Telework in the scenarios for the future of work

Patricia Vendramin ¨ Fondation Travail-Université

CV

Patricia Vendramin is a project manager at in skills and training. She is responsible for the Work & Technology Research Unit of the the contribution of FTU to the FLEXCOT Fondation Travail-Universite in Namur. She project (flexible work practices and has a background in sociology (1981) and communication technologies) for the TSER communication sciences (1983); she also programme in the fourth framework completed a master degree in development programme. She also manages the TACTIQ studies (1983), both at the University of project for the European Social Fund Louvain-la-Neuve, where she started doing (Advanced communication technology, research in 1983. She is a researcher at the industrial changes and qualifications). She FTU since 1988 and a project manager since also carries out research and publications for 1992. She is involved in the design and the EMERIT programme and is responsible implementation of several research projects for the Walloon newsletter on technology on social and economic aspects of new assessment "La Lettre EMERIT". She is co- information and communication technology in author, with Gerard Valenduc, of the book industries and services. Her main research "Le travail a distance dans la societe de interests are new flexible work practices, l’information" (Distance working in the distance working, new work organisation in information society, 1997). manufacturing and services, and new needs

Conference Abstract

This paper proposes to analyse the current A second point will examine the current and future trends in the development of trends in the development of telework. telework in the context of scenarios for the It will point out that the most future of work in the information society. widespread forms of telework are not home-based telework as such, but new A first point will point out some central forms of organisation of work based on issues in the studies of the future of communication technology, for work in the information society: the instance: mobile telework, new dematerialisation of the economy, the enterprises providing teleservices, increasing search of flexibility in "mixed" telework combining, various organisation, some new trends in workplaces on irregularly basis. The human resource management. These common characteristic of these forms issues are particularly relevant as of organisation is the search of regards the development of telework flexibility.

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Finally a third point will discuss an Authors: important challenge for the future of Patricia Vendramin, project manager "Work work, that is not specific to telework but & Technology" particularly put forward with the Gérard Valenduc, research director development of telework: how to Fondation Travail-Université (FTU) develop flexible telework patterns Rue de l’Arsenal, 5 avoiding a deterioration of working B-5000 Namur () conditions ? What can be a socially Phone +32-81-725122, fax +32-81-725128 sustainable scenario of flexibility ? E-mail: [email protected]

Conference Paper Patricia Vendramin, Gérard Valenduc Fondation Travail-Université (Namur, Belgium)

This paper proposes to analyse the current Given the diversification of forms of telework and future trends in the development of (home-based telework, mobile work, call telework, in relation to scenarios of the future centres, etc.), we will often use the of work in the information society. expression distance working, although “tele” 1. First of all we will point out some key and “distance” are objectively synonymous. issues in the studies of the future of work The expression distance working has fewer in the information society: the connotations that the term telework and it is dematerialisation of the economy, the more representative of diversity. Mobile work increasing search for flexibility in and distance working companies, for organisation, some new trends in human example, are rarely mentioned under the resources management. These issues telework label, but they are entirely are particularly relevant as regards the significant for the purposes of this paper. development of telework Visions of the Future of Work in the 2. A second section will examine the current Information Society trends in the development of telework. It will point out that the most widespread In the literature and debates about the future forms of telework are not home-based of work in the information society, a set of telework as such, but new forms of common trends is usually analysed. They organisation of work based on mainly concern dematerialisation, skills, communication technology, for instance: knowledge and training, flexibility. The mobile telework, new distance working scenarios of the future of work also examine companies, “mixed” telework combining more fundamental changes in society: new various workplaces on irregularly basis. definitions of the concepts of work, The common characteristic of these employment and activity; working time forms of organisation is the search of arrangement and reduction; the challenge of flexibility. regulation. In this section, we will briefly 3. Finally we will discuss an important present some of these trends that are challenge for the future of work: how to particularly relevant as regards the develop flexible telework patterns development of telework or distance working: avoiding a deterioration of working - the dematerialisation of economy; conditions ? What can be a social scenario of flexibility ? This challenge is - the restructuring of service activities; not specific to telework, but particularly - the new emphasis on knowledge and enhanced with the development of competence; telework.

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- the development of flexible organisation research & development, is growing as and flexible labour markets. compared to material investments. This overview of the scenarios of the future The development of emerging forms of of work and the discussion about flexibility telework, such as mobile work and distance mainly refer to the first report of the working enterprises, is linked to the process FLEXCOT project (Flexible work practices of dematerialisation. and communication technology) for the TSER programme of the European 1.2. Restructuring Service Activities Commission [Valenduc & al., 1998]. In the area of services, except for some social or relational services, many new forms 1.1. A Dematerialised Economy of organisation are based on information and Neither technological changes nor the communication technologies. This trend in promotional campaigns of the European restructuring services presents three Commission are enough to explain the characteristics, which are relevant to explain expansion and diversification of forms of the renewal of telework: the separation of distance working. The real cradle of telework production and consumption of services, the lies in certain major changes in the economy, industrialisation of services and and more particularly in services, mainly the “telemediation” in services. tendency towards the dematerialisation of Separation of production and consumption of economy and the restructuring of service services means that a service can be activities. produced and stored in one place and This dematerialisation of the economy is consumed later in another or in several shown in the growing share of non-material different places. Many services are becoming activities in economic activity, characterised products, which can be consumed anywhere by: and any time. They are becoming more easily commercialised and can be delocated. - Growing immaterial production and consumption: the market for information Actually, without information and products and services, like software, communication technologies, a service is multimedia, teleservices, is growing essentially a non-physical activity; it must be faster than markets for material consumed when it is produced. The output of equipment and goods. services cannot be stored or transported. This characteristic decreases the possibility - An increasing number of persons are of marketing services and makes them very employed in the production and localised activities. Conversely, with distribution of information, knowledge, information and communication technologies, cultural and leisure activities, whereas services can be stored and transported at employment in the production of very low cost, since by and large they consist material equipment and goods is of information. The cost of storage and decreasing. transport is becoming very low in comparison - Companies draw greater profit from to the cost of production of a service. This their non-material activities than from explains the growth of teleservices, distance their directly productive activities, via working enterprises and other activities like their financial engineering, financial home banking or distance learning. investments, maintenance, advice and Industrialisation of services is another major service activities. tendency. In the service sector, the - The share of non-material investments, movement towards industrialisation i.e. software, organisation, training, increases every time information and human resource management, communication technologies make significant

PANNEL 1 - SESSION 4 TELEWORK'98 headway. This industrialisation takes the competence where there is little routine work. form of a two-fold transformation. On one The purpose of technology is now to improve hand, codifying data and knowledge tends to complex processes, in which human standardise most situations handled by knowledge is a key factor, and to increase employees. On the other hand, systems to the individual performance in a complex distribute tasks, like workflow software for working environment. The main concern of example, automatically move from operation human resources management is to develop to another, whatever the location of the work competence in a changing successive agents involved in processing a environment. dossier or carrying out a task [Perret, 1995]. The issue of qualification, education and Finally “telemediation” is the third major trend training is dealt with in several prospective which characterises the future of service studies of work in the information society. activities in the information society. This Such studies often focus on two dominant refers to replacing or completing a “face to trends: face” relationship with clients, by a - New skills and professions linked with “mediation by telephone”; i.e. offering advice ICTs developments: the skills of ICTs and services based on a telephone call. In a professionals become less “hard” and growing range of industries many functions more “soft”, including organisational of services involve mediation by telephone, aspects and ability to communicate. particularly sales, marketing, technical Although their growth rates are high, ICTs assistance, booking, insurance, market professions only represent a small labour studies, etc. Call centres have developed the market, highly sensitive to “fashion” supply of services in this promising new effects or short-term shortages. niche [Cornford & al., 1996]. Growth of on- line services on the Internet can be - Shift in existing skills, from operational considered as telemediation evolving in the requirements to new requirements based direction of the Web. The characteristic on knowledge and communication: many common to these services based on studies emphasise the immaterial and telemediation is that they are perfectly relational dimensions in the content of mobile, both in space and time, meaning that work (creativity, abstraction, aptitude to they can be executed from any place and at communicate, management of any time. uncertainties, reactivity to events, etc.). The future of service activities offers more Knowledge and competence themselves are becoming a direct factor of production. and more opportunities for distance working. New organisational patterns are already A significant feature for the future of work in explored in order to increase flexibility in the information society is the shift from organisation by using ICTs and distance qualification requirements to competence working. requirements. New forms of organisation supported by ICTs make the distinction 1.3. Knowledge and Competence between qualification, skill or competence A direct consequence of the debate on the less and less clear [Dubé & Mercure, 1997; “dematerialised economy” is the strategic Zarifian, 1996]. The usual distinction role of knowledge. In many policy documents between qualification and skill lies in the fact of the European Commission or the OECD, that qualification is attached to the the information society is also termed the workplace, while skill or competence belongs “learning society” or the “knowledge society”. to the worker. Qualification depends on The most recent technical progress related to organisational options, human resource communication technology develops its management, collective agreements and impacts in areas of knowledge and technology. Skill and competence are related

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to education, training and experience of the supporting institutions to develop such workers, and to their personal capacities. flexibility. In the firms where ICTs are widely Flexibility is generally used to denote a new implemented, the recruitment requirements organisational form, whether at the level of and the description of functions are mainly the firm or at societal level, contrasting this based on competence. This is an important with those organisational system(s) generally shift from a collective to an individual known as Fordist or Taylorist, forms which approach of qualification. are said to have characterised industrial Some authors go further in the analysis of economies during the period from around the such a shift from qualification to competence. 1920 to the early 1970s. For the era of 1980s “Competence appears as a substitution and 1990s characterised by globalisation, process; it challenges the recognition and increasing competition, more dynamic validation of knowledge and know-how markets, greater and more sophisticated through the wage system. Competence leads consumer demands, greater uncertainty, to a new model of the “productive individual”. rapidly decreasing cycles of technological It generates a specific model of human innovations, and the emergence of new resource management, not centred anymore information and communication technologies, on qualification and employment, but on the it is argued we need more dynamic and individual. (...) Moreover, does the shift from flexible organisational and institutional the qualification model to the competence structures. model represent another shift, from wage Within this framework of flexible organisation, earning to entrepreneurship ? Are various scenarios of the future of work competence and employability something develop new visions of the labour market. similar for entrepreneurship, as qualification Beyond the classical labour market with a and employment are for wage earning ? (...) classical organisation of economic activities Competence can be understood as a new and “typical” workers’ status conditions, a lot form of bargaining qualifications, in a context of new forms of organisation and status of technological change and economic conditions are developed, analysed or taken change”. [Brangier & Tarquinio, 1997] into account. Flexibility is a common Competence is often put forward when character of these “atypical” labour markets. discussing the professional profiles of Some visions of the future of flexible labour distance workers or teleworkers. More markets are oriented towards social generally it seems that, whatever can be the integration (through ideas such as plural sectors or the jobs, the use of advanced economy, intermediary activities, quaternary communication technologies increases the sector, or transitional labour markets), while competence requirements for the workers. others lead to a growing individualistic culture (through ideas such as self- 1.4. Flexible Labour Markets employment, self management or employability). It is anticipated that a key element in the information economy will be flexibility: of Telework or distance working may belong to individuals, of organisations, of institutions each type of scenario even if, in Europe, the and of society in general. Flexibility is very tendencies seem also to be different from a much a portmanteau word, however, and country to another, with quite different ways carries many different meanings to different of implementing flexible labour markets in the people. It is often suggested that flexibility Nordic countries and in the rest of Europe. will be a key element in enhancing economic competitiveness and that the future economic health of Europe will rely to a large extent of the ability of economic actors and

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1.4.1. Flexible Labour Markets oriented towards to precariousness. This way of dealing with Social Integration the question of employment and Unemployment and exclusion are more than unemployment considers the so-called a problem related to conjuncture. Society is “atypical labour markets” from a radically changing; social cohesion, work and its different angle. connection with growth are in a crisis. Telework is often regarded as a mean for Insecurity is growing not only in the integration and social cohesion. A great “peripheral” labour markets but also in the number of telework experiments have been, “core” labour market. Atypical employment is and are still, developed in order to fight growing, precariousness and unemployment exclusion and unemployment. These new too, particularly at the beginning and at the theories of flexible labour market can help to end of a professional career. In this society, develop such “socially oriented” telework work can no longer be the only reference for experiments. the socialisation of individuals. Some authors are developing the idea of the 1.4.2. Flexible Labour Markets oriented towards Individualism development of a “plural society”, a society with many levels, and the emergence of Beside the scenarios of the future of work “plural activity”. “Plural activity” means the turned towards social integration, other recognition of a diversity of activities, a plural visions are quite more individualistic and economy and a plurality of social times in consider the future of work through self- which the individuals can find their social employment and self-management. Flexibility identity and their incomes. The idea of a becomes a general attribute of all the work society of plural activity is in opposition to the practices and how to gain some security is model of a society completely organised left to individuals. around the salaried work. [Gaullier, 1997]. For some authors the worker of the future will In this category of literature, the future of be a self-employed, poly-active man or work and society is envisaged trough radical woman, managing his or her own carrier in changes. Other corpuses of literature an individualistic world. Tomorrow's worker consider the future of work, also in a must be able to manage the “enterprise of perspective of integration and cohesion, but himself” [Bühler & Ettighoffer, 1995] in an in fewer fundamental and more practical autonomous and responsible way. From this ways. Some scenarios consider new fields of viewpoint, the worker is preferably self- activities, new status conditions or new employed. One goes from a logic of global conceptions of full employment in employment to a logic of a supply of order to favour the integration of unemployed services, with a “poly-active man” as the new people. Their approaches try to introduce worker’s profile. This strategy suits security in the peripheral labour markets and companies, which prefer to buy the skills in the multiple passing from core labour they need, when they need them, where they market to peripheral labour markets during are to be found, rather than to pay to have someone’s life. them constantly at their disposal. In these views, the worker becomes his or her own This is the key idea developed by Schmid manager. [1998] in the concept of transitional labour market, for example. The concept considers It can be asked, however, whether for the employment and professional carrier from majority of workers, the self-management or the perspective of a whole working time poly-activity era is not very close to a catch- along someone’s life. It also consider atypical as-catch-can economy. The reality shows ways of working as socially useful labour that many self-employed workers did not markets. But these markets need to be really choose this status – they were more or regulated and not regarded as ways leading less forced into it by reorganisation in their

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companies (through downsizing, 1. home-based telework; outsourcing) [Cornford & al., 1996]. 2. telework in satellite offices; In the literature about telework, self- 3. telework in telecentres or telecottages; employment is also often envisaged and the workers are supposed to become “free- 4. distance working companies; lancers”. The term “contingency workforce” is 5. mobile telework; also used. In the United States the “contingency workforce” has become a 6. mixed telework. widely used term. The contingency workers These six categories will be considered in are those belonging to the growing number greater detail below, referring to a paper of “employees” working on one-year or six- recently presented at the Third International month contracts, often half time, and with Workshop on Telework in Turku [Valenduc & several jobs at the same time. From the Vendramin, 1998]. But it already appears company’s perspective this way of working that the declining forms often concerned few represents a “just-in-time” thinking, applied groups of workers here and there and they on its staff. Obviously, for the employee the were almost always set up either as a limited more loose relation to the labour market experience within a company, or as some often represents insecurity and uncertainty, kind of pilot project, often oriented towards but also the opportunity for flexibility and social integration or cohesion. Conversely, constantly new challenges as well as the the flourishing forms of telework (the last great freedom so highly valued by the three) concern entire categories of workers in generation born in the seventies [Forsebäck, entire sectors of economic activity. These are 1995]. not pilot projects. The first three categories If we find a great number of telework were often the result of institutional experiments oriented towards social partnerships and were partially subsidised by integration, a lot of discourses about telework public funds, whereas the following three are also belong to the individualistic approach corporate initiatives in response to market and put all professional profiles on the same pressure, corresponding to basic trends in footing, as if the potential and constraints of the organisation of the economy. a system engineer were the same as those of a secretary or a nurse. 2.1. Declining Forms of Telework 2.1.1. Home-Based Telework Current Trends in the Development of Telework Home-based telework is the best known form of distance working and the most discussed, The concept of telework is born in the although quantitatively remains far below the economic and technological context of the optimistic forecasts of the 70s and the 80s. early eighties. At this time, the dominant trends Still today, home-based telework is a described above were not yet prevalent as category of telework that is immediately such. The current reality of telework covers envisaged in thoughts and discussions about both old forms of telework inherited from the telework. Despite what certain articles say in past and new forms of telework emerging from the press on the basis of old forecasts, the context of the late nineties. home-based telework is not widespread today – we are referring to the case where In our recent studies of telework [Valenduc & the home becomes the main work place, and Vendramin, 1997], we distinguish six major not mobile or mixed telework which is categories, which constitute the hard core of presented in the following points. telework today. The first three are declining; the last three are flourishing: Home-based telework is an experiment done by only a few companies and for small

PANNEL 1 - SESSION 4 TELEWORK'98 groups of workers within those companies. 2.1.2. Satellite Offices Few firms have taken the technical, Satellite offices are locations at a distance of organisational and social risk of intensifying part of the activities of a company. These the use of telework. Large public or private offices are often set up far from the major companies, who have tried the experience of centres and connected with the main home-based telework, have almost never premises. The development of satellite gone beyond the pilot project state, which offices is based on the geographical often covers only a very small share of the separation of front office and back-office staff. Most of the frequently cited classical tasks. Most back-office work, particularly the examples generally concern small, specific most routine jobs, could be located outside groups (translators, programmers) in large large , as long as they are set up in a companies, without affecting the general network with the places where decisions are organisation of their company. Larger scale taken and the main offices. experiments often concern computer or telecommunication companies, which are As other authors [Cornford & al., 1996; testing working methods, not always at O’Siochru & al., 1995], we note relatively few home, to try to extend the scope of the significant realisations of this type in Europe. markets for new products. To the detriment of local development projects, we see that the information Alongside these minor examples, there are handling centres, which exist often, tend to also very specific experiment, often backed concentrate in large cities around urban by the public authorities, targeting integration centres and in suburban zones. of disabled persons. Here, the objective is not the telework as such, but the use of new As concerns perspectives for the future, we distance working technologies to promote the observe that the development and spread of professional insertion of disabled persons. processes for distributing tasks has resulted These measures are addressed to specific in the reintegration of back-office tasks, groups, for whom telework, not necessarily at particularly entering and consolidating data, home of course, represents an instrument in front-office operations. Moreover, data particularly adapted to social objectives. The handling becomes increasingly automatic, potential offered by telework is far from fully particularly with the development of exploited to the benefit of disabled or other scanning, bar codes, voice recognition and persons with reduced physical mobility. other technologies for direct entry of data, Although this concern was present in the first without forgetting entry by the client himself. telework experiments in the 80s, it remains a Under these circumstances, little local secondary purpose in the promotional development can be foreseen on the basis of campaigns. this type of activities.

The growth of home-based telework in 2.1.3. Telecentres or Telecottages certain European countries is principally due to self-employed labour. It is the The infatuation with telecentres and consequence of strategies for downsizing telecottages dates back to the 80s. The initial and outsourcing used by many companies idea was to set up local centres equipped [Gillespie & al., 1995]. The direct with a computer infrastructure for workers consequence is externalising of certain tasks from different firms, or offering services to to a network of small companies and self- different firms. The targeted activities employed persons, at times former consisted for the most part of a set of employees. Finally, the rose-coloured picture administrative support activities of home-based telework holds for a very (telesecretariat, administrative management, small minority. accounting, translation, etc.), but without any specific value added which could justify the use of a telecentre.

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Except in some Nordic countries, viable 2.2. Flourishing Forms of Telework realisations remain very rare, although the telecentre is systematically the image of 2.2.1. Distance Working Companies telework which has motivated promoters of Distance working companies are specialised local development in recent years. In in the supply of on-line network services. countries such as France, Belgium, , They provide value-added services, based many municipalities have tried, via local on information and communication partnerships and generally with financial technologies, essentially or exclusively at a backing of national or European distance. programmes, to promote local employment and the development of economic activity by What distinguishes telecentres and satellite creating telecentres. From an economic offices, which are on the decline, from standpoint, small telecentres, which were distance working companies, which are tried in many countries in the 80s, proved thriving in a favourable climate ? On first unsuccessful. Almost none was able to sight, the activities of the one and the other survive without public financing. consist of providing teleservices from a distance. But telecentres and satellite offices A characteristic common to many telecentres were imagined in a context where the main is that of relying on the drive and concern was land planning and the economic participation of a single individual with a development of remote areas. All over strong personality (volunteer, employee or Europe, these experiments were part of self-employed) and particular qualifications in public policies to aid economic deployment computer sciences and/or a special role in and the creation of job openings in less local life. This dependence is both an asset developed regions. The idea was to propose and a weakness. sufficient incentives to make peripheral Although telecentres may have a role to play regions attractive, by advantageous real in the local life of a community, the ambition estate offers, effective infrastructures, of making them agents of economic activity qualified personnel and public aid in various must be seriously reconsidered in the light of forms. past experience. In France, certain Conversely, the distance working company, telecentres have already moved into other and its emblematic image the call centre, channels and have become training centres corresponds to another type of reasoning. or centres with social-economic objectives The call centres are commercial companies rather than service companies. whose objective is to manage One of the probable perspectives of communication of their client companies. telecentres for the future is to become local They are a fairly good illustration of the training centres in information technologies. principle of distance working and the strong These centres are becoming suppliers of and weak points of this kind of service “hands-on” training, in that the persons in the company. training course carry out real work for public First of all, distance working companies are or private clients, near or far. Sub-contracting initiatives from private economic agents; for public authorities should ensure constant firms which are trying, among other things, to demand and the viability of this kind of take advantage of the effects of deregulation initiative. Training objectives in new of telecommunications in Europe. While technologies of the local population are telecentres only offered administrative gaining on the ambition of creating support activities, distance working teleservice companies. companies constitute a new economic activity and a new method of producing services, such as on-line assistance

PANNEL 1 - SESSION 4 TELEWORK'98 services, telemarketing, market studies, workers” such as controllers, technicians and booking, insurance management, etc. sales personnel. In the long run, it reflects a Distance working companies are often deep-rooted reorganisation of the specialised in a type of service in which the commercial function and the maintenance “face to face” relationship is replaced or function in companies. completed by a service based on The expansion of mobile telework, as telemediation. For a growing number of opposed to “sedentary” telework (at home or services and functions, the relationship with in a telecentre) is the illustration of the client – sales, after-sales service, client exploitation of communication technologies studies, etc. – is done by telephone, not by and portable computers serving new types of direct contact or by mail. More and more organisation: just-in-time, flexible companies sub-contract these functions to management, etc. In management terms, the companies specialised in distance working. objective of telework is to set up more They thus exploit a new niche of activities, as flexible organisational methods which can they propose value added: availability around react more quickly, to seek better the clock, direct management, reception in organisational productivity [Carré & several languages, etc. Craipeau, 1997]. If the distance working companies are clearly 2.2.3. Mixed Telework a form of telework that is doing well, there are two determinant criteria in the growth of Beyond the personnel concerned by the new “telemediated” services and the location of requirements of mobility, the most common distance working companies: less expensive form of distance working today is also the labour and the performance of most atypical: a few hours per week at home, communications. For instance, call centres a few hours on the road or in the field, a few are flourishing in Ireland, where wage costs hours with clients, but the main reference is are 50% lower than in Germany, taxation of still the office and colleagues. This type of companies is one of the lowest in Europe, working organisation concerns not only communications rates are decreasing with executives, researchers, journalists, graphic the volume of calls and population is artists, but also a growing number of traditionally cosmopolite [Cornford & al., qualified employees confronted with the 1996]. constraints and requirements of flexibility. Many companies now offer a home computer 2.2.2. Mobile Telework to their staff members, sometimes without a Mobile telework is another growing form of specific project in mind, but always with an telework. It mostly concerns executives, idea of triggering new dynamics in the use of itinerant commercial employees and computers and networks. This is a significant maintenance technicians. Today it is evolution in relations between the exploiting all the potential of portable professional sphere and the private sphere. computers and data transmission networks, Mixed telework is not an exclusive category, so that a growing portion of tasks can be because it can cover telework from home, carried out at a distance, in other words, mobile telework or decentralised telework. anywhere – in a client's premises, at home, What characterises mixed telework is the fact in a subsidiary, at a colleague's home or that it covers a variety of arrangements, and even in the train or a hotel room. Mobile it changes to meet the circumstances and technologies favour greater geographic needs. The result is often a compromise mobility. between the pressure exercised by Unlike isolated experiments of home-based companies for greater flexibility of their telework, mobile telework concerns large executives and skilled employees on one categories of employees, mainly “field hand, and those persons’ need to be able to

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make personal arrangements in the way they concerning more and more activities and organise their working time on the other. workers. Mixed telework indeed presupposes certain A general scenario for the future for all forms autonomy in individual organisation of of telework is not relevant. The challenge for working time and mobility. the future has to be envisaged differently according to the purposes of telework, which 2.3. Flexibility: A Common Characteristic can be considered as: All the emerging forms of distance working have two characteristics in common. On the - means for integration and cohesion: in one hand, they do not try to develop telework this case telework is generally organised as an end in itself. They target a new niche in with the support of public funds and, very the services market: the provision of services often, a specific attention is paid to the at a distance, by means of communication status conditions of the workers; technologies. On the other hand, they - a way for implementing flexible work reinforce the most flexible forms of work patterns and for setting up more flexible organisation, which overcome constraints of organisational methods: it combines time and space. classical forms of flexible working (part- The distinction between flourishing and time work, short-term contracts, declining forms of telework must not be polyvalence, 24-hours office operation) understood as “good” and “bad” telework. with the new potential of advanced The purposes can be very different and the communication technology; in this second way to achieve them too. Projects of case, telework or distance working are telecentres or satellite offices were designed corporate initiatives in response to large within local or European programmes aiming trends in the organisation of the at regional development and social cohesion, economy. which are of course stimulating purposes. At There are two kinds of dynamics in the the contrary, some call centres develop development of telework: policy dynamics flexible work practices with very hard working and market dynamics. Distance working conditions. enterprises, mobile work and mixed telework The organisational and social dimensions of are pushed by market forces. Such projects the implementation of flexible work practices must be profitable and competitive. Telework are critical issues for the future or telework. is used as a means for increasing the flexible The next sections goes further in the response of the firms to economic pressures. development of these issues. Projects driven by policy dynamics have different purposes, such as revival of rural Telework and Flexibility areas, local development, training and insertion of unemployed and disabled people, job creation, reduction of transport 3.1. Two Ways of Considering the Future of Telework congestion. They are developed within public programmes or through institutional There is a widespread belief that teleworking partnerships associating enterprises and or distance working will concern more and public authorities. more workers in the future. There is however a confused vision of telework. It has always In both cases the challenges will be different. been a fairly hazy notion, which can cover For the projects driven by policy dynamics, very different working situations. Classical the viability and the diffusion of the pilot forms of telework are rather well known but projects are central, whereas in the second new forms of distance working are case the working and contractual features are core issues.

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3.2. Two Visions for the Development of workers performance (through ICTs) and Flexible Work Practices in Distance Working higher pressure to conform. The search for flexibility in the organisation of economic activities and the organisation of In this vision, distance working allows to work is not a feature specific to distance apply the "just-in-time" principle to human working. But the very nature of distance resources. For companies, the goal is to working makes it a choice field for employ the right person at the right time, implementing a large range of forms of wherever that person may be, by giving flexibility. Certain forms of flexibility have priority to commercial contracts (with already been tested in other types of working subcontractors, self-employed workers, organisation, like part-time work, short-term and temporary companies) and without contracts and variable hours, for example. the constraints of continuity associated Nevertheless, certain forms of flexibility are with an employment contract. Flexibility of more particularly specific to distance skills, working hours and wages is working: itinerant work, multiple working organised on an individual basis. places, availability on stand-by, multi-tasking, self-employment at a distance, 24-hour office The social risks related to operation systems, etc. individualisation of flexible work can already be observed: lack of control over This general drive toward flexibility affects all the management of one’s time, absence elements of work: contents, working time, of supervision of health and safety, reward schemes, place of work, etc. and isolation, harassment of portable therefore leads to a broad re-definition of telephones, the loss of the social ties at what we think of as “work”. The traditional work, increasingly difficult training views on the separation of periods devoted possibilities, little chance of perfecting to training (in the early stages of life) and skills, loss of qualification as a result of work (from a certain point onwards), on the lack of exchange of experience and employment (stable and full-time), on the training. roles of the regulatory framework (fixed rules and 'normative' industrial relations) are being The real challenge that faces decision- replaced by more “blurred” visions. makers in the political and labour worlds today is to strike a balance between the Opinions differ greatly on the perception of flexibility of work and the workers’ security. flexibility of distance working. Two main attitudes may be identified: 3.3. Workers Concerned with Flexibility: Some 1. An optimistic point of view, which Key Questions stresses the new opportunities available Whose Flexibility ? for workers in terms of acquisition of new skills, conciliation of working time and If, as the evidence suggests firms are moving social commitments, autonomy and towards more flexible working arrangements “empowerment”. Such an optimistic in the workplace, a key question must be approach to flexible work can integrate who is benefiting from those arrangements. the following dimensions: a constructive Castells [1997] argues that there is a approach to technological and transformation of the power relationship organisational options; an improvement of between capital and labour taking place in working and living conditions; a broader favour of capital, through the process of approach to social relations on the job. socio-economic restructuring. He argues that 2. A pessimistic and individualistic point of new technologies are allowing businesses to view, which emphasises the risks of a adopt some combination of automation, off “two tier” society, of strict control on shoring, outsourcing, or subcontracting to

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smaller firms, to obtain concessions from work on a part-time basis, this is particularly labour. He also argues that the development so for married women. The rise in self- of the network enterprise (or flexible firm) employed is also often attributed, to some induces flexibility of both business and extent, to positive reasons. By contrast labour, and individualisation of contractual people do not wish to be employed on a arrangements between management and temporary basis, however, and do so labour. Castells suggests, pessimistically, because they cannot find a permanent job. that instead of just temporary lay-offs, what we often now witness are lay-offs followed by Gender Differentials subcontracting of work on an ad hoc basis. Organisational flexibility will also have Work is performed on an ‘as and when different sets of outcomes on gender lines. required’, consultancy basis, with those Flexible firms may, for example, now want performing the work having no job tenure “flexible women” rather than “organisation with the firm and being entitled to no benefits men”, but findings from studies of women’s from the firm. He concludes that “the work in the 1990s [e.g., Crompton et al, processes of globalisation, business 1996] might lead us to predict the “core” networking, and individualisation of labour workforce would be predominantly male, weaken social organisations and institutions whereas women would be over-represented that represented/protected workers in the in the “peripheral workforce”. information age, particularly labour unions and the welfare state. Accordingly, workers There is a significant literature on both are increasingly left to themselves in their horizontal and vertical occupational differential relationship to management, and segregation of women and it has been to the market place” [Castells, 1997: 9]. suggested that women have to date been particularly vulnerable to some of the A Core-Periphery Workforce ? negative dynamics of information technology implementation, as the result of routinisation Not all workers will be affected in the same of work. ways by growing trends towards flexibility. There is, for example, a body of literature In some new forms of ICT intensive work which suggest that what we are seeing organisation such as call centres women emerging is a dual labour market, and a tend to dominate employment in the less core-periphery (or less brutally a core- skilled operations, but men are more complementary) workforce. The components represented in areas such as software of the peripheral workforce are: sub- helpdesk support. The implications of recent contracting, self-employment, part-time, developments in flexibility around ICTs are short-term contracts, public subsidy trainees, not yet clear [Belt, Richardson and Webster, agency temporaries, etc. 1998]. It is conceivable that flexible working may allow employees poorer access to Handy [1994] suggests that the logic of training and career development prospects corporate restructuring together with new than their full-time counterparts enjoy, this technological opportunities should result in will effect all “peripheral” workers, but may half as many people in the core business, well effect women more given that they are paid twice as well and producing three times likely to form a larger part of the non-core as much. Rajan [1997] goes further and workforce. suggests that firms may soon perceive all staff as flexible and potentially temporary. However, different organisations and sectors But he also suggests that emerging patterns have different records of training and of employment flexibility result from supply expertise development, and there are signs side changes as well as demand-side that some service sector firms are providing changes. For example, he cites evidence to their female employees with improved career suggest that more people actually do want to prospects in a framework of substantial

PANNEL 1 - SESSION 4 TELEWORK'98 product and process innovation [Crompton References and Sanderson, 1990]. Belt V., Richardson R. and Webster J. (1998) Work Opportunities for Women in the Information National Differentials Society (WOWIS): Call Centre Teleworking. State The ability of organisations to introduce the of the Art. Deliverable to Information Society various forms of flexibility will not be the Project Office. same in all countries. In the European Boisonnat J. (Ed.) (1995), Le travail dans vingt ans, context, culture and regulatory environments rapport du Commissariat Général au Plan, Ed. (for example, regulations on working hours, Odile Jacob, La Documentation Française, 1995. employer-employee relations, and female Brangier E., Tarquinio C. (1997), “La compétence: participation in the workforce) will lead to modèles et usages”, dans Connexions, n° 70, . different outcomes. Bülher N., Ettighoffer D., “L’homme polyactif”, dans Some authors put forwards different and Blanc G. & al, Le travail au XXIème siècle, opposite ways of organising labour flexibility Eurotechnopolis Institut, Dunod, 1995. in Europe. For example, M’hamed Dif [1998] Carré, D., Craipeau, S. (1996): “Entre délocalisation makes a distinction between two models, et mobilité: analyse des stratégies entrepreneuriales one based on external flexibility and the de télétravail”, in Technologies de l’Information et other based on internal flexibility. These two de la Communication -TIS-, Vol. 8, n°4, pp. 333- models have different consequences on 354. working conditions and employment. Castells, M. (1996) The Information Age: Economy, The first model, the dominant one, is Society and Culture, Volume 1. The Rise of the essentially based on external flexibility, through Network Society, Oxford: Blackwell. outsourcing, subcontracting, self-employment, Cornford, J., Gillespie, A. and Richardson, R (1996) short-time contracts, and interim. This model Regional Development in the Information Society: has clear impacts on employment: A Review and Analysis. Paper prepared for the segmentation of the labour market, mass European High Level Expert Group on the Social unemployment, increasing precariousness. In and Societal Aspects of the Information Society. this model, the workforce is considered only as Crompton R; and Sanderson K. (1990) Gendered Jobs an input that has to be adjusted to variations of and Social Change. , Unwin Hyman. demand. A labour legislation favourable to all Dubé A., Mercure D. (1997), Les entreprises et the forms of external flexibility is supporting the l’emploi: les nouvelles formes de qualification du growth of this model. travail, Publications du Québec. The second model, at present mainly limited in Forsebäck L. (1995), 20 seconds to work, home-based its application to the North of Europe, is more telework, Swedish experiences from a European based on internal flexibility. The two mains perspective, State of the art 1995, TELDOK report, adjustment tools are functional flexibility 1995. through polyvalence, education and training Gaullier X. (1997), “La pluriactivité à tout âge”, dans and working time flexibility with various Le travail, quel avenir ?, Folio/actuel, Gallimard. working time arrangements. This second Gillespie A., Richardson R. and Cornford J. (1995), model contributes to an improvement in Review of Telework in Britain: Implications for working conditions and employment. Public Policy, report prepared for the The current challenge, for all countries, is to Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology, give to the new forms of work and Centre for Urban and Regional Development Studies, University of Newcastle upon Tyne. employment a full-fledged framework of reference (legal, social and cultural), in order M’hamed Dif (1998), “Flexibilité du travail et ses to transfer the social achievements of the implications pour l’emploi : réflexions sur les industrial society to the information society. modèles émergents”, in Economies et Sociétés, Economie du travail, Série A.B., n° 20 , 3/1998, p. 231-246.

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Handy, C. (1994) The Empty Raincoat: Making Sense Teleworking Environments, Proceedings of the of the Future, Hutchinson, London. Third International Workshop on Telework, University of Turku, Finland, September 1998, O’Siochru S. & al., Advanced communications for pp.230-244. cohesion and regional development, ACCORDE Final Report, European Commission, DG XIII, Valenduc G., Vendramin P., Richardson R., Gillespie 1995. A., Belt V., Carré D., Combès Y., Maugéri S., Ponzellini A., Pedersini R., Seassaro M. (1998), Perret B. (1995), “L’industrialisation des services”, in Flexible work practices and communication Blanc G. & al, Le travail au XXIème siècle, technology: state of the art of current research, Eurotechnopolis, Dunod Publishers, Paris. FLEXCOT report for the European Commission Rajan, A., van , P. and Jaspers A. (1997) (TSER, DG XII), , July 1998. Britain’s Flexible Labour Market: What Next ? Zarifian Ph. (1996): Travail et communication. Essai London: Centre for Research in Employment and sociologique sur le travail dans la grande Technology in Europe. entreprise industrielle, Presses Universitaires de Schmid G., “Towards a new Employment Policy in France, Paris. Europe : the Emergence of Transitionnal Labour Markets as a Policy Target”, in Work, Employment Address of the authors and Environnement, Papers of Wissenschaftszentrum WZB, FS II 97-208, Patricia Vendramin, project manager, 1998. Gérard Valenduc, research director, FTU – Fondation Travail-Université Valenduc G., Vendramin P. (1997), Le travail à Rue de l’Arsenal 5, B-5000 Namur (Belgium) distance dans la société de l’information, Phone +32-81-725122, fax +32-81-725128 Bruxelles: EVO. E-mail: [email protected] / Valenduc G., Vendramin P. (1998), “A social [email protected] approach to flexibility in distance working”, in

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