homes have been primarily owner financed. " This is due tradition-oriented consumers, earth shelters pose selected to two factors. Mone y lenders are concerned with the possi design constraints. Because an earth-shelter is usuaDy ble resale value of an ESH and appraisers cannOI appl y stan hori zontall y orient ed, it necessitates land in one di rection dard appraisal techniques to an ES H. Most appraisers are Higher initi al costs may be a problem for consumers, IhouP unfamiliar wilh th is Iy pe i1 f st ructure (7:37). these costs may even out in the long run. There is potential Other priorities that must be deliberated prior to ESH con for resale difficulty of an ESH due to the rigid housing ex struction arc public policy issues. Specific building codes pectation patterns (norms) and housi ng design conformity must be adhered to, such as those pertaining to light, ven in society. Consumers can experience difficult y finding c0n tilation for all habitable rooms, egress , and fire safety of tractors educated and ex perienced in building these homes sleeping areas . Zoning codes may prevem the building of efficiently and professionally. Finally, cost of location and an ESH in selected communities. Ins urance coverage repair of lea ks can be formidable for ESH occupants. available fo r earth shelters have been varied. Coverage Afte r examining the concepts integral to ESH and com ranges from low rates in some regions, to comparable rates paring relevant advantages with potential di sadvantages, for conventional homes in other areas, and to refusal of consumers reach the decision phase of their research. TheY coverage by some companies (4:235-236). can decide if this form of housi ng will be functional, effi In viewing the advantages of an ESH, the consumer might cient , comfortable, and sat is factory for personal / family decide that consistency of imerior temperature is at the top shelter needs. According to one reliable source of ESH c0n of the list. The interior temperature of an ESH remains more sumer information, the public is often reluctant to
10 ornpromise personal concepts of design to achieve CDst or desert of Israel and Jordan. Bowling Grec:n. Kentucky; Weslern K entud~' energy sav in gs . " It is, therefore. imperative that all four University, April. 1987 . lKicklighlcr . C!ois E, and Joan C. Kidligillcr. Reside'll/af l/orlSing, ues of design be balanced so that I) beau!y and 2) quali- ~ Soulh Holland, Illinois: The Goodheart-Wi lcox Company, Inc. 1986; pp. I 'f' '" of space not b e saeTl Ice d'In 3) cost cutting, and 4) energy 27 -30 and 328-329. IYvings" (9:424). Earth-sheltered housing is one unique way -lCarmon d~· . John E £aflh Shef/ered floujing DeSIgn. New York: Van ( ~nsume r s can resolve all four issues of design in one NOSlrand Reinhold Company, 1985; pp. 15-26. ~8: and 23S-236. ~tisfactory dwelling. T his updated housi ng form has a cen STerman. Max R. Earth Sheltered Housing "rinripll's in PrQ('/iCl'. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 19S5 : pp . 27-30. 82, and 109. to luries long hi story of success. ESH is also beginning "Combs. E. Racdcnc ... Home Bu ilders' Evaluation of Acceptabilit y of nou rish in central and southern United SlateS as a vital part Solar and Earlh-S hcltcrcd Housing Design s, " Home Economics Reseurch of a technological societ y. Today consumers can choose the Joufllul. September. 1985. VoL 14. No. I: p. ISO. ~ a rl h -s heHc red housing from an array of modern housing ' Impson. June and Loten Impson. "Earth Sheltered "\ousing: Defin forms. On balance, cost-cffeclive ESH is a viable housi ng ed. Explained, Examined ," HousingandSocil'/)'. 1984, Vol. II, No. I; p. 37, form for selection during a period when innating inilial Rollwagon. Mary "'ith Susan Taylor and T . Laf'C(' Hahhuscn. The Con housing and operating cOSts become incrcasingly crilicallu sum!!r's Guide /0 Earth Shl'l/ererlllousinll: A S/t'I,·by-Step Workbook for all America n consumcrs. Prosperli,'e O .... "ers. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. 1984: p, ] REFERENCES ~ lragcr, Richard, "COSt Effttti\'c Solar Heated Earth Stru'lI.lrcs and Earth/ Air Tunncl ~ ," Pr£>CeNii fl gs of the Fourth Nutianal Pa;ssil'e Solar lGore. Rick. "Con,Sen'ation: Can w e Li ve Bener For Less?" Na/ional Conff'rl'ncf'. Im ernati onal Solar Energy Society, U n i\'c r ~jty of Delaware. Gtolrophk. Special R!!porl. February. 1981. pp. 34-69. 1971; p. 424. !Rasdall. J o~·~. PCTMlnal inlerview rona:rning 1979 on-si ll.' obsCTvalions of housi ng praclices among Middle Eastern Bedouin~ living in the Negc\'
I I CAN THE WHITE ASH TELl? A CASE STUDY IN DENDROCHRONOLOGY
Layne Price Mason
The method of extracting information from tree rings has hypothesis: given rise to the discipline known as dendrochrono logy. It is well know that counting the number of rings in the trunk There is a correlat ion between the annual May and of a tTCe is a way of determining the age of the tree (Fril!S, June precipitation and temperature data collected and 1972). However, measuring the width of tree ri ngs may sug the correspond ing annual width of the trcc ri ngs from gest that there could have been changes in the surrounding the White Ash tree. environment that affected the growth of that particular trcc. The scicnce of dcndrochronology was used in the 1930's In the hypothesis stated, it must be noted that the annual as researchers sought relationships between tree-ri ng retords growing season for the Whi te Ash is during the months of and preci pitation with the hope of uncoverin g evidence of May and June (Winstead, Personal Communication, 1987). cyclic behavior that wo uld allow them to explain and predict This study was conducted in Bowling Green, Kentucky, droughts (Davis and Sampson 1936; Keen 1937; Antevs on Western Kent ucky University'S campus. The tree that was 1938). Si nce then a num ber of studies have evolved using used in this st udy was located nex t to the Snell Hall park. the correlation between the width of tree rings and data from ing lot (downhill from the Environmental Science and geomorphic hazards including nooding, snow avalanches, Technology building). mass movements, and permafrost heaves (Butler, Malanson, The ideal nature of Kentucky's climate is apparent in ill and Oeleske, 1985). agriculture, where production is seldom seriously limited by According to Charles F. Baes III and Samuel B. Mc weat her factors. The regular movement of low pressure Laughlin (1984), the presence of particular tree elements in systems across Kentucky during wi nter brings frequent tree rings may be a use fu l indicator for past and present air precipitation to all sections. During the summer, the showm poll ution episodes. Their st udy of an nual growth rings from which develop bring generall y ample rai nfall from June short-leaf pi ne trees in eastern Tennessee showed increas through Au gust (Hill, 1971) . ing metal concentrations since the \950's and possibly related As well as ta king into considerati on th e effect of Ken. decreases in growth during the 1970's. In samples taken from tucky's climate, two other fa ctors played an important part older trees in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, in the preparation for this research . Those factors included Oaes and McLaughlin ( 1984) were also able to see evidence the knowledge that the Snell parking lot was constructed of the effects of a copper smelter that operated between 1863 in the early 1960's (Physical Plant Employees, Personal and 19 12. Communication, 1987), and that 1980 was the year that the In a stud y done by Jacoby and Ulan (1983), there was tree was cut down (Conner, Personal Communication, 1987). a correlation between trce ri ngs and the hi story of major To complete this research, twO sets of data we re netessary. eart hquakes. In the Icy Cape in the Yakataga, a seismically The first entailed measuring the width of the tree rings in acti ve region of Alaska, they fo und that unt il 1899 most of a precise and accurate way. The other was to fi nd the cor the trccs were on the shoreli ne. During 1899, when a strong responding precipitation and temperature data. The methods quake is known to have occured, the land was uplifted, and used in finding the needed information for this study can since then the trees have li ved in a relatively protected be summed up in the fo llowing steps: environment, a condition displayed by the more rapid growt h rate revealed by the 'ri ngs (Jacoby and Ulan, 1983). Step 1: Location and Orientation or the White Ash According to Fritts (1972), it should be emphasized that A compass had been used at the si te where the White Alb not all trees are suitable for dend rochro nology. A tree that tree once stood. On the cross-section of the tree, the direc· grows in a benign climat e, always having an adequate supply tions were marked accordingly. of water and favorable temperatures, is not likely to show much variation in its annual ri ng growth. Keeping this in Step 2: Tree Preparation mind, it was the purpose of this study to examine the tree In order to make the tree rings readable, a strip aerOli ri ngs of a White Ash tree and compare its annual rings wi th the cross-section of tree was sanded. A belt sander was used the temperature and precipitation data gathered through the to perform this step. same period of time. Taking into consideration the uncertaint y that the type Step 3: Counting the Tree Rings of tree being used for th is study was appropriate, and know In this part icu lar White Ash 102 rings were counted ing that Kentucky'S climate was favorable fo r the growth However, in counti ng those rings th is researcher had to be of vegetation, this researcher formulated the following 0 11 the outlook for "false" or "double" rings. For example.
12 a trce may appear to produce more than one ring a year. Kentucky'S generally benign elimate and the uncertainty that ACc ording to Fri((s (1972), the dendroch ronologist must be the Wh ite As h was appropriate for this study made hi s alert to such possibilities. He can Spot those difficul ties by research difficult. However , after measuring the light and I e.~amiTling the si multaneous
Joey Shuffett
Americans are fascinated by the power and potential of as the process of subliminal psychodynamic activation_is subliminal perception; yet they have lillie knowledge in this utilized properly, it can be used to tap into powerful un. area and are often misled by it. The definition of subliminal conscious wishes which are shared by many adults. (Mone; is "below the threshold," yet there is no fine line fo r this 28) The statement "Mommy and I are One" can be applied threshold . The scientific definition would be "that which to stimulate and provoke several types of improvements in could be detected fifty percent of the time;" however, even a person's behavior and possibly even 10 enhance the effects thi s is relative to such factors as the stimulus in the surroun of psychotherapy. The usc of this statement has been ding area and the state of the individual receiving the documented by a number of researchers for the last twenty subliminal message. (Moore; 10) years. In one study 2,443 University of Southern Califor. What is the potential for subliminal messages? David il nia students showed modest behavioral improvements when lig, a Seatt le clinical psychologist, says, "If a person is exposed to this message subli minally. (Bower; 156) motivated, subliminal persuasion can make suggestions to Psychoanalysts explain that many adults arc motivated encourage a person so that permanent change occurs." by unconscious wishes for a state of oneness or fusion witb (Postman; 108) It is important to note here that a person another person. This rather Freudian theory implies that a must be motivated to follow the subliminal message; thus, desire for fusion or oneness begins in early childhood when a normally "sane" person could not be induced to commit the mother is experienced as comforting, protecting, and a certain act against his own will. nurturing . One temporary solution to improving the One method of subliminal perception begins by increas behavior of a person who is suffering from this lack of ing the person's perceptivity by synchronizing the brain fusion with another person would be to preserve thai per waves to a Theta wave. When a person is undergoing nor son's sense of self. This procedure is often attempted as a mal conscious act ivities such as reading and writing, he is method of psychoanalysis . (Bower; 156) in the Beta wave. If that person were to relax even further However, such subliminal messages must relate to the per he would enter the Alpha wave. The state of consciousness son receiving them in order for them to have any effect. For a person eIllers right before falling asleep is the Theta wave; example, some people are more able to relate to entries there are no barriers to thought. (Postman; 110) which begin with "you," while others relate better to those These messages are transmitted so subtly that they can beginning with " 1. " Also, a person's subconscious has a not be consciously deciphered. In audio subliminal messages, greater response in terms of depth and quickness to a voice due to the narrow range of human hearing, the messages which is similar to his own. (Moore; 110) Another example cannot be deciphered even though a small hissing noise can comes back to the statement "Mommy and I are one," be heard. (Bower; 110) When words or pictures are used, which is not effective in the South because the word " mom they are flashed so quickly that a person could not possibly ma" is more commonly used as a substitute for the wo rd recall seeing them. (Morse; 28) Nevertheless, it is easy to "mother." (Adams; 157) Another fact that supports this tell that these messages have afrected the person through theory is that women schizophrenics improved only after the use of a galvanic skin response or from the measure exposure to the words "Daddy and I arc one." (Adams; 28) ment of an EEG. (Bower; 110) One of the primary ways The creativity which is used in the application of of sending subliminal messages is by splicing a word or a subliminal messages seems endless. An example would be picture into a video. The fO<1l.age is then flashed on the screen the use of phallic symbols as well as other titilating images faster than the eye can pick it up (about 1/ 301h of a second). in the magazine advertisements which are alleged to Usually about sixteen to twenty different messages will be stimulate the viewers' unconscious sex drives. As a matter sent out during the vio;leo and will be flashed, one at a time, of fact, almost any deliberate search for these symbols and about every four seconds. images would more than likely prove successful. However, One psychologist has used subliminal techniques to change they are, under normal circumstances, toO small or tOO peoples' attitudes toward geometric pictures. He achieved vague to be consciously recognized. (Moore; 10) this by flashing a polygon on a screen for l llOOth of a One question offered by a number of psychologists to second). When people compared these polygons to different day is: What are the effects of large doses of subliminal ex polygons, they consistently chose those polygons that had posure? Consequently, these scientists are learning mote been subliminally presented to them. (Zazonc; 50) about how!O increase the amount of subliminal stimuli to One of the most curious discoveries concerning subliminal an individual. For example, stimuli presented outside a small messages has been the success of (he use of the statement, area located at the center of the subject's visual fie ld are "Mommy and I arc One." If this statement-which is known not perceived as well as stimuli flashed in the central area·
14 I is important to remember th at what is projected on a the message with bland music. These messages, which say s~reen does not necessarily ent er into a subject's visual cor· someth ing to the effect " I am honest, I will not steal" a rc te )L (Bower: 157) usuall y repeated about nine thousand times pe r hour. There I The curre nt trend in subli minal perception is behavioral arc about fifty department stores in the United Stales and ha nge. Yet accordi ng to Howard Sherrin of the University Canada which have employed this method. This method was ( ~f Michigan. the crucial point is that subli minal techniques so successful in one StOre that in nine months its theft drop· Her a way bclter to understand behavior, not to change ped 37%. saving a IO tal of S600,OOO (Time; 71) This same ~havior. Through the usc of interviews and teslS, it has been system has also been used in real estate offices to inspire determi ned that cert ain words are emotionally significant personnel , as well as with professional athletes who are given to individuals see king treatment for grief reactions or subliminal pep talks. (Postman; I 10) phO bias. Also the subliminal presentation of an appropriate Currently the fastest growing area in the subliminal/sel f· "'ord or sym bol to a subject supposedly results in a speci fi c hypnosis field has been the use of audio lapes. These audio brain wave pattern. (Bower; 158) tapes address such topics as busi ness success. emotional and A message that has an effect on schizophrenics is " Lion physical health, and sex. They se ll for about fifteen dollars DestroyS Man. " Th is seemingly irrelevant statement has the bUI must be mixed wit h a decoder that costs over $150. effect of increasi ng th e sy mptoms invo lved with (Harpers; 22) Th is decoder, or " black bo,x" as it is also schizoph renics. (Bower; 156) A number of other messages known, was created by Hal Becker, and is a sound mixer which have been " proved" to sti r conflict, such as " Destroy (like those used by D.J .s) wh ich layers bland music with Mother." (Adams, 28) Aggressive messages such as "Pco· subliminal messages appropriate to the problem. (Postman; pIe Arguing" has been shown to cause depressed young 11 0) adultS to become even more depressed. (Adams; 30) The three tapes which have been the biggest se llers for An interesting aspect of sublimin al perception is that it the Metacom Company are " Lose Weight," "Stop Smok· continuously correlates very strongly with Freudian ing," and " Relieve Stress and Anxiety." It is int eresting to ideology. To prove this, psychologists took the idea that anal note that sevent y perce nt of these tapes have been sold to conflicts sometimes playa vital role in stuttering and decided women. (Postman; IIO) Sales continue to increase. B. to tes t that theory with the use of subliminal messages. The DallO n bookstores re ports Ihal approximately th irty to pS}'chologist did this by showing subliminal sli des of dogs th irt y· fi ve percent of its spoken word audio sales fall into defecating to chronic stutters and as a result their stulter· the subliminal persuasioniseJf·hypnosis category, and this ing grew increasingly worse. (Adams; 30) I success has been achi eved wit h almost no advertising. Another example of the relationshi p betwee n Freudian Therefore the taboo on lett ing the pub lic know that its sub idology and the subli mi nal perception was st udied during conscious can be stroked is long gone, thanks to the a dart tournament. Placed on the dart boards used in this subliminal persuasion/ sc1 f·hypnosis market. (Postman; 108) tournament werer such subliminal messages as " Beating Dad Subliminal perception has progressed a long way from is Wrong" and " Beating Dad is O.K." As expected, the 1957 when a tu b of bunery popcorn and a sweat ing cup of results of the tournament showed that when the message Coca Cola were projected during the previews of a movie "Beating Dad is O.K." was used, th e scores were substan· theater. (Postman; IDS ) Even then the potential seemed ti all y highe r than when the message " Beating Dad is outstanding, as popcorn sales supposedly increased by Wrong" was used . When the psych ologist used the term, 57.5'70, and Coke sales increased by IS%. (Morse; IS) Ex· "Mommy and I arc One" in the dart tournamen t, the scores periments such as fl ashing the word "blood" subliminall y imp roved significantly. (Adams; 32) during a 1950's picture, or showing images of a death mask In light of all this information and all these experi ments, during the movie "The Exorcist" were intended to increase it is hard to believe that markets have not been fl ooded with the amount of tension in viewers. (Time; 71) Yet the Subliminal merchandise. Al though it is a growing field, the main question that ari ses is : How do we know that these market fo r sublimi nal messages is still relatively small. One fi ndings are valid? For ins tance, how do we know Ihat Coke of the more interesting ways in which subliminal messages sales did not increase in 1957 because it was a very hot sum· have been used. according to newspapers, is by inserting mer night? Very few of these tesls have been scienti fically messages into music played in retail stores to get people to va lidated; and as a matter of fac t, some tests, such as the buy the merchandise, in essence sending out secret messages Iowa State Uni versity test of the subli mi nal impact on weight that attack the shopper's brain. (Buchwald ; 22) Recentl y, loss, are believed 10 have fai led altoget her. (Postman; l1 4) a television co mmercial ad vert ising childrens' toys contain· Recognizin g thaI there has been no scientific documen· ed the message " Get It" subliminall y. The FCC banned it s tat ion proving that sub li minal messages ca n effectively use. (Time; 71) The national telev ision networks have now change behavior (Moore; 10). and that many researchers barred the use of subli minal techniques in advertising. have not been able to repl icate ma ny of the fi ndings that (Zazonc; 50) have been clai med by others (Adams; 34), it is important Retail Slores have also gotten into the act by playi ng that we not get carried away with the potential of subliminal subliminal messages to their customers by incorporating mesages. It is import ant , however, that we not abandon the
15 research into sublim inal messages. The best avenue that "I like Ha rpers." Harpers. 274:22, January. 1987. could be ta ken would be to co ntinue to study and test the Moore, T .E. ··Subliminal Delusion." Psychology Today. 19: 10-11. july. pOiential and effects of subliminal messages for the greater 1985 . Morse. R.C. and SlOller. D. " The Hidden i\'icssagc that Breaks Habits." use of our society. Scien~ Digut. 90:28, September. 1982. POStman, A . " Mu rmurs of SU~C$s." Publishers Weekly. 280:108 +, 818UOGRA.PIIY September 19. 1986. "Secret Voices: Messages thaI Manipulate." Time. 114:71, September 10, Adams. V. "Mommy and I arc One." Psychology Today. 16:24-5 +. May. 1979. 1982. Zazonc, Robert B. "Persuasion in a Flash." Psychology Today. 20:50. Bo .... er. B. "Subliminal Mcssaaes: Chanlcs for the Bener?" Science News. February, 1986. 129:156-8. Ma rch 8. 1986. Buch .... ald. Art "Subliminal Shopping." Saturday Evening Post. 258:22. December, 1986.
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16 SU PERMAN TO C ENSORSHIP: AMERICA 'S ROMANCE WITH TH E COMIC HOOK I
Rodney Jones (
When someone mentions the word "comic book," visions Tarzan and Buck Rogers. They began to create comics of of Superheroes and Supervillains come to mind. Most peo their own; Siegel would write and Shuster would illustrate. ple thi nk that they are jusl for kids. Some believe that they One o f thei r ideas for a comic st rip was a man that possess· corrupt the young, while OIhcrs say they develop a love for cd super-human abilities. They created the script and draw reading and a growing apprecialion of li terature in our ings for twelve installments of a daily newspaper strip younger generation . twO weeks worth-but they were rejeClcd by the established The comic book as we know it tOday originated in (he newspaper syndicates. When their striP. Superman, finally newspaper comic strip; and the comic strip began in the found a home, in 1938 , it was the first issue of a monthly United States latc in t he nineteenth century. American car comic book, Action Comics. Within a short time, Action toonists combined several separale clements that had been Com ics- wit h Superman in each issue- was selling almost present in the European cultures for centuries: drawings in a mi ll ion copies each month; the bi-monthly Superman com sequence that lold a story, "balloons" filled wit h words, ic book was selling well over a million copies per issue, and and caricature. Beginning in the 1890's. comic strips began the eharacler had spread from comic books to radio and to run in American newspapers. After a few years, daily the movies (J, 10). comic strips and Sunday comic sections in color became By 1941 , he had spread to the newspapers and was run features o f most American newspapers. Some of these ning as a dail y stri p signed by Siegel and Shuster in 230 newspaper comics offered extended narratives that were told papers. The success of Superman alerted publishers to the over several days and in several drawings. Experiments with profits to be gained from offering readers a larger-than-li fe the design of t he Sunday comics, involving the shape and super-hero; and wit hin a few years the news stands were arrangemell t of panels, began to ta ke place. the comic strip filled with comic books starri ng such characters. Some of too k a long time to assume a definite format, and so did the new heroes possessed powers si milar to Superman, but the comic book. Over a period of about three decades. many were more unique. The costume vigi lante. exemplified publishers experimented with many kinds of formats. T hey by Batman, became a popular super-hero. Other examples first repri nted newspaper st rips in book form. with both hard we re tile Phantom, the Lone Ranger, and Ihe G reen Hornet. and soft covers. Batman became the second-most popular super-hero; his bi In 1929. one publisher tried to create a weeldy publica monthly comic book was seiling 800,000 copies per issue by tio n called The Funnies, made up entirely of new comics. 194 1. If in the mid- 1930's just one of the syndicated It was not successful . perhaps because it was tabloid size newspapers had accepted the Superman comic strip and and thus resembled the Sunday comics section. In 1933 com given it a chance, t he history of comic books would surely ic books of appro.'l:imately the modern size and shape we re have been different. If Superman had entered t he pages of published by Eastern Color Print ing Company-but as the newspaper comics before 1938. the st rip probably would premiums. to be given away by retailers and manufacturers have been re pri nt ed in a comic book. However, the repri nted to their customers. No one considered selli ng these comic Superman could not have changed comic books in the same books directly to the reader unt il t\.I.c. Gaines, a salesman way the Action Comics and Superman bi-monthly did at Eastern Color, tested the market by putt ing a ten-cent (I, II J. price on a few copies and leaving them at two news stands. Beginning in the earl y 1940's Other kinds of comics, from This proved successful, and a fter a few fa lse st arts, Famous many differem publishers, found favor with millions of Funnies No. I was published monthly and was sold on the readers. The Walt Disney characters, Mickey Mouse and news stands for a dime. It was the first true comic book in Donald Duck , began appearing monlhly in Walt Disney's the modern sense ; but like many of the comic books that Comics alld Stories in the fall of 1940, and other comic preceded it. it was composed of rep rimed newspaper strips. books with animaled-cart oon characters soon followed. The The first comic book made up em irely of new material d id nexi step in the advance of the comic book spawned a not appear until early 1935; this was News Fun No. I. This multi tude of imilato rs. Another type of comic 10 emerge t}'pe of comic would eventually set the standard. was the western; and thai staple of America made the tran The modern version of the comic book may have begun sit ion to comic books with ease. Cowboy movie stars like in 1935. but some consider the real turning point in the comic Roy Rogers and Gene Autry became comic book stars as book's history to have been in the summer of 1932. Jerry wel l ( I, II). Romance comic books became popular in Ihe ~iegel and Joe Shuster, students of Glenville High School postwar years, having the same appeal as radio soap operas In Cleveland. had become friends through their shared in and confession magazines. The crime comic book ultimately terest of comic strips, especially heroic fantasies like had t he greatest impact on the comic book industry. Crime
17 had always been present in the super.hero comic book compliance (4,23). The Code consists of 41 specific regula. the heroes usually proved themselves to be heroes by tions, governing material which lead ing members of the defeating the criminals-but the emphasis of the new crime industry, and many public figures and organizations cOQ. comic books was o n the crimes themselves. The firs! of th is cerned with the matter, have found through experience to type was Crime Does Not Pay, published in 1942, and was be in the "problem area" when used in comic books. These followed by a wave of imitators until the postwar years. The provisions make up the most severe set of principles far any success of these frequently violent and shocking crime comic co mmunications medi a in use today. Any material whicb books led one publisher, E.C., to go one step further, and does not meet with the Code's approval must either be cor in 1950 introduced three horror titles-The Crypt oj Terror, rected or eliminated (4,24). The Vault oj Horror, and The Haunt oj Fear. Comic books we re soon filled up with bloody axes, severed heads, and "Excerpt s from Code of the Comics Magazine rOil ing corpses {I ,12). Association of America: Criminals shall not be During the 19505, these shocking tales came under the presented in glamorous circumstances, unless an scrutiny of SenalOr Estes Kefauver's crime investigations and unhappy end results from their illgotten gai ns, and attacks from psychiatrists such as Frederic Wertham (5,93). creates no desire for emulation . .. In every instance A book by Wertham, Th e Seduction oj the Innocent, stirred good shall triumph over ev il and the criminal be tremendo us concern. He arg ued that the graphic nature of punished for his misdeeds ... Policemen, judges, comic books, es pecially the horror comic book, had a government officials and respected institutions shall damaging effect on the minds of children (2, 34). Comic not be presented in such a way as to create disrespect books had been criticized in pri nt si nce 1940 because of the for established authority ... No un ique or unusual fea red affect on the majorit y of its readers, the children. methods of concealing weapons shall be shown, except Wertham saw in the creators and publishe rs of comic books where such concealment could not reasonably be "veritable vam pires who sucked the blood of the innocent" duplicated ... Although slang and colloquialisms are (3,132), Another famous and innucntial critic of comic acceptable, excessive use should be discouraged and books was Gershom Legman. His theory. expounded in his wherever possible good grammar shall be employed book, LOlieand Death (1949), was that the violence in com ... Nudity in any form is pro hibited. Suggestive and ics and pulp li terature was the transformation of and com salacious illustratio n is unacceptable ... Divorce shall pensation for sexuality repressed and restricted by society. not be treated humorously nor represented as desirable Legman's ideas were a lot closer to answe ring basic ques ... All situations dealing with the family unit should tions than Wertham's or any of his followers' theories. have as their ultimate goal the protection of the However, Legman overshot his goal at limes, claiming for children and fami ly li fe. In no way shall the breaking example that the creators of comic books were homosexual of the moral code be depicted as rewarding ... All degenerates that belonged in jail. Wertham was particular elements or tech niques not specific ally mentioned ly concerned about the sexual stimulation of comic books. herein, bu t which are cont rary to the spirit and intent He maintained that the comic book super-heroes were clearly of the Code, and are considered violations of good homosexua l (3, 132). It is true that comic books were fairly taste or decency, shall be prohibited" (2,34). daring. Sonya Belle has said , "Very likely the young reader found the sight of buxom gi rls, cruell y tied up and clothed Although the Code probably saved the industry, it made (or in tatters, facing a fate worse than death, stimulating in those rather mild reading at a time when television and movies days" (2,208). were becoming bolder in their themes and treatments (5,93). In an attempt 10 ward off cri ticism and impending censor Many publishers left the business in the 19505, and total ship, the Comics Code Authori ty was established, setting circulation fe ll (1,12). st andards for the content of comic books (5,93). The Comics In the 19605, Stan Lee and the Marvel Comics group Code Authority functions under the direction of an breathed new life in the comic book style by introducing the administrator. who has no other connection with the "super-hero with a problem," characters such as Spiderman. industry, and who i~ empowered to exercise independent the Hu lk, and the Sil ver Surfer. These figures had a basiC judgement in interpret ing and enforcing the association's communication problem: they were trying to serve humaNty Code. The Code covers both the editorial coment-that is with their powers, but their good intentions were almost the entire text and artwork- and the advertismeents, in a always misunderstood by society. Thi s theme seems appeal comics magazine (4,23). The adoption of the Comics Code ing to many adolescents and adults in today's complel. in October 1954 marked the end of sixteen years of flam· bureaucratic society" (5,93) . The super·heroes were becom boyant success for the comic book industry {I ,12) . Every ing humani zed and began facing the complications of every member of the Comics Magazi ne Association of America day life. In the long ru n, humanity in itself is not enouaJi pledges to adhere to its terms, but mo re than that- to sub· to fascinate the reader, but even the small problems or mit all material intended for publication to the Authority private life have social references. Social evils, treated for advance review and judgemen t. This is to insure Code reali sticall y, began gradually to appear in co mic boOkS
18 'nddentally and almost unnoticed. When Peter (S pider-man) Waldenbooks' magazine buyer Kent Rollison comments: " I ~ ar k er and Dick (Robin) Grayston entered college they sud think the pri mary objective is to leach the children the en de nly found themselves in the thick of the protest agai nst joyment of readi ng. If in some cases comic books ac I soCial evils and were involved in riots, sit-ins, demonstra complish this, then I think it's fine." At least the children tions and protest meetings. This opened the door to revolu arc rcading somet hing (2,36). ( tionary ideas in comic books (3,240). Social problems Marvel Comics has developed the Star Comics line, a beCame part of appropriate story lines. Sexism, racism, and publishing program designed for early readers. This comic pOJiution we re topical events in many of the comic books. book line was designed to offer the young reader an alter One character, Iron Man, is a reformed alcoholic; he is cur native to the increasingly complex plots and more difficult rentl y in a period of sobriety, but his struggle has been literary devices that have been introduced recently. These depicted. The drug problem, which became an issue in the are simple in appearance and contain easy dialogue and early 1970s, began to appear in some of Marvel Comics' vocabulary (7 ,38). plotS (7,42). In May of 197 1, The Amazing Spider-man What is Ihe value of the comic book in OUT society? The assumed an anti-drug attitude. In order to do this it had to idea of the comic book has changed through the years from do without the approval of the Comics Code. The episode a cheap fo rm of entertainment to a corrupting force against with the d rug situation ended after three issues, and The our yo uth to a weapon to combat illiteracy. The value of Amazing Spider-man regained the Code seal. Finall y on the comic book has not been and may never be clearl y or April IS, 197 1, the Supervisory Council of the Comics completely defined, but for the time being the comic book Magazine Association of America unanimously resolved to has been accepted and is even being praised . adopt a standard alt itude, with the inlroduction: "Narcotic addiction shall not be presented except as a vicious habit." The Comics Code was in the process of becoming more le nient (3,246). WORKS CITED Comic books, having reached their height of popularity t. Barrier, Michael and Williams, Marlin. A Smithsonian Book of Comic over thirty years ago, are making a comeback. The current Book Comics. Smithsonian tnstitution Press and Harry N. Abrams, industry is now here nearly as large as it was in the late 1940s tnc. New York, 1981. and early 1950s, when sales approached one billi 6n units 2. nolle, Sonya. "Comic Book§ Regain Their Readership- And Outtets," Publishtrs Wtf'kly. December 6. 1 98~ . a year, but things are loo king up (2,34). One sign of the com J. Fuchs. Wolfgana J . Comics: Ana/omyO/ A Mass Mtdium. Heinz Moos ic book's returning respectability is its appearance in Vertaa Muchen, 1911. bookstores. Both Walden books and B. Dalton have made 4. Gotduster, John L. Amtricano In Four Colors; A Decadt 0/ SeI/ Regula· a commitment to merchandise comic books (2,34). After lion By The Comics Magazine Indus/ry. Comics Maganne Association harsh criticism and a self-induced censorship program took or America, 1964. 5. Harison, Randall P. Tilt Cartoon; Communication To The Quick. SAGE its loll on the industry, the comic book is earning favor with Pubtications. 1981. both child and adult alike. In an age of increasing concern 6. Perigard, Mark A. "Death Of The Superheroes," Newsweek. November about illiteracy, quest ions have been raised about the value II. 1985. of comics: Do they hamper a child's capacity to read " real 1. Symons, Allene. "Marvel Expands tts Lio n', Share With Early Reader books," or do they foster an appreciation of reading? Unes," Publishtrs WUkly. December 6, 1985.
19 A COMPARISON OF MULTIPLE REGRESSION AND QUADRATIC TREND FORECASTING MODELS FOR WKU ENROLLMENT
Judy Renf row
In order to forecast enro llment at Western Kentucky is greater than the crit ical- F, it can be concluded that the University. time-series data is collected fo r the enrollment model does explain at least a portion of the variation in the variable. This data is the fa ll head count for each year over dependent variable. a twe nt y-eight year period from 1959 to 1986. This data can The accuracy measures generated by the computer pro be fo und in the Western Kent ucky University Archives. gram are the MAD, MSE, and MAPE. According to the Exogenous and endogenous factors effect the behavior MAPE, the model has an average crror of 4.08 percent. Ac of the enroll ment va riable. Enroll ment is a ffected by cording to the MAD, the model is in error by 366 enrolled exogenous factors such as: students. The MSE of the model is 178600. I. The open admissions policy that Ke ntucky commit When using the quadratic trend model , forecasted ted to in 1955; enroll ments will first increase wi th time, reach a peak at 2. The 1970 admission of the University of Louisville some point in ti me, and then decline with time. This can into the state educational system; be shown by taking the fi rst deri vative of the equation. The 3. The 1980 state budget cuts in ed ucational funding ; first derivative is EN ROLL "" J 144.18 - 55.5(T). By set. 4. T he entry of the Bowling Green Business College ting the first derivative equal to zero and solving for T. one into the educational system; finds that the peak enroll ment at WK U was in the time 5. The rapid advances made in space and technology period 21 (the year 1979). So, according to the Quadratic in the 1960's; trend model. enroll ment at WKU wi ll continually decline 6. The Viet nam War in the 1960's and 1970's. after 1979. Since it does not seem likel y that enrollment will Enroll ment is also affected by endogenous factors such as never increase again at WKU , a different trend model should the selective admissio ns po licy that Western Ke ntucky be used or adj ustments should be made in the fo recasted Universi ty began in 1983. enroll ments of the Quadratic trend model to produce ac Since the enrollment variable is measured using the fall curate ex ante forecasts for enrollments. head counts o f each year, this data does not need to be ad The 1987 enroll ment fo recasted by the Quadratic trend justed seasonall y. That is, the fall head count for one year model is obtained as fo llows: is j ust a single observation; thus, no seasonali ty occurs in ENROLL = 137 1. 72 + 11 44. 18(T) - 27.75(TI) this data. = 137 1. 72 + 11 44. 18(29) - 27.75(841) The sample which was obtained fo r this project should = 1371.72 + 3318 1. 22 - 23337 .75 be an appropriate representation of the population since it = 11 215. 19 covers a twenty-eight year time pe ri od. In this project, two T hus, forecasted enrollment for 1987 is 1121 5 students. forecasting models, a multi ple regression and quadratic The multi ple regression fo recasti ng model used to forecast trend model, arc used. T hese two models wi ll be compared enrollments at WK U is of the form: to determine which model produces the better forecast. EN ROLL = (T UITION, FINANCIAL A ID). The Quadratic trend forecast ing model is: Tuit ion belongs in the model because it is a cost of enroll EN ROLL = BO + BI (T) + B2(T2) ing in college. The expected sign of the coefl"jcient of the where tuit ion variable would be negati ve because one would ex EN RO LL = the fa ll· head count at WKU pect that as tuition (in rea l dollars) increases, enrollment T = 1 fo r 1951, 2 for 1960, etc. wou ld decrease. Financial aid also belongs in the model T2 "" T*T because it is a way of paying to enroll in college. The The estimated equati,on is: expected sign of the coefficient o f the financial aid variable ENROLL "" 1371. 72 + 1144.18(1) - 27. 75(T2) wo uld be positive because one would expect that as the In order to evaluate this model statisticall y, the summary amount of financial aid (in rea l dollars) increases, enroll statistics generated by the computer program are examin men t would increase. ed. T he coefficient of determination is equal to 0.98; thus, Time-series data is gathered for the independent variables, the quadratic trend model ex plai ns 98 percent o f the varia mit ion and fi nancial aid, over a twenty-eight year period tion in enrollment. In order to analyze the joint effect of from 1959 to 1986. The independent variables are a ffected both of the independem variables on the enrollment variable, by exogenous fac tors such as: an overall F-test is performed. Given two and twenty-five I. The 1970 admission of the Un iversity of Louisville degrees of freedom, the critical-F al the 0.05 level is 3.38. into the state educational system; The F-statistic of the model is 708.91. Since the F-statistic 2. The 1980 state budget cuts in educational funding.
20 Since the tuition variable is measured using the fa ll lUi line~~ form, or one could respeciry the model by including don of each year and the financial aid variable is measured addulOnal explanatory variables such as a variable ror using the amount WKU received for each year, this data does recruitment expenditures by WKU and a variable for the nOI need to be seasonally adjusted. That is, the value of each number o.f high school seniors who plan to go to college. independent variable for one year is just a single observa ~ccord lll g to the coefficient estimated for the RAID ( tion; thus. no seasonality occurs in Ihis data. vanable, enrollment increases by 0.004 st udents for each The amount of LUilion per semester that students have dollar increase. in real fi.nancial aid available, ceteris paribus; paid each year from 1959 to 1986 can be found in the College for eae~ $.250 1I1 crease 111 real financial aid available, enroll Heights Bulletins, volume 30 no. 3 to volume 60 no. I. which ment wlll mcrease by one student , ceteris paribus. This result are located in the Western Kentucky University Archives. seems reasonable because one would expect enrollment to In order to account for inflation, the time-series data for increase when the amount of real financial aid available in-state and out-of-state tuition is de fl ated usi ng the CPI increases. (1967 = 100). In order to have one independent variable In order to evaluate this model statisticall y. the summary {a represen t tuition, the overall year-to-year percentage statistics generated by the computer program are examin change in tuition (OPCT) is calculated by taki ng the average ed. The coefficient of determination is equal to 0.898; th us, of the year-to-year percentage change in in-state lUition ex the multiple regression model explains 89.8 percent of the pressed in 1967 dollars and the year-to-year percentage variation in the enrollment variable. In order to analyze the change in out-of-state tuition expressed in 1%7 dollars. joint effect of both of the independent variables on the The amount of financial aid that Western Kentucky enrollment variable, an overall F-test is performed. Given Universit y has received to award to students can be found two and twenty-five degrees of freedom, the critical-F at the in the Western Kentucky University Archives in the "State 0.05 level is 3.38. The F-statistic of the model is 109.50. Since ment of Federal Program Panici pation 1958-1986." The the F-statistic is greater than the critical-F, it can be con total fi nancial aid for each year consists of: National Direct cluded that at least one Bi in the model is not equal to zero. Student Loan, College Work-Study Program, Supplemen In order to determine whelher the assumptions regarding tal Educational Opportunity Grant. Nursing Loan. Nurs the coefficients of the independent variables are correct, ing Scholarship, Law Enforcement Education Program. hypothesis testing is performed fo r each of the coefficients. Basic Educati onal Opportunity Granl , and State Student In For BI, the coefficient of OPCT, the nu ll hypothesis is cent ive Grant. In order to accounl for in fl ation, the finan that B I equals zero. implying that there is no relationship cial aid variable is deflated using the CPI (1 967 = 100). between ENROLL, the dependent variable, and OPCT, the The CP I (1 % 7 = 100) for 1959 to 1986 is obtained from independent variable. The alternative hypothesis is {hat 8 1 the 1987 Statistical Abstract of the United States. is less than zero, implying that there is a negati ve relation The multiple regression forecasting model used to forecast ship between OPCT and ENROLL. Since the estimated WKU enroll mems is as follows: coefficient for Bl is greater than zero (BI ::::: 3.52), the null EN ROLL. BO - Bl(OPCT) + B2(RA ID) hypothesis is automatically accepted. Thus, the OPCT where variable does not have any effect on the EN ROLL variable. EN ROLL = the fall head count at WKU For 82, the coefficient of RAID, the null hypothesis is OPCT = the overall year-to-year percentage change that 82 equals zero, implying that there is no relationship in tuition between ENROLL, the dependent variable, and RAID, the RAID = the amount of financial aid, expressed in independent variable. The alt ernative hYPOlhesis is that 82 1%7 dollars, that WKU has received to is greater than zero, implying there is a positive relation award to students ship between RAID and ENROLL. Since the sign of the The estimated equation is: estimated coefficient for 82 agrees with the alternative ENROLL . 5093.60 + 3.52(OPCT) + O.OO4(RAID) hypothesis, the I-tail p-value is used to determine the The estimated regression equation verifies the assomption statistical significance of the RAID variable. The computer that a positive relationship exists between enrollment and program generated a 2-tail p-value of 0.0001 for 82; so, the amount of financial aid available; however, it contradicts 0.5(2-tail p-value) is used for the I-tail p-val ue (I -tail p-value the assumption that a negative relat ionship exists between = 0.00005). Since the I-tail p-value is less than 0.05, the enrollment and tuition. significance level being used, the null hypothesis is rejected. According to the coefficient estimated for the OPCT Therefore, changes in RAID do cause changes in EN ROLL. variable. enrollment increases by 3.52 students for each One of the basic assomptions of the multiple regression percent age-point increase in OPCT, ceteris paribus. This model is that the independent variables must be li nearly in result does not seem reasonable because one does not ex dependent of each o ther . If this assumption is pect more students to enroll in college when tuition increases. vioiated,multico llinearity is said to exist. The presence of A possible explanatio n of this unreasonable result is that multicollinearity resul ts in an overstatement of the standard the model may be misspecified. One could respecify the errors of the regression coefficients which causes the t-ratios model by using a different functional form such as the log- to be smaller. Thus, the presence of multicollinearity lowers
21 the reliability o f the model. In order to detect the presence va lues fo r the independent variables, OPCT and RAID, are of multicollinearity in the model, the correlat ion coefficient forecast. The linear trend model is used to forecast OPCT matrix is examined. Si nce the correlation between OPCT and RAID. where each is a function of time. According to and RAID is -0.298, which is less than O.S in absolute value, the statistics generated for the linear trend model for RAID multicollinearity docs not exist. the model is adequate for forecasting future values of RAID' Another basic assumption of the multiple regression However, according to the statistics generated for the linear model is that the error terms are ra ndomly distributed. If trend model fo r OPCT, Ihe model does not forecast values this assumption is violated, autocorrelation is said to exist. for OPCT accurately ; thus. a problem exists in fo recasting The presence of autocorrelat ion res ults in an understatement future values for OPCT. of the standard errors of the regression coefficient s which Using the linear trend models est imated to forecast OPCf causes the t-ratios to be larger. Thus, the presence o f and RAID, the 1987 enrollment forecasted by the multiple autocorrelation leads 10 an overstatement of the reliability regression model is obtained as fo llows: of the model. One method of checking for autocorrelation OPCT = 9.71 - 0.29(T) RAID ::: 34739. 19 + 82414 .97(f) involves the examinatioin of a plot of error terms against = 9.71 - O.29(29) = 34139. )9 + 8241 4.91(29) time. In the graph produced by the computer program er = 1.36 = 2424413.30 rors tended to stay positive or stay negative; this is an in ENR OLL = 5093.60 + 3.52(OPCT) + O.OO4(RAID) dication o f positive autocorrelation. In order further to test = 5093.60 + 3.5 2(1 .36) + 0.004(24 24413 .30) for the presence o f positive autocorrelation, the Durbin = 5093.60 + 4.79 + 9697.65 Watson statistic is examined. The null hypothesis is that = 14196.0-' there is no autocorrelation (rho = D. and the alternative Thus, forecasted enroll ment for 1987 is 14796 students. hypothesis is that there is positive autocorrelation (rho > 0). In comparing the tWO models, it can be shown that the At the 0.025 significance [evel , DL = l.IS and DU = 1.45. quadratic trend model produces the best ex post forecast. Since the Du rbin-Watson statistic of 0.33 is less than DL Firsl, the fo recast errors as measured by the MAD, MSE, of 1.15. the null hypothesis is rejected. Therefore, there is and MAPE arc examined. These error measurements are posit ive autocorrelation in the error terms. summarized as fo llows: One possible way of correcting this model fo r positive autocorrelation is to respecify the model. Possible variables MAD MSE MAPE APE that should be included in the model in addition to OPCT Trend Model 366 178600 4.08 4.94 and RAID are: a variable for recru itment expenditures by Regression Model 860 1056101 12.0 1 1.28 WKU and a variable for the number of high school seniors who plan to go to college. A second way of correcting this An evaluation of these error measurements indicates that model fo r positive autocorrelation is to reestimate the multi the trend model performs better than the regression model. ple regression equa tion us ing the Cochrane-Orcutt Both models correctly forecast the peak in enrollment in procedure. 1979, and both models miss the turning point for the trough The acc uracy measures generated by the computer pro in enrollment in 1985. Of the turning po ints predicted, 0.,. gram are the MAD, MSE, and MAPE. According to the of Ihe turning points in the trend model are false signais, MAPE, the model has an average error of 12.01 percent. wh ile 70 <110 of the turning points in the multiple regressioD According to the MAD. the model is in error by 860 enroll model are false signals. However, the mUltiple regression ed st udents. The MSE of the model is 1056101. model only misses 25'10 of the turning poinlS, whereas tbe In evaluating the multiple regression model, the estimated trend model misses 7SO]'u of the turning points. After com eq uation is examined. In order for enroll ment to increase paring the two models, it can be concluded that the quadratic signi fi cantl y, financial aid available must increase by rather trend model perfo rms better than the mUltiple regression large amounts. That is, it t 22 factors or of any structural changes. Future forecasts of Since the multiple regression model does perform better enrollment may also be affected by structural changes such in pred icting turning points, this model could possibly pro as the increased use of robots and computerized operations duce more reliable ex post and ex ante forecasts if the I in manufaclU ring environments which would require retrain previously mentioned improvements and mod ifications are ing of employees. made to the mode!. ( According to the quadratic trend model, the 1988 forecast Meanwhile, a combination of the forecasts from the two fo r enrollment is obtained as follows: models might produce a more reasonable forecast. Thus, the two forecasts are combined using a weighted average ENROLL = 137 1. 72 + 1144 .18(T) - 27.75(T2) where the weight of the regression model's forecast is two "" 1371.72 + 1144. 18(30) - 27.75(900) and the weight of the trend model's forecast is one. For 1986 "" 1371.72 + 34325 .40 - 24975.00 and 1987, the combined values, using this weighted average, "" 10722. 12 are 12650 and 13602 respectively, which are very close to Thus, forecasted enrollment fo r 1988 is 10722 students the actual values, 12257 and 13520, respectively. 23 REG RESS ION ANALYSIS AT WK U FALL ENROLLM ENTS Melissa Simpson This project is a multiple regression analysis on fall enroll available; consequently, classes are counted manuall y from ment at Western Kentucky University from 195910 1985 fa ll schedule bulletins. The accuracy of such data is ques_ (ENROll ). Three independent variables: eveni ng and tionable; computation errors can occur, and sch~du l e weekend courses (EW), recruitment efforts (RE), and the bulletins often do not reflect fi nal class offerings. IO tal number of students nationwide within the ages of 18 Recruitment efforts (RE) at Western Kentucky Universi_ to 24 (ENRL) are felt to have an innuence on fa ll enro ll ty are difficult to isolate. Total budget figu res for a distinct ment. The followi ng function is presented: recruitment division are preferred but cannot be obtai ned . ENROLL = flEW. RE. EN RL) Since recrui tment efforts requ ire extensive travel, ~xpe n. and the prediction eq uation is written as: dilUTes fo r travel for each of the three University depart. ENROLL = K I + K2(EW) + K3(RE) + K4(ENR L) menlS responsi ble for recruitment du ri ng the period are used where: as representative data. It is important to note that incon. K, Specified constant sistencies in the bu dgets do exist. "Approv~d " or EN ROLL , Fall enro ll ment at Western Kentucky "Estimated" budget figures found in years 1959 through University, the dependent variable for the 1963 tend to over-value actual expenditures on travel. model. Several government doc um ~ nt S are researched to Obtain EW: Evening and weekend courses offered by data fo r the thi rd and final variable. Consistent data for the Western Kentucky University during fall period is not found in publications from the United States semesters from 1959 to 1985. The University Department of Education or the Center fo r Educational has progressively increased the number of Statistics. Enroll ment figures are therefore taken fro m the evening and weekend courses offered mak Statistical A bstracts o/the UI/ited States, " Persons.s to 34 ing educational facilities available for Years Old, School Enrollment, by Age and Sex" tables in students who would otherwise be unable to years 1959 through 1985. (Data for 1986 is not available and attend. An increase in the number of even has been eliminated from the period under study for all ing and weekend courses offered is expected variables.) Data derived from such a general sample is a to result in an increase in fall enrollment. rough proxy for the traditional student group. RE, Recruitment efforts at Western Kentucky Regression analysis should be used cautiously. There arc Uni versity. Recruitment efforts in itiated by certai n econometric problems thai may be encountered. one the University have become more of which is multicoll inearity. Multicollinearity exits when widespread in recent years. Expanded two or more of the independent va ri ables within a model recruitment efforts attract a wider range of arc correlated. If independent variables are highly correlated students to the University, resu lti ng in in their individual effect on the dependent variable cannot be creased fall enro ll ment. determined accurately. Standard errors of the coefficients ENR l : Total number of 18"0 24 year old students tend to increase, res ul ting in acceptance of Ho when it enrolled in educational facilities nationwide. should not be accepted. Demographic predictions from the United Correlation coeffi cients for the independen t variables in States Census Bureau indicate there will be the model exceed .5, st rongly suggest ing the presence o( a steady dec1 ift e in the total number of per multicollinearity. (Stt Table II. ) To substantiate the findiJl8S sons in this age group from 1980 to 1995. regression outputs are run substituting ~ach of the three in College enrollment on the who le should dependent variables fo r the dependent variable in the equa decline i11 view of the fact that the "tradi tion. An F-test on each separate output indicates if an in· tional" student fa ll s wi thin this age group. dependent variable is effected by at least one of the re main A decrease in the enrollment of 18 to 24 ing independent variables. Results verify suspicions that a year old students is expected to have a high degree of multicolli nearity does exist among the three di rect effect on fa ll enroll ment at Western independent va riables. Ke ntucky University. Various methods exist to handle problems or Data used in the model consists of observations within multicollinearity. In certain si tuations it is possible to a time series ranging from 1959 to 1985 . (See Table I.) The redefine the independent va riables and use alternatiYC actual number of evening and weekend courses offered each measurements fo r the data. Alternative measurements for fall semeSter at Western Kentucky University is the ideal data independent variables in the present model would be die· fo r the fi rst variable (EW). Factual figures are not readily ficult to obtai n. If a sampling property seems to be the caUIC 24 r of multicollinearity in the model, an increase in the number P-values lest the probability of obtaini ng a test statistic of observations for the sample will often remedy the pro more extreme that the actual result, given the null hypothesis blem. Elimination o f an independent variable in (he model is true. Upper-tail p-tests are performed for each inde I should also decrease the probability of multicollinearity. The pendent variable. omission of a variable, however, will result in biased and Upon examination of the sign of {he coefficients it is ap ( unreliable result s for the other variables and should only parent that the coefficient for RE does not agree with HI. be used as a last resort. If multicollinearity cannot be avoid Ho must therefore be accepted; Un iversi ty recruitment ef ed by simple alterations of the data, there may be no altern forts have no effect on fall enrollment at Western Kentucky ative but 10 develop new variables and acquire new data. University. AnOlher econometric problem to arise in regression Coefficients for EW and ENRL agree with Ho and must analysis is serial correlation. When regressions are based on be further tested . A decision is made to accept or reject Ho time-series data, successive values of the error terms may based on the fo llowing calculations: not be independent. Consequently, the model wi ll often ap pear more credible than it should . To test for serial correla EW: one-tail p-value = .5 (.0068) = .0034 .05 tion, the Durbin-Watson test is used. Using a one-tail test ENRL: one-tail p-value = .5 (.0001) = .00005 .05 at a .05 level of significance, where n = 27 and k = 3, values taken from the Durbin-Watson table are: D(L) = 1.16 and There is a .340'70 and .0050'/0 chance, respectively, of ob D( U) = 1.65. Compared with a Durbin-Watson value of taining coefficients more extreme than the coefficients ob d = 0. 69465906 from the output. there is statistically signifi tained from {he given sample if Ho is true. Since the values cant evidence of positive serial correlation in the model. obtained for the two variables are extremely small, Ho The final model derived from the output is as fo llows: receives lillie support from the data and must be rejected. The origi nal hypotheses that fall enrollment at Western ENROL L ::: - 723 .08 + 8.6(EW) - 0.19( RE) + .OO I6(ENRL) Kentucky University is di rectly influenced by the num ber of evening and weekend courses offered by the Unitersity Holding all other variables constant, an increase in the and by the total number of student s within the ages of 18 number of evening and weekend courses offered at Western to 24 nati onwide, are accepted. Rec ru itment effort s for the Kentucky University by one unit will result in an increase University, however, do not have a di rect effect on fa ll in fall enrollment by 8.6 units. A one unit increase in Univer enrollment, contrary to what is believed to hold true. Results si ty recruitment effOrls will result in a decrease in fa ll enroll for Ihis variable appear unreasonable and should be fu rther ment by 0. 19 units. An increase in the total number of tested fo r va lidity. students within ages 18 through 24 by o ne unit will lead to A primary function of regression analysis is 10 aid in the an increase in fall enrollment by .0016 units. fo recasti ng o f fu ture events. The forecasting ability of this Upon evaluation of the value of coeffi cient o f determina model is questionable. The presence o f econometric pro tion, or R-square, for the model (R-square = .946860) it blems such as multicollinearity and serial correlation sug appears that 94.680/0 of the variation in fall enrollment is gest a violation of basic assumptions which must first be ex plained by the mode!. met in order to improve accuracy of forecasts. An overall F-test is performed to determine if fall enroll A relatively high R-square value indicates the model has ment at Western Kentucky University is effected by at least successfully explained, to a great extent, variation in fa U one of the independent variables. Usi ng an F distribution enrollment. Results of the hypothesis test seem reasonable for an upper-tail test with 3 to 23 degrees o f freedom, testing wit h the exception of the output fo r Un iversity recruitment at a significance level of .05, the critical value is 3.03. The efforts. The hypothesis that recruitment efforts have no ef F-value for the model is 136.61 which exceeds the value from feet on fall enroll ment at the University is accepted; never the table. The hypothesis that at least one o f the indepen theless, fu rther research is necessary before accuracy of the dent variables in the model has an effect on fall enrollment hypothesis can be determined. is accepted. In general, data for the independent variables is incon Next. a hypothesis test is performed on each of the in sistent and unrepresentative. Reliable and applicable data dependent variables. The null hypothesis, Ho, asserts that concerning Western Kentucky University is difficul t to the independent variable has no, or an unexpected, effect gather due to inconsistent record-keeping techniques over on fa ll enrollment at Western Kentucky Universit y. The the years. Successive studies should involve the development alternative hypothesis, HI , states the variable has a positive of new independent variables; variables which are not in dfcci on fall enroll ment. The following hypotheses have terrelated and fo r which accurate and representative data been SCI up for each variable: can be fo und . E: Ho: b < 0 RE: Ho: b < 0 ENRL Ho: b ~ 0 (;;ee tab le s on fol loll'inj( IlRlte) HI : b> 0 HI : b> 0 HI : b) 0 25 TABLE I YEAR ENROLL EW RE ENRL 1959 29 14 2 4500.0 2884lXXl 1960 3599 1 3500.0 316700J 1961 4797 69 3000.0 3421000 1962 5127 81 3000.0 3869000 1963 5917 105 2191.0 4075000 1964 6198 105 1606.0 4244000 1965 7824 118 m2.4 5290000 1966 8103 134 2449.0 5723000 1961 10 197 11 6 2950.0 6029000 1968 10570 III 3310.0 6327000 1969 11 069 163 4099.0 6731001 1970 10737 155 4510.0 6681000 1971 11265 118 5968.0 7163000 1912 112 72 215 599110 715(0)) 1973 11723 268 8611.0 6943000 1974 12266 191 11130.0 7191000 1975 13040 3()4 11657.0 788600) 1976 1JJ86 J11 10727.6 8147000 1977 13490 J19 9861.1 8152000 1918 m05 310 1150010 7945000 1919 13532 324 11254.6 1893000 1980 1JJ58 298 13567. 1 823400) 1981 13 174 293 1250 1.1 867600) 1m [2855 218 11780.5 8734000 1983 12666 3()4 13492.4 8658000 1984 11771 295 [ 1913.1 86 100J0 1985 11259 303 13622.1 8492000 TA BLE 11 CORR ELAT ION COEFFICIE NT MATR IX EW RE EN RL EW 0.868 0.929 RE 0.839 • 26 JAPANESE STUDENTS IN KENTUCKY CLASSROOMS I Susan Hignite ( In 1986 Toyota Motor Company announced plans to build classroom teacher? Joyce Penfield (1 987) says, "Despite the an automobile assembly plan! in Georgetown, Kentuck y. increase in the number of trained ESL specialists over the Approximately one year later Ambrake Corporation releas past ten years or so, it is no secret that vast numbers of ed blueprints for a new industry to be constructed in limited English proficient (LEP) students will spend eit her Elizabethtown. Suddenly Elizabethtown and Hardin County all or large portions of their academic life with regular or found a global, pluralistic society advancing upon their com content classroom teachers" (p. 21). So the responsi bility munity. Educators in these two school districts were asked for educating children who are linguisticall y, racially, and to respond positively to the many and varied needs of these culturally different has become a fact of life for many new st udents from different national and cultural classroom educators. The Japanese children bring to Ken backgrou nd s. Once again a new challenge faced Kentucky tucky, Hardin County, and Elizabethtown a rich education! Teachers in Kentucky, specificall y Elizabethtown background of different value systems, different social and Hardin County, needed ( 0 respond with vigor if educa customs, different religious beliefs, diffe rent historical tion was to be the li nkage between "Traditional Cultures heritage, and different language skills. To most teachers, of the past and the global cuhure of the future ..." and also to the new pupils, these diffe rences can be over (Hoopes, p. 30). Now more than ever before "we live in whelming. The essential task of maximizing multicultural a time when the need for understanding and mutual respect education and reducing ethnocentrism must become the across cultural boundaries is imperative" (Gasto, p. I). challenge and the objective of each classroom teacher. Communication on many levels becomes an urgent, im One of the most important elements in mult icultural portant necessity in the process of build ing pluralism into education is the teacher's attitude. Teachers need to fu nc the educational systems of Elizabethtown and Hardin <;oun tion as models. " Where the teacher thinks globally and has ty. " implicit in the achievement of understanding and a sense of being a part of an independent world, intercultural respect is the successful interchange between two human be education will often occur in th e classroom-sometimes ings that we call communication. Language is of course a without the students and the teacher realizing it - not only key co mponent of communication; and although the ac in social studies and language classrooms but in math, curatc use of linguistic form is necessary for effective com science, and literature classrooms as well" (Hoopes, p. 29). municat ion, in most communicative situations the com To understand the international students' situation, teachers municators do more than simply talk to each other in gram who instruct them must value cultural diversity and be sen ma tically well-constructed sentences. There must also be a sitive to culture difference. Teachers must also be able to familiarity with the culture of the language being used by recognize cultural barri ers to effective communication. the communicators" (Gaston, p. i). While most educators While noting these di ffe rences, it is j ust as important for will concu r with the above statement, the majority of regular the instructor" ... to teach children to find underlying classroom teachers have had nothing in their prior training si milarities as well as o bvious differences among peoples" to prepare them to instruct children who have very little (Martin, p. 7). And, fi nally, to ensure that multicu ltu ral knowledge of the English language. Consequently, " Limited education is not just a subject , but rather a fact of li fe in English Speaking (LEP) Students present a challenge 10 every classroom, teachers need to decide " .. . how it is they teachers which require every learned, intuitive, and creative want their students to behave toward one another and what teach ing technique possiblc" (Sakash, p. 4). attitudes they want to foster in their classrooms" (Ziegler, The American Association of Colleges of Teacher Educa p. 13). tion (AACTE) has defined cultural pluralism as follows: It is essential that the teacher understand the position of "To endorse cultural pluralism is to endorse the principle the learner. "Learning to speak English is a major task, but that therc is no one model American. To endorse cultural its difficul ty is compounded by a new enviro nment, a new plu ralism is to understand and appreciate the differences that value system, a change in educational methods and tech exist among the nation's citizens. II is to sec differences as niques of instructions, and when expected behaviors are new a pOsitive force in the continuing development of a society and must be learned" (Sakash, p. 4) . While there is no single which professes a wholesome respect for the intrinsic worth way to ensure cultural awareness, there are some instruc of eVe ry individual ... II is a concept that aims toward a tional methods that many people bel ieve are best suited to heig htened sense of being and of wholeness of the entire the intercultural learning process. "Among them are ex SOciety based on the unique strengths of each of its parts" perimental learning, the inductive or inqui ry method, and (Ornstei n and Levine, p. 446). the direct approach" (Hoopes, p. 31). Some of the varied What implications does this have for the Kentucky techniques of instruction used in these models arc puzzles, 27 games, role playing, stories, simulation, artifacts, music and need to promote a world where" . .. it is not bad to be art. different; it is only interesting to be different" (Martin, p. Since "students are also under great pressure to acco m 8) . "The essential point is that tolerance and appreciation modate and assimilate into American culture in order to be of human diversity do not happen by chance, and that how acepted by their teachers and peers" (Finocchiaro, Bonomo, teachers st ructure their classrooms as well as what they p. 157), teachers can often help reduce the stress of cultural teach, can have a profound influence on children's behavior and academic adjustment for both their students and them and attitudes towards others" (Ziegler, p. 27). selves by learning about the child's culture and history and by becoming knowledgeable about the second language ac REFERENCES quisition process. The well-informed teacher realizes that Finocchiaro, M., Bonomo, M. The Foreign Language Learner: A Guide listening is the first important step in learning a second for Teachers. New York: Regents Publications Company, 1982, 1S7. language . Speaking English develops after listening com Gaston, J, Culrural A warene~ Teaching Techniques. Resource Handbook prehension is well establis hed. Reading and writing skills are Number 4, 1984, l. the last skills to occur in the language development process. Hoopes, 0.5. Intercultural Education. Phi Delta Kappa Educalional Faun. Recognition of the language level ability of the limited dation, 1980, 142,29·3 1. Manin, D. Reducing Ethnocentrism. Teaching Exceptional Children. Fall: English-speaking st udent is vital in providing the necessary 1987, 20,7·8, language skills to keep students progressi ng toward Ornstein, A., Levine, D. Foundatioins of Education. Boston: Houghton proficiency. Mifflin Company, 1981, 446. Finally, the classroom teacher needs to be aware of this Penfield, J. ESL: The Reg ula r Classroom Teacher's Perspective. Dirctory lime factor in learning a new language and adjusting to a of Professional Prl'fJQration Programs in TESOL in the United States: 1986-/988. 21. new culture. It simply takes time. The classroom teacher Sakash, K. Handbook for Cla~room Teachers of Limited English Profi· must be patient and understanding and also have a real istic cient Studerrrs. Arlington Heights, Illinois: Bilingual Education Service, ex pectation for the child that is different. 198\, 4. Since the ultimate success of global education depends Ziegler, S. Maximizing the Potential of MUlt icUlturalism in the Classroom. upon what happens in the classroom, educators everywhere Education Canada. Summer: 1981. 21, 13, 17. 28 THE MATHEMATICALLY GIFfED CHILD Martha Hodum How can educators identify children gifted in The Johns Hopkins University Study of Mathematically mathematics, and what then is best and most feasible for Precocious Youth points to the Scholastic Aptitude Test the training and tapping of the talents of these young people? (SAT) for college admission as a reliable means of identify In the 1978 Congressional Gifted and Talented Children's ing highly gifted junior high school students (Keating, 1974). Education Act (Cassidy, Johnson, 1986), the term "gifted Similar measures are needed to help make effective and talented children" means children and, whenever ap judgments about younger children (Trafton, 1981)~ plicable, youth, who are identified at the preschool, elemen Mathematically gifted girls are often labeled "tomboys" tary I or secondary level as possessing demonstrated or poten (Fox, 1981) because of their analytical, unconventional, and tial abilities that give evidence of high performance capabili· independent ideas. Differences in male and female ty in areas such as intellectual, creative, specific academic mathematical abilities (Aiken, 1987) are not pronounced or leadership ability or in the performing and visual arts and before high school, but by the end of that period boys are who by reason therefore require services or activities not superior to girls in mathematical computation and problem ordinarily provided by the school. solving. Some biological differences have been noted (Aiken, Funding for giftedness is based on this federal definition 1987), but cultural attitudes most often discourage girls from coupled with individual state definitions which follow suit higher level courses and competing with boys. Parents and with some modifications. Kentucky still includes teachers need to encourage their mathematically gifted girls. psychomotor ability (Cassidy, Johnson, 1986) which is Both girls and boys need to be exposed to mathematically usually amply provided for through local emphasis on successful female role models. athletics. It is often erroneously assumed that intellectually gifted Donald Treffinger of the Center for Creative Learning children will progress and do well wherever they are placed (1981) uses Renzulli's three basic components of giftedness (Wolfle, 1986). But the mathematically gifted waste time in (above average ability, creativity, and task commitment) as a regular classroom setting going over topics already learned an effective definition for guiding school practice. (Bartkovich, George, 1980); and this may lead to boredom General characteristics of the gifted (Greenes, 1981) and alienation from the learning process. While often given include their fast-learning pace, keen observation skills, more "busy work" they should, in fact, be given fewer prob excellent memories, exceptional verbal and reasoning lems. The sequential nature of mathematics allows the gifted capabilities, well-developed powers of abstraction, ability learner to build concepts rapidly, and learning is more to make intuitive leaps, willingness to take risks in explora dependent on intellectual ability than on chronological age tion of new ideas, curiosity, preference for oral communica or life experience (Bartkovich, George, 1980). Thus, the tion over written, and preference for complex problems. mathematics curriculum needs to provide for in-depth treat Greenes (1981) stresses a distinction between the gifted ment of basic content along with correlating enrichment student and the " good" student. The good student " goes topics andlor acceleration (Payne, 1981). Higher-level to school well," is attentive, willing to help, "a good exer cognitive thinking and higher-order reasoning skills should cise doer," completes all assignments carefully in the be pursued. prescribed time, and is a "pleasure to have in class." These Acceleration becomes a near necessity (Payne, 1981) with above-average, academically talented, honors students the highly talented because of the "voracity" of their should not be confused with the even faster, thoroughly intellectual appetites. gifted learner (Bartkovich, George, 1980). Mathematical giftedness is a specific aptitude (Bartkovich, The most common plan for acceleration allows com George, 1980) and may not carryover into other subject pletion of K-8 mathematical content in seven years, areas although it often does in areas of applied mathematics so that a full year of algebra can be taken in grade such as physics, chemistry, and engineering. Statistically, eight. Then the regular four years of high school those gifted are in the upper one percent for their age group mathematics can be completed at the end of grade in reasoning abilities. They may use a variety of nonstandard eleven and advanced placement calculus in grade approaches in problem solving; they tend to organize data twelve (Payne, 1981). into lists to discover patterns and relationships and be certain of all possibilities; they are able to apply informa Acceleration must be the student's choice (Bart kovich, tion learned in one context to a problem in another context; George, 1980) and be backed by strong motivation. It must and they generalize about observed relationships (Greenes, allow for the student to receive academic credit for what 1981). he has learned. l 29 Accelerat ion can be accomplished through three avenues resources, and methods for the gifted. They may help to (Shufelt, 1981): independent study using a textbook; identify a course of action best suited to the individ ual independent study through programmed, individualized student. They may work cooperatively with the classroom materials, either print or computer presented; or grouping teacher and serve as a resource. Lack of funding fot across grade lines wit h instruction provided by a teacher who specialists in most local school systems leaves the enrich· is a mathematics speciali st. The latter model, proven suc ment to the individual teacher who ofl en has neither the time cess fu l through the Study of Mathematically Precocious or access to appropriate materials and who lacks special. Youth (Bartkovich, George, 1980), is often a very fast-paced ized mathematics knowledge and training to work with the class where a group of homogeneous st udents meet once a truly gifted child (Trafton, 1981). With the classroom week for two hours and actively participate in the develop teacher there is little overall planning or systematic treat· ment of co ncepts. Acceleratio n may even be carried out by menl of content and no coordinated program from year to grade skipping (Fox, 1974), subject-mailer advanced place year. This enrichment approach is often no more than "cute ment , part-time or corres pondence coll ege courses for cred it, li ttle activities to fill up time" (Sansone, 1987). or early college admission. Traf!On ( 1981) notes that there are presently large The most widely practiced method of planning for the numbers of specially trained teachers working with Other gifted is enrichment of the curriculum (Fox, 1974). This kinds of special needs Child re n; and , of course , the gifted necessitates individualization of the student's program and athletic youth is not lacking in traini ng opportunities. He when properly developed can create a "new attitude toward projects that it is not unreasonable to expect si milar treat mathemat ics (Bartkovich, George. 1980), resulting in ment fo r the intellectuall y gi fted children who currently increased expectations as to what can be accomplished when number perhaps over 2 million (Woifle, 1986f). Good the at mosphere is stimulating and challenging." teachers are the core of the success fu l enrichment program Enrichment can be implemented in the regular classroom (Trafton, 1981). Wolne (1986) stresses J.J. Gallagher's by the teacher or outside the classroom by a specialist teacher (1985) moral guidelines which th e good teacher may en (Shufelt, 198 1) wi th the purpose being to expose students courage in the gifted learner: a joy and excitement about to a greater subject depth and encourage independe nt think learning that will carry him through the drudgery and routine ing. The classroom teacher then must learn to recognize tbat that is an inevitable part of learning, a sensitivity to the students learn in different ways; create opportunities for special responsibility to society that accompanies being ex ploration, inquiry, and problem solving; and make gifted, and a respect fo r all children regardless of their abili available challengi ng problems, materials, community ty . Acceleration and enrichment models ideall y should be resources , and mentors (Sansone, 1987). combined to meet the needs of the ind ividual (Shufelt, 1981). Math classes can be grouped like reading classes . Later In the 1987 International Mathematical Olympiad Russia chapters of the text o ft en not reached by the end of the and the United Stat es tied for first ; West Germany placed school year could be assigned. The world of recreational third; and, in their first-time competition, China scored mathematics materials in the library may be introduced (Fox, fourth (Stanley, 1987). Stanley predicts if China can preserve 1981). Math challenges in the classroom, school-wide, and its current devotion to education of the gi ft ed, by the year regional levels shou ld be promoted (Cohen, 1985). An active 2025 or earlier it may challenge the United States industrially school or area math club can offer important peer group far beyond what Japan has already done. acquaintances and inte ractions to ~ t i mula te new ideas. With mathematics being the only completely internationa1 Teachers and schools should subsc ribe to periodicals such language (Snow, 1970), every means should be made to iden as Arithmelic Teacher and build an easy-access resource ti fy and challenge our innately, mathematicall y gi fted li brary along with books such as Richard W. Copeland's children. To neglect this educational necessit y is to " throw Mathematics and [he Elemen,lary Teacher (Waters, 1981). away opportunities for national excellence" (Snow, 1970) Treffinger (Sansone, 1987) is developing a "networking" and to waste precious minds. program to help provide educators with a reference for the latest and best gifted materials. One such gifted program REfERENCES is the " Hands On Eqmrt ion Learning System" (Borenson, 1987) which is an int roduction to algebraic concepts and Aiken, L. (1 986-87). " Sex Differences in Mathematical Ability: A Review met hods through a game-like approach for third grade and of the Literature." Educutionul Research Quarlu/y, 10 (4), 2~ - n . Bankovich, K.G. & George, W.e. (1980). T~hing Ihe GiJledand Ta/enltd up. Computers in schools offer hopes fo r the emergence of in the Mathematicr Classroom. Washington. D.C.: National Ed uca we ll -written , carefully produced software programs designed tion Association. for the gi ft ed learner with individualization being realized Sorenson. H. (1987). " Algebra for Gifted Third Graders." Gifltd Child (Shufelt, 1981). House (198 1) describes other poss ible Today, IQ, 54-5 6. enrichments such as magnet schools, summer programs, and Cassidy, J . &: Johnson, N. (1986). " Federal and Slale Definilions of Giftedneu: Then and Now." GiJted Child Today, 9, 15-21. learn ing centers. Cohen, L. (t985). "Mathematics Contest Slimulatcs StudentS." Arithmttit: The specialist enrichment teacher or " catalyst" teacher Teacher, 33, 33-34. (Treffinger, 198 1) is one who is trained in materials, Fo", L (1 981). " Mathtmatically Able Girls: A Special Challenge." 30 Arithmetic Tttlcher, 18, 22·23. Snow, C. P. (1970). "Our Obliption 10 Gifted Children. " illStructor 79, Gretnes, C. (1981), " Identifying the Gi fted Student in Mathematics," ~97 . ' Arithmetic Teacher, 18, 14· 16. SWlley, J.C. (1987). " Malhcmalkal Aptitude in China." Gifter/Child To House. p , (198 1), " Programs for Able Students: District or Regional Al ief' day, 10, II. I natives," Arithmetic Teacher, 18, 26-27, Trafton, P. (1981). "Overview: Provid ing for Mathemllically Able Keating, D,P, (1975), "The Study of Mathematically Precocious You th. Students." Arithmetic Teacher, 18, 12.\3. t Journal 0/ Special Educatioll, 9, 45--62, Treffinger, D.J. (1981). Blendin, Gi/ted EdUCfltion with Ihe To/al School Payne, J. (1981). The Mathematics Curriculum for Talented Children." Progrtlm. Wi lli amsvilte, NY: Center for Creative Learnina. Arithmetic Teacher, 18. 18·2 1. Waters. M.M. ( 1980). "Slrllegies for Teachina Children Giflcd in Elemen. Sansone, R. (\987). " Providing for Giftedness throughout the Educational tary Mathematics." A rithmetic Tt'QCher, 17, 14-17. Process." (I nterview wit h Donald J. Treffinger). Gifled Child Today, Wolne, J.A. (l986). "Enrichirtl the Mathematics PrOiram for Middle /0, 2·S. School Gifted Students." Roeper Rell;ew, 9, g\·8S. Shufelt, G. (1981). "Providing for Able Students at the Loca! School Level." Arithmetic Tttlcher. 18, 44-46. 31 MANAGEMENT'S ATTITUDE TOWARD COLLECTIVE BARGAINING Alan Coates Collective bargaining is a process whereby representatives 3) Industry-wide bargaining is used primarily by heavy of management and its employees meet to discuss and industry. The negotiating teams are made up of industry negotiate the various phases and aspects of their relation wide management officials with a chairman and unions with ship with a view to arranging a mutually satisfactory agree selected representatives from several levels, includi ng na ment that is acceptable to both parties (9). The process is tional and international offices. Unions tend to favo r generall y associated with labor unions. However, with the industry-wide bargaining because their imerests are generally advent of team or participative management style businesses , quite common. However, local represematives are concerned the process is also used without the interventi on of a third as local issues are somelimes lost in the negotiations. party. To most people the process of collective bargaining Management is hesitant of this type of bargaining because appears to be a simple process. AClUally it is both com preparation for negotiation requires that they reveal the plicated and difficult. It should never be considered an end financial aspects of their business , and it may req uire them untO itsel f but merel y one step in establishing a total rela to compromise their individual ideals or philosophies. tionship between the employee and the labor organization Management is also concerned with the tremendous strength that represents his employees (9). a union develops with consolidation and the increased Before a total relationship can be properly developed, bargaining power that resu lts. there are several steps that must take place. The essential 4) Area-wide bargaining is common to the innkeeping in steps are: dustry. It is usually found in a large cit y or resort area where 1. Organization, by election, of the bargaining agent a central group represents the em ployee hotels/ motels and for the employees desiring such represemation. This a central labor trades council represents all of the unions. process follows an established procedure and is con Despite the drawbacks previously mentioned with union con ducted by representatives of the National Labor solidation, the advantages of this type of bargaining seem Relations Board. to outweigh the disadvantages. By using this type of 2. The process of collective bargaining which leads to negotiation , wage competition among businesses in the area a mutuall y acceptable agreement. may be lim ited and the available labor supply may remain 3. Day to day bargaining, between management and fairly constant. One disadvantage of an agreement of this its represented employees. ty pe is that large and small operations are grouped together In his book The Labor-Management Handbook for and the slant of an agreemem may be favorable to the larger, Hotels, Motels, Restaurants, and Inst itutions, H.K. Witzky more affluent operations. States that there are five basic areas or types of collective 5) Coalition bargaining is relatively unknown in the bargaining: Si ngle Unit, Company-wide, Industry-wide, hospitality industry. Small and weak unions band together Area-wide and Coalition. to try to increase their bargaining positions. The idea of a 1) Single unit collective bargaining is used to establish an central industry labor council is an extension of coalition agreement for a single business or facilit y. All negotiations bargaining (9) . are local, and concern the si ngle independent unit. A The objective of any collective bargaining session is to business that is represented by more than one union may, develop a series of sound and understandable goals. The for the sake of convenience, ct;lmbine at negotiation time basic objectives usually set up in labor agreements can be and seek an agreement. This is an advantage to management quite varied but tend to center around six common areas: in that it creates uniform labor conditions. The unions I. To establish the framework of rules and regulations benefit from greater bargaining strength. Both parties covering everyday relationships that develop be benefit in time saving because they do not face a series of tween labor and management . separate and concentrated actions. 2. To seek to maintain the stabil ity of the business 2) The negotiations of a labor agreement that covers organization's purpose for a specified period of several si milar operations, each at different locations but time. having a common owner, faU under the category of 3. To promote and continue to maintain harmonious company-wide bargaining. An agreement of this type must and cooperative relationships between management be broad in its scope but as basic as possible since it is not and labor. possible to deal with the specific differences of each opera 4. To establish the rights of management, labor and tion. Agreements of this type are not very common in the its representative union. hospitality industry but may be used in the future by some S. To establish the terms and conditions of employ of the small chains. ment for the benefit of management and labor. 6. To improve and maintain, at the highest levels of and data more objectively. It is also beneficial to study other understand ing, the business and economic respon contracts fo r similar businesses to see what has been sibilities of management and labor (9). established for other operations. The Bureau of National Allhough all of these points may not be incorporated into Affair's Collective Bargaining. Negotiations and Contract an agreement, the deg ree to wh ich both parties, manage Service is an excellent source for these cont racts. Since wages ment and labor, work to achieve precisely what they want are the princi ple issue in any negotiat ion. keep abreast of to achieve through the agreement may affect the outcome local as well as area and national wage rates and changes. of fu ture negotiating sessions. Because job classifications and titles diffe r, make certain Each of the six objectives previously listed outlines a pur that salaries for posit ions are properly identified. pose for the agreement. In reality they only scratch the sur It should be a goal of every collective bargaining agree face . for each of these points that has been condensed to ment to increase the und erstanding between labor and one or two lines must encompass the whole spectrum of management in order to foster good relationships rather than everyday relationships including human problems. personal to maintain the status quo. As both management and labor grievances and unforeseen eventS which normall y occur in grow and matu re under an agreement, they seek to the conduct of busi ness . The agreement must also take into strengthen thei r positions. The aim of labor unions is to add account the bu siness climate and antici pated changes that to the benefits gained in bargaining over the years. Manage may occur during its lifespan. II is. therefore. very impor ment in turn seeks to improve such things as product ivity, tant to be prepared with pen inent information when enter competitive position, and quality to mai ntai n a favorable ing into a collective bargaining session. earning and growt h record. The development of a favorable The preparation for labor contract negotiations is a proc labor relations climate by establishing a credible manage ess of gathering the facts, preparing arguments and ment group can make further negotiations much more pro establishing the company's position for the upcoming ductive. The day to start preparing for future negotiations nego tiations (3). This process may start several months prior is the day you sign the current agreement. to the negot iations and may generate summaries of activities Negotiations are generall y conducted by a group of that have taken place during the last contract period. A strike representatives for both parlies. A moderate sized group is play may also be gene rated at this time. This whole process, best. If the group is too large, it becomes unwieldy and all however, addresses the labor relations climate as it current of the va rious points of view may only confuse th e issues ly exists. At the negotiations, the parties proceed to debate at hand. Unions tend to prefer a large group because it serves the issues and reach an agreement heavily influenced by what to assure the rank and fi le that no special deals or coll usion has occurred during the previous two or three years. were part of the negot iations. A large group also hel ps the While this is the approach most negotiations follow, there union to se ll the final agreement. are situatiollS where it is not appropriate and additional Whatever the size of the group, there arc certain principles efforts must be put forth in the preparation stage to create that all negotiators should follow. One of the firs t pri nciples a more comprehensive program. Examples of this would is that of "good fa ith. " This principle simp ly means that include an operation that was suffe ri ng losses and must have no unfair advantage will be taken by either side . The wage concessions from its employees or a co mpany that demonstration of a firm belief in this princi ple can mark wants to im plement a productivity incentive program . In the difference between success and medi ocri ty. In addition, cases such as these, the company must take a more aggressive negotiators should be honest, sincere. pat ient, and firm . It approach. The aggressive approach must include an audit is im perative that the manager be a parI of the negotiating of the current labor relations elimate. This can be done by team since he is principally responsi ble for a profitable talking to management personnel with special emphasis on operation and has to li ve with the agreement every working the comments from first and second level supervisors. They day. can give critical insight into any areas that now contain defi The time spent by management in preparatory meetings ciencies that can be eli minated in the new agreement. This is very important as it sets the stage for the begin ning of innuence cannot be developed in a short period of time but actual contract negotiations. should be an ongoing part of business operations. This audit The actual negotiations should take place in the com pany should also identify any specific behavior or condition that conference room or a conference room that is off the should be corrected. A list of goals and objectives based on premises but paid for by the company (5). The fi rst series the audit and corporate direction should also be developed of meetings should establish an atmosphere of understand prior to the start of any negotiations. ing. A time, place, and total time frame fo r the meeting As part of the preparation the negotiating team should should be set and agreed upon in advance. Records should tneet and get to kn ow something about the opposing team be kept of just what transpires and is accompl ished at the of negotiators. They should become familiar with points of fi rst and all subsequent meetings. The company team should Vie w, personalities, scope of authori ty, and try to under be prepared with a list of management demands but these stand the way of thinking of the opposi ng team. By perform should be held back until the union demands have been ing this analysis, the negotiators can prepare arguments presented. Getting the fee l fo r the various demands 33 may ta ke several sessions. Management wi ll want to explore parties bUI can be very helpful in settling diffi cult issues. thoroughly the natu re and extent, as we ll as the intent of The mediator can also be useful in resolving labor_ each demand. The ti me used to an alyze these demands will management relationship problems. be we1l spent. Frequently, it is wh ile analyzing these demands In a Monthly Labor Review magazine article, Messrs John that management uncovers just how deepl y seated and im Stepp, Robert Baker, and Jerome Barrett state: pOrt ant these demands are. The second series of meetings sho uld be used to draw oul Mediators are uniquely positioned to detect the danger the union, to get the " feel" of what the union believes it signals emanating from a poor labor-management rela mus t have and what issues are bargaining chips. The tionship. When involved at the collective bargaining emphasis should be on yo ur desire to understand the union table in dispute mediation, the mediator can make a correctly. reasoned judgement as to the nature of the relation At the third series of meetings the company's issues should shi p behind the connict. This is done by examining be presented. Little or no reference should be made to the the issues, assessing each side's internal relationshi ps un ion proposals unless they can be used to rei nforce com and testing and ve ri fy ing these impressions th rough pany proposals in order to establish a common ground. indepth private discuss ions with both parties (6) . In all subsequent meetings the issues prese nted are dis cussed one at a time. Proposals and alternatives are reviewed If difficuh negotiations are anticipated, a mediator may be and solutions reached. When both parties agree on an issue present from the beginning of the negotiations. it is recorded and set aside for incorporation into the fi nal The process of collective bargaining is a long and agreement. The specific issues in a labor contract are tailored sometimes slow process but if conducted in the proper man to a given business or industry. There are several common ner and atmosphere can yield agreement advantages to the clauses fo und in all contracts. These clauses spell OU t the employer . There are several basic guidelines to remember. basic rules which the business and union will follow. Examples of these clauses are: 1. Be prepared wi th a list of specific goals that you want in the next contract. Proposals that can be Parties to the contract - th e union and the employer. offered to meet these goals should be prepared and The bargaining unit - names union as sole bargaining presented at the third series of meetings. unit. 2. Focus on winni ng, allow sufficient room to Seniority - defines as straight, departmental, limited, negotiate but be fi rm, insist on a correspondi ng or other type. concession before agreeing to a union demand. Holidays - li st days plus special compensation. 3. Draft a contract that is readable and useable. Vacations - length , pay and eligib ilit y requirements. Clearly define guidelines fo r employee eligibili ty, Grievance procedure - processing procedure and time qualification and disqualificat ion of benefit plans, limit. and list just causes fo r disci pline. Arbitration - who will mediate if normal grievance 4. Be patient and never lose your cool. Beware of procedure does not settle the problem. dramatics such as table pounding and screaming Wages - wage scales, incentive plans, etc. which are designed to intimidate or a nge r you. Discipli ne and Discharge - reason for, penalties. 5. Keep complete notes of the proceedings: The Termination date - the date tne contrct will expire. Na tional Labor Relations Board tends to believe the side that keeps the best notes (7,8). The basic cl auses and specific iss ues are written out in great detail and as a result the final agreement s can become quite The trend of business today is toward participative long. • management, and un ions are dec lining in innuence and Occasionall y an issue of negotiation will become so con membership. The unions appear to be "Out of step wi th the troversial that all attempts to resolve it seem impossible. times" by faili ng to address the issues that are uppermost When th is occurs a complete recess may be in order. This in the minds of the people they are trying to serve. Unions recess must be agreed to by both panics. This is often called continue to address job securit y and more money as the a cooling-off period. II does nOI mean that the negOlialion major issues while the group they are trying to organize is process is cance ll ed but allows both parties time to step back also concerned with job satisfactio n ( I). and look at Ihe si lU ation from a different perspective. At Collective bargaining agreements that are negotiated in the end of the cooling off period, negotiations resume, and tOOay's business climate are indicating wage increases in the hopefu lly the issue wi ll be resolved. 4 Y2 to 5 VI percent area, shared benefi t costs, and more par In a real stalemate all of the facts may be given to a third ticipation in day to day operati ng decisions by employees. party. The Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service, an This is a significant change in collect ive bargaining agency of the Un ited States Department of Labor is ofte n agreements of the previous ten to fi fteen years. The major used. The use of a med iator requires the agreement of both unions of a few years ago are losin g thei r abi li ty to set the trend in settlements. This position has not been assumed 2. Anon. 1983. "Interview wilh Michael V. Abcarian." Human Rt!$Our«f by other major unions. As a result, smaller employers are Manar~m e n' - ldtaS and Trtnds. 33:30-32. 3. Beary, R. 1984. "Know Your Labor Dimlle Before Contract Negotia able to customize their labor agreements (3). tions Begin. Personn~l Journal. 63(3):26, 28. I Management has a distinct advantage in today's 4. Guidinger, 1. 1985. Interview with Personnel Manager, 3-12-85, Country business/ labor climate. If management takes the lead by Oven Bakery. Bowling Gr«n. KY. I responding to employee needs and remembers that they are 5. Lundberg, D .. J. Armata'i. 1980. The Management of Ptople in HOlels, • not just handling problems but dealing with people, collec Restaurants, and Clubs. Wm. C. Brown Co., Dubuque, IA. 6. Stepp, J.R .. R.P . Baker, J.T. Barrett . 1982 . "Helping Labor and tive bargaining agreements can continue to benefit Management Sec and Solve Problems." Monthly Labor R ~v ie "". management . 105(9):15- 20. 7. Stokes, A. 198 1. "Ten Fundamental Princi ples of Collective Bargain REFERENCE ins Negotiations. " Food St-rviu MQrk~ ' ing 43(6): 18. B. Stokes. A. \982. "Some Practical Do's and Don't for Effective Col· I. Anon. 198 1. " In Today's Labor Environment, 'Management Ha'i the lective Bargaining. " Food Sf!",iu Marke/ing. 44(4): 18. Advantage". Human R~souru.5 Managemen,- Ideas and T"nds. 9. Witzky. H.I(. 1975. The Labor·ManagementHandbook Jor HOtels. 29:173-176 . Motels. Rutaurants, and IrIS/i/lt/ions. Cahners Books. Boston, Mass. 35 - I t •