Introduction...... 1 Finding a Voice...... 115 The DYS Education Mission...... 2 Key Ideas...... 116 DYS Student Population...... 2 Teacher’s Planning Calendar ...... 120 DYS Education Programs...... 2 Teaching Exemplar...... 122 Essential Question ...... 3 A Note from the Teacher...... 127 Effective Teaching Practices for Youth in DYS Settings .....4 “Suggested” Resources...... 128 DYS Professional Development Guiding Beliefs...... 4 Expanding Horizons...... 133 DYS Professional Development Goals ...... 5 Key Ideas...... 134 Curriculum and Instruction—Defining the Terms ...... 6 Teacher’s Planning Calendar ...... 140 DYS Educational Philosophy...... 7 Teaching Exemplar...... 142 A System for Curriculum and Instruction in DYS ...... 7 “Suggested” Resources...... 150 Differentiating Instruction ...... 8 Nine Ways to Differentiate Instruction...... 9 Reaching an Audience...... 155 From Frameworks to Effective ELA Instruction...... 10 Key Ideas...... 156 Teacher’s Planning Calendar ...... 160 Understanding Culturally Responsive Teaching Teaching Exemplar...... 162 in the DYS English Language Arts Classroom...... 13 What is Unlocking the Light (UTL)? ...... 163 Understanding Culturally Responsive Teaching ...... 14 A Note from the Teacher...... 171 Overview – Preparing, Connecting, Interacting ...... 16 “Suggested” Resources...... 172 How We Prepare and Design Our Teaching...... 17 How We Connect Content to Our Students’ Lives ...... 24 Evolving Communication ...... 177 How We Interact with Our Students ...... 28 Key Ideas...... 178 Moving Forward...... 32 Teacher’s Planning Calendar ...... 182 Works Cited & Additional Resources...... 32 Teaching Exemplar...... 184 A Note from the Teacher...... 191 What is ELA?...... 37 “Suggested” Resources...... 192 Elements of Effective Adolescent Literacy Instruction ...... 38 What is ELA? ...... 45 Assessment ...... 197 ELA is Writing… ...... 46 Distinguishing Between Assessment for Learning ELA is Literature… ...... 57 and of Learning ...... 198 ELA is Reading… ...... 66 Stages of Assessment ...... 199 English Language Learners in the DYS Classroom...... 75 Pre-assessment ...... 199 Standards of the ELA Seasons ...... 84 Formative Assessment ...... 200 DYS English Language Arts Curriculum Organization ...87 Summative Assessment...... 201 Organizing the School Year in the ELA Classroom...89 Evaluation Tools for Summative Assessment...... 203 Linking Formative and Summative Assessment...... 206 Exploring Traditions ...... 95 Balanced Assessment – One Size Does Not Fit All .....207 Key Ideas...... 96 Teacher’s Planning Calendar...... 100 Appendix...... 211 Teaching Exemplar...... 102 Frequently Asked Questions: Teaching ELA in DYS .....212 A Note from the Teacher...... 109 Teaching a Diverse Group of Students ...... 213 “Suggested” Resources...... 110 Managing Your DYS Classroom...... 216 Acknowledgements...... 219
Positive Youth Development
Positive youth development (PYD) is an approach to working with and educating youth that integrates multiple areas of growth and development—physical, cognitive, social, emotional, cultural, civic, and vocational—with education. Positive youth development allows educators and other youth workers to begin to identify the needs and, more importantly, the strengths of each individual youth, and to use this information to help support and equip young people with knowledge and skills that will help them build a better future for themselves.
In the adolescent years, a young person’s life is invariably full of change. Developmentally, adolescent youth are emerging from childhood into adulthood, and are undergoing very rapid development and growth physically, mentally, and emotionally. Research in cognitive and psychological development from Jean Piaget and Erik Erickson has provided educators and others who work with youth with frameworks with which to study and understand child and adolescent growth and development. Over the last 40 years, this research has supported emerging work in positive youth development, which embraces at its core the understanding that merely preventing “problem” behaviors in youth is not enough to help young people transition to adulthood and become successful in education, career, and life.
Research on adolescent growth and development has provided educators with deeper understanding about helping youth build protective factors that can strengthen and increase their abilities to handle negative influences and events in their lives successfully.
These protective factors focus on four aspects of adolescent perceptions and understanding: • Belief in their own abilities • Stable sense of identity • Connections with others • Sense of control over future outcomes in their own lives
Deepening a young person’s understanding and feeling of autonomy in these four areas has been found to help adolescents cope with negative factors in their lives (including many factors over which they have little or no control). In addition, building strong relationships with caring adults in their lives, being held to high expectations, and being provided with multiple opportunities to participate meaningfully (both in the classroom and beyond) have also been found to help youth successfully navigate difficult situations, In response to this emerging research, the Massachusetts Department of Youth Services (DYS), in partnership with the Commonwealth Corporation and the Hampshire Educational Collaborative, is dedicated to providing youth-centered educational and transitional services that build on the unique strength and skills of each young person. DYS continues to expand and enrich the continuum of services provided to youth placed in care to help all young people navigate their way to a better future. Positive Youth Development (continued)
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES TO LEARN MORE ABOUT POSITIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT
Barton, William H., and Jeffrey A. Butts. Building on Strength: Positive Youth Development in Juvenile Justice Programs. Chicago, IL: Chapin Hall Center for Children at the University of Chicago, 2008.
Christie, Deborah, and Russell Viner. “ABC of Adolescence: Adolescent Development.” BMJ 330 (2005): 301-304. 5 August 2008
Dacey, John, and Maureen Kenny. Adolescent Development, Second Edition. Dubuque, IA: Brown and Benchmark Publishers, 1997.
Pittman, Karen Johnson, et al. “Preventing Problems, Promoting Development, Encouraging Engagement: Competing Priorities or Inseparable Goals”. The Forum for Youth Investment (2003). 1 August 2008
“Understanding Youth Development: Promoting Positive Pathways of Growth”. National Clearinghouse on Families and Youth (1997). 1 August 2008
This English Language Arts Instructional Guide is one of a series of instructional guides prepared for DYS teachers by the Commonwealth Corporation and the Hampshire Educational Collaborative. The guides focus on major content areas in DYS—English Language Arts, Math, Science, and Social Studies—and are aligned with an extensive program of professional development, training, and coaching. All of the DYS Instructional Guides are aligned with both the Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks and the goals and principles of the DYS education system, and share the same general outline and instructions for use.
The DYS Education Mission ...... 2 DYS Student Population...... 2 DYS Education Programs ...... 2 Essential Question...... 3 Effective Teaching Practices for Youth in DYS Settings...... 4 DYS Professional Development Guiding Beliefs ...... 4 DYS Professional Development Goals...... 5 Curriculum and Instruction—Defining the Terms...... 6 DYS Educational Philosophy...... 7 A System for Curriculum and Instruction in DYS ...... 7 Differentiating Instruction...... 8 Nine Ways to Differentiate Instruction ...... 9 From Frameworks to Effective ELA Instruction ...... 10
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 1 DYS EDUCATION MISSION DYS seeks to provide a comprehensive high quality educational system that meets the needs, experiences, and goals of our youth. Through collaboration with local schools, community-based organizations, families, and other resources, DYS Education seeks to provide an individualized student plan that focuses on literacy and numeracy skills, education and employment training opportunities, and transition to the community and the workforce.
DYS STUDENT POPULATION The DYS population is demographically diverse by race, ethnicity, language, culture, age, and economics, and educationally diverse with respect to their background knowledge, interests, aspirations, learning styles, multiple intelligences, social-emotional strengths and challenges, and personal histories. As teachers, we need to begin with a fundamental recognition that our students come from a range of cultural and economic backgrounds that are often very different than those of their teachers. When compared with the rest of the state’s population, the young people in DYS custody reflect disproportionately high percentages of youth of color (African-American and Latino), youth for whom English is a second language, and students with learning disabilities. Many of our students have special needs that may or may not have been recognized and attended to in their previous educational experiences. The DYS committed caseload decreased 35% between 1998-2008; the system currently serves approximately 3,000 students per year, with roughly 1,700 students in residential and community programs at any given time. DYS students in the committed population are 34% white, 30% African-American, 28% Latino, 3% Asian, and 5% “other.” Youth are between 10 and 19 years old, with an average age of approximately 17 years. Some of our youth have done well in school and will use our classes to build and expand their success as learners. Others have not done well in school, and many are significantly behind their peers in English Language Arts or other academic areas. Many of our students come with a history of failure, low expectations, and criticism in traditional schools, and find that they learn best when actively engaged and able to make connections to their own real-world experiences and contexts. These factors and statistics do not begin to tell the stories of who our students really are, but they do illuminate some of the differences between the backgrounds of students in DYS settings. We have unique opportunities in DYS programs to build authentic teaching and learning practices. When educators are attuned to the When educators are attuned to the attributes their students bring with them, and sensitive to issues and attributes their students bring with opportunities related to diversity, we are better able to foster environments where differences are valued as useful tools for them, and sensitive to issues and teaching, learning, and engaging all students. By examining our opportunities related to diversity, own backgrounds, affirming our students by building on their we are better able to foster strengths, interests and enthusiasms, reinforcing their efforts, and environments where differences are recognizing their growth, teachers can impact student learning even in a short period of time. As DYS educators, we have the chance to valued as useful tools for teaching, offer our students successful experiences—often for the first time in learning, and engaging all students. their lives!
DYS EDUCATION PROGRAMS Every day, the Department of Youth Services provides educational services to more than 1,700 young people in 54 sites across Massachusetts. In addition, DYS operates 32 day programs to serve youth transitioning back into the community and residing with parents, guardians, or in independent living programs. All DYS
2 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 education and services focus on preparing youth to re-integrate successfully into their communities and make successful transitions to public schools, alternative education programs, GED preparation, college and other post-secondary education, job skills training, or employment. Programs operate under contract with DYS, and are run by numerous vendors and community-based organizations.
The DYS facilities in Massachusetts include: • Detention sites – for youth in the pre-commitment stage • Assessment sites – for youth committed to DYS and awaiting determination of placement • Treatment sites – short-term and long-term secure treatment programs for young people
DYS education programs include: • Academic services, GED preparation, vocational education, life skills programming, and/or post-secondary education services; • Education Liaisons who provide educational guidance to DYS students and programs and support the re-entry of students into local schools; • Special education services, provided through the Massachusetts Department of Elementary and Secondary Education’s “Special Education in Institutional Settings” (SEIS) organization, formerly known as “Educational Services in Institutional Settings” (ESIS); • Title I supplemental services, provided through federal entitlement funds; • Vocational/work programs including extended day, job training, and employment, provided through partnerships with vocational-technical high schools, Workforce Investment Boards, and community-based organizations. While size, type, location, security levels, and other factors vary a great deal among the 54 DYS facilities across the Commonwealth, all DYS settings are united by shared principles, guidelines, professional development, curricular materials, and coaching. Educational programming operates on a 12-month school year, with a minimum of 27.5 hours of instructional services per week. DYS educational services strive to meet all Massachusetts education standards, policies and procedures, including requirements for time and learning and highly-qualified educator certification.
ESSENTIAL QUESTION Given what we know about the young people we teach and the settings in which we teach them, what should DYS educators be doing instructionally?
The nature of detention, assessment and treatment for youth in DYS custody contributes to extremely high levels of student mobility. High mobility, as well as students’ diverse ages, varied academic skills, learning styles, and special education and English language learning needs, pose unique challenges and opportunities in all DYS educational programs. We have, therefore, developed a set of teaching practices, guiding beliefs, and professional development goals that are shared among all DYS settings. These components, which are briefly summarized on the following page, are drawn from extensive research on successful practices for youth who are placed at-risk by social, economic, or environmental stressors.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 3 EFFECTIVE TEACHING PRACTICES FOR YOUTH IN DYS SETTINGS Learning Objectives for each lesson are developed with an understanding of the diverse needs of the learners, and are in alignment with the state curriculum frameworks’ standards. The objectives are clearly and visibly shared with students.
High-quality curriculum and instruction are built around real-life situations that are culturally responsive to the diverse youth in our programs.
Differences in students’ learning profiles, interests, cultural and linguistic backgrounds, and prior knowledge and experiences are used to adjust curriculum and instruction so that it addresses learners’ needs and increases their interest and engagement with the information.
A can-do attitude, driven by high expectations, is established and maintained in every classroom.
Instruction is planned and delivered to build on students’ strengths, interests, and prior knowledge, and to reinforce their efforts through encouragement, praise and motivation.
Teachers strive to be “the guide on the side,” not “the sage on the stage,” by treating students as active learners, not as passive recipients of instruction.
Instruction is focused on key themes that allow the students to see connections across topics, and reinforce understanding by involving students in meaningful and authentic tasks.
Literacy and numeracy are integrated into all lessons, with emphasis on increased vocabulary, enhanced comprehension and improved qualitative skills.
Teachers use a variety of instructional strategies and resources—particularly hands-on, project-oriented, cooperative, visual, and contextual learning—to engage the diverse student population.
Instruction is planned with the final assessment in mind. Different levels and types of questions are used throughout the learning process to assess on-going knowledge and understanding, and instruction is adjusted regularly to prepare students for the formal unit assessment.
DYS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT GUIDING BELIEFS The Department of Youth Services provides high-quality, standards-based professional development for DYS Education staff in each critical role: teacher, teaching coordinator, education liaison, and regional education coordinator. A professional development system—common release days, opportunities for professional development in regional trainings, coaching, and courses—supports staff in learning about and implementing practices effective in juvenile justice education. DYS Professional Development is standards-based, and will be driven by an increasing focus on student work, use of mathematics, reading, and writing across all content areas, effective teaching in a culturally and linguistically diverse student population, use of the arts and technology to teach to the standards, and development of teacher leadership.
4 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 DYS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT GOALS
KEY ELEMENTS
d
e SB s a
-B Instruction will explicitly include: ds m Standar lu icu Curr • Specific goals/learning objectives • Links to students’ prior knowledge and understanding • Daily routines and practices that honor and incorporate students’ social and academic needs and assets • Varied instructional strategies (such as visual, auditory, oral, hands-on, technology) • Multiple means for student engagement: listening, speaking, reading, writing, and doing
• Mutual respect and contextual learning D i DI f fe r • Ongoing demonstration of student learning I e n nt and understanding as evidenced by pre- and st iated ru post-assessments ction
LN d n a y y c Literac a er Num PROFESSIONAL DYS DEVELOPMENT
Standards-Based Curriculum Literacy and Numeracy Differentiated Instruction Assist teachers in the Promote literacy and numeracy— Prepare teachers to differentiate implementation of DYS standards- as measured by the teacher’s using standards-based instructional based curriculum, as demonstration and practices suitable to a measured by learning assessment of student juvenile justice system, objectives connected listening, speaking, as measured by the to the state curriculum reading, and writing teacher’s development frameworks and the effective use across all content areas—in all and demonstration of curriculum, of the DYS Instructional Guides, trainings, resources, and curricula. instruction, and assessment instructional resources, and appropriate to students’ prior multiple means of assessment. knowledge, interests, learning styles, and needs.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 5 CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION—DEFINING THE TERMS All fields of endeavor have specialized vocabulary or jargon. This kind of terminology can be very useful, enabling practitioners to use a kind of “insider shorthand” to communicate with others in the field. It is essential, however, that terms be defined, so that the same words mean the same things to all who use and hear them. Some of the most frequently used terms in the field of education include:
Curriculum Ideas, skills, processes, and content that educators identify as important for students to learn in each subject area; curriculum is the “what” of education
Instruction Interaction between teacher and student, or the actual activities that communicate and review knowledge, understanding, or skill; instruction is the “how” of education
Frameworks Curriculum frameworks in each content area, consistent throughout Massachusetts
Strands Major organizing principles for learning in each content area
Standards Learning goals in each content area, delineated within each strand
Assessments Various methods to gather evidence of students’ progress towards achieving the learning objectives
Good curriculum translates broad, overarching frameworks, strands, and standards into concrete lessons, mini-units, daily activities, assessments, and supporting materials. These provide the means through which teachers engage their students and lead them through actions that will result in students’ meeting their learning objectives.
In every classroom, teachers build their curricular programs by: • Defining learning objectives based on the frameworks, standards, and topics.; • Assessing current levels of knowledge, understanding, and skill among all students in the classroom; • Planning activities and selecting materials that will support the learning objectives and are differentiated for diverse learners; • Implementing activities and using materials that are appropriate to the needs, interests, backgrounds, and experiences of their students; • Assessing students’ growth in meeting learning objectives.
In DYS settings, instruction needs to be especially interactive and engaging. The challenge is to help DYS teachers stress academic rigor and simultaneously differentiate instruction to respond to variety in the backgrounds, abilities, interests, and learning styles among diverse and highly mobile students.
6 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 DYS EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY DYS is committed to providing an education program for all students in the DYS system that is in compliance with the Massachusetts state curriculum standards. The instruction, assessment, and the DYS Instructional Guides are organized around key themes and essential learning outcomes that are modified for various student placements (detention, assessment, and treatment). All education is delivered with an understanding of the diversity of the student population; curriculum, instruction, and assessment planning include components of differentiation, respect for cultural and linguistic diversity, and a commitment to enhancing students’ literacy and numeracy skills.
A SYSTEM FOR CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION IN DYS DYS teachers face multiple challenges planning and delivering effective English Language Arts curriculum. These include addressing the Massachusetts English Language Arts Curriculum Framework, aligning instruction with MCAS and GED test areas, minimizing duplication of content, teaching a transient population, and addressing the need for differentiated instruction. Youth come to DYS with vastly differing sets of skills, abilities, and background knowledge, as well as their own hopes, fears, experiences and aspirations. Relevance and Additionally, there is a range of different settings and educational programs applicability are crucial… within the DYS education system, as well as great variation in the length of to bring meaning to what time young people spend in our programs. happens in the classroom. A great many factors—both educational and not—constantly impact our students’ learning, and they all have an effect on what we can do in the DYS classroom. DYS students are racially and ethnically diverse. Many live in households below the federal poverty line, many are youth of color, and the overwhelming majority have survived discrimination, inequity, trauma, and violence. ELA instruction must speak to our students’ backgrounds and desires to understand themselves and the world around them: who they are and how the world functions. Relevance and applicability are crucial for personal growth, to motivate learning, and to bring meaning to what happens in the classroom.
We must also be attentive to the wide range of possibilities for our students when they leave the DYS system. Our most fundamental goal is to prepare Good instruction must them for a successful future outside of DYS, which may include returning to high school, passing MCAS or GED examinations, and entering the Job speak to our students’ Corps, employment, or a college, university, or other learning option. Given desires to understand their the extraordinary range of variables in the DYS system, our challenge is to lives: who they are and develop a system of education that is coherent and consistent, as well as how the world functions. flexible. To meet these challenges, we have developed a highly adaptable curriculum, organized around broad topics and reflecting key principles for ELA instruction in DYS settings. As teachers, we must strive to meet our students where they are now, build learning activities around their interests, and tailor instruction to address their individual learning styles and preferences. Reaching out in these ways enables students to use their own background knowledge to acquire and retain new skills and new learning.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 7 DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION Differentiating instruction allows all students to access the same classroom curriculum. Teachers differentiate instruction in response to three significant factors, including students’ Cognitive Readiness, Personal Interests, and Learning Profiles. By aligning strategies for instruction with these three student characteristics, teachers can DI strengthen learning for everyone in the classroom. Cognitive Readiness Can be determined by using pre-tests, KWL (Know, Want to know, Learned) charts, and other assessments. KWL charts can be particularly useful as they ask students to identify what they already Know, and what they Want to learn about a topic.
Interests Can be inventoried by including students in the planning processes, providing opportunities for students to discuss, present, or interview one another about their backgrounds, skills, and areas of interest.
Learning Profiles Can be more complex, as they include: • Learning Styles (is the student primarily a Visual, Auditory, Tactile, Linguistic or Kinesthetic learner?); • Multiple Intelligence preferences (Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical, Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalist intelligences); • Grouping preferences (does the student work best individually, with a partner, or in a large group?); and • Environmental preferences (does the student need, for example, lots of space, auditory distractions, or a quiet area to work?).
The table on the following page defines three key student characteristics to which differentiation should respond (Cognitive Readiness, Personal Interests, and Learning Profiles), and provides examples of how three aspects of teaching (Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment) can be differentiated within DYS classrooms. Additionally, a number of strong websites provide curriculum samples and exercises for differentiating instruction in ELA. www.openc.k12.or.us/reaching/tag/dcsamples.html Offers differentiated curriculum samples for all grades and various subject matters www.learnerslink.com/curriculum.htm Offers sample lessons in math, science, English and social studies www.tolerance.org/teach/find/find.jsp Teaching Tolerance website: Offers multiple lesson ideas and resources www2.scholastic.com/browse/learn.jsp Offers online activities and interactive learning www.nameorg.org/resources/teaching.html#lesson Offers a variety of lesson plans for K-12 and across all subject areas www.surfaquarium.com/MI/inventory.htm Offers a Multiple Intelligences survey www.teachersnetwork.org/teachnet/high_english.cfm Offers differentiated curriculum samples for all grades and various subject matters www.gigglepotz.com/mi.htm Offers numerous links regarding Multiple Intelligence
8 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Nine Ways to Differentiate Instruction
Respond to Differentiate Differentiate Differentiate Content Activities Student Products CURRICULUM INSTRUCTION ASSESSMENT
COGNITIVE Provide content material Provide activities at Provide opportunities READINESS adjusted for students’ various levels (tiering*) for students prior knowledge and to accommodate to demonstrate A student’s starting readiness-to-learn readiness levels. their degree of point regarding the levels. This may include Consider pairs or groups achievement learning objectives; resources at various based on similar readiness by tiering* assessment includes prior reading levels, supplemental or mixed readiness to tasks based on levels knowledge, skills, materials, audio tape support achievement of of complexity. Prompts and understanding support, graphic organizers, tasks. Activities may vary may be adjusted, but and note-taking guides. in complexity, but should all assessments should still target the same target the same learning learning objective. objectives.
INTERESTS Give students choices Give students choices Give students choices of subtopics to explore, of activities to do, of assessment options Contexts, topics, with each option targeting with each option targeting that target the same and skills that the same learning objectives. the same learning objectives. learning objectives. interest the learner Make topics contextual for Provide activities that Allow students to the students. enable students to use demonstrate knowledge prior knowledge and and understanding in explore areas of interest. areas of comfort in which they have personal expertise.
LEARNING Provide diverse Provide diverse options Provide diverse PROFILES options for accessing for making sense of the options for students the content material. content. This might include to demonstrate Learning styles, This may include presenting some students working their level of multiple intelligence information in visual, alone, others in pairs or achievement of the preferences, ethnic auditory, or kinesthetic groups, as well as some learning objectives. and gender issues, modes. It might also include using kinesthetic, visual, This can include and other factors using a variety of cultural or mathematical, or other providing options of personality gender examples when learning preferences to for products that are presenting content. process the new material. analytic, creative, and/or practical.
*tiering: Adjusting the degree of difficulty of a question, task, or product to match a student’s current level of readiness. Questions, homework, daily assignments, projects, and tests may all be ‘tiered’ in this way.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 9 From Frameworks to Effective ELA Instruction
MASSACHUSETTS CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK
Presents important knowledge in each subject area, broken down by topic into:
STANDARDS
that indicate what information teachers need to teach. Teachers use the standards to develop units or mini-units, lesson plans, activities, and CORRESPONDING ASSESSMENTS, guided by:
BIG IDEAS (represented by ELA Seasons)
which are integrated with
SKILLS
that teachers use to create the
CURRICULUM (orand curricula, in techniques the for deliveringplural)
that is delivered through techniques known as
INSTRUCTION SB which includes ONGOING ASSESSMENT DI Standards-Based Curriculum Differentiated Instruction
Units and lessons Using diverse driven by standards materials and methods and the learning that respond to students’ objectives that will LN prior knowledge, form the basis of Literacy and Numeracy interests, learning ASSESSMENT styles, and needs Focus on literacy and numeracy through all teaching and learning activities in DYS
10 F ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 voice (vois) n. Individual writing style, the specific fingerprint of an author. Notes Understanding Culturally Responsive Teaching in the DYS English Language Arts Classroom
Understanding Culturally Responsive Teaching ...... 14 Overview – Preparing, Connecting, Interacting ...... 16 How We Prepare and Design Our Teaching...... 17 How We Connect Content to Our Students’ Lives ...... 24 How We Interact with Our Students ...... 28 Moving Forward ...... 32 Works Cited & Additional Resources ...... 32
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 13 Understanding Culturally Responsive Teaching in the DYS English Language Arts Classroom
As educators teaching youth in the DYS system, we have the opportunity to make a real difference in the lives of students, particularly at a time when they deeply need someone to invest in them. A basic premise of being a teacher is that we engage in meaningful interactions with students and create a learning environment in which every student participates and succeeds. How we prepare, the content we teach, and how we interact all have powerful effects on how students learn and see themselves as learners. Our interactions with students constantly inform not just their mastery of content, but also the ways they self-identify as learners and their academic self-esteem.
Culturally responsive teaching involves reflecting on the ways in which we interact with our students, and they interact with one another, to form positive and affirming experiences. The student population in DYS represents a broad range of ages, varied learning styles, multiple intelligences, diverse learning strengths, and wide-ranging cultural and educational backgrounds. The amount of time for which students are in the care and treatment of the Massachusetts Department of Youth Services also varies greatly, and can range from days to years, with students sometimes moving among more than one DYS facility.
Relationships are crucial to effective teaching, and learning about our students is critical to building relationships. While certain factors may limit our students’ opportunities to engage in sustained study with a cohort of peers and build relationships with their teachers, we can build strong relationships with the young people in our classrooms.
Fostering meaningful connections, and teaching curriculum that strengthens our students’ abilities to engage with the world and become successful in their lives, requires us as educators to participate in ongoing reflection on:
How we prepare and design our teaching How we connect content to our students’ lives How we interact with our students
In 1992, a research study demonstrated that juvenile treatment centers that employ effective teachers have lower recidivism rates than other treatment centers (Bortner and Williams). In that study, “effective” was defined in much the same way that we define “culturally responsive.” Culturally responsive teaching holds the promise of making a real difference in the lives of all our students.
14 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Understanding Culturally Responsive Teaching
in the DYS English Language Arts Classroom (continued)
WHAT IS CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE TEACHING? Culturally responsive teaching involves linking curriculum to our students’ lives in authentic and meaningful ways for the purpose of helping students achieve success.
To be culturally responsive educators means getting to know our students, and learning how our students’ experiences and identities have shaped the way they see the world. It involves developing an awareness of how we view our own world and how this influences our way of teaching. When we build connections between our students’ worlds and our own and use these connections to inform our teaching, our students can see themselves as active and valued participants in the learning community (Nieto).
Cultural responsiveness means examining our own cultural norms and how these affect our teaching. Responsive teaching requires that we have an understanding of how our personal, academic and cultural experiences are different from those of our students (Melnick and Zeichner; Zeichner). Much of what we do and say has been formed by the political and social context in which we live and work (Nieto). If left unexamined, these differences can lead to a mismatch between our students’ prior experiences and the classroom experience we offer. Culturally responsive teaching involves learning about specific elements of our students’ lives, and using what we learn to guide curriculum and instruction.
CULTURAL RESPONSIVENESS DEPENDS ON EXAMINING: • The prior experiences, backgrounds and cultural norms of our students; • Ways to understand and use students’ experiences as important and highly valuable resources; • How students from diverse backgrounds learn best; • How our own experiences, backgrounds and cultural norms (in and out of the classroom) influence or impact our work with youth.
Taking time to reflect on these elements allows us to understand perspectives and ways of being that differ from our own. When teachers are aware of cultural differences, we have the potential to make a meaningful difference in our students’ lives, even if a student is with us for only a short time. Cultural responsiveness expands our capacity to make learning meaningful and successful for every learner every day. It affirms our belief in our students’ potential and possibilities, as well as our roles in shaping students’ identities as learners.
And ultimately, culturally responsive teaching, when employed comprehensively, not as a stand-alone strategy, is transformative and emancipatory. For example, when the dynamic structures of African-American English (also known as Black English) are valued, classrooms transform into vibrant communities where African-American learners feel free to express and learn in ways that reflect their cultural values. Other cultural groups may prefer smaller group, individualized instruction. It is the acknowledgement of these various and sometimes competing cultural priorities that transforms teachers and students alike into engaged participants in the learning process. Geneva Gay states, “The validation, information, and pride it generates are both psychologically and intellectually liberating.”
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 15 Overview—Preparing, Connecting, Interacting
WE CAN PREPARE TO TEACH BY: Thinking about the language objectives for the lesson and then determining what kind of supports might be needed for English Language Learners; Reflecting on ourselves and how our own cultural norms affect the ways we teach and interact with students; Learning about and valuing our students’ previous experiences and cultural backgrounds; Acknowledging what we do and don’t know about our students and their lives; Increasing our awareness of assumptions we make about our students and how they influence our interactions; Becoming purposeful about the verbal and non-verbal messages we send to students; Investigating the experiences and contributions of students’ cultural groups throughout history in ways that highlight the engagement of and agency (or power) of people to impact their own lives and futures, not solely their oppression; Researching how to match instruction with students’ cultural norms, or participating in site-based inquiry groups around matching instruction with students’ cultural norms.
WE CAN CONNECT CONTENT TO OUR STUDENTS’ LIVES BY: Working from students’ prior knowledge; Employing themes that will help students understand their own histories and see themselves in the curriculum; Addressing cultural diversity, power, privilege and racism in society; Working to meet students’ diverse cultural and academic learning styles; Remaining flexible, creative, organized, and enthusiastic; Challenging students through a rigorous curriculum and promoting their critical thinking; Applying ELA skills, knowledge, and analysis to life outside the classroom.
WE CAN INTERACT EFFECTIVELY WITH OUR STUDENTS BY: Building relationships based on mutual respect; Respecting students’ life experiences and cultural norms; Creating a safe and welcoming atmosphere; Implementing firm, consistent, high expectations for behavior and academic achievement; Seeing each student as an important member of the classroom community with strength and knowledge to contribute; Creating opportunities for all students to participate and bring their strengths to classroom activities.
16 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 How We Prepare and Design Our Teaching
We become culturally responsive in our pedagogy by addressing how we prepare, how we connect ELA content to our students’ lives, and how we interact with our students. The following sections explore three key elements of culturally responsive teaching— Preparing, Connecting, and Interacting—through questions, examples, research, and specific tools that teachers can use to deepen their effectiveness as culturally responsive educators. The first of these elements—How we prepare and design our teaching—begins with the most basic question:
WHO AM I? In preparing to teach students, we must first know ourselves. Whatever our personal, cultural, or academic backgrounds are, every one of us has norms and practices that we express through the ways we talk, what we know and value, and how we behave and teach. How can we understand the practices and beliefs of our students without understanding the practices and beliefs that we embrace ourselves? Becoming aware of our own beliefs and behaviors is essential to understanding how they affect our students.
Consider, for example, how a teacher may see one circumstance differently than a student because of their respective cultural lenses. Linguistic anthropologist Shirley Brice Heath’s ethnographic research published in Ways with Words takes a deeper look at how children’s language development is affected by the cultural communities they grow up in. In the 1970s, she compared the two working class communities of Roadville and Trackton in the Piedmont Carolinas. Roadville was a predominantly White community and Trackton was predominantly African-American. One of the things she found was that the language expectations of the schools and teachers were different from the values and expectations of the home communities. She also noticed that teachers had to change the style of directions they gave to their students in order to accommodate children who did not seem to “pick up” on subtle pragmatic cues, and needed to be told explicitly what was expected of them. When looking at classroom management issues, she contrasts the communities’ conceptions of time. Students from Trackton, who were brought up in a community that fed them when they were hungry, and let them sleep when they were tired, were not accustomed to a regimented schedule. This proved to be quite frustrating for teachers, and many found themselves changing their approaches to communicating with their students. This example of taking the time to understand the multiple ways in which daily activities can be viewed demonstrates the implications of this research. Deepening our understanding of the practices and beliefs we practice and how they are similar and different to those of our students, allows us to begin to look at the tensions that might arise in our classrooms with a more informed lens.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 17 How We Prepare and Design Our Teaching (continued)
CULTURAL “ICEBERG” Many times we limit our understanding of culture to the things we can see, taste, and touch. But more often than not, when there is a cultural conflict, it is rooted in the unseen priorities of a culture. For example, one culture’s notion of “fair” may come in direct opposition to another’s. The concept of an iceberg—a large mass that is simultaneously visible and invisible—is useful in illustrating how certain aspects of culture are primarily in awareness, while other significant aspects of culture are primarily out of awareness. The illustration below was adapted from Gary Weaver in R.M. Paige, editor, Cross-Cultural Orientation: New Conceptualizations and Applications (“Cultural Iceberg”).
Art Music Literature Drama Dance Games Cooking Dress External
Internal Modesty Beauty Child-Rearing Inheritance Cosmology Authority Courtship Justice Work Leadership Decision-Making Disease Cleanliness Deportment Problem-Solving Time Language Non-Verbal Communication Emotion Relationship to Nature Social Interaction Kinship Friendship Individualism/Collectivism Roles related to Age, Sex, Class, and Occupation
Nine-tenths of an iceberg is out of sight
In this analogy, parts of the iceberg are external; they are conscious, explicitly learned, and easily changed. We can see, hear, and touch these aspects of culture. Other aspects of culture are internal; they are unconscious, implicitly learned, and difficult to change. Many of these internal components, such as beliefs, values, thought patterns, and myths, are especially powerful aspects of culture. To learn more about this Iceberg Analogy of Culture, see Gary R. Weaver, editor, Culture, Communication and Conflict: Readings in Intercultural Relations, 2nd edition.
18 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 How We Prepare and Design Our Teaching (continued)
TEACHER REFLECTION Keeping a journal is a great way to begin our own inquiry and to track our deepening understanding of our own beliefs and behaviors. Consider these questions as you work to become more aware of your own beliefs and behaviors:
1. What experiences did I have as a student in school? Were they positive? Negative? Varied?
2. What made them positive or negative?
3. What experiences did I have with teachers in school?
4. Is there a pattern or “trend”?
5. What does “learning” mean to me?
6. At what points in my life has “learning” been most interesting? At what points has it felt like a chore?
7. How do I learn best? Reading? Writing? Practicing? Teaching? Other ideas?
8. What was my family life like as an adolescent?
9. How did I relate to my peers? How did I relate to adults?
10. What have my experiences been with the police? Courts? The criminal justice system?
11. How often does my race, culture, or gender affect my daily life?
12. When I was an adolescent, how often did I think about race, culture, or gender?
13. What relationships do I have with people whose race or culture are different from my own?
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 19 How We Prepare and Design Our Teaching (continued)
WHO ARE MY STUDENTS? After working with young people for a period of time, sometimes we think we know them. But as educators, it is important that we continually reflect on ourselves and the young people we teach. The more we understand who our individual students are, the better we can build on their own strengths to help meet their needs. In DYS settings, there are limits to the subjects we can discuss with students. While the circumstances of our students’ detention is not an area for us to explore, we can ask our students about their personal interests, talents, and backgrounds. How much do we know about the talents they bring to the classroom and the interests that motivate them? Do we know the cultural, racial, and ethnic backgrounds of our students? Are we familiar with their communities? Having this knowledge can help teachers develop lessons that build on students’ prior knowledge, experiences, and cultural learning or communication styles. As students make connections to their own lives, they become better able to transfer concepts for future learning. Before we can identify how to teach our students, we must learn more about who they are. While this can be a challenge in DYS settings, with a transient and geographically diverse student body, it is essential that we are creative and resourceful in collecting information that will help us understand and teach our students. A teacher at a detention program, for example, may find the use of prompts to be useful even if the student only stays for one day; a teacher at a treatment center, on the other hand, may use more involved techniques including informal surveys or conferences with students. Making the effort to learn more about our students and their communities helps us prepare ourselves and become better teachers. If we are to link the curriculum to our students’ lives in authentic and meaningful ways, we must acknowledge and address what we do—and do not—know about the individual learners in our classrooms.
TEACHER REFLECTION These questions can help us reflect on how we can prepare to teach in culturally responsive ways:
1. How do I use prompts and other activities to gain an understanding about students’ home culture and life experiences? What else could I do?
2. When new students come into my classroom, what information or resources do I use to resist making assumptions about them?
3. How do I ask my students about their previous experiences in school? What else could I do?
4. How do I research my students’ ethnic, racial or cultural backgrounds using a variety of resources (e.g., written texts, conversations or presentations by members of their communities, etc.)? What else could I do to learn more?
20 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 How We Prepare and Design Our Teaching (continued)
HOW CAN I GET TO KNOW MY STUDENTS?
WHEN STUDENTS ENTER OUR CLASSROOMS, THESE QUESTIONS CAN HELP DETERMINE THEIR PRIOR KNOWLEDGE IN ELA:
Before coming to this facility, what were you learning about in English class? What did you like about English Language Arts? What did you find interesting? We will be studying ______. What do you know about this already? How much have you studied this in school before? What did you find particularly interesting? What do you want to know about reading, writing, literature, or other topics in ELA?
While maintaining appropriate boundaries, teachers and students in DYS facilities can get to know one another in ways that support effective learning and meaningful connections. Teachers may offer students opportunities to explore the following questions in several ways, including in a personal journal, in a letter to the teacher or another adult, in pairs within the classroom, through oral presentations, or in any other manner that is appropriate in a particular DYS setting. Teachers can then use these insights to tailor instruction and assessment to respond to students’ interests.
THESE QUESTIONS MAY BE USED OR ADAPTED TO HELP US BEGIN TO KNOW OUR STUDENTS AS INDIVIDUALS:
What TV shows do you like? What music do you like? Who is your favorite musical artist or group? Why? What are your favorite sports or hobbies? What is your favorite time of year or holiday? Why? How do you spend your spare time? What are you proud of? What is one dream you have? Is there anything else that you want people to know about you?
THESE ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS CAN HELP US RECOGNIZE STUDENTS’ LANGUAGE NEEDS AND BACKGROUNDS:
What language(s) do you speak? If you speak more than one language, what language is spoken in your home? What language(s) do you read and write? (This question is only for students who are English Language Learners) Of all your experiences learning English, what helped you learn the best?
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 21 How We Prepare and Design Our Teaching (continued)
WHAT DO I KNOW ABOUT RACE AND RACISM, ETHNICITY, CULTURE, AND CULTURAL BEHAVIOR?
As teachers, many of us have had the opportunity to explore the history of cultural diversity and racism in the United States, but there is always room for continued learning. To engage in culturally responsive teaching, we must understand how culture affects behavior, communication, and interaction.
Take time to read and learn about the histories and linguistic expressions of the specific racial, national, and ethnic groups with which our students We must understand identify. Oral histories or literary forms may not necessarily appear in how culture affects traditional texts, but they are essential to building culturally responsive behavior, communication, lessons that address our students’ experiences and needs. and interaction. Some of us may see race or ethnicity as identities that students and teachers should “leave at the door.” We may believe that race is not as important as nationality, or that race is divisive and may cause conflict. However, research has shown that our students’ identities are essential parts of who they are as learners. These identities shape how they see the world and how they interact with new information.
If we attempt “not to see race” and do not invite it into the classroom, we miss an essential part of what makes students who they are. As DYS teachers, we don’t want to miss an opportunity to help our students engage and achieve in school. However, we also want to be conscious that all people come with varying degrees of racial consciousness and are politicized around this consciousness differently. For example, simply because someone is Latino does not mean that they are engaged in anti-racism activities. While we should open up the space for race, culture and ethnicity If we attempt “not to to be acknowledged in our classrooms and through the curriculum, we see race” …we miss should be careful to pay attention to how our students are responding. Some may become angry at the institutionalized oppression an essential part of and others may be indifferent, while still others may feel motivated to make what makes students an impact. Our commitment should be to move students along the continuum who they are. so that their reactions become productive, making an impact on their own life and on those around them.
Paulo Freire was a researcher and an educator who found that by building literacy skills in the hope of becoming more literate, people felt empowered to change the course of their own lives. Freire’s research talks about the importance of praxis (or the application of learned knowledge) in the teaching and learning process. He saw education as a force of liberation, emphasizing that it is only through praxis that the learner becomes empowered to take their knowledge and impact their world (Kutz and Roskelly). When students use their knowledge and apply it by changing habits, making connections or re-envisioning their future, they have engaged in libratory education and are able to truly feel that they have power to impact their own life.
22 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 How We Prepare and Design Our Teaching (continued)
TEACHER REFLECTION These considerations can help us learn more about race, racism, ethnicity, and cultural behaviors.
1. How do I try to educate myself about my students’ home cultures and their experiences and contributions throughout history?
2. How am I learning specific or complex details about the national or ethnic backgrounds of my students, instead of grouping all Asians, all Latinos, or all Blacks together?
3. How have I researched the role of race in American history and in its educational systems?
4. How do I reflect on my own cultural norms and school experiences, and how these inform my teaching?
5. How do I investigate how stereotypes and discrimination play a role in my own life and in my students’ lives?
6. How will I use this information and knowledge to empower my students?
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 23 How We Connect to Our Students’ Lives
The second of three key elements of culturally responsive teaching—How we connect to the content we teach—offers opportunities to make learning tangible and accessible to students, and to help them locate themselves within the literature and their own writing products. In the context of English Language Arts, being a culturally responsive teacher means helping our students analyze writing and themes with which they can identify. We can help students see the ways in which individuals and groupshave used language to improve their lives and the lives of those around them.
The content we teach must meet many criteria. As DYS teachers, we align our teaching with the Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks while we … help students see the accommodate for a constantly changing student body and create lessons ways in which individuals and units that will support students with a variety of skill levels and and groups have used learning styles. language to improve their As we develop our mini-units from the frameworks, we can use culturally lives and the lives of those relevant themes and content to connect our students to the curriculum, around them. remembering that we are not just teaching rules and forms, but we are also teaching students to think critically about the world around them.
TIPS FOR CONNECTING CONTENT:
Developing questions that students can answer from their own experience confirms students’ prior knowledge and awakens their curiosity about finding parallels in new ELA content.
Provide students with opportunities to learn about topics that relate to their own cultural background from multiple points of view, including readings from authors who share their racial or ethnic identities.
Use Daily Prompts to help students give voice to their own experiences.
In class discussions, plan for time and offer respectful encouragement for students to integrate their own experiences.
Do not assume that because students come from a particular cultural or ethnic background, they will have a firm understanding of the history or culture of their ancestors. Young people may not have full information about their backgrounds, or may be at different points in developing their own racial or ethnic identities. We should not expect a single person to represent an entire racial or ethnic group in any class discussion or debate.
24 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 How We Connect to Our Students’ Lives (continued)
QUESTIONS ABOUT POINT OF VIEW: Students should also understand that stories in literature and in history are re-creations of events, and always depend on the point of view of the author. Even textbooks that are designed to avoid bias are shaped by a particular set of cultural lenses, as authors and editors must decide what content will be highlighted, downplayed, included, or excluded. As educators, it’s important that we teach our students to identify point of view and read critically. We are not just teaching rules and forms; we are also teaching students to think critically about the world around them. What is the author’s background? Are several perspectives represented? Which perspectives are absent or under-represented? How would an author from a different perspective have chosen to tell the same story?
WHAT KINDS OF CONNECTIONS MAKE CONTENT MORE MEANINGFUL? Fundamentally, teaching becomes more culturally responsive when we build our lessons and units on students’ prior knowledge—including the knowledge that is related to their backgrounds, interests, and experiences.
These techniques help identify students’ prior knowledge and interests:
Surveys for students to fill out upon entering your class;
Quick evaluations after each lesson or mini-unit;
KWL (Know, Want to know, Learned) charts and inventories;
Providing time, encouragement, and emotional safety in the classroom so that students can connect the learning with their own experiences;
Various methods for pre- and post-testing with each mini-unit.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 25 How We Connect to Our Students’ Lives (continued)
When curriculum is connected to students’ interests, strengths and experiences outside of the classroom, students are more engaged and successful in school. In the book, The Skin That We Speak: Thoughts on Language and Culture in the Classroom, Lisa Delpit suggests building upon tangible interests, such as hairstyles and sports, as well as more complex topics such as discrimination. It is equally important to consider and value a student’s home language in the classroom, and we can legitimize a student’s home language in many ways. Students’ experiences are legitimized when they are made part of the curriculum, and we can build upon the students’ existing knowledge to teach more difficult skills that are necessary for success.
Meaningful teaching helps students understand the world as it is and then equips them to change it for the better. When students or their families suffer discrimination because of race, language, or class they need to understand the root causes of discrimination. Then they need to be equipped with ways to respond: to resist stereotypes and work against oppression in constructive and successful ways. Through the curriculum, students can come to understand how power has operated throughout history and familiarize themselves with systems of power and the rules that go along with that power.
These techniques help us make content more relevant to our students’ lives:
Use Daily Prompts to connect the curriculum to students’ prior knowledge.
Explore the themes in the chapter on organizing ELA content for examples of overarching concepts and essential questions that relate to students’ lives and prior knowledge.
Emphasize the Key Elements of Instruction for professional development in DYS, as outlined in this guide’s Introduction.
Establish protocols that use ELA concepts to develop life skills; for example, host Socratic dialogue sessions or create a multi-step process for problem solving in the classroom.
Publish student work so that students see themselves as meaningful participants in both the classroom and the larger learning community.
26 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 How We Connect to Our Students’ Lives (continued)
CONNECTING STUDENT WORK TO AN AUDIENCE Reaching an audience also increases student motivation. Publishing students’ work can be as simple as posting essays or projects on a wall and inviting students and staff to view the work and write short comments on a blank page posted as part of the exhibit. Teachers can also create opportunities for students to reach an audience by writing letters to authors, challenging viewpoints and supporting their own arguments, creating a role-play or skit to perform in class, designing a comic book to be shared with other classes, or contributing to a newsletter that is periodically “published” through the use of a photocopier.
TEACHER REFLECTION 1. How does my lesson or mini-unit build on my students’ prior knowledge? Considering these questions can 2. How does the content I am teaching relate help us make culturally responsive to my students’ ethnic, racial, and cultural connections to content. backgrounds?
3. How can my students identify with the experiences of the people we are learning about? Am I helping them draw connections?
4. How am I helping the students in my class to identify oppression? Am I empowering them to see positive and successful ways to address oppression and other problems throughout the history we are learning?
5. How does the theme I am teaching relate to the experiences of my students? (For example, can I use “Rights and Responsibilities” as a theme in the curriculum to help them explore rights and responsibilities in their own lives?)
6. How do I help students learn about their own histories in ways that help them identify and understand their current situations?
7. How am I demonstrating to students how they can link classroom skills to real-life applications?
8. How do I help students access information that helps them learn more about their cultural, ethnic, or racial backgrounds?
9. How am I helping students learn about other cultures so they can see and value both commonalities and diversity among groups?
10. How am I helping students think critically, conduct research, and solve problems?
11. How do I seek and find ways for students to publish and find real audiences for their work?
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 27 How We Interact with Our Students
The third element of culturally responsive teaching—How we interact with our students—recognizes that mutual respect is the foundation for student motivation, engagement, and success. We create a “climate of success” in our classrooms by reinforcing, on a daily basis, the belief that all students are capable of success.
As culturally responsive educators, we acknowledge and use students’ prior knowledge and cultural backgrounds to help us prepare our lessons and connect to content in meaningful ways. Through interaction, we also acknowledge the academic and personal strengths that our students bring to our classroom. Explicit classroom norms should emphasize the importance of respectful interaction, while predictable routines engage active participation and help students build on their skills and abilities.
EMOTIONAL SAFETY AND MUTUAL RESPECT An emotionally safe classroom employs explicit classroom rules based on mutual respect. While the rules in a DYS classroom must always be aligned with program rules, teachers can tailor their own classroom rules with knowledge of the students’ own definitions of respect. To help reinforce emotional safety and mutual respect, remember that:
Students may need support in meeting classroom and program norms because they may differ from what is reflected in their homes, or they may refuse to comply with a school culture that has previously disrespected their home culture;
Some students may act out because they may not know how to operate effectively in a dominant culture that differs from their own.
MODELS OF SUCCESS Students are more successful when teachers affirm their cultural identities and link their home cultures to success in school. Marcos Pizarro, in his study of diverse students of Mexican descent, found that the most successful students had teachers or other role models who saw their identity in a positive way and connected their culture with success in learning (Nieto and Bode). An illustration of this positive association is provided by the Garfield High School math teacher made famous by the film, Stand and Deliver. In this film, Jaime Escalante emphatically told his students, most of whom were Latino, that they had no choice but to succeed:
“You have math in your blood. The Mayans invented zero!”
As culturally responsive teachers, we must see students’ culture and language as strengths and show examples of people who share our students’ ethnic identities and have achieved academic success.
28 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 How We Interact with Our Students (continued)
HIGH EXPECTATIONS The message should be clear that students are intelligent and bring positive assets to the classroom, even if they have struggled with academics in the past. When teachers hold high expectations for all students, and provide them with support to accomplish challenging tasks, students will rise to the challenge.
Asa Hilliard III, co-author of Young, Gifted and Black, noted that teachers consistently give better instruction to students that they consider to be intelligent. When teachers believed that a particular student was intelligent, they not only showed more “benefit of the doubt” when grading assignments, they demonstrated their high expectations by:
Providing longer waiting time after asking a question;
Offering better clues if the student was experiencing difficulty;
Giving students more feedback and attention.
CARING AND CONFIRMING—WITHOUT COMPROMISING STANDARDS If a student does not meet an academic or behavioral standard, that should be communicated to the student immediately. Assignments and work products can be adjusted to suit each students’ background and preparedness,but interactions must be consistent and fair to all students.
In conversation with students, communicate your belief that they can meet the expectations and that you care and want to help them to succeed.
Learn about and practice accountable talk which clarifies expectations and builds a sense of accomplishment. This can be as simple as changing a question from “Can I?” to “How can I?”
Try to ascertain why the student did not succeed, and then:
If the assignment was too difficult, scaffold your lessons, building in more visuals and graphic organizers, and outlining the concepts. Break tasks into discreet steps, with clear instructions, support, and feedback at each step;
If the assignment was not too difficult, try to increase motivation through communicating that you expect better performance, and by linking the work more closely to the student’s interests, goals, and background;
If the assignment was too easy, speak individually with students to let them know you see that they are ready for more significant challenges. Provide students with alternative readings and writing tasks that focus on the same topic as the rest of the class and better match their learning levels; this enables all students to participate in class discussions and share their knowledge with other students.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 29 How We Interact with Our Students (continued)
HOW CAN I CREATE A CLIMATE OF SUCCESS? Learning occurs when students perceive that they are valued as a member of the learning community, that teachers believe in them, and that they are expected to succeed. To be effective teachers and encourage student engagement, we need to build caring relationships that are informed by knowledge of the students’ cultural background, previous experiences and personal strengths. For students to invest in learning and participating, they must experience positive affirming interactions with their teachers and classmates on a consistent basis. This precept is basic to culturally responsive teaching, but it is far from new; in fact, it mirrors the age-old adage that:
“Students don’t care how much you know, until they know how much you care.” Care and respect are conveyed in a number of ways. In particular, all aspects of the classroom environment come into play in establishing care and respect. The Classroom Self-Tour on the facing page invites us to look at our classrooms with new eyes, and see whether our classroom settings demonstrate the beliefs, learning opportunities, and support that we hope to share with our students.
1. How am I creating an atmosphere TEACHER REFLECTION in my classroom where my students feel welcomed and emotionally safe? Considering these questions helps
2. How am I helping students identify us focus on interactions that foster the strengths they have from their and demonstrate respect. own life experiences?
3. How do I maintain clear, high expectations for all my students?
4. How am I finding ways to make connections with my students?
5. How am I valuing each student’s intelligence and the way it can be a resource in the classroom?
6. How am I giving appropriate wait time and guidance to answer questions and meet expectations?
7. How have I asked students how they want to be respected, and told them how I want to be respected?
8. How do I make my expectations explicit, firm, and consistent?
9. How am I giving students positive messages about who they are individually, and linking their homecultures with success in learning?
10. How do I model behavior that supports a positive learning environment?
30 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 How We Interact with Our Students (continued)
Classroom Self-Tour Seeing your classroom with new eyes
Entrance What is the first message students get when they enter the room? Are students greeted verbally and with eye contact when they enter? Are they greeted by name? Is it possible to scan the room quickly to get a feel for students’ state of mind? Are there Daily Prompts or other “do now” activities that help students focus immediately?
Seating What does the seating arrangement communicate about who will be talking? Can seating arrangements be changed to facilitate each lesson’s main activity? Can the students make eye contact easily during discussions? During working sessions, can students easily collaborate? During tests, can students work alone?
Walls Are key words, questions and concepts posted? Are objectives and themes clearly posted? When students’ eyes wander, what are they seeing or learning? Is diversity affirmed through quotes and posters from a wide range of speakers? Is there a visual display of the ways in which students will be assessed on the content? Are skills such as writing processes and reading strategies outlined and visible to students? Is student work displayed to honor successful students and provide all students with models?
Materials Are materials displayed in a visually pleasing manner to increase interest? Do readings represent a variety of perspectives and a diverse set of authors? Do classroom materials include graphic organizers and other scaffolding tools? Are interesting reading materials available if students want to pick up something to read? Do classroom materials include primary sources from which students draw their own conclusions?
Activities Do teaching techniques include the use of diverse approaches like role-plays, art, or music? Are there regular conferences with students to monitor their progress and engagement? Can students make a choice among topics or products they may pursue? Are students engaged and participating in classroom activities? Are activities changed often to keep students’ interest high?
Assessment Are students really learning? How is their progress measured? Is student learning assessed before, during, and after units are taught? Are lessons informed by the data that emerges from student assessments? Are diverse methods of assessment used to get a clear view of student understanding?
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 31 Moving Forward
Culturally relevant teaching holds the promise of making a real difference in the lives of our students. DYS teachers already use some of Share your practices these culturally responsive teaching strategies on a daily basis. and invite others to observe To learn more and enrich your knowledge about culturally responsive teaching, talk with colleagues and your Instructional Coach, continue to your classroom. Build on seek professional development opportunities on this topic, and refer to the strength of the work the print and online resources included in this guide. Reflecting on our teaching and connecting the curriculum to our students’ identities, you already do! interests and knowledge helps our students better understand ELA and think more critically about the world around them. With your dedication and support, our students will see themselves as living history and learn that they can be active, valued members of society, equipped with the tools they need to improve their lives and ultimately, their world.
WORKS CITED
Bortner, M.A., and Linda M. Williams. Youth in Prison: We the People of Unit Four. New York: Routledge, 1997.
Brice Heath, Shirley. Ways with Words: Language, Life and Work in Communities and Classrooms. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993
“Cultural Iceberg”. The Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Adapted from Gary Weaver in R.M. Paige, Ed., Cross-Cultural Orientation: New Conceptualizations and Applications Cross Cultural Orientation. 7 July 2008
Delpit, Lisa, and Joanne Kilgour Dowdy, eds. The Skin That We Speak: Thoughts on Language and Culture in the Classroom. New York: The New Press, 2002.
Gay, Geneva. Culturally Responsive Teaching: Theory, Research, and Practice. New York: Teachers College Press, 2000.
Kutz, Eleanor, and Hephzibah Roskelly. An Unquiet Pedagogy: Transforming Practice in the English Classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton, 1991.
Melnick, Susan L., and Kenneth Zeichner. “Teacher Education’s Responsibility to Address Diversity Issues: Enhancing Institutional Capacity.” Theory into Practice. 37.2 (1998): 88-95.
Nieto, Sonia. Affirming Diversity: The Sociopolitical Context of Multicultural Education. 4th ed. New York: Pearson, 2004.
Nieto, Sonia, and Patricia Bode. Affirming Diversity: The Sociopolitical Context of Multicultural Education. 5th ed. New York: Pearson, 2008.
Perry, Theresa, Claude Steele, and Asa Hillard III. Young, Gifted and Black: Promoting High Achievement Among African-American Students. Boston: Beacon, 2003.
32 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Moving Forward (continued)
Trumbell, Elise, Carrie Rothstein-Fisch, and Patricia M. Greenfield. “A Practical Framework for Understanding Cultural Differences.” Bridging Cultures in Our School: New Approaches That Work. 2000. West-ED. Feb, 2008
Weaver, Gary R., ed. Culture, Communication and Conflict: Readings in Intercultural Relations. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Publishing, 1997.
Zeichner, Kenneth. “Connecting Teacher Development to the Struggle for Social Justice.” The National Center for Research on Teacher Learning. Michigan: Michigan State University, 1992.
ADDITIONAL REFERENCES & RESOURCES
Carter, Prudence L. Keepin’ it Real: School Success Beyond Black and White. New York: Oxford University, 2005.
Darder, Antonia, Rodolpho D. Torres, and Henry Gutierrez, eds. Latinos and Education. New York: Routledge, 1997.
Delpit, Lisa. Other People’s Children: Cultural Conflicts in the Classroom. New York: The New Press, 1995.
Fordham, Signithia. Blacked Out: Dilemmas of Race, Identity, and Success at Capital High. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1996.
Foster, Michele. Black Teachers on Teaching. New York: The New Press, 1997.
Grant, Carl A., and Sleeter, Christine. Turning on Learning: Five Approaches for Multicultural Teaching Plans For Race, Class, Gender, and Disability. 4th ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2007.
Ladson-Billings, Gloria. The Dreamkeepers: Successful Teachers of African-American Children. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1994.
McHatton, Patricia M. A., et al. “You Gotta Represent! Ethnic Identity Development Among Hispanic Adolescents.” Multicultural Perspectives. 9.3 (2007).
Perry, Thersa, and Lisa Delpit, eds. The Real Ebonics Debate: Power, Language and the Education of African-American Children. Boston: Beacon, 1998.
Perry, Thersa, and James W. Fraser, eds. Freedom’s Plow. New York: Routledge, 1993.
Reeves, Ellen G, ed. The New Press Education Reader: Leading Educators Speak Out. New York: The New Press, 2006.
Rhor, J. “Where Are All the Brown People, Grandma?” Multicultural Perspectives. 9.4 (2007).
Shade, Barbara J., Cynthia Kelly, and Mary Oberg. Creating Culturally Responsive Classrooms. Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2001.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 33 Moving Forward (continued)
Tatum, Alfred. Teaching Reading to Black Adolescent Males: Closing the Achievement Gap. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers, 2005.
Tatum, Beverly D. Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria? New York: Basic Books, 1997.
Walsh, Catherine E. Pedagogy and the Struggle for Voice: Issues of Language, Power, and Schooling for Puerto Ricans. New York: Bergin & Garvey, 1991.
Weis, Lois, and Michelle Fine, eds. Beyond Silenced Voices: Class, Race and Gender in United States Schools, Revised Edition. Albany: State University of New York, 2005.
FINDING THE NEWEST PUBLICATIONS AND CLASSROOM MATERIALS
www.teachingforchange.org Teaching for Change offers an online catalog of books, posters, videos and CDs to build a culturally responsive classroom library.
www.rethinkingschools.org Rethinking Schools Online offers a quarterly magazine, and a comprehensive index of research articles, web resources, and publications on critical topics in school reform.
www.crede.ucsc.edu Through this website, the Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence (CREDE) offers a number of resources and tools for teachers and students to learn more and further explore ways to support linguistic and cultural minority students.
www.edchange.org/multicultural Multicultural Pavilion is an interactive site that provides resources to teachers to explore and discuss multicultural education including awareness activities, dialogue forums, and a number of other opportunities for teachers to engage in collaborative learning experiences.
34 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 op•por•tu•ni•ty (o˘p’r-too’ni-te¯)n. A chance for progress or advancement. Notes What is ELA?
Elements of Effective Adolescent Literacy Instruction ...... 38 What is ELA?...... 45 ELA is Writing… ...... 46 ELA is Literature… ...... 57 ELA is Reading… ...... 66 English Language Learners in the DYS Classroom ...... 75 Standards of the ELA Seasons ...... 84 DYS English Language Arts Curriculum Organization ...... 87 Organizing the School Year in the ELA Classroom . . . . . 89
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 37 Elements of Effective Adolescent Literacy Instruction
“Literacy refers to the communication modes of reading, writing, listening, speaking, viewing, and representing.” (Irvin 9) All people who work with youth as well as educators are teachers of literacy. Since these skills are used in all content areas, all teachers should be promoting literacy in their classrooms. Literacy, especially reading and writing, is no longer relegated to the basic literacy skills taught in elementary schools. Literacy is a key determining factor to success in life and career. Although there are students at all levels who struggle with literacy issues, the strategies to address them are unique with adolescent learners.
Reading Next: A Vision for Action and Research in Middle and High School, a 2004 report from the Alliance for Excellent Education, identifies 15 critical elements of effective adolescent literacy programs which provide a foundation for our literacy work in DYS. They are aligned with our professional practices and they support our educational mission and philosophy. The elements are broken into two categories, instructional improvements and infrastructure improvements. Instructional issues focus on the students in the classroom environment with the teacher. Infrastructure issues relate to the overall educational system and culture. Both areas are important in enhancing literacy skills in our DYS youth and reflect aspects of the DYS professional development goals—standards-based curriculum, differentiated instruction, and focusing on literacy and numeracy.
Notes
38 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Elements of Effective Adolescent Literacy Instruction (continued)
THE FIFTEEN ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE ADOLESCENT LITERACY PROGRAMS
Instructional Improvements
1. Direct, explicit comprehension instruction
2. Effective instructional principles embedded in content
3. Motivation and self-directed learning
4. Text-based collaborative learning
5. Strategic tutoring
6. Diverse texts
7. Intensive writing
8. A technology component
9. Ongoing formative assessment of students
Infrastructure Improvements
10. Extended time for literacy
11. Professional development
12. Ongoing summative assessment of students and programs
13. Teacher teams
14. Leadership
15. A comprehensive and coordinated literacy program
The Instructional Improvement elements reflect pedagogical practices that are integral to teaching in the DYS system and are also promoted in professional development offerings. For the purposes of this instructional guide, we will be focusing on the nine instructional elements of effective adolescent literacy. This section will highlight some of the techniques you might use with your students to enhance their literacy skills.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 39 Elements of Effective Adolescent Literacy Instruction (continued)
INSTRUCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE ADOLESCENT LITERACY PROGRAMS
1. Direct, explicit comprehension instruction is instruction in the strategies and processes that proficient readers use to understand what they read. It includes: • clarifying, • questioning, • summarizing, • and predicting. Clarifying. In this stage, questions should be formulated in order to define words or phrases that are hard to understand, unfamiliar, or ones that could be misinterpreted. Questioning. This stage refers to why and how questions should be asked to create a shared understanding of the paragraph or section. These questions lead to additional questions and result in a discussion within the group. If a disagreement arises between students, it may be necessary to reread the passage for better understanding. Summarizing. In this stage, important details can be pointed out and paraphrased in a way that helps the students get the main idea of what is being read. This stage helps the students make sure they know what they just read and gives them ideas on what is to come in the next paragraph or section. Predicting. At this point, students are encouraged to make educated guesses on what the author is going to talk about next. These predictions can be made using the prior knowledge the students learned during the previous steps. This provides an opportunity for students to critically assess the author’s intent and provoke imagination (“Reciprocal Teaching”).
2. Effective instructional principles embedded in content include language arts teachers using content-area texts and content-area teachers providing instruction and practice in reading and writing skills specific to their subject area. This refers to the fact that all teachers are teachers of literacy. First, effective ELA teachers not only use the literature and writing components of their curriculum, but also teach the literacy skills with content-area texts. In this way, students see that the skills relate to all contexts. Secondarily, content-area teachers can reinforce good literacy skills in their subject matter with their primary text as well as supplemental resources. The use of such tools as graphic organizers, prompted outlines, structured reviews, guided discussions, and other instructional tactics that will modify and enhance the curriculum content in ways that promote its understanding and mastery have been shown to greatly enhance student performance for all students in academically diverse classes, not just students who are struggling (Biancarosa and Snow).
40 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Elements of Effective Adolescent Literacy Instruction (continued)
3. Motivation and self-directed learning includes building motivation to read and learn and providing students with the instruction and supports needed for independent learning tasks they will face after graduation and in career and life. One way to increase motivation is to build choice into your lessons. When students can choose a topic for research, a book to read, a writing topic, or a style of communicating their learning, they are more invested in the process. Another way to enhance motivation is to make the learning relevant to the students. By choosing activities that are contextual, the learner is more engaged and interested in the work.
4. Text-based collaborative learning involves students interacting with one another around a variety of texts. You can provide students with protocols for having effective discussions. Through this process students learn to share ideas and develop meaning from various readings. This approach is not only found in the ELA classroom, but can be utilized in other content-area lessons as well. For instance, students might read different texts about the Underground Railroad, each at his or her own reading level, and then present the ideas (rather than the plots) to the circle. A similar approach can be used in any subject area, even math, by having students work together on the same problem or on a set of similar problems. Moreover, text-based collaborative learning is effective in improving not only reading skills but also writing skills (Biancarosa and Snow).
5. Strategic tutoring provides students with intense individualized reading, writing, and content instruction as needed. Some students require more directed support for literacy. In the DYS setting this might include support from either special educators or Title I teachers. Many programs have also incorporated a Reading Program as a part of the required curriculum. This program focuses on some of the key skills necessary for literacy enhancement. Some treatment programs have also begun to use software such as OpenBook TM, which works with specific skill areas in reading and writing and is appropriate for all ages and abilities found in the DYS settings.
6. Diverse texts are texts at a variety of difficulty levels and on a variety of topics. It is important in the DYS setting that teachers have an assortment of texts and resources available to students in order to differentiate their instruction. To meet the wide range of learners, supplemental materials may need to be used to make the content accessible. Additionally, texts should be culturally sensitive and diverse. Students need to see themselves and others like them represented in the text. No one text can serve all learners in a DYS classroom. Even when a primary text is used, you can provide scaffolding for the students to make the text readable. Some selections, like Shakespeare, are available in side-by-side versions that provide support to readers unable to comprehend the language. For emerging readers or English Language Learners, there are also books on tape to support their reading skill development. For adolescent readers, Hi/Low books are especially useful. These high interest books have a lower reading level and can be used as a way to entice the student into reading. All DYS sites have access to books at various reading levels for students to choose during a free-reading session. Each Regional Lending Library also has ELL (English Language Learner) kits. These kits contain a variety of resources useful for students whose primary language is other than English, or who may be struggling with the very basics of the English language.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 41 Elements of Effective Adolescent Literacy Instruction (continued)
7. Intensive writing includes instruction connected to the kinds of writing tasks students will have to perform well in high school and beyond. Writing should be a daily component of all DYS classrooms. Even a short writing prompt allows students to practice their writing skills daily. Research has shown that there is a strong connection between writing and reading comprehension. The more students link reading and writing, the more both skills will improve. Asking students to respond to a question with a complete sentence is supporting good writing. Teaching students how to use parts of the question to draft their response is also teaching a critical skill. Many DYS teachers begin their lessons with a “do now” prompt. This could be a time to have students do a short answer written response. Some teachers also use the “ticket to leave” strategy at the end of class to check for lesson understanding. This strategy could also be a way to encourage writing. DYS programs have access to various resources that focus directly on promoting quality writing skills including LINKS, Alabama Writers’ Writing our Stories, and 6+1 Writing Traits.
8. A technology component includes technology as a facilitator of literacy and a medium of literacy instruction. As a tool, technology can support struggling readers and writers. OpenBook TM, a software program available at many DYS treatment programs uses a multimedia system to teach English reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills. Another web-based software option is the Compass Learning or E2020 programs that provide full English courses at the middle or high school levels. These courses can be used to supplement regular instruction or as options for credit recovery for students returning to public schools. Every DYS program has at least one LCD projector and laptop unit that can be used to assist teachers in providing whole class instruction in a visual medium. Using downloaded materials or direct links from the web, teachers can bring instruction alive with these tools. A quality example is the use of MCAS release items in language or composition that can be projected and discussed with the class. Another tool that can be effectively used with students is the NEO, a portable word processing keyboard. Many DYS sites have access to these and teachers in the system have reported that reluctant writers come alive when using this durable tool. Some programs have also received the newer version, the NEO2. This processor has the capacity to send answers to teacher-posed questions to the main unit, allowing the teacher instant access to formative data on student progress. It also is loaded with more content-specific software so it can be used across subject areas. In many DYS sites, there are also ELMO Document cameras available. This tool allows teachers to share actual student work with the rest of the class. It is excellent for whole class peer editing as well as sharing exemplars. In addition, some programs have received the more sophisticated SMART Board technology, which allows teachers the ability to turn the SMART Board into a virtual computer screen. All of these tools make learning more accessible and visible to our students.
42 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Elements of Effective Adolescent Literacy Instruction (continued)
It is important to remember that technology is also a critical topic in the English Language Arts curriculum. Through the Media strand in the Massachusetts English Language Arts Curriculum Framework, students are asked to become knowledgeable of media analysis and media production. In the same way they analyze written text, students are asked to review other forms of media, such as DVDs, movies, websites, television, radio or films. They are also asked to demonstrate their planning and organizational skills in communication by creating films, CDs, Power-point presentations, web pages, radio shows, or other media productions. The use of the web-based tool, Discovery Education Streaming, allows teachers and students access to video segments that can be used to support instructional objectives. A number of DYS facilities were given Digital Blue digital movie creators, small portable video cameras that take short videos that students can use to create a class project. Other programs have access to traditional video cameras or digital cameras that can be used as students create new projects in their English classroom.
9. Ongoing formative assessment of students is informal, often daily assessment of how students are progressing under current instructional practices. Quality formative assessment not only helps the teacher gather data as to the progress students are making in regard to learning objectives, but also provides the students with similar data. This assessment for learning allows teachers to make instructional modifications and students to make targeted adjustments to their learning. There are many formative assessment techniques that can be used in the ELA classroom, for example: KWL charts, learning/reflection logs, first drafts of work, conferences/conversations with students, one-minute writings, and exit cards. Formative assessment is not meant to be an evaluation that is used for grading, it is meant to be informative feedback for the purpose of improving student work.
You will see these elements come alive in subsequent sections of this Instructional Guide, demonstrating how essential they are to the quality instructional practices that DYS advocates. Nothing is more important, however, than you and your commitment to our youth. It is your enthusiasm and dedication that inspires our youth with the confidence they need to be successful. Each strategy and technique that you incorporate into your practice enhances the odds of your students achieving high levels of literacy and therefore future success.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 43 Elements of Effective Adolescent Literacy Instruction (continued)
WORKS CITED
Biancarosa, Giana, and Catherine Snow. “Reading Next: A Vision for Action and Research in Middle and High School.” Alliance for Excellent Education (2004). 1 August 2008
Irvin, Judith L., Julie Meltzer, and Melinda Dukes. Taking Action on Adolescent Literacy: An Implementation Guide for School Leaders. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2007.
“Reciprocal Teaching.” Literacy Instruction Home Page, College of Education, Michigan State University. 20 July 2008
Q: What are effective ways to teach writing? A: It is important for students to have many opportunities to write in the classroom. Some students have “hated” writing for so long, that just to have them write something on paper would be a success. One of the biggest problems with motivating students to write is the “fear factor”: The fear of the “red pen,” the fear of spelling, the fear of not knowing the “right” Q& answer. Part of motivating a student to write is to make them feel comfortable doing so. Once a student has enough trust in a teacher to put thoughts on paper, it is up to the teacher to discover the most effective way of teaching that specific student. Some students will need visual organizers. Most will need emotional support and positive feedback (“I know you can do a great job with this,” “an excellent start,” “awesome use of adjectives,” etc.). A It is helpful when the students understand the purpose of their writing. Will their writing be displayed, and if so, how and where? What are the boundaries/expectations of their writing? How will this writing assignment be useful to them in the “real world?” Can they use slang? Does length matter? Each assignment may have a different answer to these questions, but the more clearly you explain the assignment the less resistance. There are texts that DYS has distributed that are useful for teaching writing. The 6+1 Traits of Writing and the Alabama Writers Forum Writing Our Own Stories are excellent resources. The Massachusetts Department of Elementary & Secondary Education has examples of a past writing prompt for MCAS testing as well as the scoring guide used. Students are able to see what type of essay they need to write that will gain them a 6 as opposed to an essay that will gain them a 1. Using writing within a unit tends to be more effective than a writing unit that stands alone. Once writing becomes a part of the culture of the classroom there are more opportunities for directly teaching a specific writing skill that you have noticed a student needs. Some students prefer using a computer or NEO for their writing rather than writing in longhand. There will even be students who prefer to use a pencil over a pen or a pen over a pencil. Anything that you can do as a teacher to make the environment more “writer friendly” for the individual student will encourage that student to write.
44 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 What is ELA?
English Language Arts is a strange and wonderful subject—many subjects, really—not driven by content in the same way that history or science may be. The Massachusetts ELA Curriculum Framework includes only four strands and 27 recursive standards—that is, they apply to students at all grade levels. Nonetheless, this short list of standards covers a daunting array of knowledge and skills: reading, writing, listening, and speaking; but also literature, linguistics, media, and more.
To aid DYS teachers in planning appropriate and relevant mini-units and lessons to meet these standards and students’ individual needs, this section of the guide includes four chapters: • Writing: Putting writing at the center of curriculum planning focuses attention on students’ productive use of language arts skills and provides powerful tools for both assessment and learning. The writing chapter outlines useful approaches to developing a classroom writing program and to teaching the writing process and key skills. • Literature: Studying classic and contemporary literature is the core activity in most ELA classrooms, the main content of the subject. Teaching literature in the DYS setting presents many challenges, ranging from selecting appropriate texts to helping students comprehend and connect to them. The literature chapter offers several helpful strategies. • Reading: Success in the study of literature—and all other subjects—is dependent on effective reading abilities and habits, but many DYS students, due to learning disabilities and/or disruptions in their schooling, have below-grade-level reading skills. The reading chapter presents many pre-, during-, and after-reading strategies to boost comprehension. • Working with English Language Learners: For many DYS students, the already daunting task of learning writing, literature, and reading skills is complicated by the need to learn English as a second or third language. The ELL chapter, which includes principles and strategies for working with these students, is presented in this section of the guide because the approaches it outlines are appropriate and beneficial for all students.
DYS ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS CURRICULUM ORGANIZATION The organization of ELA curricula exhibits a wide range of approaches across the state and the nation. Given the diversity of Massachusetts DYS programs, the students they serve, and their geographic separateness, teachers’ approaches to curriculum in these setting are even more likely to vary. It may be tempting to ask, “Why does it matter how the curriculum is organized, as long as it hits all of the standards?” The answer is that each ELA classroom is part of a larger system, in which students are quite mobile. Students who move from one program to another (as well as back to their public schools and communities) need consistency so their learning is coherent and builds upon previous learning experiences. Teachers in the DYS system need to work from common agreements about what they teach and when they teach it. Developing agreements that become real in the classroom is an ongoing process, requiring meeting face-to-face, airing differences, finding common ground, and building trust. The mode of organization outlined in the center section of this guide is no substitute for this kind of in-depth professional development, but is intended to provide a basic framework for organizing instruction flexible enough to accommodate the broad range of DYS programs and students. The curriculum organization in this guide, which divides the year into five “seasons”—Exploring Traditions, Finding a Voice, Expanding Horizons, Reaching an Audience, and Evolving Communication—draws not only on Massachusetts and national standards for ELA, but also on widely accepted practices in the field and especially on the recommendations of experienced DYS teachers. While respecting the need for articulation across the system, the “seasons” organization acknowledges that teachers need autonomy to adapt the curriculum to suit local circumstances. Each season includes key ideas and essential questions and a general writing and literature focus. The details are left to the teacher to decide.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 45 What is ELA? ELA is Writing...
Teaching writing is one of the most gratifying aspects of being an ELA teacher and, as writing is an indispensable tool for learning and self-expression, certainly one of the most important. This section of the ELA guide offers perspectives and strategies on several aspects of writing instruction. These compact presentations are intended to stimulate teacher reflection and prompt further investigation. The approaches recommended here are by no means the only effective ones. Most important is the philosophy that teachers bring to the teaching of writing. Believingthat everyone can write is the key first step in developing an empowering writing program.
STUDENT-CENTERED WRITING INSTRUCTION Since the 1970s there has been a sea change in the teaching of writing. The traditional approach, exemplified by the standard five-paragraph theme on a teacher-selected topic, “was largely product-centered and print-based; that is, it focused on the finished exemplar of student work with little or no attention to the purpose or process of producing it” (National Writing Project and Nagin 19-20). The student had little choice or investment in the writing; the teacher had little involvement beyond assigning and grading it. What lessons there were focused on discrete skills such as outlining, organization, and grammar. The act of writing itself was largely unexamined, and “talent” was considered a gift some students had and some didn’t. There was generally no connection between assignments, and students often threw them away after they were returned.
Led by visionaries such as James Moffett, Donald Murray, and Peter Elbow, the revolution in writing pedagogy that began in the late 1960s turned the old model on its head. New approaches were based on the assumption that all students can write if given the freedom to choose their own topics and say what they have to say. Voice replaced structure as the most significant quality of student work. Another change was a shift to the belief that students learn to write by writing, daily or at least several times per week, in class as well as at home; so grammar drills, sentence diagramming, and other traditional practices gradually gave way to the writing workshop, in which students engage in all of the processes that professional writers use when composing: thinking, brainstorming, planning, researching, drafting, seeking feedback, revising, editing, and publishing (not necessarily in that order). Indeed, the writing process became the focus of the curriculum, and students learned to think about audience and purpose, give and receive response, and reflect on and strive to improve their skills over time. …no single set of Supported by research, these new practices and beliefs eventually became the procedures works accepted (if not universally used) mode of writing instruction, and they continue to for every writer be promoted by professional groups such as the National Writing Project on every occasion. (www.nwp.org) and the National Council of Teachers of English (www.ncte.org).
46 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 What is ELA? ELA is Writing... (continued)
The movement to implement student-centered approaches to the teaching of writing has faced obstacles in recent years. Some publishers and in-service programs have developed canned presentations of “the” writing process. But if research has shown anything, it is that no single set of procedures works for every writer on every occasion. Concern about high-stakes assessments has led to adoption of writing programs based on formulas and test preparation in some schools. Experts on composition and skilled teachers of writing are bucking these trends, arguing that an authentic writing curriculum is no less effective at preparing students for tests and much more likely to produce skilled, confident writers, ready for the challenges of careers and everyday life.
THE WRITER’S RIGHTS A recent book that explains clearly the student-centered philosophy behind the writing process movement is The 9 Rights of Every Writer: A Guide for Teachers by Vicki Spandel, who coordinated the teacher team that developed the original six-trait model for writing assessment and instruction. “This is a book about creating writing that is a voice, not an echo” (xi), she declares. In nine brief chapters, Spandel outlines a “bill of rights” for student writers that could serve as the guiding principles of any writing curriculum:
1. The Right to Be Reflective. Writing requires thinking, and thinking requires time—quiet time, reading time, discussion time. Slowing down the pace of the classroom to provide space for ideas to grow, for students to consider and reconsider their experiences leads to deeper engagement and higher-quality outcomes.
2. The Right to Choose a Personally Important Topic. “Writers who discover their own topics write with voice and commitment” (18). Students need room to make discoveries and to practice techniques to help them get beyond “I don’t know what to write about,” which usually means “I’m not important enough to write about.”
3. The Right to Go “Off Topic.” Writing prompts should not be cages that keep students from wandering into the subjects they really care about or into novel approaches. The best writing often includes or is the result of changes in direction.
4. The Right to Personalize Writing Process. Writing is a messy, complex set of recursive processes, not a rigid procedure. No two writers approach the task the same way. The teacher can help students learn what strategies work best for them by creating classroom conditions and routines that foster experimentation and reflection.
5. The Right to Write Badly. Like coaches working with young athletes, teachers need to focus on potential, not error. Students’ first attempts at challenging tasks are likely to fall short; teachers can help them learn that initial failure is a normal part of the process.
6. The Right to See Others Write. Teachers who write are better teachers of writing, and teachers who write in front of their students are the best. Modeling one’s own (not “the”) process of approaching a writing task gives students a window into the creative process.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 47 What is ELA? ELA is Writing... (continued)
7. The Right to Be Assessed Well. Quality assessment is perceptive, compassionate, and useful (94), and focused on growth rather than judgment. Clarifying the criteria for writing tasks is essential. The best rubrics are those that are developed with students.
8. The Right to Go Beyond Formula. Cookbook approaches to writing such as the thesis statement/three supporting details/conclusion structure are “seductive” (115) because they are teachable and seem to work. But they actually stifle thinking. Students, like chefs, need freedom and encouragement to tinker with recipes and to create their own.
9. The Right to Find Your Own Voice. Hard to define and even harder to teach, voice is the quality that distinguishes one writer’s work from another and most clearly reflects the writer’s personality and vision. Voice is the “power to make readers listen” (133). Teachers can encourage development of voice through reading aloud and peer response.
Other “rights” could be added to the list—the right to peer response is one possibility—but the overall point of the list is clear: if students are to grow as writers, they need to be respected as writers and allowed to behave as writers. The teacher has many roles to play in this process. Cheerleader, coach, and mentor should be among them; not just taskmaster, authority, and judge.
CREATING A CLASSROOM WRITING PROGRAM
Understanding the principles of the writing process movement is one thing; setting up a workable classroom writing program is another. There are so many questions to consider: What kinds of writing should students do? For what purposes and audiences? How often? How should their writing be assessed? The answers will depend in large part on local circumstances—it makes no sense to assign long-term projects in short-term DYS programs, for example—but a basic goal in any writing curriculum should be variety. Students should have opportunities to exercise all of their writing muscles, not just a few. Varying the modes, audiences, and stakes of writing tasks will enable students to develop a wide repertoire of skills and most likely keep them engaged.
Since the advent of high-stakes testing, the secondary writing curriculum in many schools has focused on essay and paragraph writing, and of course students need those skills to pass MCAS. But a steady diet of open-response prompts is not the best way to prepare for tests, much less an effective writing program. To become flexible, critical thinkers, students need to work in a variety of modes. James Britton, who led an extensive project on school writing in Great Britain, addresses this issue by describing three language functions that have implications for curriculum:
• Expressive language is “language close to the self” (96), written-down speech in which “the writer stays in the writing and doesn’t disappear” (97). In expressive writing the student’s voice is the strongest, and his or her home language or dialect is prevalent.
48 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 What is ELA? ELA is Writing... (continued)
• Transactional language is more separated from the self: “Whenever we talk or write or read for some functional purpose—to get things done, to make things happen—we are using ‘language in the role of participant’ “ (103), or transactional language. Most school writing falls into this category because its primary purpose is for the student to show the teacher what he or she has learned and to be evaluated accordingly—a transaction.
• Poetic language (which is not limited to poetry) is also distanced from the self, but in a different way: here the aim is to observe and interpret experience (real or imagined), to be a spectator. “We’ve only got one life as participants. As spectators, countless lives are open to us” (104). The aim of poetic writing is not action, but art.
These three language functions can be developed in a variety of genres. Expressive writing may take the form of informal journal entries or freewrites, or it may be adapted into personal essays like those featured on National Public Radio’s This I Believe series (www.thisibelieve.org). Transactional writing is commonly used for assessment in school—open-response test questions and end-of-unit essays, for example—but it can also be used for authentic purposes in business letters or news stories. Poetic writing—the kind most often studied but least often assigned in ELA classes—may include imitations or extensions of literary works or completely original poems, stories, or plays. Regular practice in all of these modes keeps students’ thinking and writing muscles well toned—like doing circuit training at the gym.
Another way of introducing variety and relevance into the curriculum is by having students write for different audiences. If students write only for the teacher, who reads their work only to evaluate it, the possibilities for genuine communication are limited. At a minimum, students can share assignments with each other, giving and receiving feedback and exchanging ideas. Some pieces can be revised and polished for publication or presentation for an authentic purpose. Examples of publication are a bulletin board of viewpoints on a particular topic, a class newspaper, or an anthology of creative pieces. Presentations might include performances for invited guests, poster sessions, or class debates. Persuasive letters to businesses or elected officials are other forms of authentic writing that motivate students to do their best work.
Varying the stakes is yet another way of building an effective writing program. For practical as well as pedagogical reasons, teachers should not grade everything that students write. Ideally students should write every day or at least several times a week; grading or even reading all of that work would require an inordinate amount of teacher time that would be better spent on planning. Besides, students need opportunities to experiment with ideas and language without the pressure of grades, just as musicians need time to practice before performing in public. Peter Elbow argues that allowing students to engage in low-stakes writing results in their “investing and risking more, writing more fluently, and using livelier, more interesting voices,” making them better prepared to move on “to more careful and revised (high-stakes) writing tasks that involve more intellectual pushing” (199). High-stakes writing—writing that gets assessed by the teacher or others—might be likened to the tip of an iceberg, the part that is exposed to scrutiny. Low-stakes writing is like the underwater portion of an iceberg—less visible but much larger.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 49 What is ELA? ELA is Writing... (continued)
Thus, when preparing to teach each of the DYS curriculum “seasons,” the teacher should consider the following checklist to ensure a varied and effective writing program: • Opportunities to write in expressive, transactional, and poetic modes will be included. • An audience in addition to the teacher will read (or listen to) at least one assignment. • Frequent low-stakes writing will prepare students for periodic high-stakes tasks. Please refer to the curriculum season sections of this guide for specific suggestions for writing assignments and projects.
WRITING TO LEARN In most schools ELA teachers are charged with the primary responsibility for students’ learning to write, for their acquiring the skills to organize and communicate ideas effectively. But besides being a set of important skills, writing is a powerful tool for learning content—in ELA and in all other academic subjects. Well-designed writing tasks capitalize on this power. “An effective assignment does more than ask students to write about what they have read or experienced. It engages students in a series of cognitive processes, such as reflection, analysis, and synthesis, so that they are required to transform the information from the reading material or other sources in order to complete the writing assignment” (National Writing Project and Nagin 47). Writing-to-learn assignments may culminate in analytical essays or presentations, but they don’t always have to be that formal. Everyday low-stakes activities such as writing into the day, reading logs, and “tickets to leave” can be crafted to encourage students to reflect on what they are learning, to make connections, and to draw conclusions. Asking students to share their work in pairs or small groups, or even to construct them jointly, enhances the learning possibilities. Regular opportunities to use writing as an inquiry tool will help prepare them for occasions when they must demonstrate their knowledge and understanding through writing, such as essay tests and MCAS open response items. See the ‘Teaching the Process: Invention’ section for more writing-as-thinking ideas.
WHAT ABOUT THE FIVE-PARAGRAPH ESSAY? Though widely denounced by composition experts as a creativity-stifling formula with no basis in real-world writing, the five-paragraph essay, a staple …an essay doesn’t have of American education for decades, remains a prominent fixture of the to be five paragraphs— writing curriculum in most schools. In the current climate of high-stakes the number should be assessment, this familiar form is at the center of most test-preparation programs. How should DYS ELA teachers approach this inauthentic but determined by the content, academically indispensable genre? Presenting the five-paragraph essay as a not the other way around. genre (not as the way to write an essay) is the key. Although students are not likely to encounter this form outside of the school environment, knowing its features can help them to organize their ideas on the MCAS long composition and on other assessments that call for formal presentations of arguments and information.
50 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 What is ELA? ELA is Writing... (continued)
There is nothing inherently wrong with the five-paragraph structure; it has just been applied too rigidly and too much. In the first place, an essay doesn’t have to be five paragraphs—the number should be determined by the content, not the other way around. The essence of the form is that it answers the reader’s questions deductively: what’s your point? (introduction and thesis); what evidence do you have? (reasons and examples); what is the significance? (conclusion). Learning this pattern of thinking (as one of many) is certainly valuable to students, and understanding the purpose of the traditional essay is more empowering than memorizing a set of surface features.
THE WRITING WORKSHOP IN THE DYS CONTEXT The classroom writing workshop envisioned by James Moffett and other theorists and developed by teachers such as Nancie Atwell is an exciting place to be: students at various stages of the writing process work on drafts independently; small groups meet to give and receive feedback; the teacher circulates among the students conducting mini-conferences; resources are available at various stations around the room; the atmosphere is pervaded by engagement and purpose. DYS ELA teachers, faced with small classrooms, constant distractions, high student turnover rates, and other significant challenges, might fairly ask whether the kind of writing workshop described above is achievable in a DYS facility. The honest answer is probably not, but many of the key features of the workshop approach can be implemented to some degree:
• Allowing adequate time for thinking and writing. Ideas germinate slowly, and finding the right words to express them takes time. Teachers in detention facilities may not have the luxury of spreading writing tasks over a long period, but even there they can dedicate significant chunks of class time to student-directed writing and thinking activities.
• Providing opportunities for response. Writers need feedback to progress. Peer-response groups equipped with descriptive feedback techniques and trained to focus on ideas and expression rather than mechanical errors can be extremely helpful and motivating.
• Preparing mini-lessons. When a significant number of students need instruction on particular skills related to their current writing projects, a teacher can design one or more 20-minute lessons that illustrate the skills, engage students in collaborative practice, and enable them to apply what they have learned to their own writing immediately.
• Conducting informal conferences. The best way to individualize instruction in the workshop setting is to meet with students briefly, at their desks if possible, to discuss their progress and help them to decide their next steps (rather than tell them what to do).
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 51 What is ELA? ELA is Writing... (continued)
TEACHING THE PROCESS: INVENTION Many students—and many adults, too—have trouble getting started when they write. They may just block when confronting the blank page, or they may be overwhelmed by a “brainstorm” of seemingly random ideas. Many writers lack strategies for navigating this difficult phase of the writing process. The traditional model of writing instruction didn’t offer much guidance beyond “make an outline.” Making an outline requires a pretty clear idea of where a piece is headed! To answer the need for better methods of getting started, composition researchers revived an idea from ancient rhetoric: invention, which Aristotle defined as “the art of discovering all of the available means of persuasion.” Modern invention theory provides discovery strategies that can be applied to all kinds of writing tasks, not just persuasion. These tools, called heuristics, are flexible, reusable probes that can help writers inquire into their subjects and “invent” new ideas. A common example is the reporter’s 5W+H: Who? What? Where? When? Why? How? Researching the answers to these questions always produces the raw material for a news story.
Teachers can help their students become more effective and independent thinkers by introducing and demonstrating heuristics, which generally fall into two categories: intuitive and systematic. The intuitive strategies are based on the belief that all people have a wealth of experience and ideas inside them; these heuristics are designed to help writers “turn on the tap.” Systematic strategies, in contrast, provide a series of lenses through which writers can examine their topics. The heuristics described below are among the most widely practiced and effective of each type (for a full discussion of the sources and applications of invention strategies, see Penniman):
Intuitive Strategies Systematic Strategies Freewriting. The most important features of this Dramatizing. Similar to the reporter’s six questions, strategy are freedom and continuity. Typically, this strategy involves looking at a subject as a drama, students write whatever comes to mind without examining the Act (what was done), Agent (who did stopping for 10 minutes or more. They don’t stop to it), Scene (when and where it was done, Means (how edit or second guess. When the session is over, they it was done, and Motive (why it was done). These go back to highlight their most useful insights. questions can be probed deeply and linked. Visualizing. Similar to some forms of meditation, Changing Perspectives. Drawing on physics guided visualization begins with relaxation concepts, this heuristic asks students to view their techniques. Led by the teacher, students close their subjects as particles (individual entities that can be eyes, then create mental pictures of their topics, compared to similar things), as waves (processes scenes they can examine by “observing,” “listening with changing elements), and fields (systems with in,” and reflecting on the meanings of the images. A many parts). A novel’s main character, for example, class visualizing session is usually followed might be compared to other characters, traced over immediately by a period of silent writing. time, and “dissected”.
It’s important to remember that invention may occur at any time during the writing process, not just at the beginning. Students who get stuck part way through a draft may find it helpful to return to a previously used heuristic or to try a new one.
52 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 What is ELA? ELA is Writing... (continued)
Graphic organizers such as those provided in the LINKS notebook (Porcaro) available to DYS teachers are popular pre-writing activities, and some of them draw on the same thinking skills as invention strategies. But there is an important difference. Many graphic organizers elicit single words or short phrases, which may not be as powerful as composing ideas using syntax. Also, introducing writing templates too early may shortcut or even constrict the thinking process. In general, it is better for students to use graphic organizers after they have generated some ideas.
TEACHING THE PROCESS: REVISION AND RESPONSE To many students, revision means “making a neat final copy,” not a thorough reconsideration (“re-vision”) of what they have written. But revision is really the essence of writing and an essential part of an effective writing process. How can teachers encourage reluctant writers to engage in deep revision? It may be helpful to begin by cultivating some understandings: • Revision is a normal part of writing, not a punishment for doing a bad job the first time. • Revision happens repeatedly throughout the writing process, not just at the end. • Revision is not synonymous with editing, which does typically happen late in the process. • Revision harnesses the power of language and strengthens the writer’s voice.
Like most other writers, students are more motivated to revise their work if they have natural reasons to do so, such as presentation or publication (see suggestions on page 46). When students feel that they are writing for an authentic purpose, they generally take more ownership of their work.
Peer response that focuses on sharing and discussing students’ ideas (as opposed to mere error-checking) is also a powerful stimulus for revision. Teachers often complain that peer response doesn’t work—that students don’t give helpful feedback—but the problem is usually that they are trying to “play teacher,” pointing out problems or making judgments. “What writers need,” say Peter Elbow and Pat Belanoff, “is an audience: a thoughtful, interested audience rather than evaluators or editors or advice-givers” (5). The response techniques they recommend are useful for students of all ages and abilities because they invite natural reactions. For example: • Sharing: no response. Just listen and enjoy. Say “thank you” at the end of the piece. • Pointing. “Which words or phrases or passages somehow strike you? ... get through?” • Center of gravity. “Which sections somehow seem important or resonant?” • Sayback. “Say back to me in your own words what you hear me getting at in my piece.” • What is almost said? What do you want to hear more about? Just ask the questions (8-9).
Students need lots of practice to become skilled at responding. They generally do better in small groups in which writers read their pieces aloud rather than exchanging. Hearing the writer’s voice makes the piece more present, and not seeing a draft reduces the impulse to focus on error.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 53 What is ELA? ELA is Writing... (continued)
Teacher response, if used strategically, can also motivate students to revise. Timing is crucial. For instance, asking a student to rewrite a completed essay that has gone wrong will not likely meet with a positive reaction. But helping a student to find the “center of gravity” or to solve a problem in a partial draft, a work in progress, will probably elicit a favorable response. There are two important points to keep in mind when giving suggestions: (1) students can work on only one or two things at a time, so focus on what is most important; (2) the writing should belong to the writer, so strive to help the student to see alternatives rather than to supply the “fix.”
TEACHING THE PROCESS: ASSESSMENT Revision goes hand in hand with assessment: not just summative assessment, the kind that leads to rankings or grades, but formative assessment, the ongoing kind that focuses on improvement. Both students and teachers have important roles to play in the assessment of writing. If students learn to recognize the qualities of good writing and to become reflective about their own work, they can direct their own learning to a large degree. If teachers look at student work analytically, they can determine what kinds of mini-lessons and conferences will help their students progress.
The 6+1 Traits of Writing rubrics are excellent tools for formative assessment. This and Ruth Culham’s other book, 100 Trait-Specific Comments, which is available to DYS ELA teachers, offer clear explanations and ample illustrations of the six elements of effective writing: ideas, organization, voice, word choice, sentence fluency, conventions—plus one: presentation. The beauty of this model is that it applies to all kinds of writing and to students of all ages and abilities. It is not a writing curriculum, but it can guide instruction in any class (6+1 Traits 19). Culham advises focusing on one or two traits at a time so as not to overwhelm students (29) and teaching them to assess their own performance and progress over time.
What about grading? Nothing kills a student’s enthusiasm for writing quicker …not all pieces of writing than a bad grade on a paper, and even a good grade diverts a student’s attention have to be graded, from improvement and growth. Grades are inevitable in school, but not all and none have to be pieces of writing have to be graded, and none have to be graded individually. As noted above, low-stakes writing (chiefly writing-to-learn activities) should graded individually. not be graded, except, perhaps, as “done” or “not done.” Formal assignments can be collected in a working portfolio (usually a manila or pocket folder) with accompanying drafts, revisions, and other relevant material (such as six-traits rubrics and progress charts). This working portfolio can be evaluated periodically and graded as a whole. Student reflection should always be a part of this process, and whenever practical, students should be involved in creating the grading rubric. In DYS detention facilities, the portfolio evaluation cycle will necessarily be short. In assessment and treatment facilities, however, students may be present long enough to develop showcase portfolios, which may be designed for a variety of purposes, with more or less student control of the contents. In this portfolio process students collect their compositions and related materials, select their best or representative pieces, reflect on their progress as writers, project goals for the next cycle, and then present their work (see Danielson and Abrutyn).
54 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 What is ELA? ELA is Writing... (continued)
WHAT ABOUT GRAMMAR? One of the most persistent controversies in the teaching of writing is when, how, and whether to teach grammar. To many researchers, the question has been settled: in numerous experimental studies conducted over a hundred years, there is no convincing evidence that the teaching of formal grammar leads to improvement in writing (Hartwell 105). In fact, it may even have a harmful effect by taking time from writing. Nonetheless, the debate continues. What makes the topic complicated, Patrick Hartwell explains, is that the word “grammar” has multiple meanings: • “Grammar 1” is the set of language patterns that all native speakers of a language have in their heads by the age of five or six—the grammar, in other words. • “Grammar 2” refers to theories developed by linguistic scientists to describe Grammar 1. There are many such theories, so this meaning could be referred to as a grammar. • “Grammar 3” is not really grammar at all, but linguistic etiquette. When we point out or try to correct errors in “grammar,” we are really referring to usage. • “Grammar 4” is school grammar—the types taught in textbooks—which may be derived from but do not always accurately reflect scientific grammar. • “Grammar 5” refers to the use of grammatical terms to teach prose style, as in Strunk and White’s popular handbook (109-110).
Given all of this complexity, teachers should think carefully about their purposes and students’ needs when considering approaches to grammar. The deep and surface structures of language and the ways that linguists and educators have described them (Grammars 1, 2, and 4) are certainly interesting and valid subjects for study, but they are not as relevant to writing as usage and style (Grammars 3 and 5). What is the best approach to teaching these aspects of grammar?
A good deal of grammar instruction focuses on avoiding error. But Constance Weaver, who has studies such as Mina Shaughnessy’s Errors and Expectations have shown that error is often an indicator of growth. Sentence fragments and published several influential comma splices, for instance, do not usually result from a lack of books on grammar, argues for understanding of the sentence but rather a misunderstanding of how to teaching linguistic concepts in punctuate a complex or compound sentence. In this case the error shows the context of writing, when progress toward sophisticated sentence style. This does not mean that there is the best chance of teachers should ignore usage errors or never attempt to introduce new styles. But formal “grammar” lessons, given apart from students’ transfer to students’ own work. writing, are probably not the best way to go. Constance Weaver, who has published several influential books on grammar, argues for teaching linguistic concepts in the context of writing, when there is the best chance of transfer to students’ own work. She recommends “incidental lessons,” in which grammatical terms are used casually in the context of discussing literature or student writing; “inductive lessons,” in which students are guided to notice patterns and make generalizations, and “mini-lessons,” in which the teacher presents new information and students try it out in collaborative activities; as well as teaching grammatical points in writing conferences (19). The best resource for teaching grammar in the context of writing is, of course, student work, which can be used to point out positive examples of usage and style as well as errors. Another technique, which can be used as a “do now” activity at the beginning of class, is to post a “MUG shot” sentence on the blackboard and ask students to identify and correct problems in mechanics, usage, and grammar. Students enjoy this process, which can lead smoothly to an informal lesson.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 55 What is ELA? ELA is Writing... (continued)
In both group and individual instruction, it’s important that teachers make a distinction between grammatical error and dialect difference. Features of African-American English (AAE) such as the habitual be and other non-standard verb forms (“He do be ridin’ the bus, but he ain’t ride it today”) are not wrong: they follow well-documented rules that are just different from the rules of Standard English (which is, after all, only the dialect of those who have traditionally held the most power, upper and middle class whites). ELA teachers have an obligation to teach Standard English—knowing how to use it is essential to students’ academic progress and employability—but in a way that respects students’ home dialects and languages. Using Standard English should not be presented as speaking and writing “properly” but as code-switching from the home dialect to the power dialect—as choosing the form that fits the occasion.
WORKS CITED Atwell, Nancie. In the Middle: New Understandings about Reading, Writing, and Learning. 2nd ed. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook, 1998. Britton, James. “Writing to Learn and Learning to Write.” Prospect and Retrospect: Selected Essays of James Britton, ed. Gordon M. Pradl. Montclair, NJ: Boynton/Cook, 1982. pp. 94-111. Culham, Ruth. 6+1 Traits of Writing: The Complete Guide Grades 3 and Up. New York: Scholastic, 2003. Culham, Ruth. 100 Trait-Specific Comments. New York: Scholastic, 2006. Danielson, Charlotte, and Leslye Abrutyn. An Introduction to Using Portfolios in the Classroom. Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 1997. Elbow, Peter. “Ranking, Evaluating, and Liking: Sorting out Three Forms of Judgment.” College English 55.2 (February 1993): 187-206. Elbow, Peter, and Pat Belanoff. Sharing and Responding. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995. Hartwell, Patrick. “Grammar, Grammars, and the Teaching of Grammar.” College English 47:2 (February 1985): 105-127. Moffett, James. “Learning to Write by Writing.” Teaching the Universe of Discourse. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1968. pp. 188-210. National Writing Project and Carl Nagin. Because Writing Matters: Improving Student Writing in Our Schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2003. Penniman, Bruce M. Prodding the Muse: The Effects of Instruction in Rhetorical Invention on the Composing Processes of Ninth Graders. Diss. University of Massachusetts, 1985. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1985. 8509591. Porcaro, Kathleen M. LINKS Secondary Metacognitive Strategies Resource Handbook. 10th ed. Woburn, MA: EPSI, 2002. Shaughnessy, Mina. Errors and Expectations: A Guide for the Teacher of Basic Writing. New York: Oxford U P, 1977. Spandel, Vicki. The 9 Rights of Every Writer: A Guide for Teachers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2005. Weaver, Constance. “Teaching Grammar in the Context of Writing.” English Journal 85:7 (November 1996): 15-24.
56 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 What is ELA? ELA is Literature...
The teaching of literature goes hand in hand with the teaching of writing. After all, literature is a model of great writing. It is also an important tool for understanding the self and the world around us. This section of the ELA guide offers perspectives and strategies on several aspects of literature instruction. As in the previous section on teaching writing, these are intended to stimulate teacher reflection and prompt further investigation. The approaches recommended here are by no means the only effective ones. Most important is the philosophy that teachers bring to the teaching of literature. This philosophy has changed over the years, from one grounded in the study of literature through a single lens to a multiple lens model that builds both critical thinking skills and multiple perspectives of viewing the world.
The experience of both teachers and students in the DYS setting corresponds well with this new direction in the study of literature. Teachers and students in the DYS setting understand a variety of different social codes simultaneously. Students face a variety of expectations from their community, family, friends, schools and workplaces. In DYS facilities, those expectations are still there, along with a whole new list of expectations. Clearly, all of our students are aware of the overly complex nature of society even if they cannot put a name or a theory to it. We all “experience” similar things, yet we don’t actually “experience” things We all “experience” similar similarly. Experience depends upon context and perspective. Developing the skills to analyze literature in multiple ways can help our students to things, yet we don’t actually navigate these complexities and be more critical, responsible members of “experience” things similarly. society. The study of literature therefore prepares students to understand Experience depends upon that conflict management and acknowledging multiple perspectives on context and perspective. situations are a major part of every day life decisions. In the ELA classroom, we call this Critical Theory or Literary Criticism.
Many teachers’ own study of literature took place in classrooms where the traditional approach to teaching literature (New Criticism) focused on the one correct interpretation of a text. Many students of this teaching philosophy felt that their job was to decipher the hidden language that led to the decoding of this “inside knowledge.” If you didn’t know the secret handshake, literature was somehow inaccessible to you. In these classrooms, the psychology, gender, race, class or politics of the author (and reader) was insignificant compared to finding the “correct” reading of a literary selection. How many students left these classrooms feeling that they “just didn’t get the right way to interpret literature” and all too often decided that they “didn’t like” English?
Current approaches to the teaching of literature (Critical Theory or Literary Criticism) are grounded in the philosophy that there are many possible interpretations of one text and that multiple interpretations are viable simultaneously. Teacher training programs are beginning to teach the study of literary criticism and demonstrate that it does have a place in the culturally responsive ELA classroom. Looking at literature through multiple lenses goes hand in hand with culturally responsive teaching; having a variety of ways to interpret text parallels the diversity of our complicated lives.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 57 What is ELA? ELA is Literature... (continued)
WHAT LITERATURE SHOULD WE TEACH?
The nice thing about using critical theory as a base for teaching literature is that the literature a teacher chooses to use is less important than the approach to reading, discussing, analyzing and writing about that piece of literature. In addition to successful practices in the teaching of reading (predicting, questioning, challenging, and clarifying techniques), teachers are responsible for discussion facilitation that leads students through open-ended questions to higher order thinking skills, building from knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, and synthesis, toward evaluation. This process allows teachers to help students move beyond taking a text at face value and, through multiple readings and analysis, access a variety of interpretations of literature texts.
Although a critical theory approach takes the focus off the choice of literature and places it more on the process of engaging with the texts, there are still important considerations teachers should take when it comes to choosing texts. As often as possible, ELA teachers should use stories, plays, and novels that are in their original forms, avoiding texts that have been re-written in a simpler language. These adapted texts, too often, water down the content and tone so much that readers are at a loss to discuss them as authentic literary experiences. For example, studying one or two scenes of Lorraine Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun in the original form might be more valid than reading the entire play in a condensed or re-written form. Providing students access to literature in its original form places a value on more than the story, but the language and ideas of the writer.
This is not to say that these condensed or re-written forms can’t play a role in the DYS classroom as an important tool to summarize a piece of literature for a student who enters the classroom halfway through the study of a text. They can also be used to summarize the larger story when a short selection of a piece of literature is chosen for more in-depth reading and study.
Therefore, an important option for ELA teachers is to choose short texts. Because the standards suggested by the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) and the International Reading Association (IRA) support the teaching of a broad range of literature and because time is a constant issue in ELA classrooms, short texts are gaining new teacher appeal. In her book Less is More, Kimberly Campbell suggests the reading of short pieces of literature in the classroom: “Short texts allowed all of my students to come to the literature table—where we dined not on fast food, but on a delicious buffet that represented the smorgasbord of literature genres available to us readers” (Campbell 7). For the DYS setting, offering a frequently changing menu of options of self-contained texts or original selections from longer ones can work well due to restrictions of time and student movement in and out of classrooms.
58 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 What is ELA? ELA is Literature... (continued)
In practice, short texts can be found all around us. Teachers have found that segmented texts (or collections of vignettes) work well in the classroom. These can be read in their entirety but also have short pieces which can stand alone (like Sandra Cisneros’ The House on Mango Street or Tim O’Brien’s The Things They Carried). Short texts are advantageous because they can be read and reread in the classroom, allowing students to practice a variety of possible interpretations of the same piece of literature. In addition, students can be exposed to a wider variety of cultures and philosophies when more texts are used in the classroom, and a healthy balance of both contemporary and classic texts can be used.
Teachers are often familiar with using literary anthologies, such as Hampton Brown’s Edge: Reading, Writing and Learning and Perfection Learning’s A Multicultural Reader, to find diverse collections of short stories. However, using excerpts from novels, a scene from a play, an article from a contemporary magazine, an editorial from the newspaper, etc. are other ways to bring short texts into the classroom. As long as we focus on the skills we are teaching, the freedom to find text becomes much simpler and more rewarding.
Consider the following approaches as ideas for teaching both long and short texts and adapt them for your particular classroom setting. Keep in mind that teaching creative nonfiction (also known as narrative nonfiction—literature that communicates information in a way that reads like fiction—such as personal essays, memoirs, biographies, food and travel writing and literary journalism) also has a role in the literature classroom.
Q: How do I find materials that can interest and challenge such a diverse group? A: Do not rely entirely on the books you find on your shelves. Be creative. Use the library, the internet, etc. Trust that your students will appreciate great writing. Try to find pieces of writing that can be understood by lower level students, and yet are pieces of such high quality as to Q provide modeling and thought-provoking concepts for the higher level students. For & example, consider the poetry of Langston Hughes. The language is often simple, but the images and ideas are not. A student with lower-level skills might contemplate and attempt to criticize or mimic Hughes’s use of repetition, while a student demonstrating higher-level skills might criticize or mimic Hughes’s repeated use of nature as a A metaphor for both struggle and achievement.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 59 What is ELA? ELA is Literature... (continued)
WHAT SKILLS ARE WE TEACHING? Current NCTE president Carol Jago’s Seven Guiding Principles for Literature Teachers (Jago 1-20) from her book Classics in the Classroom: Designing Accessible Literature Lessons are a good starting point when considering the skills to teach in the ELA classroom. Jago’s principles are here in bold; the statements that follow attempt to capture ideas which DYS teachers can put into practice immediately.
1. Students must read. YES, it is okay to spend time in the ELA classroom having students read silently— often shorter texts can be read, and even reread, in one class session.
2. Don’t confuse reading for pleasure with the study of literature. It’s important as teachers that we encourage students to read for pleasure, but reading for the purpose of entertainment is different than when we study literature. The study of literature is done for the purpose of learning. Literature can and will open students up to other cultures, ways of life, and methods of making meaning, and of course, can bring great pleasure. This is an important point in the argument against teaching only young adult fiction.
3. Don’t simply assign difficult books; teach them. All students have the right to learn from difficult and challenging texts; but many students need help in doing so. As teachers, it’s important we scaffold instruction to increase access to more difficult reading, giving all students the needed tools to grapple with difficult language, genres and themes.
4. Reading literature requires language study and builds vocabulary. Books with challenging vocabulary offer students the opportunity to stay engaged with the literature while stretching their reading level.
5. Reading literature builds background knowledge. The more we read the more we know— even if we are reading segments of longer works and not full length texts. As Malcolm X said, “As I see it today, the ability to read awoke in me some long dormant craving to be mentally alive.”
6. Reading literature educates students’ imaginations. Reading short texts can expand our creativity just as much, if not more, than reading longer texts.
7. Metaphorical thinking is a life skill. Short works can often be more successful means of teaching metaphorical thinking because the focus is so clear.
ESSENTIAL STRATEGIES FOR THE APPRECIATION OF LITERATURE We can focus on the following strategies in helping students in our classrooms successfully access and appreciate literature. These include: the elements of literature, the study of genre, literary devices, and strategies for close reading. The elements of literature – Teaching the different elements of literature helps students become comfortable with the language specific to literature study. When students understand and become comfortable with the elements of literature, such as plot, character, setting and theme, they can engage in analysis of individual pieces of literature and between different pieces of literature. This knowledge also allows students to go beyond the basic elements of literature into more challenging elements, such as tone, mood and irony. Studying these elements in literature also prepares students to begin to experiment with these elements in their own writing. Consider using approved movies, paintings, music videos, music lyrics, etc. along with short stories to reinforce student knowledge. Review the terms with each and every text so that the language of literature becomes second nature to all students.
60 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 What is ELA? ELA is Literature... (continued)
Genre studies – Reading and analysis of different types of literature promotes cognitive development because it gives students an opportunity to apply similar skills and strategies, such as identifying themes discussed in one genre—fiction, for example—to other genres like poetry, reports, descriptive pieces, and plays (Smith). It’s easy for teachers to assume students understand genre without directly teaching it, which can frustrate students and keep literature inaccessible. We must talk explicitly about the structure of stories before teaching them; what makes a poem a poem and a short story a short story? Some genres, such as poetry, can be taught successfully by making connections to similar genres in the music our students listen to before moving on to the teaching of classic poetic structures. Tom Fox, in his article Linking Genre to Standards and Equity, suggests that “genres are best taught when they are embedded in meaningful situations” and that a “thoughtful pedagogy of genres can bridge the gap between disenfranchised students and communities and schools.” Literary devices – Identifying and understanding literary devices and the role they play in literature helps students understand the variety of ways writers use language to tell a story and communicate ideas. Research suggests that literary devices such as figurative language, irony and flashback should be taught through the literature students are reading. Helping students identify literary devices in the text and examine their success is another way to help students access literature and consider it as a model for writing. Many students become familiar with metaphor, simile and personification first through the music they listen to; this can be a great way to begin the study of literary devices in literature. As students are given the opportunity to experiment with creating literary devices in their own writing, they will not only recognize them in other writers’ works, but they will understand the purpose and power of their use. Close reading – Close reading of a text can do more than prepare our students for standardized exams. Careful examination of a brief piece of text focusing on such things as diction, patterns of language, and point of view can help them be more successful in understanding the whole text. Close reading of a section of text gives students the opportunity to apply their knowledge of the elements of literature, genre studies and literary devices to comprehending the meaning of the passage. We don’t need to limit students to learning and practicing these skills on the literature of others; students can use close reading skills to analyze and reflect on their own writing and the writing of their peers. Students can be asked to write a letter to the editor of an anthology of student writing arguing for the inclusion of their piece of writing as an example of a strong piece of literature.
Q: How can I teach whole works of literature in a DYS context? A: Many ELA teachers wonder how to teach whole works of literature in a DYS context, where new students may arrive at any time and stay for as little as two days. Even when students do stay longer, a group that begins a session together is unlikely to remain intact through an entire unit. One strategy is to choose short works—stories, poems, articles, and one-act plays—that can be read in one or two class periods. This approach is valid, but can also be quite limiting. Q& Another approach is to choose longer works that are episodic or dramatic. Such works will have recurring patterns and sections that can stand on their own. Two works mentioned in the season on Exploring Traditions (The Odyssey and Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl) are good examples of this kind of literature. A student entering class mid-way through the reading of either one would need some background information to grasp what was going on, but could start reading almost anywhere in the text and A still comprehend and be able to respond to the main ideas of the piece.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 61 What is ELA? ELA is Literature... (continued)
WHAT DOES THIS LOOK LIKE IN THE ELA CLASSROOM?
Reading in class: Silent reading? Oral reading? Even teachers with the best intentions help their students NOT to read. Too often we assume that kids can read and do read and skip over reading in class. Reading must be the most common practice within the ELA classroom, and reading should happen in a variety of ways each and every class meeting. We can use our own oral reading in classrooms to demonstrate fluency, to engage students in material, and to model accessing difficult texts. Introducing each new text in the classroom with a short, practiced oral reading allows us to model our own reading strategies so that students can experience what happens silently in a reader’s mind. Oral reading by students should be used well after they comprehend the content of the piece they are reading as a way to develop their fluency and performance skills, rather than as a technique to get them to understand. Silent reading in class is essential. Students will improve their reading only by practicing silent reading. Just as there is no way to improve in athletics or music or performance without emphasizing practice, there is no way to improve reading without having students read. Initially, students should read for literal comprehension. Teachers can help this process along by pre-teaching difficult vocabulary and checking comprehension through discussion and/or writing exercises. In general, using a quiz for a comprehension check provides more anxiety than purpose for the classroom. Discussion and in-class informal writing are successful forms of formative assessment that will help determine comprehension. Once confident that most students understand the literature on a literal level, it is time to move them to understanding on the figurative level. Figurative comprehension needs to be modeled and taught. A great technique is to have students reread a piece they understand literally and flag the text with sticky notes looking for certain words, themes, and symbols which will lead them to constructing figurative meaning from the piece. After students have worked individually, they can work in pairs or small groups to construct several possible interpretations of the text. Then you can lead them directly into using literary criticism.
Building critical thinking skills is one of the utmost goals for ELA teachers. In the DYS setting, at times, class discussion might not be possible. However, students can still construct meaning without talking. Using the technique of ink shedding (writing and passing the paper so that students are having a written discussion instead of a verbal discussion) students can still co-construct meaning. This low-stakes writing activity helps students formulate their own ideas and build on those ideas by reading other students’ ideas. Writing to learn is another technique to use while students are learning to interpret text on a figurative level. Writing about “what I know for sure” or “what I suspect” or “what I predict” is a helpful way to get them thinking.
Q: It seems as if many of my students would benefit from an Individualized Educational Plan (IEP), but many do not have one. How do I handle this situation? A: If a student missed a lot of school before they became committed, they will obviously have gaps in their education. The reality is that many students come to DYS with a plethora of academic deficits that are either legitimate learning disabilities that were never diagnosed Q and/or addressed; or they have missed so much school, it has created gaps that need to & be filled in and present as learning disabilities. A student with a low reading ability may not necessarily have a learning disability, because with practice they could get themselves up to the appropriate level. • Consult with a Special Education teacher. • Are there school records for you to look at? A • Consult with the other DYS teachers in your program. • If the student was in another DYS facility, talk with that teacher.
62 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 What is ELA? ELA is Literature... (continued)
If whole class discussion is an option in the DYS setting, it’s important we not only create a safe environment for students to share their ideas and take risks grappling with new ideas, but we take the time to model for our students what this kind of class discussion looks like. Since literature can be looked at through multiple perspectives, students can agree or disagree with ideas but must always be able to support their ideas with evidence from the text. Modeling the questions that come to us as we read a text and inviting students to help us find the answers by looking closely at the text is one way to begin this process. Writing to learn activities are great ways to begin classroom discussions. These allow students to first formulate their ideas on paper before being asked to share orally. Having students share their ideas in pairs as a warm up activity for sharing with the entire class is another alternative. Some teachers even use a collaborative analysis of a piece of art as a way to establish protocols for class discussion and to give students practice with sharing ideas and supporting those ideas with evidence before moving on to literature.
Literature circles, defined below by Harvey Daniels, allow students to then implement these analysis skills and discussion skills independently. Students read different books but practice the same reading and literary criticism skills. This can work extremely well in a classroom that includes students at a variety of reading levels.
DEFINING LITERATURE CIRCLES 1. Students choose their own reading materials.
2. Small temporary groups are formed, based upon book choice.
3. Different groups read different books.
4. Groups meet on a regular, predictable schedule to discuss their reading.
5. Kids use written or drawn notes to guide both their reading and discussion.
6. Discussion topics come from the students.
7. Group meetings aim to be open, natural conversations about books, so personal connections, digressions, and open-ended questions are welcome.
8. In newly-forming groups, students may play a rotating assortment of task roles.
9. The teacher serves as a facilitator, not a group member or instructor.
10. Evaluation is by teacher observation and student self-evaluation.
11. A spirit of playfulness and fun pervades the room.
12. When books are finished, readers share with their classmates, and then new groups form around new reading choices. For more information, visit www.literaturecircles.com.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 63 What is ELA? ELA is Literature... (continued)
BACK TO CRITICAL THEORY If we believe that a culturally responsive classroom is best supported through the use of critical theory in the teaching of literature, as it encourages students to view literature through a multiple series of lenses, then the following examples can help us get started. The following suggestions for using four different literary theories to analyze one short story can easily be applied to multiple different texts. There is no need to shy away from using literary theory in the classroom just because we do not have academic mastery over literary theory ourselves. We need only to feel comfortable with the basic premise of the literary theory we are presenting. Resources at the end of this section can help build that basic premise.
If we think of teaching each literary theory as a literary lens, we can work with the students to imagine they are putting on a different pair of sunglasses when they use each theory. Lois Tyson in her book Critical Theory Today: AUser-Friendly Guide suggests this approach to reading through literary lenses that helps tie it to human experience: we can engage in reading “with the grain” (seeing the text as the author intended) and reading “against the grain” (seeing the text in ways the author didn’t intend). When we replace the word “reading” with “living” most high school students begin to understand this concept! Reading texts in both these ways opens up new ideas and understandings of the literature, taking our thinking both deeper and broader.
Let’s consider four possible lenses for looking at one text: Psychoanalytic, Marxist, Feminist, African-American.
• Psychoanalytic lens: When using a Psychoanalytic lens, the student is going to look beneath the surface of the text for unconscious psychological explanations for characters’ actions. Freud is fun to teach to adolescents because his premise is that basically all humans are subconsciously focusing on a desire to get rid of a father and marry a mother (Oedipal complex) or to get rid of a mother and marry a father (Electra complex). If that isn’t intriguing enough, teaching the simple version of the id (desire), ego and superego (conscience) as motivating individual action is another approach.
• Marxist lens: When using a Marxist lens, the student is going to look at class structure, unequal distribution of wealth and economic power as the base for interpreting literature.
• Feminist lens: When using a Feminist lens, the student will examine the role (or absence) of women and the inequity in gender roles in the piece and whether the piece consciously or unconsciously challenges or supports patriarchal norms.
• African-American lens: When using an African-American lens, the student will focus on race and the oppression of Blacks by Whites.
64 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 What is ELA? ELA is Literature... (continued)
Several stories come to mind for doing preliminary work with literary theories, but the list of possibilities is virtually endless. Sherman Alexie’s “Indian Education”, Vivian Morris’ “Laundry Workers’ Choir”, Nikki Giovanni’s “Nikki-Rosa”, or Maya Angelou’s I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings could easily be used to demonstrate multiple readings The use of critical theory of one text. Even though Morris’ vignette “Laundry Workers’ Choir” is partially about class oppression in capitalist society, more lenses than gives our students the tools to Marxist could be applied. How would a Feminist critic explain this text? offer multiple interpretations What about a Psychological critic or an African-American critic? of one text, building their Although Wright’s Black Boy is obviously about being black in American critical thinking skills and society, each of the other lenses could easily be applied. preparing them to negotiate Tyson offers readable, understandable summaries of the major critical conflict and decision theories and then poses eleven significantly different interpretations of one making in their own lives. novel (Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby)—each one as viable as the next. She also offers suggestions for applying the theory to many texts and great ideas for supplemental reading. Other online resources supporting teachers in their use of critical theory include many university websites such as www.wsu.edu/~delahoyd/lit.crit.html and www.kristisiegel.com/theory.htm.
Literature allows us the opportunity to open up new worlds and people to our students, helping them to gain a greater sensitivity to those who are different. The use of critical theory gives our students the tools to offer multiple interpretations of one text, building their critical thinking skills and preparing them to negotiate conflict and decision making in their own lives. And finally, writing offers a valuable tool to help students access their own ideas in response to literature and communicate those ideas to others.
WORKS CITED
Fox, Tom. “Linking Genre to Standards and Equity.” The Quarterly 26:4 (2004).
Hill Campbell, Kimberly. Less is More: Teaching Literature with Short Texts – Grades 6-12. Portland, ME: Stenhouse, 2007.
Jago, Carol. Classics in the Classroom: Designing Accessible Literature Lessons. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2004.
Jago, Carol. With Rigor for All: Teaching the Classics to Contemporary Students. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2000.
Showalter, Elaine. Teaching Literature. Malden: Blackwell, 2003.
Smith, Carl B. “The Role of Different Literary Genres.” Reading Teacher, 44:6 (1991) 440-41.
Tyson, Lois. Critical Theory Today: A User-Friendly Guide. New York: Routledge, 2006.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 65 What is ELA? ELA is Reading...
An educational goal of paramount importance is to teach young people how to read. The phrase often heard in academic circles is that children “learn to read” in the first few years of school, and “read to learn” from about fourth grade on.1 It is now widely known and acknowledged that many students, for a myriad of reasons, do not become accomplished readers by the fourth grade and the demands of reading change once content becomes the main focus. The problem is that teachers on the secondary level have content to teach, and ELA classes are supposed to focus on the ELA frameworks. For the middle and high school grades, the ELA frameworks are based on the assumption that students have mastered the skill of reading. In the DYS classroom however, some students are still in dire need of reading instruction. Most educators of adolescents in almost any setting know that teaching reading and the study of literature are distinctly different. The latter is based on the premise that the student has already arrived at the “reading to learn” stage, and has no further need of reading skill development. Teaching ELA, however, often times require educators not only to teach literature but also to teach how to read literature and all of the necessary comprehension skills that are involved. Reading instruction is an integral part of effective classroom instruction, and teachers play an important role in supporting students in improving reading skill development.
As Fielding and Pearson have noted, researchers today define reading as a complex, recursive thinking process. P. David Pearson and several of his colleagues have synthesized years of research on the characteristics of proficient readers and isolated seven strategies used by successful readers of all ages (cited in Tovani 17). Successful readers: 1. Use existing knowledge to make sense of new information. 2. Ask questions about the text before, during and after reading. 3. Draw inferences from the text. 4. Monitor their comprehension. 5. Use “fix-up” strategies when meaning breaks down (re-reading, think alouds, word study) 6. Determine what is important. 7. Synthesize information to create new thinking.
Keene and Zimmerman, in Mosaic of Thought, added to this list of strategies: 8. Create sensory images (visualize what they read).
Successful readers use explicit strategies to facilitate their development as independent thinkers and readers. Older students still struggling with literacy must be fully aware of reading strategies, and be able to name and use them as they are reading. This is one of the key findings of the summative report which assesses the state of adolescent literacy called, Reading Next: A Vision for Action and Research in Middle and High School Literacy, published in 2004 by the Alliance for Excellent Education and available online at www.Carnegie.org/literacy.
1During the last several years, an important policy related to reading instruction in the early grades has been Reading First, which is part of No Child Left Behind (NCLB). This Reading First policy was constructed to rely prominently, although not exclusively, on the Report of the National Reading Panel which defines five components of reading instruction—phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension—as defined by methods, materials, and practices supported by scientifically-based reading research (www.nationalreadingpanel.org/Publications/summary.htm).
66 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 What is ELA? ELA is Reading... (continued)
STRATEGIES FOR THE READING PROCESS We can support adolescents in becoming successful readers by supporting them in understanding how to use reading strategies. While some students will need explicit instruction, the goal is student mastery and independence. The goal of successful teaching is to put the students in charge of their own learning. In the following section, many of these strategies are described as they apply to the pre-reading, during reading, and after reading process. References to page numbers in the section that follows refer to the McREL’s Teaching Reading in the Content Areas: If Not Me, Then Who? by Rachel Billmeyer and Mary Lee Barton.
PRE-READING Strategies to Activate Background Knowledge Prior knowledge refers to all the knowledge that readers have acquired through their lives. What readers bring to the printed page affects their comprehension. Some insist that prior knowledge is the single most important component in the reading process. We can provide opportunities for our students to develop prior knowledge by exposing them to background information through previews of key content, including video presentations, enriching vocabulary, and supplying organizers of basic knowledge. By having our students utilize prior knowledge, we move them from memorizing information to meaningful learning. For more information on how to help students build background knowledge, refer to Robert Marzano’s Building Background Knowledge.
Brainstorming Teachers ask students to examine an aspect of the title, the theme, topic, photographs, or other focus that will pertain to the lesson. The teacher lists all the information that comes to the students’ minds. These pieces of information are then used to further recall, and in the process considerable knowledge will be activated. Pre-Reading Plan (PreP) (Billmeyer and Barton 121) This strategy provides a framework for activating and extending prior knowledge. The teacher begins the activity by posing a question linked to the main concept of the reading selection. SQ3R (Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review) (130) This is a versatile strategy because it engages students during each phase of the reading process. Students preview the text material to develop predictions and to set a purpose for reading by generating questions about the topic; they read actively, searching for answers to those questions; they monitor their comprehension as they summarize; and they evaluate their comprehension through review activities. Problematic Situations (122) This strategy activates what students already know about the topic, motivates them to want to read the text, and helps them to focus on the main ideas presented in the text they read. KWL – What I Know, Want to Learn, Learned (116) This is another strategy that can help students predict and connect new information with prior knowledge. It can be used to brainstorm prior knowledge, to preview vocabulary and concepts, and help students recall what they have read. The strategy also focuses students on assigned text and allows the teacher to model what effective teachers do with reading assignments in the content areas.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 67 What is ELA? ELA is Reading... (continued)
Strategies to Activate Vocabulary Development Pre-reading Predictions (78) This strategy is useful for activating prior knowledge and making predictions about story content. In addition, teachers can use the strategy to have students analyze correct usage and effective word choice. Semantic Mapping (82) A semantic map is a visual tool that helps readers activate and draw on prior knowledge, recognize important components of different concepts, and see the relationships among these components. The subject of the reading or study is placed in the center and students write words that are related in surrounding area. Eventually these words are categorized. This strategy lends itself to a graphic organizer or teachers can use Inspiration®, a visual organizer software available on all DYS computers. Frayer Model (74) This strategy is a word categorization activity. Frayer believes learners develop their understanding of concepts by studying them in a relational manner. Using the Frayer model, students analyze a word’s essential and non-essential attributes and also refine their understanding by choosing examples and non- examples of the concept. In order to understand completely what a concept is, one must know what it isn’t. Prediction Strategies Anticipation Guide/Prediction Guide (104) These strategies can be used to activate and assess students’ prior knowledge, to focus reading, and to motivate reluctant readers by stimulating their interest in the topic. Because the guide revolves around the text’s most important concepts, students are prepared to focus on and pay attention to this information while reading. Students are motivated to read closely in order to search for evidence that supports their answers and predictions. Consequently, these guides promote active reading and critical thinking. Anticipation guides are especially useful in identifying any misperceptions students have so that the teacher can correct these prior to reading.
DURING READING By using strategies during reading we can help our students understand and retain information. Readers who struggle with text are usually unaware of strategies that will help them construct meaning. Through instructional support and guidance, we can build students’ competence and confidence as readers by showing them how to think strategically about reading and how to use reading strategies to learn with text. During the reading process, we should provide a focus for the reading and model methods students can use to support their comprehension of the material. Closing a reading lesson with a short discussion or review can also be helpful for many students. This can also be done with a Think-Pair-Share activity when we pose a question regarding the text, give students time to think and prepare their thoughts, and then time to share with a partner. Students should also be encouraged to re-read any sections of text that are not clear and seek our support if the confusion still exists. Think Alouds (139) In this strategy the teacher models her thinking process by verbalizing her thoughts as she reads, processes information, or performs some learning task. Students see how the teacher attempts to construct meaning for unfamiliar vocabulary, engages in dialogue with the author, or recognizes when she doesn’t comprehend and selects a fix-up strategy that addresses the problem she is having. Ineffective readers especially benefit from observing what skilled readers think about while reading.
68 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 What is ELA? ELA is Reading... (continued)
Pairs Read (119) This strategy requires collaborative learning as students read and digest text. Students help each other increase their knowledge and understanding of the text by reading the text aloud to each other. While one student reads aloud, the other student listens and then summarizes what he/she heard as the main ideas. This strategy may be difficult in a small room with more than a couple of pairs. However, if it can be done, the teacher may want to have the reading go on for 5-10 minutes and then have a 2 minute share. Reciprocal Teaching (128) This is a strategy in which students learn the skills of summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting well enough to perform as an instructor of content. When students become adept at these four skills, they not only instruct one another but also learn metacomprehension skills they can use while reading independently. Proposition/Support Outlines (124) These outlines help students learn to be critical readers who can recognize different viewpoints, theories, hypotheses, and debatable assertions made by authors. In addition, Proposition/Support Outlines offer students a framework for analyzing the different types of evidence an author presents to support his proposition.
AFTER READING There are many strategies that teachers can use to support students’ comprehension of what has been read. Some of the strategies listed above can actually be used for this purpose as well. Whether students are involved in discussions, think-pair-share activities, completion of a graphic organizer, writing in a response journal, or completing a comprehension activity sheet, the teacher should be clear on the outcomes he/she wants students to attain from the reading. Being clear regarding learning objectives in the planning process and outlining the standards that are targeted for the learning will help the teacher remain focused during instruction. Students need this organization as well, so essential questions for the reading should be posted and the after-reading activities should be aligned to this learning. Concept Question Chain (142) This strategy is a valuable tool for in-class and independent reading. It consists of three levels of questioning: literal, interpretive, and applied. All questions are designed to help students grasp the meaning of the text-based concept or theme and to apply it to another situation. Creative Debate (158) This strategy promotes debate, creative thinking, and thinking from different perspectives. Students debate a topic from a character’s point of view. Discussion Web (160) The Discussion Web gives all students an opportunity to assume responsibility and share their own ideas in discussion, not just the verbally talented students. It is tailored after McTighe and Lyman’s think-pair- share discussion cycle. In the Discussion Web, all students think individually about the items they want to share in the discussion and then share their ideas with a partner. This private “think time” promotes total class involvement and honors the wait time necessary for developing insightful thoughts to share. Student accountability is also included by having students share their thinking with each other. The Discussion Web incorporates all four areas of language arts: listening, speaking, reading and writing. It can be used anytime during the learning process—as a pre-reading activity, a pre-writing activity, a post- reading strategy, or to help students organize their ideas while reading a selection. Many of the strategies shared in earlier sections—SQ3R, KWL, Proposition/Support Outlines, Reciprocal Teaching, Frayer Model, and Semantic Mapping—can be used very effectively after reading as well, highlighting the well-known fact that incorporating reading strategies is a complex process.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 69 What is ELA? ELA is Reading... (continued)
In the next section, some effective and ineffective reading strategies to consider implementing in the classroom will be further discussed.
INCREASE DECREASE Teacher reading aloud to classes of students Round robin reading Time for students to read independently Limiting time for independent reading during class Students having some choice of reading materials Teacher choosing all reading materials Teachers exposing students to many genres (such as novel, short story, poetry) including Teacher relying only on textbook selections magazines and newspapers Focusing on instructional reading sub-skills such as Focusing on comprehension phonics, word analysis, and syllabication Teaching reading as a process that involves activating prior knowledge, making predictions, Teaching reading as a one step process using strategies to enhance comprehension and make meaning of the content Reading as a collaborative process, including Reading as a solitary “seatwork” process group discussions Teaching of reading skills in context and not Teaching isolated skills such as phonics drills separate of the reading—mini lessons as needed Writing and reading as natural partners—writing Few chances to write before, during, and after reading Evaluation that assesses holistic, high level Evaluation based primarily on low-level sub-skills thinking skills
Q: How do I provide meaningful education to every student in my classroom when there are such wide age, grade, and ability gaps? A: The best way to make sure that everyone is being challenged is to create lessons that are able to be meaningfully approached by every student at his or her own level. This means a number of things. It means using high-quality texts that are able to be understood by Q beginning readers while providing both modeling and subtlety to those who are further & along. It means working with a number of “higher level thinking” questions that are able to provide intellectual and creative challenges to a wide range of students. It also means having the students do a great deal of individual writing in reaction to what they have learned. Each student will write (in reaction to the lesson) at their own level, challenging themselves to be thoughtful about whatever question, idea, or concept A they are best suited to approach.
70 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 What is ELA? ELA is Reading... (continued)
EFFECTIVE READING INSTRUCTION The following practices contribute to creating a literate environment in the classroom and are adapted from Best Practice: New Standards for Teaching and Learning in America’s Schools, a book by Steven Zemelman, Harvey Daniels, and Arthur Hyde (“Reading Strategies”). Gerald Duffy, in Explaining Reading, states that our ultimate goal, and our first step, is to inspire students to be readers. He states that our first responsibility is the creation of an inspiring literate environment with the following characteristics:
Six Characteristics of a Literate Environment 1. Fill the class environment with text. 2. Organize the classroom so that students have lots of time to read. 3. Build rich oral and written vocabulary. 4. Make writing an integral part of the classroom context. 5. Include multiple opportunities for students to read under your guidance. 6. Emphasize conversational talk in the classroom.
ASSESSING READING SKILLS IN DYS The key question for us to answer is, “Why assess reading skills in DYS?” If we believe that reading Although there are many possible answers to this question, the primary one might be to help the students become better readers. is a gatekeeper for learning, A second key question for us is, “What do we assess when we assess reading?” then it is in our students’ While this is dependent on the tool used, we are usually seeking information best interests to help them regarding students’ fluency and comprehension. In the DYS system students enhance these skills. are given the TABE (Test of Adult Basic Education) which provides scores in the areas of reading, vocabulary, spelling, language, language mechanics and mathematics. The results from this test can be helpful to teachers in assessment programs as they create the student’s Individual Learning Plan. The results are also useful in the treatment program to which the student is assigned, since they provide a profile of the student’s starting point with regard to the sub-test areas and therefore inform instruction for the student. Another assessment used in many detention settings in DYS is the Informal Reading Inventory, shared by Dr. Kay Kincl from Florida State University’s Center for Criminology and Public Policy Research. This inventory is meant to give the teacher an indication of the students’ reading level based on word decoding accuracy, a strategy found to be a reliable predictor of reading level. Using a set of leveled vocabulary cards, the student is asked to pronounce the word on each card. The reading level is determined by the accuracy in decoding the words. This is just one of many tools that can be used to assess reading levels, including commercial reading programs available at some DYS settings. We may also use a variety of formative assessment strategies to gauge students’ reading skills. To assess comprehension, we might use strategies such as post-reading quizzes, journal entries, oral discussions, reading logs, and cloze activities.2
2Cloze activity is an activity in which words are removed from a passage for a learner to fill in as an exercise in reading comprehension. The missing words may or may not be provided in a word bank.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 71 What is ELA? ELA is Reading... (continued)
Monitoring students’ fluency levels is also an important component of reading assessment. When we discuss student fluency, we think of accuracy, automaticity and prosody—rhythm, stress and intonation of speech. The most efficient way for us to assess students’ fluency rate is to use the University of Minnesota developed Curriculum-Based Measurement or as it is also referred to, Oral Reading Fluency assessment. In this process, students are given a grade-level reading of approximately 250 words and asked to read it aloud for 1 minute. During this time we record the number of uncorrected errors. We mark the point at which the student stops reading at the end of the minute. The score is the percent derived by dividing the number of words read correctly by the total number of words read. It is important to remember though to distinguish between errors that affect meaning and those that do not. Fluency is important, but it is not the only measure of reading Fluency is important, effectiveness. Is the student making sense? Are they “monitoring for but it is not the only meaning”? If so, a substituted or dropped or added word that doesn’t affect meaning is of little consequence. On the other hand, going back to fix errors measure of reading that do affect meaning is critical for students in helping to build strong effectiveness. Is the student reading habits or as evidence that the student is already a strong reader. making sense? Are they DYS programs may also have access to Title I services and a student may participate in that small group instruction. The Title I teacher will use “monitoring for meaning”? commercial programs to assess and work with students on development of his/her reading skills. Additionally, some students receive special education services that may also begin with diagnostic testing to determine the student’s beginning reading level. Again, through individual and small group instruction these students will work on enhancing their reading skills. As we decide what tools we will use to assess and monitor students’ reading skills, we need to keep in mind that the purpose of the assessment is to help students improve their reading skills and should therefore provide us with a diagnostic starting point so that through carefully crafted instruction the students can develop and see their growth as readers. For further information on the Curriculum-Based Measurement process, refer to Assessing Reading Fluency by Timothy V. Rasinski, Ph.D. at www.prel.org/products/re_/assessing-fluency.htm.
READING RESOURCES DYS programs receive many instructional resources each year that are meant to accommodate various reading levels. Although a primary resource might be provided for a content area, additional supplemental resources are also offered to meet the needs of diverse learners. Primary resources are generally selected because they address the required learning standards and have accessible readability levels. A variety of class sets of novels are available based on the interests of students, type of genre, and length of text. Shakespeare’s plays are provided in side-by-side editions that support all learners as they access this literature. Most programs have an array of novels and short stories for recreational reading, including Hi/Lo titles (books of high interest to adolescents but written on a lower reading level). Additionally, programs have received a set of short novels at an emergent literacy level. Many programs have also accessed Don Johnson’s Start-to- Finish resources which provide audio support to books at lower reading levels helping students focus on fluency and comprehension skills. For students who are English Language Learners (ELL) DYS has developed kits for each of the Regional Resource Lending Libraries that contain special materials for these students. Contact your Instructional Coach for more information about these libraries. All DYS computers have access to a software program called Universal Reader (UR). UR is a very easy utility program that will read text from virtually any application. Students select the text to read and click on the toolbar to hear the text. This will work with Word documents and web pages. Headphones are available as needed to ensure privacy for this use. Many DYS programs have access to OpenBookTM, a multimedia software program for enriching instruction in reading, writing, speaking and listening. This program targets all levels and abilities, and has a built-in assessment component.
72 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 What is ELA? ELA is Reading... (continued)
CONCLUSION The stakes are high. Strong literacy skills are correlated with increased success in school, career, and in life. Reading success for youth in juvenile corrections is directly linked to higher educational achievement which has also been shown to decrease recidivism. Linking student achievement to successful re-entry has been the finding of multiple studies, such as the one carried out by Florida State’s College of Criminology and Justice in 2007. The ability to read and comprehend text is critical for student success, and regardless of what method we use to read texts in the DYS classroom, we need to keep our ultimate goals in mind.
HOW TO READ TEXT IN A DYS CLASSROOM Probably one of the big dilemmas for us in the DYS classroom is how to read material, since our students are generally not allowed to take textbooks back to their rooms or do homework assignments. There are a variety of approaches that can be used to support reading in the DYS classroom, with the best alternative being the use of a set of diverse strategies. Silent reading is actually a very effective strategy for getting material read. Our students can read at their own pace and we can provide appropriate during reading and after reading activities to support their comprehension. This silent reading time also allows us an opportunity to meet with students individually as needed. This strategy does not mean that the students need to read silently for the entire period. They can read a portion of the text, summarize their learning and prepare for a post reading discussion. Teacher Read Aloud is also a very effective strategy because we are modeling good fluency and intonation and can stop periodically to check for understanding and have students do activities such as a think-pair-share based on a selected passage. A peer focused approach to reading is the Partner Oral Reading strategy where a fluent reader is partnered with a student or two who are not as fluent. A potential problem with this technique in a DYS setting can be the size of the room and the noise factor it might create. We still need to monitor progress, keep students on task and provide regular check-ins or activities for comprehension. Another approach to reading text is Choral Reading where more than one student reads at a time. We may or may not choose to read with them depending on how much modeling is needed. A variation of this is to split the class in half and have one half read then the other half. The point of this strategy is to have many voices reading all at once to pull along slow readers. This approach also has a musical quality that can be very pleasing to most students. Another approach to reading text in script form is Readers Theatre. This approach can be very appropriate for our DYS students who are dramatic by nature. With this technique students practice the text, although not memorizing it. Parts are not initially assigned, although once students are comfortable with the reading they may choose a section to read. The focus is on reading the text with expressive voices and gestures. Students’ comprehension is enhanced through the multiple readings. The final presentation can be a celebration of fluency. This approach can be differentiated by presenting two readings for the class, one at a lower reading level than the other. Each group is the audience for the other and can provide positive feedback to their peers. This strategy also works well with poetry. As our students practice and then perform a poetry reading, they are not only building fluency but also learning to appreciate the sounds of poetry. Regardless of what method we use to read text in the DYS classroom, we need to keep our ultimate goals in mind. Students should be reading to increase fluency and comprehension. We need to provide opportunities for students to read text in a variety of ways and practice reading skills. We also need to provide models of fluency by reading to the class or providing audio recordings of readings. With increased fluency comes increased comprehension.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 73 What is ELA? ELA is Reading... (continued)
WORKS CITED
Billmeyer, Rachel, and Mary Lee Barton. Teaching Reading in the Content Areas: If Not Me, Then Who? Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1998.
Duffy, Gerald. Explaining Reading: A Resource for Teaching Concepts, Skills and Strategies. New York, NY. Guilford Press, 2003.
Fielding, Linda G., and P. David Pearson. “Reading Comprehension: What Works”. Educational Leadership 51.5 (1994): 62-68.
Irvin, Judith L., Julie Meltzer, and Melinda Dukes. Taking Action on Adolescent Literacy: An Implementation Guide for School Leaders. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2007.
Jetton, Tamara L., and Janice A. Dole, eds. Adolescent Literacy Research and Practice. New York, NY: The Guilford Press, 2004.
Keene, Ellin O., and Susan Zimmermann. Mosaic of Thought: Teaching Comprehension in a Reader’s Workshop. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1997.
Marzano, Robert J. Building Background Knowledge for Academic Achievement. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2004.
McTighe, Jay, and Frank Lyman. “Cueing Thinking in the Classroom: The Promise of Theory-Embedded Tools.” Educational Leadership 45, 7 (1988): 18-24.
“Reading Strategies”. Sarasota County Schools website. 15 August 2008
Tovani, Chris. I Read It, But I Don’t Get It: Comprehension Strategies for Adolescent Readers. Portland, ME: Stenhouse, 2000.
Q: How can I differentiate for learners in a DYS classroom? A: Try to design all of your lessons in such a way that the information is always presented in various ways. Strive to present all information visually and orally. Before class, put together handouts defining key concepts, ideas, and themes for students who need this as a Q supplement to lectures. When lecturing, take notes on the board for visual learners. When & looking at or reading a piece of text, provide the students with handouts so that they can read along. Strive to include as much mixed media as possible. Use images, music, video clips, etc. Connect ideas and themes across media so that the student can create A threads of understanding.
74 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 English Language Learners in the DYS Classroom
As educators in the DYS system, we encounter students who come from varied linguistic backgrounds. While there may or may not be many students in any one classroom that are learning English as a new language, many may be learning Standard English as a new dialect. Developing a sensitivity to language and culture is similar in both cases, so while we may refer to English Language Learners (ELLs) in this guide, it is meant to include students who are learning to use Standard English as a second dialect as well.
UNDERSTANDING THE IMPORTANCE OF HOME LANGUAGES Labov notes that the first key piece of information that we need to remind ourselves of as educators is that all linguistic systems are complex, rule-governed and equally efficient in communicating within a community of speakers. There is not one language or dialect that is inherently superior to any other. As a well-know aphorism states, “a language is a dialect with an army and a navy.” This refers to the political power of a standard dialect—not to any innate superiority of it. So, while our job is teach the “standard” American English, it is vital for teachers to fully understand and convey to their students that it is scientifically no better or worse than other dialects such as African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) or dialects of other languages such as Puerto Rican Spanish. It is important to affirm students’ home languages or dialects as something they can take pride in. By showing respectful interest in how concepts are expressed in their language or dialect, by writing them down and repeating them, we show students that they have important linguistic knowledge. This kind of affirmation can help students feel confident in their emerging academic self-concept and begin to take more risks in acquiring the new language. And we as educators must acknowledge that often our students have a great deal of background in critical thinking and have become accomplished communicators; it’s just that these skills are not visible to us if we do not know their first language or dialect or have not observed them in their home environment. We give them time and encouragement knowing they will rise to our expectations.
Q: What are some general, effective teaching strategies to use in my classroom? A: The most effective teaching strategy is to plan an effective standards-based ELA lesson every day. An effective lesson would include time spent on: • teaching the necessary vocabulary in a meaningful and interesting way; • teaching background information concerning the time period or any important historical or social issues that are necessary in order to understand the lesson; Q& • hands-on activities; • making connections to the students’ personal experiences and prior knowledge; • differentiating instruction and using visual organizers as needed; and • reading, writing, listening and speaking every day. When students, whether they are English Language Learners or native speakers, perceive the classroom as a place for learning, a place to try new skills without the A fear of failure or ridicule, and a place with clear and consistent expectations, the students’ anxieties are put aside and effective learning takes place.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 75 English Language Learners in the DYS Classroom (continued)
INTRINSIC MOTIVATION Learning a new language takes a tremendous amount of attention and mental effort. In order to create an environment that supports students’ instinctual optimism and curiosity, which can make this work more manageable, let’s briefly look at the findings of psychologist Edward Deci at the University of Rochester. His research question, “How can people create the conditions within which others will motivate themselves?” Deci proposes that people’s intrinsic motivation thrives in environments that meet their most significant needs. He highlights three such needs: 1. To belong and feel connected 2. To feel a sense of autonomy and self-determination 3. To feel competent Teachers of English Language Learners utilize their understanding of these needs in the way they structure their classrooms and work with their students. First, teachers create a sense of community and support in the classroom wherein all members are welcomed and respected. Secondly, teachers provide choices and remain flexible in reaching their objectives. Finally, teachers scaffold instruction for learners so that they feel successful every step of the way. When students feel they belong, have some voice in the classroom decisions, and see their own success, they gain the kind of intrinsic motivation so important in language acquisition and all learning.
KEY PRINCIPLES IN WORKING WITH ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS When we have language learners in the classroom, there are some important principles to keep in mind that can serve to greatly enhance language acquisition. Teachers can apply these principles by trying the strategies suggested here or through their own application of them. Many teachers have a toolbox full of ideas that can be fine tuned to encourage language acquisition in the classroom.
LOWERING THE AFFECTIVE FILTER IN THE CLASSROOM This phrase, popularized by Stephen Krashen in the 1980s, remains an important aspect of language learning. In order to be successful at learning a new language, a student has to be willing to experiment and take risks. When the affective filter is high, a learner spends a great deal of energy in fear of appearing While building trust and incompetent. When students feel secure, supported, and relaxed, the community can be a challenge affective filter is lowered and students can conserve their energy for learning. When they can laugh but do not fear being laughed at, with an ever-changing class language learners thrive. It is important for teachers to avoid using or composition, it is a key element tolerating sarcasm or other kinds of ridicule. Taking risks and making mistakes is an important part of language in creating an atmosphere acquisition and should be rewarded. While building trust where all learners can succeed. and community can be a challenge with an ever-changing class composition, it is a key element in creating an atmosphere where all learners can succeed. • Openly share your philosophy regarding learning, the importance of supporting each other’s efforts, and valuing trial and error. • Post clarifying questions on the walls of the classroom, refer to them, and encourage their use: – I’m sorry, I don’t understand. – Could you explain that again? – How do you spell...? – What does....mean? – May I go to...?
76 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 English Language Learners in the DYS Classroom (continued)
• Personalize your classroom to create community. Post snapshots of students working in cooperative groups, smiling or celebrating together, or writing. Even if these are past students that have been with you, their presence on the wall will represent the sense of community and convey your value of creating such a community. • Similarly, use artwork, writing, and encouraging quotations to make the work space comfortable and supportive. Draw students’ attention to them. With permission, publish student work and art on your classroom walls. • Provide choices for students. Even in small things, students feel respected that their preferences mean something. “Would you like to finish the story first or review the vocabulary?” “Would you like to do the writing assignment today or tomorrow?” “Would you like to work in groups of three or in pairs?” • Ask students for feedback and suggestions about the overall class comfort level and activities. Then respond in some way even if all suggestions cannot be implemented. Provide explanations of your own constraints within the system, personal preferences, and offer alternatives to show your respect for their preferences.
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: BASIC INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS (BICS) AND COGNITIVE-ACADEMIC LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY (CALP) When we look at how students acquire a new language, it’s important for teachers to understand the difference between BICS and CALP. Within a year or two of arriving in an English-speaking environment, a student new to English can become reasonably fluent in face-to-face conversation. This competency is known as Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills or BICS. This does not mean, however, that a student is capable of handling academic tasks such as reading and writing at grade level, which require more abstract language and a higher level of vocabulary. Collier reports that this kind of English competency takes much longer to achieve, on average five to seven years provided students have had at least two years of first language schooling. Teachers often misread academic failure as lack of effort among students who have strong conversation skills but very weak academic skills. English language learners struggle with the highly complex task of handling the cognitive demands of the content classroom alongside the linguistic demands required to perform at grade-level. Even students who are fluent in English BICS should be encouraged to use native language resources to fully grasp academic content in the process of becoming academically proficient. • Allow students to write in their first language to generate ideas. For brainstorming, freewriting, or any other “write to learn” activity, give students the option of doing it in their first language or dialect. – Freewriting is a timed activity wherein students write on a topic for about 10 minutes without stopping. Peter Elbow explains, “Don’t stop for anything. Go quickly without rushing. Never stop to look back, to cross something out, to wonder how to spell something, to wonder what word or thought to use, or to think about what you are doing.” The freewrite must never be evaluated in any way and sharing it is optional. (Refer to Peter Elbow’s book, Writing Without Teachers.) • Encourage students to discuss and problem-solve with other speakers of their native language in class. This is a great way for students to grasp academic content while completing activities in English. In addition, it shows your respect for their linguistic competence in their first language. • Teach the skills to efficiently use a bilingual dictionary. This is an essential aid for literate ELLs.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 77 English Language Learners in the DYS Classroom (continued)
WORKING FROM LANGUAGE OBJECTIVES When working with ELLs it is important to identify both content objectives and language objectives and to share them with students. They can be written in simple language and displayed in the classroom. Teachers may be more familiar with using content objectives; they can be derived from the subject matter state frameworks. Language objectives, however, may be something new. They are crucial in bringing awareness to the language acquisition process of ELLs. What exactly are we asking them to do with language? When the language demands of an activity are clear, a teacher is more likely to be able to adjust those demands appropriately for ELLs. Language objectives can be derived from the English Language Proficiency Benchmarks and Outcomes (ELPBO), a Massachusetts Department of Elementary and Secondary Education downloadable document first issued in June 2003. Alternatively, a clear statement of what students are expected to do with language can serve the same purpose. Here are some examples of language objectives:
Speaking/Listening: • State a position and support/justify it. • Ask and respond to questions to clarify information. • Identify characters and setting in a story that is heard.
Reading: • Identify point of view in fiction. • Identify text features in non-fiction. • Use visual organizers to show understanding.
Writing: • Write a letter expressing a personal position on an issue of local importance. • Write a short explanation of a process that includes a topic sentence, details, and a conclusion. • Select words and phrases that connect ideas among paragraphs.
In teaching English Language Arts (ELA), there is often overlap between content and language objectives, since the ELPBO is closely aligned to the ELA Curriculum Framework. If students in the class are at different levels of language proficiency, language objectives can be adjusted for individual students. For instance, while most students may be expected to write a description of the development of a plot for a story, other students may be asked to diagram that plot using a graphic image like the one provided below.
78 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 English Language Learners in the DYS Classroom (continued)
Incorporating key vocabulary during the lesson, a low-intermediate level ELL could be expected to label this diagram and then, using the diagram, explain how the plot of the story develops and changes orally. A low- beginning ELL could be paired with another student who speaks his first language or asked to define key terms in his first language, with or without the help of a bilingual dictionary. Once key terms are understood, other monolingual students, an aide or the teacher could use the diagram to explain the essential concepts of the lesson. Generally speaking, however, teenage low-beginning ELLs would be provided with intensive language training until they reach a high-beginning/low-intermediate level, at which time supplementary materials and different tasks can be designed to help the student grasp content concepts.
BUILDING BACKGROUND When working with language learners it is doubly important to activate students’ background knowledge and experience as a springboard for the day’s lesson. Giving students an opportunity to voice their ideas, questions, and life experience helps students engage in the lesson. Using cooperative learning structures can help students connect with their cultural background and prior knowledge. There are a variety of structures that can help students co-construct the lesson through sharing what they already know about a topic. Here are a few examples of those that have been successful with ELLs: • Carousel: Several pieces of chart paper each with a different question at the top are posted around the room or on tables. Simultaneously, small groups of students discuss and record answers at each stop. After 2-3 minutes all groups move to the next station, read the question and previous answers before adding their own ideas. When all groups have added their ideas to all questions, the teacher reads through and processes the information collected. • KWL Charts: Teachers activate students’ prior knowledge by asking them what they already Know; then students (collaborating as a classroom unit or within small groups) set goals specifying what they Want to learn; and after reading, students discuss what they have Learned. Students apply higher-order thinking strategies which help them construct meaning from what they read and help them monitor their progress toward their goals. A worksheet is given to every student that includes columns for each of these activities (Ogle). • Think-Pair-Share: Spencer Kagan proposed this strategy where a problem is posed, students think alone about the question for a specified amount of time, then form pairs to discuss the question with someone in the class. Then, during share time, students are called upon to share the answer with the class as a whole. • Freewriting: as described in previous Language Acquisition section. Building student confidence in using these structures includes accepting whatever ideas are brought up whether they are those that were intended or not. In activating background knowledge, the key is listening to students closely to assess what they know and letting them know that they already have a valid point of view and vital information that is relevant to their learning.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 79 English Language Learners in the DYS Classroom (continued)
COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT There are a number of ways a teacher can make classes more understandable and valuable for English Language Learners. Tape recording or videoing a lesson of yourself can be an interesting experiment. Listen to the tape with language learners in mind. How appropriate is your natural delivery for language learners? Here are some ways to help ELLs understand in your class: • Enunciate clearly and avoid speaking too quickly; • Face students and make eye contact while speaking; • Use non-verbal clues such as facial expressions and pantomime; • Rephrase and repeat important information; • Use synonyms, examples, and explanations; • Use hands-on demonstrations, visuals and realia (real objects) whenever possible; • Utilize an overhead projector or write on the board to show how you expect written work to be completed; • Model strategies that you want students to use; think aloud.
CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING To check comprehension, too often teachers ask, “So, do you understand?” In many cultures it is an insult to the teacher to let on that they are confused about the material. Most ELLs will simply nod in response to this question and hope that things will become clearer in time. In checking comprehension of ELLs, questioning can be a good place to start.
Maximum Scaffolding Using TPR or Yes/No Questions are the easiest for ELLs to answer. TPR or Total Physical Response, does not require a verbal response. The student is expected to do something to respond. For example, “Point to the equator” or “Underline the word latitude.” Examples of yes/no questions for the same lesson are “Is this the equator?” and “Is the United States north of the equator?” The student still isn’t required to produce much language to show his understanding or lack thereof.
Moderate Scaffolding As language proficiency improves “Or” Questions are at the next level: “Is this the Prime Meridian or the equator?” “Is Europe north or south of the equator?” In this type of question, the student only has to repeat one of the choices and still is not required to produce original answers.
Remove Scaffolding Finally, as confidence and proficiency improves, ELLs will be able to respond to more open-ended questions: “What kind of weather do we find at the equator?” “How does temperature change as we travel north or south?” “Where would be the most comfortable temperature zone for you to live and why?” Giving ELLs successful language exchanges using these questioning techniques allows them to show their understanding and is helpful in building their confidence as their ability to create novel phrases improves.
80 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 English Language Learners in the DYS Classroom (continued)
PRETEACHING AND REVIEWING VOCABULARY To ensure that students can handle academic texts, it is important for teachers to anticipate which words will be unfamiliar to students. Even as English proficiency improves, academic vocabulary and other low- frequency words are best handled by introducing and discussing them orally before they are encountered in a text. Using index cards, teachers can introduce each word by asking students to try to define it and/or give an example of how it is used. The teacher can then acknowledge the contribution, clarify and provide a simple definition. Every day the teacher can plan a 2-5 minute activity to review the words. • The teacher holds the vocabulary cards so that only s/he can see them. Then the teacher gives the simple definition provided earlier. Students call out the correct word as quickly as they can. Once the correct word is called out, the teacher reveals the word and all other students repeat the word. Eventually, students can play the role of the teacher in this game or pairs of students can play. • In pairs or groups, students can be asked to match words with definitions. • Students can be challenged to sort the words into categories. The categories can be provided by the teacher (nouns, verbs, adjectives) or (economic, political, social) or, for a great challenge that will require much more negotiation by group members, have students come up with their own category names and sort the words into those groups. • Create a word wall in the classroom so they can always be visible or post the vocabulary cards in pocket charts so they can be manipulated. Refer to the vocabulary throughout the lesson; for example, “Can you explain that again using this word?” • Encourage students to keep a Word Study Book (Bear et al.), which is a student-made personal notebook that includes frequently used words and concepts and can be organized in a way that makes sense to the learner. The more exposures to the words, naturally, the more likely the words will be remembered. Teenage students enjoy excelling at remembering words and done as a routine can be a good energizer at the beginning of class. If students have written down the words, the teacher can allow open notebooks for either of these activities to help students be successful until the words are memorized and then up the ante with a “closed notebook” challenge.
INTERACTION: USING LANGUAGE DEVELOPS PROFICIENCY Language learners develop both language and content knowledge best by participating and communicating with others. In a class where listening to the teacher is the main activity, ELLs generally tune out because of linguistic overload. Working in cooperative groups incorporates natural repetition of important concepts and vocabulary and allows students to ask questions of each other and call the teacher over as needed. The use of cooperative activities wherein students share information and build meaning together has been shown to be an effective way to reach ELLs as noted by Kagan in his book, Cooperative Learning. Cooperative activities provide an opportunity for social interaction wherein students must both negotiate how to achieve the task and produce the language to accomplish the task. Grouping students and structuring cooperative learning activities should be clearly orchestrated, however, for maximum results. If two students share the same native language, often putting them in the same group will maximize learning. Using the native language to explain and clarify content is an important advantage that should be utilized. The temperaments and strengths of other students in the class must also be considered in designing successful group activities. Specific directions, tasks and roles should be explicitly described, and opportunities for practice should be given.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 81 English Language Learners in the DYS Classroom (continued)
There are many ways to provide opportunities for meaningful interaction in class. Here are some from Spencer Kagan’s book, Cooperative Learning, where there are over a hundred structures and suggestions on how to adapt them for ELLs. • Numbered Heads Together: (1) Students number off within small groups; (2) Teacher announces a question (shown visually on the overhead or on the board) and a time limit; (3) Students put their heads together; and (4) Teacher calls a number. In step 3, students are responsible for ensuring that all group members can answer correctly. They do not know in advance who in the group will be called to answer. • Mix-N-Match: Students circulate in the room with cards, quizzing each other and then finding their match. For example, the person who has the Bill of Rights searches for the one who has the first ten amendments. • Think-Write-Pair-Compare: Students take a moment to jot down their thoughts before sharing them with a partner, and then if pairs take some time to compare with other pairs afterward, there is more individual and pair accountability.
REVIEW AND ASSESSMENT Review is an essential part of language learning. Ongoing review and recycling of key vocabulary and concepts should be a regular part of instruction. Teachers can observe students in cooperative groups and on individual tasks to assess learning. Using techniques like “thumbs up/thumbs down” is a good way to elicit understanding of agree/disagree statements. Individual feedback should be provided to students on their language output. Feedback helps develop students’ proficiency in English when it is supportive and validating. For example, teachers can model correct English usage when restating a student’s response: “Yes, you’re correct, the scientists were confused by what they thought was a baby’s skull lying next to the mummy.” Paraphrasing also supports students’ understandings and validates answers if we add after the paraphrase, “Is this what you’re saying?” (Echevarria et al.). We should also remember that formal assessments can be adapted for English learners while still holding high academic expectations. Alternative assessments such as performance-based tasks, portfolios, journals and projects can be used to demonstrate student knowledge more fully than on a multiple-choice test. When using formal written assessments, teachers can adapt the test by: • Reducing the number of items the ELL is expected to complete; • Providing more time and/or breaking tasks into manageable chunks; • Providing scaffolding and support during tests to ensure understanding of the tasks; • Providing simplified instructions, dictionaries, or a calculator in order for the ELL to demonstrate his understanding; • Adjusting the product to allow for limited command of English; • Adapting the degree of active involvement of an English learner in assessment (as noted in Echevarria et al.’s book, Making Content Comprehensible for English Learners: The SIOP Model). Teachers need to remind themselves that language acquisition is a long process especially in developing academic proficiency, from five to seven years. So as we work with ELLs, we need to cheer them on for their day-to-day successes and keep their motivation up. As with daily tasks, assessments should give students the opportunity to show what they have learned rather than try to trip them up on what they may not have. So, as we design assessments with high expectations, we prepare students well and give them every opportunity to show us what they know as they build their success.
82 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 English Language Learners in the DYS Classroom (continued)
Q: How do I create assignments that can challenge such a diverse group of students? A: Use writing as a means to challenge students to work at their own levels. Make sure that lessons are supplemented with a great deal of thoughtful, independent writing on the part of the students. Avoid simple recall questions, and instead guide the students in the creation of thoughtful text-to- world, text-to-text, and text-to-self pieces. The higher level thinking required by these activities will allow students to work at their own level and challenge themselves wherever they are. Q& Literary criticism also works extremely well for this. Students with lower-level skills might write a piece of criticism in which they explain why they like a particular line or idea, while a student with higher-level skills might investigate a recurring image used by the author and explain what the image symbolizes. This type of writing not only helps students challenge themselves at their own level, but it also allows the teacher to see more clearly how well a student is understanding, connecting to, and deciphering the ideas and materials that A have been presented.
WORKS CITED
Bear, et al. Words Their Way: Word Study for Phonics, Vocabulary and Spelling Instruction. 2nd Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall, 2004.
Collier, Virginia P. “How long? A synthesis of research on academic achievement in second language”. TESOL Quarterly 23, (1989): 509-531. Available on CD-ROM from TESOL at: www.tesol.org/pubs/magz/tqd.html
Deci, Edward. “Optimism and Motivation”. Greatschools.net. 20 July 2008
Echevarria, Jana, MaryEllen Vogt, and Deborah J. Short. Making Content Comprehensible for English Learners: The SIOP Model. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc., 2008.
Elbow, Peter. Writing Without Teachers. New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1973.
“English Language Proficiency Benchmarks and Outcomes (ELPBO)”. Massachusetts Department of Elementary and Secondary Education. 30 October 2008
Kagan, Spencer. Cooperative Learning. San Juan Capistrano, CA: Kagan Cooperative Learning, 1994.
Krashen, Stephen D. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. London: Prentice-Hall International, 1987.
Labov, William. Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972.
Ogle, D. S. “KWL group instructional strategy”. In Palincsar, et al. (Eds.), Teaching Reading as Thinking (Teleconference Resource Guide, pp. 11-17). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1986.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 83 Standards of the ELA Seasons
Most of the Massachusetts ELA standards can relate to all units of study. In fact, it is difficult to imagine any topic that could not be connected in some way to a given standard in English Language Arts. Most lessons will address many of the 27 standards in ELA, and some standards, like the entire Language strand, are applicable to all ELA instruction.
That said, some standards relate more directly to the topics in particular seasons. We might call Students Will: Learning Objectives Standards such standards “low-hanging fruit” because in this season, they are convenient, easy to reach, • The rules of class discussion 1, 2 and especially ripe for teaching. These selected • What a short story is 12 standards are described later in this guide, KNOW • Essential short story terminology 4 within the ELA season that is most auspicious (i.e., plot, character, setting, etc.) for addressing them. • Basic facts of the assigned story 8 Throughout the DYS classrooms, teachers develop lessons by thinking about what students • The elements of short stories 12 should KNOW, UNDERSTAND and be able and how they work together to DO (KUD) by the end of each lesson. For • The main idea of the 8 example, a teacher planning a brief lesson on UNDERSTAND assigned story short stories might use a number of the ELA • The concept of theme and how 11 standards to create KUD learning objectives. it applies in the assigned story The process of developing the objectives for a lesson might look like the grid to the right. In this single lesson, the teacher would be • Participate in a class discussion 1, 2 addressing at least 8 of the 27 ELA standards. on the short story elements and AND BE the theme of the assigned story Note that depending on the story and the ABLE TO DO • Respond in writing to an 19, 23 context, additional standards might also open-response prompt connecting apply. For example, if background information the theme of the story to the or knowledge were needed to understand the student’s experience assigned story, the lesson would also address ELA standard 9.
84 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 All General Strands and Standards for English Language Arts
1. Use agreed-upon rules for informal and formal discussions in small and large groups. Language 2. Pose questions, listen to the ideas of others, and contribute their own information or strand ideas in group discussions or interviews in order to acquire new knowledge. 3. Make oral presentations that demonstrate appropriate consideration of audience, Students will: purpose, and the information to be conveyed. 4. Understand and acquire new vocabulary and use it correctly in reading and writing. 5. Analyze standard English grammar and usage and recognize how its vocabulary has developed and been influenced by other languages. 6. Describe, analyze, and use appropriately formal and informal English.
7. Understand the nature of written English and the relationship of letters and spelling Reading and patterns to the sounds of speech. Literature 8. Identify the basic facts and main ideas in a text and use them as the basis for interpretation. strand 9. Students will deepen their understanding of a literary or non-literary work by relating it to its contemporary context or historical background. Students will: 10. Identify, analyze, and apply knowledge of the characteristics of different genres. 11. Identify, analyze, and apply knowledge of theme in a literary work, and provide evidence from the text to support their understanding. 12. Identify, analyze, and apply knowledge of the structure and elements of fiction, and provide evidence from the text to support their understanding. 13. Identify, analyze, and apply knowledge of the purposes, structure, and elements of nonfiction or informational materials, and provide evidence from the text. 14. Identify, analyze, and apply knowledge of the themes, structure, and elements of poetry, and provide evidence from the text to support their understanding. 15. Identify, analyze, and apply knowledge of how an author’s words appeal to the senses, create imagery, suggest mood, and set tone, and provide evidence from the text. 16. Identify, analyze, and apply knowledge of the themes, structure, and elements of myths, traditional narratives, and classical literature, and provide evidence from the text. 17. Identify, analyze, and apply knowledge of the themes, structure, and elements of drama, and provide evidence from the text to support their understanding. 18. Plan and present dramatic readings, recitations, and performances that demonstrate appropriate consideration of audience and purpose.
Composition 19. Write with a clear focus, coherent organization, and sufficient detail. 20. Write for different audiences and purposes. strand 21. Demonstrate improvement in organization, content, paragraph development, level of detail, style, tone, and word choice (diction) in their compositions after revising them. Students will: 22. Use knowledge of standard English conventions in their writing, revising, and editing. 23. Organize ideas in writing in a way that makes sense for their purpose. 24. Gather information from a variety of sources, analyze and evaluate the quality of the information they obtain, and use it to answer their own questions. 25. Develop and use appropriate rhetorical, logical, and stylistic criteria for assessing final versions of their compositions or research projects before presenting to varied audiences.
26. Identify, analyze, and apply knowledge of the conventions, elements, and techniques Media strand of film, radio, video, television, multimedia productions, the Internet, and emerging technologies and provide evidence from the works to support their understanding. Students will: 27. Design and create coherent media productions (audio, video, television, multimedia, Internet, emerging technologies) with a clear controlling idea, adequate detail, and appropriate consideration of audience, purpose, and medium.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 85 Notes
86 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 DYS English Language Arts Curriculum Organization
English Language Arts is a strange and wonderful subject—many subjects, really—not driven by content in the same way that history or science may be. For this reason, the organization of ELA curricula exhibits a wide range of approaches across the state and the nation.
Given the diversity of Massachusetts DYS programs, the students they serve, and their geographic separateness, teachers’ approaches to Students… need curriculum in these setting are even more likely to vary. It may be consistency so their tempting to ask, “Why does it matter how the curriculum is organized, as long as it hits all of the standards?” The answer is that each ELA learning is coherent classroom is part of a larger system, in which students are quite mobile. and builds on previous Students who move from one program to another (as well as back to their learning experiences. public schools and communities) need consistency so their learning is coherent and builds upon previous learning experiences.
COMMON AGREEMENTS
Teachers in the DYS system need to work from common agreements about what they teach and when they teach it. Developing agreements that become real in the classroom is an ongoing process, requiring meeting face-to-face, airing differences, finding common ground, and building trust. The mode of organization outlined in this guide is no substitute for this kind of in-depth professional development, but is intended to provide a basic framework for organizing instruction flexible enough to accommodate the broad range of DYS programs and students. The organization in this guide draws not only on Massachusetts and national standards for ELA, but also on widely accepted practices in the field and the recommendations of experienced DYS teachers. While respecting the need for articulation across the system, teachers must have the autonomy to adapt the curriculum to suit local circumstances.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 87 DYS English Language Arts Curriculum Organization (continued)
BALANCING LITERATURE AND WRITING In all seasons, there is equal emphasis on literature and writing. In the pages that follow, the curriculum maps balance attention to these two areas, recognizing that our students need simultaneously to: Develop knowledge, understanding, and skills to examine significant classic, modern, and contemporary cultural texts in thoughtful and critical ways; and make their own important voices heard in an increasingly literate L I T ERATU R and inter-connected world. E W R ITIN To achieve this balance, in some seasons, understanding literature is at the center G of the curriculum, with student writing supporting that learning. In other seasons, the emphasis is on student writing, with literature playing a supporting role.
BALANCING WITH STUDENT WRITING AT THE CENTER The following example helps illustrate how student writing can form the basis of the curriculum, with literature serving as a means of response. In the season on FINDING A VOICE, teachers may organize a unit on multi-genre writing. The primary goal could be for students to develop their own voices and explore their own worlds to produce a series W R ITIN G of original pieces in a variety of modes. The literature selections for the unit could be drawn from fiction, nonfiction, or poetry that explores personal experiences and values, and these writings would provide students with models and topics to explore through their own writing in a variety of genres. Similarly, in the season on REACHING AN AUDIENCE, selected works of literature will serve as a lens, an inspiration, or a jumping-off point for student writing, but students’ production of their own work will be at the center of their learning.
BALANCING WITH LITERATURE AT THE CENTER On the other hand, during a season such as EXPLORING TRADITIONS, teachers may organize a unit on hero stories. The primary goal might be for students to understand the concept of the quest, and track it through several examples from classic literature. In this case, the readings would be foregrounded, and the writing would serve as a L I T ERATU R learning tool with analytical essays and/or original hero stories used to reinforce the E concepts. Similarly, in the seasons on EXPANDING HORIZONS and EVOLVING COMMUNICATION, literature stands at the center of the learning, and student writing supports and responds to the examination of the literature.
A FRAMEWORK FOR ELA INSTRUCTION IN DYS: USING SEASONS TO PLAN INSTRUCTION In addition to the recommended focus areas for balancing literature and writing instruction, each curricular season includes a set of key ideas that frame the unit and can be developed into goals and essential questions, and between three and five ELA standards that relate directly to the topics of that season or unit. Teachers can then use these basic elements—key ideas and the focus areas on literature and writing—to develop lessons that engage students in the classroom, address the standards in the Massachusetts ELA Curriculum Framework, and draw on students’ own backgrounds, interests, and experiences to address their needs.
88 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Organizing the School Year in the ELA Classroom
er - O ptemb c t obe Se r
RING TRADITI XPLO ONS E KEY IDEAS universal themes, external human questions,
philosophical concepts and journeys
LITERATURE voices from the past including myths and “classics,” N o also non-canonical texts as appropriate N N personal v m, o g e O o v I poet m T WRITING F e cy A IN b m expressive, creative, and analytical r of life, identi e C y, short experiences and e I D b n writing in response to reading r I N N e u and research (authors/events) non- personal m KEY IDEAS - J U r S uage as art for TV and radi focusing on personal G , f D iction, m - M fiction, poet -
es) WRITING A e D y M p culture, includin ty and com ia, critical litera c reading LITERATURE V e a e O G rel ulti-genre project O c ATURE em values, the journ m evant to student e M C R KEY IDEA I nguage, lang m oir o C b r ive, and analytical ew literaci y, and short G
m E e LITE b en word, Internet r autobiograp unit N WRITIN r I k e response chto (n
V experience y r
L
ive, creat
s O s ey
new genres and med fictio
V film, spo
innovations in la writing inand resear E express h s n y,
voices from contemporary po
music,
writing in respo in writing s
and research (cultures research and ,
express
,
y
r
voices fro voices
a variety of of variety a
i
v
s
vant topic vant e, creat e, s
iction, essays iction,
f
nse to to nse
m the the m
WRITIN fiction, poet fiction,
on rele on
E i
v
w
e, and ana and e,
e speeche e
orldwid
l non l
v iv
nted nted ) reading recent past and and past recent ariation in in ariation
,
G
the modern modern the
or drama drama or
e cultures and cont and cultures e
LITER
n lytical
LITERATUR E
E issue-orie
G
culture, belief, and and belief, culture,
ed-media presentation ed-media
X
C persuasion ATURE x
P
unicatio
present, represe present,
ws, informationa ws,
w A
N
ditorials, persuas ditorials,
RITIN
orld and all all and orld
ne
E N
J
I ers, mi ers,
KEY IDEAS KEY
W
a
S D
D
exts
n
I
U s of comm of s
N
l
and lett and
u
i
A
nd information, information, nd
G
its range and range its
r
experienc a
ntin
p N
r H
KEY IDEA KEY
g
y A
O A
technique
news articles and e and articles news
R
-
-
G
e I
Z
F N
O h I
e
c
N
H
r
b
S
C
a
r publishing ideas a ideas publishing A
u
E
M
R a
r
y
To explore all of the content and concepts within English Language Arts, it will be useful to organize and plan instruction across the school calendar. Each of the five “seasons” of the curriculum should be addressed over a period of approximately eight weeks, in the time frame indicated above. Within each season, the teacher can blend and adapt the basic elements of that season in ways that engage the individual students in the classroom. The allocation of time for each season should, of course, be flexible in response to holidays, periods of MCAS testing, and other factors. A blank calendar is provided for each season as a planning tool to help teachers outline instruction.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 89 Planning Grid for (Name of Season)
ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS: ______
Week # for this Monday Tuesday Wednesday season Date: Date: Date:
1
Date: Date: Date:
2
Date: Date: Date:
3
Date: Date: Date:
4
Date: Date: Date:
5
Date: Date: Date:
6
Date: Date: Date:
7
Date: Date: Date:
8
Note: The number of weeks allocated for each season should be flexible in response to holidays, periods of MCAS testing, and other factors within each classroom.
90 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS: ______
Thursday Friday Notes
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 91 Notes
a•chieve•ment e e e
( e -che¯v’m nt)n. Something accomplished successfully, especially by means of exertion, skill, practice, or perseverance. Notes September – October
Exploring Traditions
Key Ideas ...... 96 Teacher’s Planning Calendar ...... 100 Teaching Exemplar ...... 102 A Note from the Teacher...... 109 “Suggested” Resources ...... 110
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 95 Exploring Traditions: Pondering Philosophical Questions in Classic Literature
What is the meaning of life? This essential question has preoccupied human thought and art since the beginnings of civilization, and it is no less relevant today than it was hundreds or even thousands of years ago. Teenagers, in particular, are interested in its implications and in related philosophical questions.
the meaning o at is f life Wh ?
“Who am I? Where did I come from? Where am I going? How do I know? What is the nature of good and evil? Does human nature tend toward one or the other? Are human beings in charge of their lives, or are larger forces in control? What makes life worth living—Achievements? Power? Wealth? Love?”
These and similar topics are some of the main subjects of classic literature and mythology, and when presented in these philosophical terms, they continue to appeal to contemporary students. Studying classic works and pondering the problems they raise can enhance students’ critical thinking about their own lives and the world in which they live.
Exposure to the classics also provides students with “cultural capital” in the form of background knowledge about authors, texts, and eras frequently cited in academic contexts.
Above all, these works tell compelling stories that explore universal themes and depict enduring patterns of human behavior.
EVOLVING FINDING COMMUNICATION A VOICE
REACHING EXPANDING AN AUDIENCE HORIZONS
96 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Exploring Traditions: What is the Literature Focus?
There are many ways to structure a unit that explores traditions and focuses on classic literature. A teacher might, for example, choose several works from different eras and genres that L I T ERATU treat the subject of war, and ask students to examine the writers’ various responses to it. R E Love and marriage is another example of a theme that cuts across time and space. Alternatively, teachers might look at a particular kind of text in a variety of contexts; the hero story, for instance, appears in ancient mythology and epic literature, but also in novels, plays, poetry, and non-fiction. A third approach is to use a single work, such as a Shakespearean play, as an anchor text, and supplement it with relevant short pieces. Whatever the approach, the key strategy is to get students involved with classic literature in ways that allow them to see its relevance to their own lives.
“The Western canon” is a term used to denote a group of books (and, more widely, music and art) that have been most influential in shaping Western culture. There has been an ongoing, intensely political debate over the nature and status of the canon since at least the 1960s. In the US, in particular, it has been attacked as a compendium of books written mainly by “dead white European males,” that do not represent the viewpoints of many others in contemporary societies around the world. An important consideration when designing a unit of classic literature is how to achieve balance. Much of the Western canon may not immediately seem relevant in a DYS setting. Nonetheless, many works within the canon raise important questions about social justice issues. Furthermore, many non-canonical works by people of color and women can be paired successfully with the classic texts. For example, in a unit on heroic literature, a teacher might focus on The Odyssey, Homer’s immortal saga about Odysseus’s voyage home after the Trojan War. Although its perspective is unquestionably male and Greek, this story offers many rich opportunities to discuss the roles and rights of women in society and the differences in customs and beliefs among cultures. In addition to highlighting these issues within the The Odyssey, a teacher might choose to pair this text with one written from a wholly different perspective, even a relatively modern work such as Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Harriet Jacobs’s heroic tale of escape from the clutches of a maniacal slave owner. Both works depict the heroic journey, examine the nature of evil, and celebrate human ingenuity and perseverance.
Q: How can I teach whole works of literature in a DYS context? A: Many ELA teachers wonder how to teach whole works of literature in a DYS context, where new students may arrive at any time and stay for as little as two days. Even when students do stay longer, a group that begins a session together is unlikely to remain intact through an entire unit. One strategy is to choose short works—stories, poems, articles, and one-act plays—that can be read in one or two class periods. This approach is valid, but can also be quite limiting. Another approach is to choose longer works that are episodic or Q& dramatic. Such works will have recurring patterns and sections that can stand on their own. Two works mentioned here in the season on Exploring Traditions (The Odyssey and Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl) are good examples of this kind of literature. A student entering class mid-way through the reading of either one would need some background information to grasp what was going on, but could start reading almost anywhere in the text and still comprehend and be able to respond to the main ideas A of the piece.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 97 Exploring Traditions: What is the Writing Focus?
The study of literature is enhanced by regular opportunities for students to respond in writing, both informally, in short, unrevised “free-writes,” and formally, in longer essays or papers that are fully processed. Because expressive, analytical, and creative writing assignments all offer benefits for students; teachers should try to incorporate all three types of writing during each of the seasons (EXPLORING TRADITIONS, EXPANDING HORIZONS and EVOLVING COMMUNICATION) in which literature and writing are balanced with literature at the center. The brief descriptions of expressive, analytical, and creative writing are repeated in each of these chapters. Any of these types of writing can also be strengthened and expanded by incorporating research on authors and/or historical events.
Expressive writing is closest to the self, most like speech, and is thus a powerful tool for exploring connections between the student and the text. Expressive writing is by nature informal, but it can be revised and shaped to hone the student’s response to a prompt or a question. An expressive reader-response piece might focus on any of the following kinds of connections, for example: Text-to-world: Show how the work connects to one or more situations going on in the world today. Text-to-text: Show how the work compares to another piece of literature, film, television show, or lyric with a similar theme. Text-to-self: Show how the work affects you on a personal level. Does it have the ring of truth to you? Do you have any objections to it or questions about it?
Analytical writing is a natural extension of expressive writing in which the student, looking at some aspect of a work from a particular perspective, considers how it works and how effectively. These are some frequently used and generally accessible analytical tasks: Character: Trace the development of a character throughout the work or in part of a work. How does he or she change and grow? How is this character revealed to the reader? Theme: Choose an idea that is prominent in the work and use it as a lens to examine the work as a whole. What does the work seem to “say” about this theme? Technique: Select a short passage from the work and read it closely. What does it say literally? What does the author’s choice of language add to the meaning? How does the passage relate to the work as a whole? Supporting interpretations with evidence from the text is a key element in analytical writing, and one that usually requires extensive teacher support. Analytical assignments can address this requirement and thereby provide effective, authentic practice for MCAS open-response and long-composition questions.
Creative writing tasks can help students to understand the literature they are reading, stimulate students’ imagination, and motivate them to write. By intervening in the text or adapting it to another setting, students engage in deep reflection and critical thinking. The following types of creative response to literature can be especially effective: Intervention: Try telling the story or a section of the story from a different point of view, reading between the lines to try to imagine what that character would have been thinking, or add a “missing” scene at the beginning, middle, or end to clarify something that is unclear in the text. Adaptation: Update the story in some way; give the characters modern identities and put them in a modern situation. Use your imagination and any genre you like—story, drama, poetry, etc. Be sure to stay true to the original text’s plot and themes.
98 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Exploring Traditions: Standards of the Season
Most of the Massachusetts ELA standards can relate to all units of study. In fact, it is difficult to imagine any topic that could not be connected in some way to a given ELA standard. Some standards, like the entire Language strand, are applicable to all ELA instruction. Most lessons will address numerous ELA standards.
That said, some standards relate most directly to the topics in particular seasons. In the context of the “seasons” of teaching ELA in Department of Youth Services settings, we might call certain standards “low-hanging fruit,” because in a given season, these standards are convenient, easy to reach, ripe for teaching, and may fall on particularly fertile ground.
While many other standards will be addressed during this time period, the EXPLORING TRADITIONS season is especially favorable for addressing these Standards:
1 17 18 Season: Exploring Traditions 3 10 12 15 21 19 14 Making Connections 8 7 23 Students will deepen their understanding of a 13 9 22 20 9 literary or non-literary work by relating it to its 6 4 11 27 contemporary context or historical background. 26 Learning about the life of an author, or the time and place 5 16 24 25 2 in which a work was written, can foster insight into the text. Through explorations into context and background, students learn about historical eras and events, increase their understanding of the forces that shape a work’s creation, and learn to identify these influences in the text. Theme 11 Students will identify, analyze, and apply knowledge of theme in a literary work and provide evidence from the text to support their understanding. Distinguishing theme from plot is a key step in developing a literary sensibility. In this unit, students should consider not only the themes of individual works, but also the universal themes reflected in works of all eras and cultures. In doing so, they come to understand and recognize eternal human questions, understanding that people everywhere have always had many of the same desires and concerns. Students will become increasingly able to compare the treatment of universal themes in a variety of texts.
Myth, Traditional Narrative, and Classical Literature 16 Students will identify, analyze, and apply knowledge of the themes, structure, and elements of myths, traditional narratives, and classical literature and provide evidence from the text to support their understanding. Through the study of myths and classics, students will be exposed to literary conventions, common themes, and many sources of allusions in contemporary culture. They should gain knowledge of classic conventions and themes, understanding of their ongoing influence, and the ability to identify them in both classic texts and popular culture.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 99 Planning Grid for EXPLORING TRADITIONS
ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS: ______
Week # for this Monday Tuesday Wednesday season Date: Date: Date:
1
Date: Date: Date:
2
Date: Date: Date:
3
Date: Date: Date:
4
Date: Date: Date:
5
Date: Date: Date:
6
Date: Date: Date:
7
Date: Date: Date:
8
Note: The number of weeks allocated for each season should be flexible in response to holidays, periods of MCAS testing, and other factors within each classroom.
100 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS: ______
Thursday Friday Notes
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 101 Exploring Traditions: Teaching Exemplar
“Exploring Traditions” focuses on universal themes that depict enduring patterns of human behavior. These themes question human nature and embody philosophical questions that are as relevant today as they were when they were written into mythology and classic pieces of literature. Studying classic works and pondering the problems they raise can enhance students’ critical thinking about their own lives and the world in which they live. Exposure to the classics also provides students background knowledge about authors, texts, and eras frequently cited in academic contexts.
This mini-unit and lesson plan use symbolism as an opportunity to further explore comparative mythology across different cultures. How are symbols interpreted similarly in different cultures? What enduring questions of humanity are tied to these symbols from different cultures? This mini-unit offers an in-depth look at the traditions surrounding pomegranates across several ancient cultures. Similar mini-units could be built around other cross-cultural symbols such as those found in creation and flood stories. This kind of study enables students not only to develop background knowledge useful in the study of literature and history but also to gain insight into the universal concerns of human beings in all places and times.
This mini-unit serves as a valuable reference and example to help teachers create strong standards-based lessons. It is intended to share one of many approaches to teaching the content in this season. To better suit the unique strengths and needs of your students and to better meet the expectations of your program, it is important to remember to differentiate this mini-unit and lesson plan or to use it as a guide to developing or refining your own!
102 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Exploring Traditions: Mini-Unit Exemplar
SYMBOLISM OF THE SACRED – THE POMEGRANATE
Designer: Naomi T. Baldwin, [email protected] Theme/Season: Duration: Symbolism of the Pomegranate has a strong tie Three weeks during the Autumn when the fruit is in between birth, fertility, life, death, and resurrection. season and plentiful. Six to eight class periods of Universality of the symbol over thousands of years 45 minute duration. and myriad cultures/“Exploring Traditions”
UNIT LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
KNOW Students will know… • What “myth” means as a literary term and in different cultures • What “symbolism” is and how similar symbols can be considered sacred for different reasons in the social context of several different cultures and religions (for example, abundance, fertility, generosity, marriage, love, a medicinal unction, self nurturance and regenerative abilities) • The myth and folklore of civilizations connected to their use of a common symbol such as fruit (pomegranate, citrus, peach, etc.)
UNDERSTAND Students will understand… • How symbols across cultures address similar social concerns • The similarities symbolism from early cultures such as the ancient Egyptians, Arabs, Chinese, and Roman Empire and how mythology and folklore from these countries share similar themes • What a visual work of art symbolically portrays when depicted by various cultures, attuning them to the symbolism key to comparative mythology
And therefore be able to DO • Expand their knowledge of a specific symbol represented in myth and folklore and connect this to their own cultural experience with that symbol • Create a class word wall of different terms used for pomegranates • Take notes on new vocabulary and discussion points • Explore some of the tales, fables, and data collected throughout time by different cultures • Create an original story involving the pomegranate or other object as a symbol • Write an essay that compares the symbolic meanings of the pomegranate in different cultures • Build a portfolio of work including a final project of art work, written work, and tests
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 103 Exploring Traditions: Mini-Unit Exemplar (continued)
CONNECTED LEARNING STANDARDS Standard 2: Pose questions, listen to the ideas of others, and contribute their own information or ideas in group discussion or interviews in order to acquire new knowledge. Standard 9: Students will deepen their understanding of a literary or non-literary work by relating it to its contemporary context or historical background. Standard 11: Identify, analyze, and apply knowledge of theme in a literary work, and provide evidence from the text to support their understanding. Standard 16: Identify, analyze, and apply knowledge of the themes, structure, and elements of myths, traditional narratives, and classical literature, and provide evidence from the text.
Pre-Assessment I will collect the students’ individual reading curve from the Title I and SEIS teacher. I will have collected information from the clinicians and line staff if possible. This information will contribute to an overall awareness of the class’ abilities collectively and individually. I will use journals and oral surveys to assess students’ prior knowledge and understandings of the pomegranate.
Resource Materials Each student has a “resource folder” which contains sections for the list of all religions of the world, a compilation of all the wars and data, vocabulary with a section for Greek and Latin roots, a section for literary and rhetorical terms, and composition resources. Access to the internet will be available to some/most of the students. Texts which will be provided to refer to in these folders will ultimately become the students ELA “portfolio”. The following texts may be accessed in total from the internet. Having the original texts in the classroom takes the “unfamiliar” out of these timeless reflections of mans’ spirit. Buddhist Goddesses of India (Hariti) by Miranda Shaw (Princeton 2006, University Press) The Bible The Koran The Rig Vedas The I Ching The Talmud The Upanishads The Tibetan Book of the Dead The Egyptian Book of the Dead Artwork includes Botticelli, Leonardo Da Vinci, many Oriental pieces Why a Pomegranate? by Patricia Langley (British Medical Association, London WCIH9JP 2000) The Persian War by Heroditus Isfandiyar (Zoroastrianism ritual and domestic observances) The Word Wall will remain out and open to record new vocabulary and concepts. Maps of ancient and modern world are always within sight. Poster board and fine colored pencils, magazines for the option of collage making will be made available.
104 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Exploring Traditions: Mini-Unit Exemplar (continued)
OUTLINE OF LESSONS
Lesson 1: Introductory Collecting background knowledge with the students. Questioning and discussing with each other the familiarity and experiences the students have had or not had with the pomegranate. Establishing a “word wall” and” lead student for the day” to record the different terms used for the fruit (“ground apple” used for dyeing cloth in Puerto Rico for instance). Directions for note taking towards the end of class and where in the ELA portfolio to enter notes and vocabulary.
Lesson 2: Instructional What is a symbol? Observation and recording of many symbols to list alongside of the pomegranate. List of the three sacred fruits (pomegranate, peach, and citrus). Images from art books and the internet of classical artistic renderings of the pomegranate and what each painting of the pomegranate symbolizes. We will focus on the Judeo Christian symbols during this lesson. Responses and individual perspectives begin to be shared at this point. Short vocabulary quiz.
Lesson 3: Instructional Hinduism and the Vedas (symbolism for fertility and prosperity), medicinal and ritual uses in this culture and art forms viewed. Review and assess where each student is with regard to the lessons thus far using low-stakes writing.
Lesson 4: Instructional Buddhism and the gift to the Buddha of a pomegranate. Folklore of the Buddha and the pomegranate is discussed and viewed in art form. Various pieces of Asian art exemplifying the symbolism of the pomegranate. How people bring meaning to their symbols. Islam and how the Islamic paradise contains gardens of pomegranates. Superstitions/beliefs: Do you believe that pomegranates ward off hatred and envy as Mohammed taught his followers? Why? Why not? Legends: One seed of each pomegranate came down from heaven; thus all the seeds must be eaten. Personal writing (can be unrelated to the fruit): superstitions, legends, beliefs, to counterpoint the myths we have learned re: the pomegranate to date.
Lesson 5: Culminating Review and debriefing of stated similarities of the pomegranate’s symbolism from the cultures chosen to be studied. A written essay with art piece will be worked on during subsequent lessons. The essay will address the meaning and form of communication that symbols and signs impart. Which ones studied were important or resonated with each student and why. Greek mythology and Zoroastrianism might be added depending on the time limitation for the students’ stay. Heraldry (as in coat of arms) and the artistic rendering of a collage or drawing (colored pencil or water color) may be interjected as well. A longer term unit would lend itself to teaching the history of the fruit and the medicinal aspect (science) of the pomegranate thus bringing together three disciplines nicely.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 105 Exploring Traditions: Mini-Unit Exemplar (continued)
Reflection The extensive nature of this topic gives teaching about symbolism a fluid and easily manipulated curriculum. I have found that letting the students’ own curiosity and personal experiences drive which culture and what art is viewed has the best result.
The pages that followini -presentunit. This detailed detailed plans plan for should of this m Lesson 1 serve as a valuable reference and example to help teachers better create strong standards-based lessons in English Language Arts differentiated for program type and the strengths and needs of each student.
106 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Exploring Traditions: Lesson Plan Exemplar
Designer: Naomi T. Baldwin, [email protected] Mini-Unit Title: Lesson Number and Stage: Symbolism of the Sacred: The Pomegranate Lesson 1/Introductory
LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR THIS LESSON:
Students will KNOW… • What symbolism is and how similar symbols can be considered sacred for different reasons in the social context of several different cultures and religions (for example, abundance, fertility, generosity, marriage, love, a medicinal unction, self nurturance and regenerative abilities) • The myth and folklore of civilizations connected to their use of a common symbol such as fruit (pomegranate, citrus, peach, etc.)
Students will UNDERSTAND… • How symbols across cultures address similar social concerns • The similarities symbolism from early cultures such as the ancient Egyptians, Arabs, Chinese, and Roman Empire and how mythology and folklore from these countries share similar themes • What a visual work of art symbolically portrays when depicted by various cultures, attuning them to the symbolism key to comparative mythology
Students will be able to DO… • Expand their knowledge of a specific symbol represented in myth and folklore and connect this to their own cultural experience with that symbol • Explore some of the tales, fables, and data collected throughout time by different cultures • Question and discuss the pomegranate as a symbol • Create a word wall of different terms used for pomegranates • Take notes on new vocabulary and discussion points
CONNECTED LEARNING STANDARDS Standard 2: Pose questions, listen to the ideas of others, and contribute their own information or ideas in group discussion or interviews in order to acquire new knowledge. Standard 16: Identify, analyze, and apply knowledge of the themes, structure, and elements of myths, traditional narratives, and classical literature, and provide evidence from the text.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 107 Exploring Traditions: Lesson Plan Exemplar (continued)
LESSON DETAILS Describe student GROUPING: The introductory lesson will be whole grouping with each student approaching the Word Wall or white board to “assist” in recording new vocabulary/concepts, and conveying to herself and the class how learning can empower the “teacher” as well as the students. We will form a semi-circle dependent on the behaviors and receptivity of the students that day. Otherwise, students will be in their assigned seats. What RESOURCES and MATERIALS will be used? Initially, the individual ELA folders, the internet, art history books, and the actual pomegranate fruit itself. The shared, student-centered, kinesthetic experience of opening the leathery pomegranates to reveal an architecturally impressive interior of honey combed, chambered, “rubies” and eating them or trying them for the first time will offer enough for an introductory lesson. (Make sure you know if any of your students are diabetic and get permission through the correct channels first.) How will the lesson be DIFFERENTIATED? For low-skilled readers, options for helping them access the reading could include: • Reading aloud to the class • Pairing students to read passages together, etc. • Using graphic organizers for comparing parts of the reading, etc. • If a Title I Reading Specialist or SEIS teacher is available, student may receive one-on-one support. The pacing of this introductory lesson is balanced for the remainder of the other students by collecting individual experiences in discussion and oral sharing. I will be monitoring and assisting individually as needed. List the general STEPS of the lesson including how NEW INFORMATION will be delivered and TASKS students will be involved in: The first “new information” will be shared between the students themselves, from their own cultural experiences. Vocabulary will be recorded in the vocabulary section of the ELA notebook and repeated on the Word Wall. Students are asked to use two to three new words in conversation during each day of the school week and report that usage to me. Visuals of the pomegranate from classical paintings will be introduced. Responses and individual perspectives of the symbol in question will be exchanged. During the array of artwork that is shown I will emphatically and repeatedly remind the students that the same fruit throughout history has been called by many different names. I will introduce the notion that the symbolic meanings ascribed to the fruit may vary slightly, but it remains what it is. I will then ask if any of the students can make this connection to the world’s concept of the sacred. “A rose is a rose is a rose.” The monotheism of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as three examples of one god with an array of differing names. This segue may be resisted, so emphasize the importance of respecting diversity, belief systems, variant symbols, and keeping one’s mind flexible and open.
LESSON REFLECTION STAGE ONE: How do you PLAN TO EVALUATE whether students achieved the learning objectives? I will read the entries in the students’ ELA vocabulary and text sections of the students’ notebooks. I will question repeatedly whether there are any questions or difficult issues with the material we have done in this class. I will leave at least five to ten minutes to debrief the students. STAGE TWO: Now that the lesson has been DONE, reflect on what data you have that informs you regarding student’s achievement of the learning objectives: Direct response from the students, who contributed and what they contributed, the ELA notebook. STAGE THREE: If you were to repeat this lesson, what would you ADJUST/MODIFY? Bring enough pomegranates for each student. No sharing…messy and the pomegranates were used for dyeing textiles! STAGE FOUR: Based on THIS lesson and student performance, what do you need to modify for the NEXT lesson? Assess the pacing of the visuals and focus on any recurring questions. Ask for suggestions as to how the students would like to proceed and consider them seriously.
OTHER DETAILS The introductory lesson to this unit is usually quite animated and sharing personal experiences along with eating the fruit captures most students’ interest and imaginations.
108 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Exploring Traditions Exemplar: A Note from the Teacher
The exemplar lesson plan I have composed allows students to share their individual ethnic experiences as related to different stories of mythology and symbolism and connects to the Exploring Traditions season for the following reasons. 1. Universal themes of myriad ethical virtues and values are identified and explained as one form of student-centered learning.
2. The majority of cultures and religions of the world resound from voices of the past: folklore, Greek myth, medicinal uses, heraldry, ancient texts and art, ancient ritual and contemporary variations on the theme.
3. This lesson is germane to the diversity of students’ personal experiences providing a kinesthetic approach of sharing the fruit to eat in the conclusive lesson. I have found this lesson to be a successful integration of several teaching methods.
4. This lesson lends itself easily to the sharing of languages (the word apple for Cape Verdean, Haitian, Puerto Rican, Cambodian/Khmer, Italian, Greek, and Latin). One Hispanic student, upon seeing the unopened fruit, exclaimed, “Oh, that’s an ‘Indian apple!’ “ Listening to reactions of students’ personal, ethnic background experiences (using the juice for red dye, medicinal purposes, etc.) provides spirited feedback. Investigating as part of the SIOP protocol is an enjoyable method for provoking curiosity. A “Word Wall” is useful for allowing each student to build background, while introducing and recording the new concepts (comprehensible input) that will follow as the lessons proceed.
5. There are frequent opportunities for students to interact orally and in writing pieces that are art- based, research-based and allow for personal creativity. S—Research (expository writing) into cultures and symbology not addressed, such WRITING FOCU as pomegranates in the Hindu culture, pomegranates and death, in history, medicinally, for heraldry. Essays comparing and contrasting the symbology of the pomegranate in two or three of the cultures explored. These assessments will consider and will be tailored to each student’s ability. Grouping for research or artwork will be considered depending on the “climate” of the particular class with regard to safety and security. —Naomi Baldwin [email protected]
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 109 Exploring Traditions: Suggested Resources
Listed below are a variety of some suggested resources that might be useful in teaching a mini-unit on “Exploring Traditions”. The resources listed here are organized by key ideas identified within this “season” of ELA study as well as by focuses on literature and writing.
It is important to note that there are many resources available throughout the DYS system and in different programs that are not directly addressed in this section. Please refer to Teaching Coordinators or Instructional Coaches for more information about additional resources that may address the needs of your students.
BOOK/COLLECTION Writing Our All Write Naming Edge Stories A Multicultural A Student Handbook the World Reading, Writing Alabama Reader for Writing and A Year of Poems & Language Writers’ Forum Learning and Lessons
KEY IDEAS
The Poetry of “Sonnet 18” Universal themes “A Mason-Dixon “The Necklace” Dreams p. 85 pp. 254 & 255 Memory” pp. 65-77: pp. 287-293 How can society’s from “Roots” opinions affect a Eternal human “Sonnet 18” pp. 39-45 person’s choices? questions pp. 254 & 255
Philosophical The Poetry of “Housepainting” pp. concepts and Dreams p. 85 48-59 journeys LITERATURE
Voices from the past “The Necklace” “I Dream a World” “Sonnet 18” (including myth pp. 65-77 p. 87 pp. 254 & 255 and classics) Guy de Maupassant WRITING
The Poetry of “Sonnet 18” Expressive p. 293 pp. 124-141 Dreams p. 85 pp. 254 & 255
Freewriting p. 183 Creative pp. 168-185 p. 100 Creative Craft
Exposition p. 295 “The Necklace” TC Analytical pp. 149-154 pp. 127-134 Literary Analysis pp. 76 & 77
110 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Exploring Traditions: Additional Resources
Teachers are encouraged to make this Instructional Guide as useful as possible by recording personal preferences and experiences using specific resources to teach the “Exploring Traditions” season. Your favorite resources may not even be listed in this guide!
Use this blank form to record notes about your favorite resources!
NAME OF RESOURCE WHERE YOU FOUND IT HOW YOU USE IT
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 111 Notes
ex•cel•lence e
(e˘k’s -l e ns )n. The state or condition of excelling. Notes November – December
Finding a Voice
Key Ideas ...... 116 Teacher’s Planning Calendar ...... 120 Teaching Exemplar ...... 122 A Note from the Teacher...... 127 “Suggested” Resources ...... 128
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 115 Finding a Voice: Developing Personal Resources for Writing
Language is the characteristic that most distinguishes human beings from other animals. It is not surprising, therefore, that we place such a high value on voice. The ELA classroom is an ideal place for students to find their own voices—in all senses of the word. In literature, students can listen to the voices of others and assume the roles of imagined selves. In writing (especially open-ended personal writing), youth can explore their own selves, addressing such questions as:
e to say to I hav the w do or at ld? Wh “What does it mean to be me? What are my various identities? How have I changed over time? What do I really value? What experiences and influences have shaped me? How do I relate to others? What is my community, and what role do I play in it?”
What is voice? Voice is our primary means of communication, and one of the ways we recognize one another. By extension, we use the term “voice” to mean identity, self- actualization, and power. All people want to “have a voice” and to “let their voices be heard.” We also use the term metaphorically to refer to the persona that emerges from a piece of writing; in fact, a “strong voice” is the quality that most clearly distinguishes lively, engaging writing.
Introspection, critical thinking, and revision are essential to developing one’s voice. All of these processes take place most effectively in an atmosphere of supportive response.
EXPLORING EXPANDING TRADITIONS HORIZONS
EVOLVING REACHING COMMUNICATION AN AUDIENCE
116 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Finding a Voice: What is the Writing Focus?
Personal writing should be at the center of this unit, both casual low-stakes exercises, and polished high-stakes products. The teacher must make clear at the beginning what the boundaries, limits, and expectations are in choice of topic, language, and detail. These W R ITING may vary according to the program and the teacher’s comfort level. Students must also know, for example, whether and under what conditions their writing will be shared in class, and they should have the option not to share particular pieces if doing so would make them uncomfortable. Making these clarifications about students’ personal writing provides a “teachable moment” for the concepts of audience and purpose. (Additionally, students need to know that all teachers are mandated reporters of abuse and neglect.)
A reliable starting point for personal writing is composing informal memory pieces using free-writing, visualization, or a combination of the two. Taking students back to their childhoods or to more recent school or community experiences can create rich raw material for later extension and revision. A memoir or autobiographical sketch is one possible outcome for this kind of work. Transforming a memory into poetry or short fiction is just as valid, and perhaps more likely to prompt reflections on experience.
A productive and engaging assignment for teenage writers is the personal multi-genre project. The idea of a multi-genre project is to have students create a variety of separate but interconnected pieces about different aspects of themselves, using a range of genres. These might include: “Traditional” ELA genres such as poetry, vignettes, dialogues, or letters. Unexpected genres such as a shopping list, recipe, advertisement, or movie trailer. The result of a multi-genre project is a publication in which students tell about themselves—or better, what matters to them about themselves—through a collection of snippets, rather than a continuous narrative. Students often enjoy assembling, revising, and sharing these projects.
Notes
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 117 Finding a Voice: What is the Literature Focus?
The primary goal of this unit is to help students find their own voices as writers. Selections of literature that depict personal experiences relevant to students’ lives— and, most importantly, the authors’ reflections on those experiences—will be most helpful in inspiring and guiding students’ exploration.
Selected literature may include autobiographical works (or excerpts) from such pieces of literature as: Richard Wright’s Black Boy; Esmeralda Santiago’s When I Was Puerto Rican; Elie Wiesel’s Night.
Selections of poetry and fiction can also be immensely valuable to students trying to find their own voices, particularly if these works model techniques that students might successfully imitate. For example: Gwendolyn Brooks’s poetry uses a variety of unconventional rhymed and unrhymed forms to depict urban poverty; Sandra Cisneros’s The House on Mango Street covers similar topics through a series of literary vignettes.
Many teachers wonder what to do about the sensitive subjects that come up when students engage in personal writing in a DYS setting. There are many ways for ELA classes to explore questions of identity, values, and personal experiences without creating controversy. When possible, students and teachers benefit when DYS teachers and clinical staff can communicate about the content and form that personal exploration may take in the Q classroom. Teachers need to exercise caution and consider the context when planning a & unit on personal voice, recognizing that timing is an important consideration, particularly as many youth experience tension when they approach transition points within DYS. Specific writing prompts can be used to encourage exploration from a range of perspectives (i.e., region, community, extended family) outside of their interactions with the juvenile justice system; one DYS teacher supports this holistic point of view by A reminding her students that “you are more than your crimes.”
118 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Finding a Voice: Standards of the Season
Most of the Massachusetts ELA standards can relate to all units of study. In fact, it is difficult to imagine any topic that could not be connected in some way to a given ELA standard. Some standards, like the entire Language strand, are applicable to all ELA instruction. Most lessons will address numerous ELA standards.
That said, some standards relate most directly to the topics in particular seasons. In the context of the “seasons” of teaching ELA in Department of Youth Services settings, we might call certain standards “low-hanging fruit,” because in a given season, these standards are convenient, easy to reach, ripe for teaching, and may fall on particularly fertile ground.
While many other standards will be addressed during this time period, the FINDING A VOICE season is especially favorable for addressing these Standards:
Season: Finding a Voice
Genre 16 17 18 10 Students will identify, analyze, and apply knowledge 11 of the characteristics of different genres. 105 Through reading experience and writing experiments, 12 15 2127 1913 students should gain knowledge of the characteristics of 9 8 various genres, understanding that they are forms chosen 7 23 19 14 22 by authors to accomplish particular purposes, and the 20 ability to choose appropriate genres for their own personal 6 4 3 27 writing. Depending on the literature selections chosen for 26 this unit, elements of standards 12, 13, 14, or 17 may also 24 10 1 21 be applicable. 2
Writing 19 Students will write with a clear focus, coherent organization, and sufficient detail. Focus, organization, and detail are at the heart of good writing. Through prewriting activities, class discussions, and multiple drafts, students should gain knowledge of their subjects, understanding of their purposes as writers, and the ability to develop their topics with rich, relevant details.
Revising 21 Students will demonstrate improvement in organization, content, paragraph development, level of detail, style, tone, and word choice (diction) in their compositions after revising them. Successful revision means making decisions about hundreds of matters, large and small. This process is essential to developing voice, and it happens most effectively in an atmosphere of supportive response. Using peer and teacher feedback, the students should gain knowledge of the features of effective writing, understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses, and the ability to effect positive changes in their work.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 119 Planning Grid for FINDING A VOICE
ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS: ______
Week # for this Monday Tuesday Wednesday season Date: Date: Date:
1
Date: Date: Date:
2
Date: Date: Date:
3
Date: Date: Date:
4
Date: Date: Date:
5
Date: Date: Date:
6
Date: Date: Date:
7
Date: Date: Date:
8
Note: The number of weeks allocated for each season should be flexible in response to holidays, periods of MCAS testing, and other factors within each classroom.
120 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS: ______
Thursday Friday Notes
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 121 Finding a Voice: Teaching Exemplar
The season “Finding a Voice” focuses on the concept of voice. Voice is our primary means of communication and one of the ways we recognize each other. By extension, we use the term “voice” to mean identity, self-actualization, and power. Everyone wants to “have a voice” and to “let his or her voice be heard.” We also use the term metaphorically to refer to the persona that emerges from a piece of writing. In literature, students can listen to the voices of others and assume the roles of imagined selves. Through writing, youth find a way to express who they are and what they believe in, thus sharing their “voice” or “aspects of their identity” with the world.
Students seem naturally drawn to poetry because of its somewhat concise nature and ability to communicate so much through less. In this mini-unit, students will read and analyze samples of poems to guide them in writing poetry that explores their personal identity and voice. Their writing in this genre will help them to further understand their lives and the world around them and to mold these thoughts into words.
This mini-unit serves as a valuable reference and example to help teachers create strong standards-based lessons. It is intended to share one of many approaches to teaching the content in this season. To better suit the unique strengths and needs of your students and to better meet the expectations of your program, it is important to remember to differentiate this mini-unit and lesson plan or to use it as a guide to developing or refining your own!
122 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Finding a Voice: Mini-Unit Exemplar
POETRY OF THE PERSONAL
Designer: Karen A. Brown, [email protected] Theme/Season: Duration: Self-image/“Finding a Voice” 3-4 Days
UNIT LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
KNOW Students will know… • New poets and poems • What self-image is (definition) and what factors form it • What factors form each poet’s self-image • What figurative language is • What tone is
UNDERSTAND Students will understand… • How society influences self-image • What factors aid in the formation of self-image • How society’s view of a person may contrast with one’s own self-image • How society’s view of the speaker in each poem contrasts with his or her self-image • The internal and external factors that influence the speaker’s self-image
And therefore be able to DO • Read and interpret poetry • Take part in meaningful discussions • Compile lists of internal and external factors that influence the speaker in each poem read • Write two poems focusing on how they view themselves and how society views them and then combine them • Use figurative language in the poems to establish tone
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 123 Finding a Voice: Mini-Unit Exemplar (continued)
CONNECTED LEARNING STANDARDS Standard 1.5: Identify and practice techniques such as setting time limits for speakers and deadlines for decision-making to improve productivity of group discussions. Standard 2.5: Summarize in a coherent and organized way information and ideas learned from a focused discussion. Standard 8.23: Use knowledge of genre characteristics to analyze a text. Standard 8.24: Interpret mood and tone, and give supporting evidence in a text. Standard 8.25: Interpret a character’s traits, emotions, or motivation and give supporting evidence from a text. Standard 15.6: Identify and analyze how an author’s use of words creates tone and mood. Standard 19.20: Write poems using poetic techniques (alliteration, onomatopoeia, rhyme scheme), figurative language (simile, metaphor, personification), and graphic elements (capital letters, line length, word position). Standard 21.7: Improve word choice by using a variety of references. Standard 23.11: Organize ideas for writing comparison-and-contrast essays.
Pre-Assessment Journal prompts and oral surveys to determine students’ awareness of how self-images are molded and impacted by internal and external factors.
Resources and Materials “American Hero” by Essex Hemphill found in A Multicultural Reader “The Real Thing” by Marilou Awiakta found in A Multicultural Reader “I, Too” by Langston Hughes found in The Dream Keeper “Learning English” by Lori Carlson found in Cool Salsa
OUTLINE OF LESSONS
Lesson 1: Introductory Formation of Self-Image: Class discussion of self-image and the factors that create it. Students create personal lists of internal and external factors that affect their own self-images.
Lesson 2: Instructional Reading Poetry: Students read and discuss four poems and create lists of internal and external factors that affect the speakers’ self-images.
Lesson 3: Culminating Writing Poetry: Based on the lists created in Lesson One and interpretation of the poems discussed in Lesson Two, students each write two poems, one on internal and one on external factors affecting their self-images, then combine them into a single poem.
124 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Finding a Voice: Mini-Unit Exemplar (continued)
Reflection This unit can be extended in several ways: 1. Have students find their own poems that deal with finding a voice. The following are some excellent sites: a. www.poets.org b. www.poetryfoundation.org c. www.americanpoems.com Once students find several poems, they can illustrate their poems on an 11" x 14" piece of paper and hang them in your room. 2. Create a writing workshop and have students write several poems; then designate a few (or all) students to illustrate the poems; compile poems and create a book in Microsoft Publisher and scan in the art work. 3. Make a quilt with the students’ poems. Have students put their poems and illustrations on construction paper and join them all together and create a quilt.
The pages that followin presenti-unit. This detailed detailed plans plan for should of this m Lesson 2 serve as a valuable reference and example to help teachers better create strong standards-based lessons in English Language Arts differentiated for program type and the strengths and needs of each student.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 125 Finding a Voice: Lesson Plan Exemplar
Lesson Designer: Karen A. Brown, [email protected] Mini-Unit Title: Self-image Lesson Stage: Day Two: Instructional
LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR THIS LESSON: 1. Know that internal and external factors form a speaker’s self-image. 2. Understand which factors influence the speaker’s self-image in each poem read. 3. Understand how society’s view of the speaker (external factors) contrasts with his or her self-image (internal factors) in each poem. 4. Compile a list of internal and external factors that influence the speaker.
These learning objectives are tied to the following Learning Standards: 1.5 Identify and practice techniques such as setting time limits for speakers and deadlines for decision-making to improve productivity of group discussions. 8.23 Use knowledge of genre characteristics to analyze a text. 8.24 Interpret mood and tone, and give supporting evidence in a text. 8.25 Interpret a character’s traits, emotions, or motivation and give supporting evidence from a text. 15.6 Identify and analyze how an author’s use of words creates tone and mood.
LESSON DETAILS: Have students read the following poems silently and aloud: • “American Hero” by Essex Hemphill found in A Multicultural Reader • “I, Too” by Langston Hughes found in The Dream Keeper • “The Real Thing” by Marilou Awiakta found in A Multicultural Reader • “Learning English” by Lori Carlson found in Cool Salsa
As students read each poem, the teacher should stop to initiate a discussion on the role self-image plays in each poem, focusing on when the speaker’s self-image contrasts with society’s perceptions of him or her.
Have students work in pairs to create lists of internal and external influences. Compile the lists as a class on the board. Then have students go through the poems again and place the internal and external factors that affect each speaker’s self-image under the appropriate headings. Compile and discuss the students’ findings.
126 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Finding a Voice Exemplar: A Note from the Teacher
Several times a week I have students asking me for poetry books. They seem to be on a quest for poems to read and so I find myself searching the internet for appropriate poems for them to read and scouring bargain bins for poetry anthologies. Our students seem to have a hunger for poetry; they are attracted to the seeming simplicity of the form and they are not intimidated by the level of thought and emotion they must expend. In talking with students, I have found that while a novel takes a long time to read, poetry, because it can be read quickly, has a small commitment level. While their reasoning is sound, eventually they do come to realize how profound and challenging such a writing medium can be. They learn this by reading a lot of poems and writing them as well. I think students gravitate to poetry because so much emotion can be expressed in so few words and they are able to see themselves in the poems more so than in a novel. Also, because poetry and music are very similar to one another—and since the vast majority of adolescents listen to, memorize, and personalize music lyrics—it’s an easy genre to work with. I think that as long as you find poetry with a modern flair, it’s easy to get them involved with the lesson. Using poetry in the classroom has one glitch; most students would rather begin writing poetry first and read the poems later. So in order to keep a sense of order and perspective, students should read poems in the style and theme the teacher is looking for so they will have a model to work from and they will have less of a struggle when they begin writing their poems. The poems I suggested to use in this lesson will get students thinking about voice and identity and are easily accessible to all students. The reluctant reader, the lower level reader, and the advanced reader are all able to understand and absorb the struggle presented in each poem. On some level students will be able to relate to the struggle in finding a voice. After reading the poems students will have the opportunity to write about themselves and explore their personal identity. Hopefully the unit will empower students and provide them with an outlet to express and understand their lives and the world around them. —Karen A. Brown [email protected]
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 127 Finding a Voice: Suggested Resources
Listed below are a variety of some suggested resources that might be useful in teaching a mini-unit on “Finding a Voice”. The resources listed here are organized by key ideas identified within this “season” of ELA study as well as by focuses on literature and writing.
It is important to note that there are many resources available throughout the DYS system and in different programs that are not directly addressed in this section. Please refer to Teaching Coordinators or Instructional Coaches for more information about additional resources that may address the needs of your students.
BOOK/COLLECTION Writing Our All Write Naming Edge Stories A Multicultural A Student Handbook the World Reading, Writing Alabama Reader for Writing and A Year of Poems & Language Writers’ Forum Learning and Lessons KEY IDEAS “The Good Personal experiences Memory Poem “Nikki-Rosa” Samaritan” and values pp. 55-58 pp. 36 & 37 pp. 11-23 Writing the “Autobiography in The journey “A Whole Nation” Blue Springs Six Short Chapters” of life pp. 133-139 pp. 79-84 pp. 32 & 33 Painting a “It’s Our Identity and “Fox Hunt” Self Portrait Story Too” community pp. 167-175 pp. 75-78 pp. 341-344 LITERATURE “It’s Our from “Blackboy” Non-fiction Story Too” pp. 141-145 pp. 341-344 “Autobiography in Memory Poem “Nikki-Rosa” Poetry Six Short Chapters” pp. 55-58 pp. 36 & 37 pp. 32 & 34 “The Good Short fiction based on “Fox Hunt” Samaritan” personal experiences pp. 167-175 pp. 11-23 WRITING Painting a p. 127 Poetry Self Portrait pp. 169-178 Creative craft p. 75 Four Character p. 127 pp. 179-185 Short fiction Qualities Creative craft pp. 301-305 pp. 116 & 117 p. 183 Memoir (or Memory Poem p. 42, 302 Telling Your autobiography) p. 55 pp. 143-148 Own Story Personal, multi-genre p. 18, 20 projects pp. 129-136
128 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Finding a Voice: Additional Resources
Teachers are encouraged to make this Instructional Guide as useful as possible by recording personal preferences and experiences using specific resources to teach the “Finding a Voice” season. Your favorite resources may not even be listed in this guide!
Use this blank form to record notes about your favorite resources!
NAME OF RESOURCE WHERE YOU FOUND IT HOW YOU USE IT
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 129 Notes
in•spi•ra•tion e e e
(˘in’sp e -ra’sh n)n. Stimulation of the mind or emotions to a high level of feeling or activity. Notes January – February
Expanding Horizons
Key Ideas...... 134 Teacher’s Planning Calendar ...... 140 Teaching Exemplar ...... 142 “Suggested” Resources ...... 150
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 133 Expanding Horizons: Cultural Understanding through Modern Literature
The growth of electronic media has collapsed space and time as barriers in human communication, enabling people to interact and live on a global scale. In this sense, the entire globe has been turned into a village. In many ways, DYS students embody the diversity and discord of globalization as they understand and embrace questions that reflect the complex realities of their lives:
in the “Global V lives illag ho e”? W “What experiences, values, and beliefs do the modern world’s diverse cultures have in common? How do they differ? What intellectual questions pervade the modern era, and how are these ideas reflected in literature? What distinguishes modern works from classics? How do people respond to “otherness”? What are the legacies of colonialism and other forms of oppression? What forms of resistance have oppressed peoples practiced, and how does literature portray these forces? What does it mean to be a citizen of the modern world, or to have dual or even multiple identities? What factors contribute to a person’s sense of self?” The 20th century ushered in an era of global politics, including two world wars and the founding of the United Nations. Now, in the 21st century, the furthest corners of the earth are just a click away on the Internet, and the English Language Arts have also become more global. Although ELA once denoted only British and American literature, it now encompasses works in English from Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean, translations of classic and contemporary works from many other world languages, and pieces by “hyphenated” American writers whose experiences reflect the duality of being simultaneously part of mainstream culture and a vibrant subculture.
FINDING REACHING A VOICE AN AUDIENCE
EXPLORING EVOLVING TRADITIONS COMMUNICATION
134 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Expanding Horizons: What is the Literature Focus?
The richness and breadth of modern literature can be both a blessing and a curse for the ELA teacher. There are works available that represent almost every L I T ERATU R imaginable kind of experience, and they are written in an exhilarating array of forms E and styles. It is impossible for any teacher to be conversant with the entire range of world literature, however, much less offer anything like a comprehensive curriculum to students. Abundance can be daunting! Fortunately, a number of helpful anthologies are available, such as Perfection Learning Corporation’s A Multicultural Reader: Collection One (2002). Such anthologies enable teachers to construct units in which students can encounter the experiences and perspectives of women and men from a variety of backgrounds.
Delving into a diverse collection of literature can be exciting for both teachers and students. There are, however, some major pitfalls to avoid. One of the most common hazards, especially when time is limited, is TOKENISM. “In the last story, we read about the African experience; now we’ll get the Asian perspective.” No single work can represent a whole people or country, of course, much less a whole continent, but it’s tempting to try to sample the whole range of world or American literature as if it were a buffet. A better approach is to choose a few focus areas and study them in more depth, including multiple readings and some background research.
Another potential problem is EXOTICISM, the danger of perceiving …anthologies enable differences from American customs as “weird” or “strange,” however teachers to construct units interesting they might be. Students unfamiliar with other cultures may be apt in which student can to fall into this trap. The teacher can help students contextualize the differences and consider how they arose. encounter the experiences and perspectives of The opposite, but equally damaging hazard, is UNIVERSALISM. Teachers women and men from a may have a natural and well-meaning tendency to emphasize what writers variety of backgrounds. have in common—to the exclusion of acknowledging significant differences in outlooks and beliefs. There are eternal human questions, but humans’ answers are not always the same. For this reason, selecting texts that establish a dialogue on a controversial issue can be beneficial.
Another important consideration in selecting modern and contemporary literature is to represent some of the many innovations in style the past hundred years have brought, for example: Unreliable and/or multiple narrators Stream of consciousness Non-chronological plot structure Magical realism
These innovative forms and styles can be quite challenging, but students usually enjoy the opportunity to unlock them, with guidance from their teachers.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 135 Expanding Horizons: What is the Writing Focus?
The expressive, analytical, and creative writing tasks outlined for the EXPLORING TRADITIONS unit are appropriate for this unit, and are repeated below for ease of reference. Additionally, students’ own experiences as citizens of the “Global Village” provide rich opportunities for expressive reader-response. A comparative literature approach invites contrastive analysis of modern and contemporary works produced in a variety of different contexts. Creative experimentation with literary techniques such as multiple narration and magical realism can also help solidify students’ understanding of these concepts. Producing original work (rather than merely appreciating or analyzing the work of others) is often the most effective way to learn difficult concepts. Additionally, background research on authors, historical events, cultural geography, and/or current issues could enhance any of these writing tasks.
EXPRESSIVE WRITING is closest to the self, most like speech, and is thus a powerful tool for exploring connections between the student and the text. Expressive writing is by nature informal, but it can be revised and shaped to hone the student’s response to a prompt or a question. An expressive reader-response piece might focus on any of the following kinds of connections, for example: Text-to-world: Show how the work connects to one or more situations going on in the world today. Text-to-text: Show how the work compares to another piece of literature, film, television show, or lyric with a similar theme. Text-to-self: Show how the work affects you on a personal level. Does it have the ring of truth to you? Do you have any objections to it or questions about it?
ANALYTICAL WRITING is a natural extension of expressive writing in which the student, looking at some aspect of a work from a particular perspective, considers how it works and how effectively. These are some frequently used and generally accessible analytical tasks: Character: Trace the development of a character throughout the work or in part of a work. How does he or she change and grow? How is this character revealed to the reader? Theme: Choose an idea that is prominent in the work and use it as a lens to examine the work as a whole. What does the work seem to “say” about this theme? Technique: Select a short passage from the work and read it closely. What does it say literally? What does the author’s choice of language add to the meaning? How does the passage relate to the work as a whole?
Supporting interpretations with evidence from the text is a key element in analytical writing, and one that usually requires extensive teacher support. Analytical assignments can address this requirement and thereby provide effective, authentic practice for MCAS open-response and long-composition questions.
136 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Expanding Horizons: What is the Writing Focus? (continued)
CREATIVE WRITING tasks can help students to understand the literature they are reading, stimulate students’ imagination, and motivate them to write. By intervening in the text or adapting it to another setting, students engage in deep reflection and critical thinking. The following types of creative response to literature can be especially effective: Intervention: Try telling the story or a section of the story from a different point of view, reading between the lines to try to imagine what that character would have been thinking, or add a “missing” scene at the beginning, middle, or end to clarify something that is unclear in the text. Adaptation: Update the story in some way; give the characters modern identities and put them in a modern situation. Use your imagination and any genre you like—story, drama, poetry, etc. Be sure to stay true to the original text’s plot and themes.
Q: How do I engage students in a literary unit? A: Using hands-on activities during, or at the end of, a unit, works well with this population as it gives them a chance to be creative. During a unit on reading or writing poetry, have students pick a poem and illustrate it; or have students write their own poems and illustrate the poems and create a book of poetry. During a Shakespeare unit, bring in famous Shakespearian Q& quotations and have students create a poster displaying the quotations. At the end of a Romeo and Juliet unit, have them create a board game based on Romeo and Juliet— this will force students to go back into the play to create their game and they can play the game when they’re done. Hands-on projects allow students to be creative and the product becomes their own. Also, because it represents them as an individual, they A take pride in the outcome, so be sure to display their work in your classroom.
Notes
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 137 Expanding Horizons: Standards of the Season
Most of the Massachusetts ELA standards can relate to all units of study. In fact, it is difficult to imagine any topic that could not be connected in some way to a given ELA standard. Some standards, like the entire Language strand, are applicable to all ELA instruction. Most lessons will address numerous ELA standards.
That said, some standards relate most directly to the topics in particular seasons. In the context of the “seasons” of teaching ELA in Department of Youth Services settings, we might call certain standards “low-hanging fruit,” because in a given season, these standards are convenient, easy to reach, ripe for teaching, and may fall on particularly fertile ground.
While many other standards will be addressed during this time period, the EXPANDING HORIZONS season is especially favorable for addressing these Standards:
Season: Expanding Horizons
16 22 18 11 10 4 15 21 19 3 8 7 23 13 14 17 20 6 12 9 27 26 5 1 24 25 2
138 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Making Connections 9 Students will deepen their understanding of a literary or non-literary work by relating it to its contemporary context or historical background. Learning about the life of an author, or the time and place in which a work was written, can foster insight into the text. Through explorations into context and background, students learn about historical eras and events, increase their understanding of the forces that shape a work’s creation, and learn to identify these influences in the text.
Fiction 12 Students will identify, analyze, and apply knowledge of the structure and elements of fiction and provide evidence from the text to support their understanding. Comparative study of works in different genres provides an opportunity to examine the ways in which different forms convey experience to readers. Through the study of fiction, youth should develop their knowledge of key elements of narrative such as plot development, characterization, and point of view. They will understand how authors use these elements to shape the reader’s experience, and learn to identify and explain these elements in a variety of texts.
Poetry 14 Students will write with a clear focus, coherent organization, and sufficient detail. Through the study of poetry, students should develop their knowledge of its key elements such as sound (alliteration, assonance, rhyme), form (stanza, sonnet, free verse, etc.), figurative language (simile, metaphor, personification, hyperbole), and graphics (line length, word position, capitalization). They will understand how poets use these elements to shape the reader’s experience, and learn to identify and explain these elements in a variety of texts.
Dramatic Literature 17 Students will identify, analyze, and apply knowledge of the themes, structure, and elements of drama and provide evidence from the text to support their understanding. Through the study of dramatic literature, students should develop their knowledge of key elements of plays such as plot structure (exposition, rising and falling action, climax, etc.), characterization (motivation, actions, thoughts, development), setting, and conventions (acts, scenes, stage directions). They will understand how authors use these elements to shape the audience’s experience, and become increasingly able to identify and explain these elements as they read and perform a variety of texts.
Research 24 Students will gather information from a variety of sources, analyze and evaluate the quality of the information they obtain, and use it to answer their own questions. Although research facilities are limited in DYS settings, teachers may provide some resources that will enable students to explore background material relevant to the literature being studied. Through engaging in individual or group inquiry, students develop knowledge of information sources and understand more about the process of formulating questions, reading and evaluating information, and synthesizing findings. Attention to this standard should help students to obtain, evaluate, organize, and present information, and to document sources appropriately.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 139 Planning Grid for EXPANDING HORIZONS
ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS: ______
Week # for this Monday Tuesday Wednesday season Date: Date: Date:
1
Date: Date: Date:
2
Date: Date: Date:
3
Date: Date: Date:
4
Date: Date: Date:
5
Date: Date: Date:
6
Date: Date: Date:
7
Date: Date: Date:
8
Note: The number of weeks allocated for each season should be flexible in response to holidays, periods of MCAS testing, and other factors within each classroom.
140 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS: ______
Thursday Friday Notes
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 141 Expanding Horizons: Teaching Exemplar
In this season Expanding Horizons, teachers are offering their students the opportunity to look at the world around them and understand that there are many variations of culture, belief and experience. Students then have the opportunity to examine their lives in relation to these differences. Students may then find that while there are differences, there are also similarities.
With a focus on literature in this season, this mini-unit offers students an opportunity to understand the different ways a biography can take life events and shape them into a life story. Students will read about the life of Alice Walker and have an opportunity to see how their own life stories could be read from the perspective of someone other than themselves. Through discussion of her short biography, students will come to realize that while there are indeed many shared experiences that occur whether you are male or female, regardless of race or background, being part of the human race is what connects us to one another.
This mini-unit serves as a valuable reference and example to help teachers create strong standards-based lessons. It is intended to share one of many approaches to teaching the content in this season. To better suit the unique strengths and needs of your students and to better meet the expectations of your program, it is important to remember to differentiate this mini-unit and lesson plan or to use it as a guide to developing or refining your own!
142 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Expanding Horizons: Mini-Unit Exemplar
SUCCEEDING: OVERCOMING THE ODDS – ALICE WALKER Designer: This exemplary mini-unit and the lessons within it have been adapted from work done in DYS. Theme/Season: Duration: Alice Walker/“Expanding Horizons” Twelve lessons UNIT LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KNOW Students will know… • The definition of “biography” and “values” from different perspectives • That there are different ways to define “success” and the meaning of the expression “overcoming the odds” • Non-verbal gestures that depict success • The story of Alice Walker as an example of how a biography takes events and shapes them into a life story • Different ways and perspectives of looking at an event • That there are many ways that people identify themselves
UNDERSTAND Students will understand… • The difference between “personal success” and “professional success” • That an individual’s definition of success is based on their own personal values and experiences • That biography can lead individuals to see how their own life story could be read • How their lives connect to others including that of Alice Walker • What elements need to be present in order to have more of a chance of succeeding • What personal obstacles may be to success and how they may overcome those obstacles • The various ways that they identify themselves
And therefore be able to DO • Create their personal definition of “success” • Read an article and appropriately take part in a class discussion • Listen to an interview with the author • Complete a worksheet while listening to the interview • Analyze people whom they feel are successful as defined from multiple perspectives • Categorize “successful” people by “personal success” and “professional success” from multiple perspectives • Work cooperatively in pairs • Construct a poster that depicts their personal definition of success • Complete a KWL chart • Write three autobiographical paragraphs that explain labels students choose to identify themselves • If permitted or appropriate based on student group dynamic: – Interview a partner and write a brief biography of him – Respond to each other’s writing, providing suggestions for revision – Reflect on their individual life story as told from the perspective of another
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 143 Expanding Horizons: Mini-Unit Exemplar (continued)
CONNECTED LEARNING STANDARDS Language Strand: • Standard 1: Discussion. Students will use agreed-upon rules for informal and formal discussions in small and large groups. • Standard 2: Questioning, Listening and Contributing. Students will pose questions, listen to the ideas of others, and contribute their own information or ideas in group discussions of interviews in order to acquire new knowledge. • Standard 4: Vocabulary and Concept Development. Students will understand and acquire new vocabulary. • Standard 6: Formal and Informal English. Students will describe, analyze, and use appropriately formal and informal English.
Reading and Literature Strand: • Standard 8: Understanding a Text. Students will identify the basic facts and main ideas in a text and use them as the basis for interpretation. • Standard 9: Making Connections. Students will deepen their understanding of a literary or non-literary work. • Standard 13: Nonfiction. Students will identify, analyze, and apply knowledge of the purpose, structure, and elements of nonfiction.
Writing Strand: • Standard 19: Writing. Students will write with a clear focus, coherent organization, and sufficient detail. • Standard 21: Revising. Students will demonstrate improvement in organization, content, paragraph development, level of detail, style, tone, and word choice (diction) in their compositions after revising them. • Standard 23: Organizing Ideas in Writing. Students will organize ideas in writing in a way that makes sense for their purpose.
Pre-Assessment KWL charts, class discussions, journal prompts to help determine students’ prior knowledge of Alice Walker and biography.
Resources and Materials • Text: Succeeding: Overcoming the Odds by James Scott • Paper • Pens • Board or Overhead • Markers • Poster board • Paragraph template • Internet access • Alice Walker Interview Sheet (provided with this mini-unit)
144 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Expanding Horizons: Mini-Unit Exemplar (continued)
OUTLINE OF LESSONS
Lesson 1, 2 & 3: Introductory Students will discuss their definitions of success and values. They will discuss people whom they believe to be successful. They will create a poster that depicts their personal definition of success.
Lesson 4: Instructional Students will discuss “overcoming the odds” and “nonverbal gestures,” read pages 17-18, and complete a KWL chart focusing on Alice Walker.
Lesson 5 & 6: Instructional Students will write, revise, and edit short papers about the odds Alice Walker needed to overcome and her successes.
Lesson 7 & 8: Instructional Students will write and edit two paragraphs about their personal connections to Alice Walker.
Lesson 9: Instructional Students will listen to an interview with Alice Walker and will be able to discuss and write about the ways she identifies herself and how this is similar or different to the way she is represented in the biography.
Lesson 10, 11, & 12: Culminating Students will write three paragraphs about the ways they identify themselves. If permitted by program and/or classroom safety and security considerations, students will interview each other as an option that will allow them to write biographical paragraphs about their partners.
Notes
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 145 Expanding Horizons: Mini-Unit Exemplar (continued)
Alice Walker Interview Worksheet
Name:______Date: ______
Part 1: As you listen to the interview with Alice Walker, take notes on:
a) What you find interesting: ______b) What you do not understand: ______c) A shared experience: ______
Part 2: Near the end of the interview, the interviewer asks how she identifies herself. List as many adjectives as you can that she uses to describe herself. ______
146 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Expanding Horizons: Mini-Unit Exemplar (continued)
The handout on the previous page can be used when teaching Lesson 9. Teachers are encouraged to modify this worksheet as needed to better differentiate this handout for use at your program or for individual students’ learning styles and needs.
ini-unit. These detailed The pages that follow o presentf this m detailed plans for 0, 11, & 12 Lesson 1 plans should serve as a valuable reference and example to help teachers better create strong standards-based lessons in English Language Arts differentiated for program type and the strengths and needs of each student.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 147 Expanding Horizons: Lesson Plan Exemplar
Designer: These exemplary lessons have been adapted from work done in DYS. Theme/Season: Duration: Succeeding: Overcoming the Odds – Alice Walker Lesson 10, 11, & 12/Culminating LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR THIS LESSON: Students will KNOW… • Different ways and perspectives of looking at an event • That there are many ways that people identify themselves
Students will UNDERSTAND… • The various ways that students identify themselves • That biography can lead individuals to see how their own life story could be read • How students’ lives connect to others including that of Alice Walker
Students will be able to DO… • List labels that students feel identify them and choose at least three of the adjectives that they feel best identify them • Write about each label as a descriptor of who they are. Students may use a paragraph template • If permitted or appropriate based on student group dynamic: – Interview a partner and write a brief biography of him – Respond to each other’s writing, providing suggestions for revision – Reflect on their individual life story as told from the perspective of another
CONNECTED LEARNING STANDARDS Language Strand: • Standard 1: Discussion. Students will use agreed-upon rules for informal and formal discussions in small and large groups. • Standard 2: Questioning, Listening and Contributing. Students will pose questions, listen to the ideas of others, and contribute their own information or ideas in group discussions of interviews in order to acquire new knowledge.
Literature Strand: • Standard 13: Nonfiction. Students will identify, analyze, and apply knowledge of the purpose, structure, and elements of nonfiction.
Composition Strand: • Standard 19: Writing. Students will write with a clear focus, coherent organization, and sufficient detail. • Standard 21: Revising. Students will demonstrate improvement in organization, content, paragraph development, level of detail, style, tone, and word choice (diction) in their compositions after revising them. • Standard 23: Organizing Ideas in Writing. Students will organize ideas in writing in a way that makes sense for their purpose.
148 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Expanding Horizons: Lesson Plan Exemplar (continued)
LESSON DETAILS 1. Review the ways that Alice Walker identifies herself. 2. Model – On the board, write “List five labels that identify you (e.g., teacher, mother, cook, religious person, reader).” 3. Pass out paper and pens. 4. Tell students to list five labels that identify them. 5. Direct students to choose three labels, and write one paragraph for each label they choose. Students may use a paragraph template. 6. Pair students off and allow them time to ask each other 1 or 2 questions focused solely on the content of what the other student has written. 7. Have students type their revised paragraphs and give them the option to display them in the classroom. 8. Depending on the student group dynamic, ask students to respond to other students’ work by using a writing prompt (such as “What did you find most interesting?”) or using a guiding question to launch a discussion (such as “What did you learn that you didn’t already know?”). Remember, it is natural that students may choose a descriptor or label that is personal to them and thus discussion should be guided with sensitivity and caution.
For an approach that will also allow students to further explore how their own life story (autobiography) could be read in different ways by others (biography), consider integrating student interviews. It is important for teachers to acknowledge that there are some programs where this may violate safety and security protocol. Please be sure to check with your Program Director and Teaching Coordinator before introducing this type of activity in your class! Repeat Steps 1-5 as described above. 6. (If permitted) Have students pair off and interview each other as to why they chose each label as a way to identify themselves. 7. Students will take notes during the interviews then write brief biographies of their partners. 8. Students will then share their biographies with their partners and provide suggestions for revisions. 9. Have students type their revised paragraphs and give them the option to display them in the classroom. 10. Have students report to the class what it was like to hear their stories in someone else’s words.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 149 Expanding Horizons: Suggested Resources
Listed below are a variety of some suggested resources that might be useful in teaching a mini-unit on “Expanding Horizons”. The resources listed here are organized by key ideas identified within this “season” of ELA study as well as by focuses on literature and writing.
It is important to note that there are many resources available throughout the DYS system and in different programs that are not directly addressed in this section. Please refer to Teaching Coordinators or Instructional Coaches for more information about additional resources that may address the needs of your students.
BOOK/COLLECTION Writing Our All Write Naming Edge Stories A Multicultural A Student Handbook the World Reading, Writing Alabama Reader for Writing and A Year of Poems & Language Writers’ Forum Learning and Lessons KEY IDEAS Subject and The modern world “Tiffany” “If There Be Pain” Character and all its range pp. 177-181 pp. 644 & 645 and variation of pp. 26-29 culture, belief and “Hip-Hop as a Culture” experience pp. 134-142 LITERATURE
Voices from recent “Hard Daddy” “If There Be Pain” “Patriotics” past and present p. 82 pp. 644 & 645 p. 275 representing variety in world cultures “Hip-Hop as a Culture” and contexts pp. 134-142 WRITING
A Confessional “Patriotics” Expressive Letter pp. 127 & 183 pp. 124-141 p. 275 p. 153 Exposition Creative pp. 127 & 183 pp. 168-185 pp. 127-134
Analytical p. 73 pp. 149-154
150 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Expanding Horizons: Additional Resources
Teachers are encouraged to make this Instructional Guide as useful as possible by recording personal preferences and experiences using specific resources to teach the “Expanding Horizons” season. Your favorite resources may not even be listed in this guide!
Use this blank form to record notes about your favorite resources!
NAME OF RESOURCE WHERE YOU FOUND IT HOW YOU USE IT
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 151 Notes
po•ten•tial
e e
e (p e -te˘nsh l) adj. Capable of being but not yet in existence. Notes March – April
Reaching an Audience
Key Ideas...... 156 Teacher’s Planning Calendar...... 160 Teaching Exemplar...... 162 What is Unlocking the Light (UTL)? . . . . 163 A Note from the Teacher ...... 171 “Suggested” Resources...... 172
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 155 Reaching an Audience: Communicating Ideas and Viewpoints through Writing
We live in an “Information Age,” when our economy is based less on the production of goods, and more on the management and exchange of information, ideas, and data. Communication is the cornerstone of achievement in all fields, and we all engage with the following questions about audience, whether we communicate through paper and print, broadcast media, the Internet, or other media:
ing ’s listen out ther Who e?
“Who are my audiences? What are their needs? How can I meet those needs efficiently? What are the most effective means of persuasion, and how can they be used responsibly? What techniques and skills are most essential in oral, written, and digital presentations? How can mass communication be used to promote social justice and empowerment?”
For students, the implications of the shift to an information-based economy and society are immense. Success in the workplace and participation in civic life will be dependent in large part on one’s ability not only to formulate ideas and manage information, but also to convey ideas and information effectively in speech, writing, and digital media to a variety of audiences.
While the Season on Finding a Voice asked students to look inward to discover their personal resources, this unit asks them to look outward, to consider the needs of their readers and listeners.
EXPANDING EVOLVING HORIZONS COMMUNICATION
FINDING EXPLORING A VOICE TRADITIONS
156 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Reaching an Audience: What is the Writing Focus?
The possibilities for student writing in this unit are endless—news articles and editorials, persuasive speeches and letters, mixed-media presentations, and web pages are just a few examples of writing that demands attention and consideration
W of the needs of the audience. R ITING Publishing for a real audience provides a tangible incentive for “getting it right.” Accuracy of data, proper documentation, and mechanical correctness should be emphasized in this unit. Students should learn that careful editing is more than good manners; it is a responsibility to the public, and it seriously affects any writer’s credibility.
When organizing lessons in DYS settings to explore considerations of audience, keep in mind these guiding principles: Students should have the opportunity to work in several media, including public speaking, print, and some form of visual display (posters, PowerPoint presentations, websites, etc.). Youth should be writing for real, that is, they should have opportunities to create and publish content on topics they care about to audiences that matter. Available facilities and restrictions on this kind of work may vary across DYS sites, but it is the idea of communicating that matters most. Publications need not be high-tech or expensive, and authentic audiences can be in-house. For instance, a class project might focus on a social issue such as sexually transmitted diseases. After researching the topic and deciding who needs to receive information about it, students might decide to create pamphlets, develop videos or slide shows, or publish a newsletter. In addition, they might write persuasive letters to the newspaper, school officials, or lawmakers. In each case, they would have to consider audience and purpose, ideas and information, and the available means of persuasion.
Notes
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 157 Reaching an Audience: What is the Literature Focus?
This unit provides a natural opportunity to feature the kind of literature that students often struggle with: informational nonfiction. Ideally, students will learn that nonfiction can be not only informative and persuasive, but also creative and interesting.
Works on relevant topics may stimulate interest in particular kinds of social justice projects, or offer viewpoints that students might not otherwise consider. Thought-provoking ideas and models of effective communication for students to emulate can be found in many forms and venues, including: Newspaper and magazine articles Book chapters Essays Web pages
The literature component of REACHING AN AUDIENCE need not be limited to nonfiction, however. Lessons can include classic or contemporary literature, and can also include whole-class study or individual reading of young adult fiction with selections from appropriate: Issue-oriented young-adult novels Short stories Poetry Drama
Notes
158 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Reaching an Audience: Standards of the Season
Most of the Massachusetts ELA standards can relate to all units of study. In fact, it is difficult to imagine any topic that could not be connected in some way to a given ELA standard. Some standards, like the entire Language strand, are applicable to all ELA instruction. Most lessons will address numerous ELA standards.
That said, some standards relate most directly to the topics in particular seasons. In the context of the “seasons” of teaching ELA in Department of Youth Services settings, we might call certain standards “low-hanging fruit,” because in a given season, these standards are convenient, easy to reach, ripe for teaching, and may fall on particularly fertile ground.
While many other standards will be addressed during this time period, the REACHING AN AUDIENCE season is especially favorable for addressing these Standards:
Season: Reaching an Audience
Nonfiction 16 17 18 Students will identify, analyze, and apply 11 knowledge of the purposes, structure, and 10 13 elements of nonfiction or informational 12 15 21 19 materials and provide evidence from the text 9 to support their understanding. 8 7 23 5 14 22 Informational nonfiction includes textual and graphic 2 features, organizational structures, and presentation 6 4 3 27 techniques different from those used in literary texts. 26 Through study of informational and persuasive texts, 24 13 1 25 students should improve their knowledge of the 20 characteristics of nonfiction. Attention to this standard should expand students’ understanding of arguments and evidence presented, and increase students’ ability to incorporate these conventions and techniques in their own presentations. Consideration of Audience and Purpose 20 Students will write for different audiences and purposes. Writing for real audiences for real purposes demands consideration of the appropriate levels of formality, style, tone, and rhetorical techniques. Through authentic writing projects, students should gain knowledge of the factors that influence audience response, understand how best to reach their intended audiences, and adapt their oral, written, and media presentations according to the intended audience(s).
Media Production Students will design and create coherent media productions (audio, video, television, multimedia, Internet, 27 emerging technologies) with a clear controlling idea, adequate detail, and appropriate consideration of audience, purpose, and medium. While incorporating graphics, images, and/or sound into their presentations, students should enhance their knowledge of digital technologies, understand the principles of media composition, and develop and apply criteria for judging the effectiveness of multi-modal productions. ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 159 Planning Grid for REACHING AN AUDIENCE
ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS: ______
Week # for this Monday Tuesday Wednesday season Date: Date: Date:
1
Date: Date: Date:
2
Date: Date: Date:
3
Date: Date: Date:
4
Date: Date: Date:
5
Date: Date: Date:
6
Date: Date: Date:
7
Date: Date: Date:
8
Note: The number of weeks allocated for each season should be flexible in response to holidays, periods of MCAS testing, and other factors within each classroom.
160 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS: ______
Thursday Friday Notes
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 161 Reaching an Audience: Teaching Exemplar
While the season on “Finding a Voice” asked students to look inward to discover their personal resources, this season on “Reaching an Audience” asks them to look outward and to consider the needs of their readers and listeners. One’s ability to not only organize information and develop ideas but more importantly convey ideas and information effectively to a variety of audiences will be key to success in life and career.
In this mini-unit, students experience the development process of preparing a written piece of work for media production. Learning foundational ELA elements, such as identifying voice, students will directly apply and practice the knowledge and skills they are learning to create and record their own radio show.
This mini-unit serves as a valuable reference and example to help teachers create strong standards-based lessons. It is intended to share one of many approaches to teaching the content in this season. To better suit the unique strengths and needs of your students and to better meet the expectations of your program, it is important to remember to differentiate this mini-unit and lesson plan or to use it as a guide to developing or refining your own!
To fully illustrate this exemplar as part of the Unlockingd in this s include the Light initiative, the pagesall lethatsso follown present detailed descriptions for This detailed plan should serve as a valuable mini-unit. reference and example to help teachers better create strong standards-based lessons in English Language Arts differentiated for program type and the strengths and needs of each student.
162 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Reaching an Audience: Unlocking the Light
WHAT IS UNLOCKING THE LIGHT?
This exemplar was created as part of the Unlocking the Light (UTL) initiative, an arts-based professional development program designed to aid teachers in reaching and teaching juvenile students in the Massachusetts Department of Youth Services (DYS) residential facilities across the Commonwealth. Through creative activities, students gain an appreciation of their own talents and develop an increased capacity for expressing themselves. In this way, the program boosts student engagement and achievement, strengthens self-management skills, and helps students envision how they can lead more productive lives. For teachers, utilizing new approaches brings a heightened level of enthusiasm to the classroom, and raises their expectations as they begin to see students succeed. In addition, lesson plans created by teachers involved in the Unlocking the Light initiative and final products created by DYS youth are available for viewing at www.unlockingthelight.org.
For more information on this program, contact: Derek Fenner Project Director of Unlocking the Light [email protected].
www.unlockingthelight.org
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 163 Reaching an Audience: Mini-Unit Exemplar
WRITING FOR THE RADIO
Unit Designer: Evan Gentler, [email protected]
OVERVIEW: This is a five-day unit that fits under the umbrella of season four. This unit uses writing for the radio as a way to approach the fundamental ELA concepts of audience, active voice, concision, detail, and organization. The students, as a group, will actually create a radio program as a final product. They will spend the week composing individual segments that employ the above concepts, and then they will use recording software to record and organize the segments into a coherent and tangible radio show that can be played for others. This unit touches upon the often-overlooked media standards, and it also provides an excellent means of integrating the arts into the curriculum. Finally, this unit works toward the creation and production of a final product that will enhance the students’ experience and add value and solidity to their learning.
EMPHASIZED STANDARDS: 3, 6, 10, 19, 20, 21, 23, 26, 27 3.14 Give formal and informal talks to various audiences and for various purposes using appropriate level of formality and rhetorical devices. 6.9 Identify differences between the voice, tone, diction, and syntax used in media presentations (documentary films, news broadcasts, taped interviews) and these elements in informal speech. 10.3 Identify and analyze the characteristics of various genres (poetry, fiction, nonfiction, short story, dramatic literature) as forms with distinct characteristics and purposes. 19.26 Write well-organized essays (persuasive, literary, personal) that have a clear focus, logical development, effective use of detail, and variety in sentence structure. 20.6 Use effective rhetorical techniques and demonstrate understanding of purpose, speaker, audience, and form when completing expressive, persuasive, or literary writing assignments. 21.8 Revise writing by attending to topic/idea development, organization, level of detail, language/style, sentence structure, grammar and usage, and mechanics. 23.14 Organize ideas for emphasis in a way that suits the purpose of the writer. 26.5 Analyze visual or aural techniques used in a media message for a particular audience and evaluate their effectiveness. 27.6 Create media presentations that effectively use graphics, images, and/or sound to present a distinctive point of view on a topic.
ADDITIONAL STANDARDS: 1, 2, 4, 8, 9, 13, 15
164 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Reaching an Audience: Mini-Unit Exemplar (continued)
LEARNING GOALS: Students will know the importance of considering their audience when writing. They will know the definition of active voice. They will know the meaning of concision. They will know the importance of detail in both journalistic and creative writing. They will know the common organizational structures of both individual journalistic pieces and larger journalistic radio programs themselves. Students will understand that consideration of audience is an overarching idea, and that many specific techniques are often employed towards this larger end. They will understand that details are the essence and backbone of a piece, and that finding the right details makes all the difference. They will understand that meaning and feel can change from medium to medium, and that a piece of writing can often feel very different when presented aloud. Students will be able to identify the use of common conventions when listening to pieces of writing that have been composed for the radio. They will be able to compose their own pieces utilizing these same conventions. They will be able to write with more active consideration of audience.
CENTRAL QUESTIONS THAT REPRESENT HIGHER-LEVEL THINKING: How does one truly “reach” an audience? To what degree should a writer allow consideration of audience to influence the composition? How do words and meanings change when they are spoken as opposed to simply written? How does one identify the most important details? When does concision begin to sacrifice clarity and/or detail?
Pre-Assessment If you wish to give a traditional pre-assessment, I suggest creating one based on the learning objectives outlined below. These objectives are what the learning will be centered around, and thus an assessment based on them will be the best judge of both teacher and student success. At the end of the unit below, I suggest what a possible post-assessment quiz might look like, and a pre-assessment quiz would likely look very similar. Though it is sometimes appropriate and necessary to give students a pre-assessment quiz or assignment to discover where they are with regard to specific material, I do not think this is necessary for this unit. I often choose more informal pre-assessment techniques because of the high sensitivity of DYS students. Our students struggle with enormous lack of confidence and low self-esteem with regard to their scholastic abilities. Even the most carefully crafted pre-assessment runs the risk of deflating students further by asking them to work with material they do not understand. Looking at a page of unanswerable questions or unfamiliar material conjures for many of our students’ deep-seated, negative feelings about both school and themselves. Many of these students have built up years of negative associations with being asked to perform when they do not know the material. It is possible to lose the energy, confidence, and enthusiasm needed for productive student learning if this is the students’ introduction to the unit. DYS students need to be convinced that they can perform well if they apply themselves, and comparing a great post-assessment to a poor pre- assessment will likely solidify this for some students. However, other students run the risk of succumbing to feelings of failure and frustration before the unit has even begun, thus undermining at the outset their ability to interact positively with the material for the rest of the unit. For this unit, all necessary pre-assessment can be done relatively informally during the first couple of lessons. This means paying close attention to whether students understand key terms and ideas, whether they are able to participate in discussions and synthesize information into coherent products early in the week, and whether they are able to attack higher-level thinking questions. This type of pre-assessment requires asking a lot of questions and making sure that all students are engaged. The unit is also designed so that students are
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 165 Reaching an Audience: Mini-Unit Exemplar (continued)
producing work every day, and thus the depth and quality of their work on day one and on day five can be compared much like a pre- and post-assessment. Further, each day offers the teacher another opportunity to see where each student is, what he or she has been able to absorb, and what to expect in terms of growth over the rest of the week.
Day One: Introduction to the idea of writing for the radio. Class begins with a ten-minute radio segment that is played for the students. Some type of news, criticism, or radio journal would be ideal, perhaps from NPR. Students are then introduced to the unit. It is explained to them (ideally both verbally and in the form of a syllabus) that they will be creating a radio show this week. It is explained that they will be writing segments for the show using specific techniques, and that they will be recording their segments and producing an actual radio program using recording technology. They are introduced to the learning goals, to key concepts and definitions, and to the order in which material will be covered. Students are introduced to the overarching idea of consideration of audience. They are encouraged to choose an audience they are trying to reach with their show, and it is explained to them that the next three days will be spent studying specific techniques that will help them more effectively reach their audience. This discussion is an ideal time to introduce the students to the first three higher-level thinking questions listed above. They are told that these questions should guide them as they struggle to create a piece of writing for the radio with which their audience will connect. Finally, the students are introduced to the four key ideas that will help them reach their audience more effectively: active voice, use of details, concision, and organization. The students should be reassured that each of these four ideas will be discussed, studied, and practiced over the course of the week. It should be explained to them that since they will begin writing before each concept is taught in detail, they will be using these techniques as tools for revision as much as for composition. Students are given the option of writing an editorial, an objective news/reporting segment, or a more creative piece of prose, such as a creative description of their city or a retelling of a memory from childhood. Since they will be working on composing and revising their pieces using active voice, detail, concision, and organization, poetry is probably not appropriate. In the time remaining, students should decide what type of segment/piece they will be composing and begin to outline it. Class should end with a five-minute review of the learning goals, key terms, and main ideas of the day.
Day Two: After a brief review of yesterday’s introduction, the first part of this day is devoted to the study and discussion of detail and concision. Class should begin with the students discussing how they generally approach deciding how many—and which—details to present to their audience. They are reminded of the higher-level thinking question, “How do I know the right details to use?” They should discuss the various purposes of providing details. They should consider that details can provide clarity and depth, generate emotion and understanding, and help the audience find meaning. The teacher should introduce some of the details that are commonly found in journalistic writing, including names, dates, places, and quotes. The teacher should at this point introduce the balancing concept of concision and explain its importance for all journalistic (and especially radio) composition. The students should be asked to consider how to balance the importance of detail with the common journalistic need for brevity. As an example/activity, the students listen to a This I Believe segment from NPR. The segment should also be printed and handed out so that students can follow along. They are encouraged to underline or otherwise identify details that they consider especially important, and also to identify details that they think are unnecessary. When the piece is over, the students discuss which details they found important, and why. They
166 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Reaching an Audience: Mini-Unit Exemplar (continued)
then look at details they thought were unnecessary and consider whether the author might have been more concise. They should consider why the writer decided to include these details. Do they add clarity? Do they deepen the audience’s emotional reaction to the piece? Students should be asked whether they think the author struck an appropriate balance between detail and concision. Finally, students should discuss the role that both concepts play in a medium that is meant to be heard and not read. In the last part of class, students return to their compositions, taking care to be thoughtful about the details they include. They should be reminded that they want to be thinking about which details will best serve the audience. They should also be reminded that whatever they write this day will be revised after tomorrow’s lesson with active voice in mind.
Day Three: After a brief review of the previous two days’ learning, the first part of this class is devoted to the discussion and study of active voice. Students are given printed versions of two short pieces of journalistic reporting, one in active voice and the other modified to rely on passive voice. The teacher reads the two pieces aloud, and the students are invited to discuss any differences they have noticed. Whether or not the students are able to identify the use of active voice in one piece versus passive voice in the other, the discussion should nonetheless provide an excellent opportunity for the teacher to point out the difference and engage the students in conversation around which feels more effective. The teacher should be very clear to explain what active voice is, and that it is a convention of journalistic writing. The students should be asked to discuss why this might be more effective for an audience. The teacher should lead the class to consider the meaning of the word active, and the students should return to the news pieces to ensure that they can distinguish between who in each piece is acting and who is being acted upon. In the last part of class, the students should continue to compose their radio segments, now keeping in mind both detail and active voice. They are encouraged to keep an eye out for revisions of previously written material that might be reworked with today’s lesson in mind. They are also reminded that what they compose/revise this day will be reworked after tomorrow’s lesson with an eye for organization.
Day Four: Day four is devoted to the discussion and study of organization as it applies to writing for the radio. On this day, the students will be encouraged to review and revise their compositions toward completion with an eye for how the material they have composed is best organized for their audience. The teacher should make it clear that while organization is often approached in the pre-writing phase, it also plays an important role in reworking and revising an existing piece of writing. This lesson gives students a chance to consider organization in a “hands-on” manner, working with material they have already written rather than attempting to organize ideas not yet tangible. The students will also take a step back and look at the larger organization of the show itself. They will look at what pieces they as a class have composed, and they will decide on an order and organization for the show that is most appropriate for their chosen audience. After a brief review of the previous three days’ learning, the teacher should lead the students in a discussion of how they generally approach organization, both in pre-writing and then later as their piece develops and evolves. What do they like to open with? What do they like to end with? How do they tie paragraphs together? They should be reminded of their discussion of detail on Day Two and encouraged to consider how the organization of their details might impact their presentation. They should be encouraged to consider what about their chosen audience might suggest one manner of organization over another.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 167 Reaching an Audience: Mini-Unit Exemplar (continued)
After the students have discussed the approaches to organization they commonly employ, the teacher should present them with some of the common conventions of organization in journalistic and expository writing. Moving from the concrete to the abstract is one such convention. Beginning with a strong thesis that is restated at the end is another. Beginning with a local story and then expanding out to include wider implications is yet another. The students should also be presented with conventions that offer choice. For example, do they want to organize their piece chronologically, or do they want to organize the details in order of decreasing importance? Both are accepted and effective conventions. Choices like this become higher-level thinking questions for students who are ready to consider them. Before the students return to their pieces, the teacher should ask the students how they would like to organize the show as a whole ahead of Day Five’s recording session. Students will take a few minutes to discuss what pieces the class has composed, and how these segments might be laid out. The teacher should introduce some common conventions that are employed by producers organizing radio programs. These might include the convention of headlines or “top of the news” segments. They might include the balancing of heavier pieces with lighter ones. These conventions are much less set in stone, and the important thing is that the students are being thoughtful and intentional about organization on this larger scale, and always with consideration for their audience. In the last part of class, students should be working toward the completion of their individual radio segments. They should be composing/revising now not only with organization in mind, but also remembering detail, concision, and active voice. They should be working towards a piece that exemplifies the thoughtful application of all ideas/techniques covered throughout the week.
Day Five: This day is dedicated primarily to the actual recording of the radio program using recording software. I suggest opening the class with a short quiz on the terms, techniques, and definitions covered during the week. When considering what to put on the quiz, the teacher should consult the learning goals that were laid out for students at the beginning of the unit. For this unit, I would recommend a quiz that asks some combination of the following: What are three types of details commonly found in news articles? What is the definition of concision? Why is concision often important in journalism? What is active voice? Write a sentence in active voice. What are three organizational techniques discussed this week? What are three things a writer can do to better reach his audience?
When the quiz is over, the students should begin recording their segments into the microphone. Students should adhere to the previous day’s decisions regarding the organization of the show.
Note: The teacher should be sure to play the show in its entirety for the students when it is finished. It is important for the students to interact with and experience their final product.
168 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Reaching an Audience: Mini-Unit Exemplar (continued)
ASSESSMENT: A quiz like the one outlined above will cover the main ideas of the unit and give the teacher a sense of how effective the instruction has been. However, this should not be the only means by which the students are assessed. The teacher should be assessing the students at every possible turn. This includes, for example, observing a student’s ability to participate in discussions about new concepts. It includes assessment of a student’s ability to translate his or her thoughts into written Standard English. It includes assessment of a student’s ability to think creatively about the implications of new ideas on his or her writing and communication. In short, the teacher should be aware of how each student is reacting to and working with new information as it is presented. In addition to quizzes, my personal assessment rubric includes four elements. These are: • Improvement • Effort • Conventions • Thoughtfulness This rubric allows for individualized assessment of a student. It also allows room for both honesty and accuracy in assessment. Improvement is a measure of how a student has improved based on specific suggestions and goals I have given him. If a student is working at an extremely low level, this may be something like working toward consistently using periods to break up thoughts. Even if the student is struggling with the material presented in a given week, he is expected to be consistently improving in this area. This allows for concrete, measurable improvement as well as positive reinforcement even when a student is struggling otherwise. Effort is simply a measure of how hard a student is working. If a student has 2nd or 3rd grade English skills, but is working diligently and thoughtfully at his level, he gets high marks for effort. If a student is highly capable, but is doing the minimum to get by, he receives low marks in this area. It encourages students to work hard at their own level, something that is essential in a differentiated DYS classroom. Conventions is a measure of how well a student is adhering to the conventions of Standard English. This is where objectivity takes a lead role. If we have a 16-year-old student whose English skills are at a 4th grade level, it is disingenuous to give him exclusively high marks based on effort. It should be explained to the students that this measure is one of many areas of assessment, and that it is to give them a sense of how their concrete skills compare to those of other Massachusetts teenagers. This is a difficult and sensitive issue, but it is important that students know when and to what degree they are deficient. They should be given positive feedback in reference to other areas in which they are excelling. Students should also be continuously reminded that large strides can be made through consistent effort. Finally, thoughtfulness is a measure of the degree to which a student is challenging himself intellectually and creatively. This is where assessment of content and idea development comes into play. If a student is highly capable, this area of assessment is what encourages him or her to do more than simply write about whatever is easiest or about the first thing that comes to mind. It encourages students to stretch out and challenge themselves. In other words, this area of assessment attempts to separate quality from quantity, and though similar to effort, it is distinct. I have found that the use of these four areas of assessment have both encouraged students to challenge themselves and mitigated students’ disappointment at their struggles with English conventions. It reminds students that there are many components to success, and that many of these can be shining points of success for them. It also allows teachers to be both honest and encouraging.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 169 Reaching an Audience: Mini-Unit Exemplar (continued)
RESOURCES:
audacity.sourceforge.net This is a site where you can download free recording software for your computer. There are free manuals and forums to answer all questions.
www.unlockingthelight.org This is the website for Unlocking the Light. Here you can find information about how to integrate the arts into your classroom. You will find contacts to answer questions you might have, and you can look at lesson plans created by other teachers. Also, you can explore final products that have been created in other classrooms.
[email protected] This is the e-mail address for Derek Fenner, the Project Director of Unlocking the Light. He has recording materials that can be signed out by DYS teachers. He is also a valuable resource when exploring ways to integrate the arts into your classroom. He will also be able to point you to other teachers who can answer questions and offer suggestions as you go forward.
170 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Reaching an Audience Exemplar: A Note from the Teacher
I like this unit for a number of reasons. It addresses the often-overlooked media standards, and it does so in a way that integrates the arts into the curriculum. It also gives the students an opportunity to work toward a final product that they can take pride in. You’ll notice that rather than presenting all the concepts at the beginning and then asking students to work with them, this unit presents techniques and concepts over the course of an entire week, during which time the students are continually composing and revising a piece of writing. This approach is a nice balance to the more traditional approach because it demands that students both compose and revise with an eye for the techniques that they are learning. It also gives them an opportunity to consider new techniques in a “hands-on” manner as they manipulate their own existing prose. The unit as it is presented here takes a relatively formal approach, focusing on journalistic and expository prose techniques. However, the unit could certainly be adjusted to focus on more creative techniques. After all, not all radio shows are alike, and students could learn a great deal by putting together a radio show comprised of poetry, humor pieces, musical criticism, etc. Writing for the radio and consideration of audience are both umbrellas under which many different standards might be taught. The lessons in this unit seek to break up each class into two main pieces. Each class begins with an instructional segment that is then balanced by a segment in which students are writing and creating. I have found that managing time in this way has been extremely effective in DYS classrooms. This unit also provides meaningful learning and practice opportunities for students with a wide range of abilities. Balancing concrete techniques with higher-level thinking questions allows a wide range of students to comfortably and meaningfully challenge themselves. The emphasis on individual writing also gives students space to work at their own level. Each student can approach the techniques being explained in whatever depth he or she is able to. Finally, this unit uses mixed media, allowing the students to interact with both recorded audio and printed text. As our students represent a diverse group of learners, this type of instructional input is often extremely effective. Likewise, it offers students a chance to create output in two distinct media: written and spoken. Students get a chance to consider both written and spoken language. This is essential, for DYS students struggle with communication in general, not simply with reading and writing. This unit pulls together some of the many strands and elements of English communication so that students might consider their similarities, their differences, and how they—Evan influence Gentler each other. [email protected]
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 171 Reaching an Audience: Suggested Resources
Listed below are a variety of some suggested resources that might be useful in teaching a mini-unit on “Reaching an Audience”. The resources listed here are organized by key ideas identified within this “season” of ELA study as well as by focuses on literature and writing.
It is important to note that there are many resources available throughout the DYS system and in different programs that are not directly addressed in this section. Please refer to Teaching Coordinators or Instructional Coaches for more information about additional resources that may address the needs of your students.
BOOK/COLLECTION Writing Our All Write Naming Edge Stories A Multicultural A Student Handbook the World Reading, Writing Alabama Reader for Writing and A Year of Poems & Language Writers’ Forum Learning and Lessons KEY IDEAS Publishing ideas “Creativity At Work” and information pp. 114-120
Persuasion
Techniques of “Juvenile Justice” “We the People” communication pp. 50-57 p. 279 LITERATURE “Creativity At Work” News pp. 114-120 Informational “Juvenile Justice” non-fiction pp. 50-57
Essays
Issue-oriented fiction
Poetry on “American Hero” “We the People” pp. 48-51 relative topics p. 214 p. 279 Drama on “Cross Over” relative topics pp. 299-305 WRITING News articles “Creativity At Work” pp. 161-167 and editorials p. 120 p. 212 Persuasive speeches pp. 94-97 and letters pp. 324-327 “Juvenile Justice” Mixed-media students conduct pp. 191-207 presentations and record own interviews
172 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Reaching an Audience: Additional Resources
Teachers are encouraged to make this Instructional Guide as useful as possible by recording personal preferences and experiences using specific resources to teach the “Reaching an Audience” season. Your favorite resources may not even be listed in this guide!
Use this blank form to record notes about your favorite resources!
NAME OF RESOURCE WHERE YOU FOUND IT HOW YOU USE IT
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 173 Notes au• then•tic learn•ing (ô-then’tik lur’n˘ing) adj. Learning that uses real-world problems and projects and that allow students to explore and discuss these problems in ways that are relevant to them. Notes May – June
Evolving Communication
Key Ideas ...... 178 Teacher’s Planning Calendar ...... 182 Teaching Exemplar ...... 184 A Note from the Teacher...... 191 “Suggested” Resources ...... 192
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 177 Evolving Communication: Valuing Innovation in Contemporary Language and Literature
Human language is constantly changing. Syntax and vocabulary evolve to meet the needs of different speech communities, resulting in a variety of dialects and registers. In large part because of the influence of new technologies, the pace of linguistic and literary change has accelerated in contemporary America. Literary “texts” are no longer confined to the printed page, and “literacy” requires facility with a lot more than reading published books and writing on paper. Young people, in particular, are producers and not just receivers of media messages. The current atmosphere of
Why does new? it ma at’s tter Wh ? What factors contribute to linguistic change in contemporary society? What varieties of English (dialect, idiolect, jargon, and slang) are used today? How did these variations evolve—what purpose do they serve, and how are they received? What skills are needed for critical literacy in this age of innovation? What evidence of innovation in language can be found in current literature and popular culture? How do contemporary authors modify traditional forms of literature? Have new genres and styles developed? How has technology influenced such changes?
Ironically, many of the canonized classics that are revered today were considered ground-breaking—even radical—works in their own eras. Literary uses of language change over time, resulting in new or modified genres and styles. Because ELA and its literary traditions have been influenced by contact with many other languages and cultures, they have an especially strong history of innovation. Examining the ways that contemporary writers, media content providers, and ordinary people stretch the boundaries of language enables youth to build awareness of the social purposes of genre and the artistic purposes of style.
REACHING EXPLORING AN AUDIENCE TRADITIONS
EXPANDING FINDING HORIZONS A VOICE
178 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Evolving Communication: What is the Literature Focus?
This season provides an academic context in which students may listen critically to the myriad voices of contemporary popular culture. The unit may include literary study L I T ERATU of non-standard “texts” such as: R E Song lyrics Films and movies Spoken word performances Television and radio programs Internet podcasts Weblogs
Some students already have considerable experience with these genres, but may lack the critical vocabulary and analytical habits of mind to appreciate and discuss them fully. Teachers may wish to concentrate one or two particular forms in this unit, or, alternatively, have students examine a particular issue across several media. Teachers must, of course, exercise good judgment and review DYS program regulations when introducing material of this type to the classroom. (Some popular texts are inappropriate for study in any school, and others may be too controversial for certain DYS contexts.)
Print literature in more traditional forms may also play an important role in this unit. Teachers may demonstrate innovation in language by tracing the evolution of a genre from its classic to its contemporary iterations. Drama, which has been reinvented numerous times over the centuries, would be a logical choice for this kind of treatment, as would sonnets, a poetic form that has continually evolved yet has almost always remained popular. For example: “Sonnet,” by Billy Collins, lightheartedly addresses the formal requirements of the sonnet. “America,” by Claude McKay, is a visceral demonstration that sonnets are not necessarily poems of love.
Teachers should also strive to select literary works that illustrate America’s linguistic diversity. Narratives, poems, and plays that include African-American English, “Spanglish,” and other nonstandard forms would not only add richness and relevance to the curriculum, but also provide springboards for mini-lessons on the often-misunderstood subjects of dialect and slang. For example, students could learn about the concept and value of code-switching (alternating between standard or nonstandard English, depending on situational cues) while studying such works as: “Now the Dead Will Dance the Mambo,” or en la calle, by Martin Espada “My Graduation Speech,” by Tato Laviera
Students may also study excerpts from longer works that embrace African-American vernacular as an important means of communicating tone, place, and power; such works would include, for example: Their Eyes Were Watching God, by Zora Neale Hurston The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison
Such academic exploration may help students develop greater understanding and respect for the ways that they, their families, and their peers may already use specific (and highly sophisticated) linguistic techniques.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 179 Evolving Communication: What is the Writing Focus?
The expressive, analytical, and creative writing tasks outlined previously for the seasons on EXPLORING TRADITIONS and EXPANDING HORIZONS are also appropriate for this unit; for reference, descriptions of expressive, analytical, and creative writing tasks can be found earlier in this guide in the chapters for either of those seasons.
Reader-response pieces, especially of the “text-to-text connection” variety (see below), are useful for prompting reflections on the effectiveness of innovative genres and styles. Analytical writing about popular culture may seem odd to students at first, but applying the same interpretive techniques used to make meaning of a Shakespearean play to a contemporary performance piece sends two important messages: • The act of interpretation is the same no matter what the text, and • Forms of literacy popular with students are valid and worthy of attention.
Creative work in various contemporary genres will motivate students to write and also help them understand the features of these expressive forms. While DYS facilities may not have computer facilities or authorization to post compositions on the Web as podcasts or blogs, students can still experiment in these genres and “publish” their work in the classroom. Research projects on the nature and impact of new literacies, on linguistic diversity, and/or on contemporary writers and their works, are also appropriate writing assignments and tasks for this season.
Notes
180 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Evolving Communication: Standards of the Season
Most of the Massachusetts ELA standards can relate to all units of study. In fact, it is difficult to imagine any topic that could not be connected in some way to a given ELA standard. Some standards, like the entire Language strand, are applicable to all ELA instruction. Most lessons will address numerous ELA standards.
That said, some standards relate most directly to the topics in particular seasons. In the context of the “seasons” of teaching ELA in Department of Youth Services settings, we might call certain standards “low-hanging fruit,” because in a given season, these standards are convenient, easy to reach, ripe for teaching, and may fall on particularly fertile ground.
While many other standards will be addressed during this time period, the EVOLVING COMMUNICATION season is especially favorable for addressing these Standards:
Season: Evolving Communication
Formal and Informal English 16 17 18 11 6 Students will describe, analyze, and use appropriately formal and informal English. 10 12 24 21 Contemporary media and dialect-rich literary works 19 9 provide opportunities to study a variety of oral and 8 written language patterns and styles. In the context of 7 23 13 14 22 such study, students should improve their knowledge of 20 the origins and features of dialects, idiolects, jargon, and 6 4 3 27 slang. Youth will understand the differences between 26 formal and informal English pronunciation, vocabulary, 5 1 15 25 and syntax and may be able to code-switch as appropriate 2 and/or necessary.
Style and Language 15 Students will identify and analyze how an author’s words appeal to the senses, create imagery, suggest mood, and set tone, and provide evidence from the text to support their understanding. Close reading of contemporary works with teacher guidance will improve students’ ability to glean shades of meaning from the texts they encounter. Through analysis of a variety of texts, students should develop their knowledge of stylistic terms and concepts, their understanding of imagery and figurative language, and their ability to cite specific examples of language that creates particular effects.
Analysis of Media 26 Students will identify, analyze, and apply knowledge of the conventions, elements, and techniques of film, radio, video, television, multimedia productions, the Internet, and emerging technologies and provide evidence from the works to support their understanding. Through critical analysis of contemporary media, students should develop their knowledge of the visual or aural techniques used in media production, understanding of the effects of these techniques on the reader’s or viewer’s emotions, and become increasingly able to recognize and point out examples of bias and balance, manipulation and fair play. ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 181 Planning Grid for EVOLVING COMMUNICATION
ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS: ______
Week # for this Monday Tuesday Wednesday season Date: Date: Date:
1
Date: Date: Date:
2
Date: Date: Date:
3
Date: Date: Date:
4
Date: Date: Date:
5
Date: Date: Date:
6
Date: Date: Date:
7
Date: Date: Date:
8
Note: The number of weeks allocated for each season should be flexible in response to holidays, periods of MCAS testing, and other factors within each classroom.
182 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS: ______
Thursday Friday Notes
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
Date: Date:
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 183 Evolving Communication: Teaching Exemplar
The season “Evolving Communication” focuses on the fact that human language is constantly changing. So, “what skills are needed for critical literacy in his age of innovation in language?” Understanding how contemporary authors modify traditional forms of literature to develop new genres and styles allows us to explore how the literary use of language changes over time, and studying how language is used in contemporary culture demonstrates its diversity and ongoing evolution.
In this mini-unit, students not only have the opportunity to learn about the meanings of words, alternate word choices, and the etymologies of words, but they will apply this learning to further explore the ways in which slang can be used to communicate thoughts and concepts to different audiences. Focusing on using context clues to determine the meaning of unfamiliar words, students will also further investigate the meaning of different slang terms and dive more deeply into the analysis of how authors have used slang terms in literary works.
This mini-unit serves as a valuable reference and example to help teachers create strong standards-based lessons. It is intended to share one of many approaches to teaching the content in this season. To better suit the unique strengths and needs of your students and to better meet the expectations of your program, it is important to remember to differentiate this mini-unit and lesson plan or to use it as a guide to developing or refining your own!
184 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Evolving Communication: Mini-Unit Exemplar
STANDARD SLANG: EXPLORING LEXICOGRAPHY, ETYMOLOGY, AND CONTEXT CLUES THROUGH THE LENS OF SLANG
Unit Designer: Evan Gentler, [email protected]
OVERVIEW: This is a five-day unit that uses modern slang as a way to explore the essential ELA concepts of lexicography, etymology, and context clues. The students will, over the course of a week, create a dictionary of their own modern urban slang. The first part of every class will be spent exploring and studying the concepts, while the last part of every class will be devoted to the students’ composition of the dictionary itself. This unit falls most naturally under the umbrella of season five, as it uses the “stretching” of standard English into slang as a means to approach the standards.
EMPHASIZED STANDARDS: 4, 5, 6, 15, 20 4.20 Determine the meaning of unfamiliar words using context clues. 4.22 Determine pronunciations, meanings, alternate word choices, parts of speech, or etymologies of words using dictionaries. 5.29 Describe the origins and meanings of common words and foreign words or phrases used frequently in written English, and show their relationship to historical events or developments. 6.8 Identify content-specific vocabulary, terminology, or jargon unique to particular social or professional groups. 6.10 Analyze the role and place of standard American English in speech, writing, and literature. 15.7 Evaluate how an author’s choice of words advances the theme or purpose of a work. 20.5 Use different levels of formality, style, and tone when composing for different audiences.
ADDITIONAL STANDARDS: 1, 2, 19, 22
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 185 Evolving Communication: Mini-Unit Exemplar (continued)
LEARNING GOALS: Students will know the definitions of context, etymology, and lexicography. They will know the various elements that most dictionary entries will contain. They will know the most common origins to which English words are traced. They will know how to use context clues to decipher unfamiliar words. Students will understand that English is a living language that continues to grow, change, and evolve over time. They will understand that there are pros and cons involved in using slang as a substitute for standard English. They will understand that “Standard” English is the set of words that has been accepted, recognized, and canonized over the years. They will understand that the process of determining the etymology of a word will help them better understand it. Students will be able to write dictionary entries that include the common elements found in contemporary dictionaries. Students will be able to think creatively about the origins of the words they use. Students will be better able to use context clues to decipher unfamiliar words they encounter. Students will be able to make more thoughtful and informed choices about when using slang is worth sacrificing clarity.
CENTRAL QUESTIONS THAT REPRESENT HIGHER-LEVEL THINKING: When is it appropriate to sacrifice clarity for the color and power of slang? Are there audiences for whom slang might actually provide more clarity than Standard English? Who should decide which words are considered “standard” and which are not? If English is evolving all the time, will today’s slang be tomorrow’s canon? How much can context tell us about something? How much context do we need? What are the origins of unusual slang words?
Pre-Assessment If you wish to give a traditional pre-assessment, I suggest creating one based on the learning objectives outlined below. These objectives are what the learning will be centered around, and thus an assessment based on them will be the best judge of both teacher and student success. At the end of the unit below, I suggest what a possible post-assessment quiz might look like, and a pre-assessment quiz would likely look very similar. Though it is sometimes appropriate and necessary to give students a pre-assessment quiz or assignment to discover where they are with regard to specific material, I do not think this is necessary for this unit. I often choose more informal pre-assessment techniques because of the high sensitivity of DYS students. Our students struggle with enormous lack of confidence and low self-esteem with regard to their scholastic abilities. Even the most carefully crafted pre-assessment runs the risk of deflating students further by asking them to work with material they do not understand. Looking at a page of unanswerable questions or unfamiliar material conjures for many of our students’ deep-seated, negative feelings about both school and themselves. Many of these students have built up years of negative associations with being asked to perform when they do not know the material. It is possible to lose the energy, confidence, and enthusiasm needed for productive student learning if this is the students’ introduction to the unit. DYS students need to be convinced that they can perform well if they apply themselves, and comparing a great post-assessment to a poor pre-assessment will likely solidify this for some students. However, other students run the risk of succumbing to feelings of failure and frustration before the unit has even begun, thus undermining at the outset their ability to interact positively with the material for the rest of the unit. For this unit, all necessary pre-assessment can be done relatively informally during the first couple of lessons. This means paying close attention to whether students understand key terms and ideas, whether they are able to participate in discussions and synthesize information into coherent products early in the week, and whether they are able to attack higher-level thinking questions. This type of pre-assessment requires asking a lot of questions and making sure that all students are engaged. The unit is also designed so that students are producing work every day, and thus the depth and quality of their work on day one and on day five can be compared much like
186 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Evolving Communication: Mini-Unit Exemplar (continued) a pre- and post-assessment. Further, each day offers the teacher another opportunity to see where each student is, what he or she has been able to absorb, and what to expect in terms of growth over the rest of the week.
RESOURCES AND MATERIALS: Dictionaries A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess
Day One: This day is an introduction to the unit, the learning goals, the work students will be expected to accomplish, and the definitions of key concepts. While introducing students to the idea that language continues to evolve and grow over time, the teacher should cover the central questions of the unit: • What are the pros and cons of using slang in place of Standard English? • What is gained or lost? • What exactly is “Standard” English, and who decides? The students are asked to brainstorm the list of slang words they will be defining for their dictionary. As the list grows, the teacher should take the opportunity to introduce the ideas of context clues and etymology. During the last part of class, students identify the first few words that they would like to define and begin creating their dictionary entries.
Day Two: Students begin to explore more fully what a dictionary entry includes, and how they imagine their own dictionary should look. This discussion should cover concepts such as pronunciation, parts of speech, word forms, etymology, etc. The students should understand that not every dictionary looks the same, and they should be encouraged to decide which elements should be included in their own dictionary. The teacher should be aware of the students’ readiness for these conversations, and embrace teachable moments. A quick review of parts of speech, for instance, may be in order. In the last part of class, students return to writing definitions for their chosen words. The teacher should be clear that since etymology has not yet been discussed in depth, students should focus on definitions for now and return to do etymologies on subsequent days.
Day Three: Students are introduced more fully to the idea of etymology. As an introduction, the teacher should arrive in class with a list of common (but interesting) words and their etymologies. The meaning of the suffix-ology should be discussed. The teacher should stress the most common roots of modern English. As an activity, the teacher should select a few interesting slang words from the students’ list and have the students discuss where they came from. Are they based on misspellings or mispronunciations? Are they based on the adaptation of existing words into new words? This higher-level thinking can be quite creative and challenging for the students, and quite rewarding. By the last part of class, students should feel comfortable trying to pair the definitions they have composed thus far with probable etymologies.
Day Four: Students explore more fully the idea of context clues. They are reminded that context clues were, and still are, an integral part of their learning of the English language. As an activity, each student is asked to invent and define his or her own (never before seen or heard) slang word. Each student is asked to come to the board and put the word into a sentence, and the rest of the class is challenged to decipher the meaning of this brand-new word from context. This activity helps the class as a whole practice with context clues, and it also forces students who are putting their words into sentences to consider how much context is necessary for a word to be understood. In the final part of class, the students return to composing entries for the dictionary.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 187 Evolving Communication: Mini-Unit Exemplar (continued)
Day Five: In an effort to synthesize and solidify the learning of the week, students study and interpret a page from A Clockwork Orange. An expanded version of this lesson appears on the pages to follow. If the teacher wishes to give a formal assessment in the form of a quiz, it will likely occur on this day. See below for suggestions about what form this quiz might take. Class should end with a review of the main ideas, terms, and concepts covered throughout the week.
ASSESSMENT: There are several forms of assessment that the teacher should be using throughout this unit. As stated above, the teacher should consider quizzing the students on the basic terms, definitions, and ideas covered in the unit. When considering what to put on the quiz, the teacher should consult the learning goals that were laid out for the students at the beginning of the unit. For this unit, I would recommend a quiz that asks some combination of the following: What are the definitions of: • context • etymology • lexicography What are four things a dictionary entry might include? What is the difference between Standard English and slang? What can be a negative result of using slang? What can be a positive result of using slang? While a quiz like this will cover the main ideas of the unit and give the teacher a sense of how effective the instruction has been, it should not be the only means by which the students are assessed. Please refer to the end of the Reaching an Audience Season’s Writing for the Radio for a more detailed discussion of meaningful assessment strategies.
The pages that followin presenti-unit. These detailed detailed plans plansfor of this m Lesson 5 should serve as a valuable reference and example to help teachers better create strong standards-based lessons in English Language Arts differentiated for program type and the strengths and needs of each student.
188 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Evolving Communication: Lesson Plan Exemplar
Designer: Evan Gentler, [email protected] Mini-Unit Title: Standard Slang: Exploring lexicography, etymology, and context clues through the lens of slang Lesson Number and Stage: Lesson 5/Culminating
LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR THIS LESSON:
Students will KNOW… • The definitions of context, etymology, and lexicography • How to use context clues to decipher unfamiliar words
Students will UNDERSTAND… • That English is a living language that continues to grow, change, and evolve over time • That there are pros and cons involved in using slang as a substitute for standard English
Students will be able to DO… • Be better able to use context clues to decipher unfamiliar words they encounter • Determine how much context to use and how much is needed to describe something
CONNECTED LEARNING STANDARDS 2 Students will pose questions, listen to the ideas of others, and contribute their own information or ideas in group discussions or interviews in order to acquire new knowledge. 4.20 Determine the meaning of unfamiliar words using context clues. 6.8 Identify content-specific vocabulary, terminology, or jargon unique to particular social or professional groups. 15.7 Evaluate how an author’s choice of words advances the theme or purpose of a work.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 189 Evolving Communication: Lesson Plan Exemplar (continued)
LESSON DETAILS This lesson is meant to unify all the concepts (both concrete and abstract) that the students have studied over the course of the week. In an effort to pull everything together, the students will study and interpret a page from A Clockwork Orange. The students should be given a brief introduction to the story, to Anthony Burgess, and to the unusual slang in which the story is written. The teacher should read a page from the book aloud as a way for students to grasp the degree to which the book’s language is difficult to understand. As an activity, the same page should then be passed out to the students, and they should use their skills with context clues to translate the slang words on the page. When this has been accomplished, the students are asked to consider the probable etymology of some of Burgess’s slang words, such as viddy (to see) and rabbit (to work). The students should then return to the question laid out at the beginning of the week regarding the pros and cons of using non-Standard English. Looking now at a successful and famous book, they should consider what the author has gained and what he has sacrificed through his approach. They should be encouraged to connect this discussion and these ideas to their own writing and their own use of slang. If the teacher wishes to give a formal assessment in the form of a quiz, the quiz can be taken at this time. See below for suggestions about what form this quiz might take. Class should end with a review of the main ideas, terms, and concepts covered throughout the week.
Note: It is extremely important that the teacher takes the time to pull together the students’ work into an organized and presentable final product. It is crucial for students to see their work result in a final product that is professional and presentable. For this unit, this means typing, alphabetizing, and formatting the students’ work. Though this represents work for the teacher, it adds tremendous value and importance for the students and rewards their learning, effort, and creativity. If the teacher prefers to make presentation part of the students’ own learning experience, the unit can be lengthened or adjusted to accommodate this.
Notes
190 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Evolving Communication Exemplar: A Note from the Teacher
I chose this unit as an exemplar for several reasons. First, it allows students to explore their own modes of communication. They explore their own slang, giving it value as an emerging adaptation of Standard English, but also examining its strengths and weaknesses in regard to clarity and power in communication. The students are asked to make connections between their own slang and the accepted canon of Standard English, and they are asked to think critically about the connections and contrasts between the two. This unit provides many ways in which to evaluate and assess students. It provides opportunities to evaluate students’ writing, discussion skills, creative thinking, higher-level thinking, and understanding of conventions. This unit presents concepts to the students through a number of different lenses, and the students are able to both discuss what they learn and translate that learning into thoughtful writing. This lesson also does a good job of being approachable and challenging to students at all levels, another difficult requirement of lessons for a DYS classroom. The concepts behind an evolving language are deep and broad, and they offer great room for an advanced student to stretch out while a struggling student is also learning. Though the lessons are taught to the class as a whole, the intellectual and written work can both be taken at a student’s own level. This unit uses lessons that (with the possible exception of day one) are broken up into halves that are very different in approach. There is a lecture/discussion section of class, and then there is a practice/composition section. This allows the students to anticipate how the class will run, and how their time will be spent. It allows students who prefer one manner of learning over the other to experience some part of class that particularly appeals to them. It also avoids forcing the students to engage in the same type of learning or activity for an overly extended period of time. Finally, this unit allows students to be both technical and creative. It asks them to think creatively about slang, but then to translate that thinking into Standard English. It gives students a chance to bring together two aspects of language that have often remained partitioned for them. Students are asked to examine Standard English through a creative lens and slang through a formal lens, and the end result is that they come to see both more clearly. —Evan Gentler [email protected]
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 191 Evolving Communication: Suggested Resources
Listed below are a variety of some suggested resources that might be useful in teaching a mini-unit on “Evolving Communication”. The resources listed here are organized by key ideas identified within this “season” of ELA study as well as by focuses on literature and writing.
It is important to note that there are many resources available throughout the DYS system and in different programs that are not directly addressed in this section. Please refer to Teaching Coordinators or Instructional Coaches for more information about additional resources that may address the needs of your students.
BOOK/COLLECTION Writing Our All Write Naming Edge Stories A Multicultural A Student Handbook the World Reading, Writing Alabama Reader for Writing and A Year of Poems & Language Writers’ Forum Learning and Lessons KEY IDEAS Innovations in “I Am Somebody” “Car Ride: A Sestina” language pp. 145-148 pp. 246 & 247 Language of Language as an “I Am Somebody” “Naming the Parts” Objects art form pp. 145-148 p. 294 pp. 21 & 22 New genres and “I Am Somebody” media pp. 145-148
Critical literacy p. 249 LITERATURE Voices from contemporary pop “I Am Somebody” culture (music, film, pp. 145-148 spoken word, internet, TV, and radio) WRITING “Naming the Parts” “I Am Somebody” Expressive pp. 21-25 p. 73 pp. 124-141 p. 294 p. 149 and “Car Ride”
Creative pp. 108-110 pp. 168-185
“I Am Somebody” Analytical p. 249 pp. 149-154 pp. 148 & 149
192 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Evolving Communication: Additional Resources
Teachers are encouraged to make this Instructional Guide as useful as possible by recording personal preferences and experiences using specific resources to teach the “Evolving Communication” season. Your favorite resources may not even be listed in this guide!
Use this blank form to record notes about your favorite resources!
NAME OF RESOURCE WHERE YOU FOUND IT HOW YOU USE IT
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 193 Notes e
suc•cess (s e -se˘s) n. The achievement of something desired, planned, or attempted. Notes Assessment
Distinguishing Between Assessment for Learning and of Learning . . . . 198 Stages of Assessment ...... 199 Pre-assessment...... 199 Formative Assessment ...... 200 Summative Assessment...... 201 Evaluation Tools for Summative Assessment ...... 203 Linking Formative and Summative Assessment ...... 206 Balanced Assessment – One Size Does Not Fit All ...... 207
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 197 Assessment: Distinguishing Between Assessment for Learning and of Learning
Understanding that DYS students are educationally diverse with respect to background knowledge, interests, learning styles, multiple intelligences, social-emotional strengths and challenges, and personal histories, it is important that we as DYS teachers use a variety of tools and strategies to gather assessment data to inform classroom instruction and student academic progress. Generally when we think of assessment, we think of assessment of learning, but we should also be thinking of assessment for learning. Though assessment of learning can come in the form of data from standardized tests (such as MCAS) or from summative assessments we use in the classroom, the ultimate purpose of this form of assessment is accountability—for the teacher or the student. Richard J. Stiggins argues, however, that assessment for learning focuses more on helping students become more active and responsible for their own learning, thus promoting greater learning and alleviating the frustration and hopelessness our students often feel.
Since our mission as DYS teachers is to help our students make academic progress, it is reasonable to focus on assessment for learning. This approach requires us to go beyond the important task of monitoring student progress with formative assessment techniques. While formative assessment is critical to the feedback loop of student learning, assessment for learning incorporates strategies to actually advance students’ achievement. One way to promote assessment for learning is highlighted in Robert Marzano’s Essential Nine strategies. Marzano’s research confirms the effectiveness of clearly informing students of the learning objectives and reflecting back on the objectives throughout the learning process. The most important aspect of quality assessment is that it is linked to the learning objectives that we have established; however, Marzano’s research emphasizes the importance of reinforcing effort and providing recognition to students. In this context, we can provide frequent descriptive feedback to students that give them insight as to how they The most important aspect of can improve. Assessment for learning means that we have opportunities to use assessment with students as a tool with which they quality assessment is that it is can better gauge their own progress, building their confidence in linked to the learning objectives themselves as learners and encouraging them to assume responsibility for learning throughout their lives (Stiggins). that we have established; however, Marzano’s research It is important for us as educators to remember that it is not necessary for us to grade every piece of student work, and actually, by not emphasizes the importance of constantly making judgments on student work, we give students the reinforcing effort and providing freedom to be risk takers. In this way, we encourage students to work for recognition to students. improved performance while using the data we gather to continuously adjust our instruction to meet the varied student learning needs. Students benefit from assessment for learning by becoming more confident as learners, and as they experience success they begin to realize their capacity to learn. Students can demonstrate their ability to monitor their own success and make decisions that bring them greater success. This is the essence of lifelong learning. As teachers, we benefit from assessment for learning because our students become more motivated to learn, and our instructional decisions are based on accurate data related to student achievement. As we make quality instructional choices, we actually become more efficient in promoting student learning. If we commit to a standard of on-going assessment for learning, including what we call formative assessment, we can effectively begin to reduce the achievement gaps that plague our educational systems.
198 F ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Assessment: Stages of Assessment
When thinking of assessment for learning as a feedback loop, the continuum of assessment can include various methods to both access students’ prior knowledge and background and gauge the degree to which a student meets the learning objective for that lesson or that mini-unit. In the following sections, the various stages of assessment are discussed in the order in which they typically occur in classroom instruction. Examples suitable to DYS settings are provided.
PRE-ASSESSMENT The first stage in the continuum of assessment is pre-assessment. It is through pre-assessment activities that we discover what students bring to the learning process prior to beginning a unit of study. Students’ level of prior knowledge or readiness can be revealed through quality pre-assessment activities. The most important component of this stage of assessment is to have clearly defined learning objectives or outcomes for the unit before developing a pre-assessment tool. A reflective question during the pre-assessment development process is: What do I want to know about the students’ prior experience or knowledge and understanding of the topic I am about to teach? Once we have the pre- assessment data, we are able to discern the unit components that need extensive teaching, moderate support, or minimal review. We may choose from a variety of pre-assessment tools. For example, a teacher planning a brief lesson on short stories might derive the following learning objectives:
Students Will: Learning Objectives Standards
• The rules of class discussion 1, 2 • What a short story is 12 KNOW • Essential short story terminology 4 (i.e., plot, character, setting, etc.) • Basic facts of the assigned story 8
• The elements of short stories 12 and how they work together • The main idea of the 8 UNDERSTAND assigned story • The concept of theme and how 11 it applies in the assigned story
• Participate in a class discussion 1, 2 on the short story elements and AND BE the theme of the assigned story ABLE TO DO • Respond in writing to an 19, 23 open-response prompt connecting the theme of the story to the student’s experience
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 199 Assessment: Stages of Assessment (continued)
Pre-assessment tools vary widely by the content area, teacher preference, the type of information being sought, and the amount of time required to complete the pre-assessment tool. Using the learning objectives noted above, let’s look at some possible pre-assessment activities: • A matching activity can provide data regarding students’ knowledge of short story terminology. • To pre-assess student understanding of theme, a short reading could be provided and students asked to create a concept map of the theme. • Students could also be asked to use an essay format to explain the elements of a short story and how those elements work together in this genre.
Based on the data collected, you will begin to get an understanding of what the students already know or understand and can use this information in designing lessons targeting students’ various levels of readiness. Pre-assessment can be done with the whole class, for example asking the class as a whole what the power of voice means in writing. While this may spark a ...pre-assessment strategies good conversation and set the tone for the unit, it will not provide you with data regarding which students have the prerequisite knowledge or that ask your students to understanding. For that reason, pre-assessment strategies that ask your complete work individually students to complete work individually will give you more student-specific data regarding their readiness to learn. Some teachers feel they need to do a will give you more student- pre-assessment daily. This is not true. Once you do a pre-assessment for the specific data regarding their unit, and instruction begins, formative assessment on a daily basis becomes readiness to learn. the next stage in the assessment process.
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT It is essential in quality instruction that we monitor student progress throughout the unit. The purpose of this is twofold. One is to provide us with student information regarding progress toward meeting the established learning objectives and the other is for us to use the data to make instructional adjustments. Therefore formative assessment is considered to inform teaching and learning. Formative assessment is also on-going throughout the instructional process. You can use a variety of tools to gather formative data. The following are just a few examples: • You might pose oral questions to the class, having them respond as a group or individually. • You may ask students to complete a short quiz highlighting recent instruction. • At the end of the lesson you may have students complete a brief prompt related to the lesson and require submission as they leave the room-called a “ticket to leave” or “exit card”. • Students may complete a graphic organizer to demonstrate their understanding to date. • You might have students complete literature response logs to capture their insights regarding theme, plot, and/or character development. • Students may participate in a Think-Pair-Share activity.
Formative assessment can also be as informal as you beginning the class by ...formative assessment asking students to summarize recent learning, or you walking around the room reviewing students’ work and/or listening to discussions, or you posing questions data should be used to to individual students during the work session. It is important to remember that inform instruction and not every activity given to students needs to lead to a “grade.” In fact, formative assessment data should be used to inform instruction and students’ learning. students’ learning. Sometimes you may evaluate students’ work without a grade to provide them with information regarding their progress and for you to determine needed modifications to instruction.
200 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Assessment: Stages of Assessment (continued)
Our goal is student achievement. This means that learning is a process and should be monitored and adjusted to fit students’ needs. Throughout the unit you and the students should be moving closer to achievement of the learning objectives. Often work placed in portfolios can be used to track this learning process and demonstrate to teacher and student the progress being made. Another method of assessment for learning is the use of “progress If students are involved in monitoring.” Progress monitoring involves collecting and analyzing samples of student work over a period of time. The analysis of the work can be done the assessment process, by you, the student, or a peer. An authentic example of progress monitoring is they are empowered to a writing sample that can be analyzed using a pre-determined rubric. If students are involved in the assessment process, they are empowered to make make decisions regarding decisions regarding their own learning or make suggestions to their peers. This their own learning or make work can be saved in a portfolio so that progress is monitored regularly. suggestions to their peers. To make formative assessment even more effective, students should be trained in self-assessment techniques so they can understand how they are progressing in meeting set standards. This can be done in the DYS classroom by providing students with clear learning objectives, criteria and rubrics for assessing their work and opportunities to discuss their progress with you. In their 1998 Phi Delta Kappan article, Paul Black and Dylan Wiliam say they know of no other way of raising student achievement as strong as the use of formative assessment. They further reported that many research studies support the conclusion “that improved formative assessment helps low achievers more than any other students and so reduces the range of achievement while raising achievement overall.” This has great impact on our concerns over achievement gaps for minorities and other special populations.
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT Summative assessment is meant to summarize the learning. It is assessment of learning. When you are ready to assess the degree to which each student has mastered a particular set of learning objectives (after instruction, practice, review) it is time to use a summative assessment. While the purpose of the summative assessment is to determine mastery of learning objectives, comments, in addition to a grade, can be useful to students Students need to be clear as they reflect on their learning. It is your decision when a summative regarding your expectations assessment is appropriate. and should be able to see When you construct the final end of unit assessment, it is important to establish the criteria upon which students will be graded. For many products, projects and a direct link between those performances this will be either a criteria sheet or rubric. Students need to be expectations and the clear regarding your expectations and should be able to see a direct link between instruction in the unit. those expectations and the instruction in the unit. Your role as teacher is to design the summative assessment in the early stages of unit planning. This is what is commonly referred to as backward planning. You must first identify what the students should know and understand by the end of the unit (constructed with the standards in mind), and create assessment options that will measure the degree to which the students have attained that knowledge and understanding. By beginning with the end in mind, you are able to construct a unit whose lessons target the learning objectives and prepare students to be successful on the final assessment. The final summative assessment for a unit of study must be directly linked to the unit’s learning objectives.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 201 Assessment: Stages of Assessment (continued)
This assessment might be: • A product (e.g., final draft of an essay; final exam or unit test; research report; a compare/contrast chart; completed graphic organizer), • A project (completion of a poetry booklet with the student’s own poems demonstrating the various types of poetry studied; a video or computer presentation; creation of a diary), or • A performance (a debate between two students who have researched an assigned topic; an oral presentation; a role play).
Whatever style of assessment you choose as the summative tool, you must ensure that all students are clear on the directions as well as the criteria you will use to determine the grade. It can be especially effective to involve your students in the development of the rubric that will be used. This process empowers them and engages them directly with the criteria that exemplify proficiency. If you have samples of exemplars from previous final assessments, students will benefit from seeing them. By including a student’s written reflection as part of any assignment, students have the opportunity to assess their The reflection process own learning and through this process, often expand and broaden that learning. Making this self-reflection part of a summative assessment provides students with an demonstrates that the learning process doesn’t end when the product has been opportunity to understand completed. The reflection process provides students with an opportunity to what they have learned understand what they have learned and apply that to future learning activities. and apply that to future learning activities.
Q: How do I provide meaningful and objective assessment across such wide ability gaps, and how can this assessment be encouraging while also being honest? A: Develop a rubric that balances objective and subjective components. For example, objective components might include a student’s sentence structure, organization, punctuation, spelling, etc. Subjective components might include improvement over time, effort, Q& thoughtfulness, etc. Creating this kind of balance will allow students to feel positive about their effort and improvement at their own level even if their skills are objectively below grade level. Be sure to explain the rubric to students, and be clear about your expectations. Also, be sure to link the rubric to the specific learning objectives laid out each week. Also, be sure to explain to students that even if their objective component A scores are low, large gains can be made with consistent effort.
202 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Assessment: Evaluation Tools for Summative Assessment
After selecting the type of summative assessment you will use, you need to design an evaluation tool. If the summative assessment is a quiz or test, the evaluation tool will be an answer key. However, if the summative assessment is a product, project or performance, you need to develop a criteria worksheet or a rubric. These evaluation tools provide clear expectations for the summative assessment by outlining the quality attributes of an effective submission.
The following section describes criteria worksheets and rubrics: • Criteria Worksheet: When establishing the criteria for evaluating a summative assessment, list those components that are essential for a successful product, project or performance. These components should be directly related to the learning objectives for the unit (what students should Know and Understand). When using a criteria worksheet, you need to identify which criteria were met and which were not. This can be converted to a grade through either a weighted system of points or a percentage of criteria satisfied.
Although the criteria worksheet identifies the primary components of the task, the judgment regarding a criteria having been met or not is still very subjective. The feedback that the student receives identifies the areas not met but does not supply any other information regarding how close the student was to meeting the criteria and what he/she may need to do to improve. • Rubric assessment: Rubrics are scoring tools used to assess student work against a set of defined criteria. Rubrics take the criteria worksheet to the next level by providing clear descriptions for each performance level, therefore clarifying student performance. There are two styles of rubrics that are appropriate for student assessment—holistic and analytic rubrics.
Notes
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 203 Assessment: Evaluation Tools for Summative Assessment (continued)
A holistic rubric, by definition, is a tool used to assess a piece of work as a whole. The various criteria are referenced in a narrative form for each score point. The student receives the score linked to the narrative most matching the work. Two of the rubrics used in the English Language Arts MCAS/English Language Arts Composition tests are showcased below.
MCAS Scoring Guide for Topic/Idea Development Score Description • Rich topic/idea development 6 • Careful and/or subtle organization • Effective/rich use of language • Full topic/idea development • Logical organization 5 • Strong details • Appropriate use of language • Moderate topic/idea development and organization 4 • Adequate, relevant details • Some variety in language • Rudimentary topic/idea development and/or organization 3 • Basic supporting details • Simplistic language • Limited or weak topic/idea development, organization, and/or details 2 • Limited awareness of audience and/or task • Limited topic/idea development, organization, and/or details 1 • Little or no awareness of audience and/or task
MCAS Scoring Guide for Standard English Conventions Score Description • Control of sentence structure, grammar and usage, and mechanics 4 (length and complexity of essay provides opportunity for student to show control of standard English conventions) • Errors do not interfere with communication, and/or 3 • Few errors relative to length of essay or complexity of sentence structure, grammar and usage, and mechanics • Errors interfere somewhat with communication, and/or 2 • Too many errors relative to the length of the essay or complexity of sentence structure, grammar and usage, and mechanics • Errors seriously interfere with communication, AND 1 • Little control of sentence structure, grammar and usage, and mechanics
204 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Assessment: Evaluation Tools for Summative Assessment (continued)
An analytic rubric is another scoring tool available to assess products, performance or projects. An analytic rubric distinguishes each criterion and offers a narrative description at each score point. Students receive a score point for each criterion which can be totaled and averaged for a grade. (See sample below.) When developing the narrative for analytic rubrics, especially for writing, you may find it helpful to refer to the 6+1 Traits of Writing book and its companion 100 Trait-Specific Comments: A Quick Guide for Giving Constructive Feedback on Student Writing.
Fiction-Writing Content Rubric – ANALYTIC example (unweighted) www.teachervision.fen.com/creative-writing/rubrics
Criteria 4 3 2 1
PLOT: “What” Both plot parts One of the plot Both plot parts Neither plot and “Why” are fully parts is fully are addressed but part is fully developed. developed and not fully developed. the less developed. developed part is at least addressed.
SETTING: Both setting One of the Both setting Neither setting “When” and parts are fully setting parts is parts of the story part is “Where” developed. fully developed are addressed but developed. and the less not fully developed part is developed. at least addressed.
CHARACTER: The main The main The main None of the “Who” described characters are characters are characters are characters are by behavior, fully developed developed with identified by developed or appearance, with much some descriptive name only. named. personality, and descriptive detail. The reader character traits detail. The reader has a vague idea has a vivid of the characters. image of the characters.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 205 Assessment: Linking Formative and Summative Assessment
Because portfolios are process-oriented, they are a great example of how we can connect formative and summative assessment. When assessing for learning (formative assessment), portfolios can be used for students to collect work in progress. They can watch their own growth, as in collecting revisions and edits of an essay, and students and teachers see evidence of progress in learning. When portfolios are used in this way, students may use a log sheet to document items placed in it. This log may include the date, the title of the entry and why the student has included it. Students can thus take responsibility, and hopefully pride, in the portfolio development.
When using portfolios as assessments of learning (summative assessment), students can select exemplars that best represent their growth and achievement in various areas. An important consideration of any portfolio used in this way is incorporating student reflection which allows them to reflect on the pieces they selected, the growth they have made and their projections for future learning. The evaluation tool to be used in assessing the portfolio can also be used to help guide the student in this self-reflection.
Q: How much “correcting” should I do to a student’s writing? A: Rather than cover a student’s writing with corrections, pick a few things that you want that student (or the whole class) to be focusing on. This will provide the student with achievable and meaningful goals for improvement without overwhelming them or lowering their confidence. For example, if you are teaching a unit on organization, let the students know from the outset Q that you will be focusing on organization when editing/correcting their work. Also, try to & have a couple of things that each individual student is working on. One student might be working on trying to break up his or her thoughts into sentences. Another student might be working on avoiding slang, and yet another student might be working on correct usage of apostrophes. Each student will arrive at your class with unique skills and deficiencies, and you should identify and focus on a couple of achievable and A specific individual goals for each student in their writing.
206 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Assessment: Balanced Assessment – One Size Does Not Fit All
Recognizing that “one size does not fit all,” teachers differentiate their assessment approaches to meet the needs of students with diverse learning styles, multiple intelligence preferences, and other learning considerations. Just as Bloom’s Taxonomy can be used to inform instruction, this terminology can also inform the evaluation tools that we develop. Therefore, Bloom’s can be used to help connect assessment to instruction.
Recognizing the diversity of the student population, DYS teachers provide flexibility in the assessment process to allow students to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding in a variety of ways. Learning objectives for the mini-unit or lesson clearly communicate to students what teachers want them to Know, Understand, and be able to Do. Teachers can use a range of assessment tools to monitor (formative assessment) and evaluate (summative assessment) students’ progress. Teachers can also use Bloom’s terminology to differentiate the learning based on the same set of learning objectives. Students can also be introduced to Bloom’s Taxonomy and use it to develop their own set of questions for a unit at various levels that encourage critical thinking skills and that can be shared with other students (answers must accompany the questions).
Quality questioning is an essential aspect of all types of assessment, and Bloom’s Taxonomy is the tool to diversify your questioning techniques. For example, you can create “assessment prompts” using verbs from Bloom’s Taxonomy to assess the level or degree to which students grasp the material. Since the standards are the same for all students, and thus the learning objectives, your role is to scaffold the learning to support achievement of the objectives. This can be done by selecting various levels of Bloom’s to match the cognitive readiness levels of the learners. These various verbs can be used to differentiate activity prompts or assessment Quality questioning is tasks, but should be used in combination in activities for all students. It is an essential aspect of all important that your students be given questions and/or prompts at various levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy so that all students can demonstrate both their types of assessment… basic thinking skills and their higher order thinking skills.
Although all of our students are required to participate in standardized summative assessments, such as MCAS testing, these are also opportunities to use a standardized summative assessment experience as more than a testing experience in the classroom. In this way, this process can inform the way we use assessment to inform learning in all areas of our classroom, allowing students to practice answering these types of questions, to become familiar with using rubrics as tools for learning, and to identify areas of difficulty in the content. Assessment should be connected to lesson objectives which attempt to measure students’ knowledge and understanding of content related to the curriculum standards outlined by the Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks. More importantly, it is effective instructional practice to share the scoring rubrics with students and give them practice with applying the rubric to some of their own work. If students are involved in the assessment process, and in this case better understand that assessment process, they not only learn more about their own learning, but they are able to practice critical thinking and reflection on the work they have done.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 207 Assessment: Balanced Assessment – One Size Does Not Fit All (continued)
WORKS CITED
Black, Paul, and Dylan Wiliam. “Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards Through Classroom Assessment.” Phi Delta Kappan Professional Journal 80.2 (October 1998). 15 August 2008
Marzano, Robert J., Debra J. Pickering, and Jane E. Pollock. Classroom Instruction That Works: Research-Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2001.
Stiggins, Richard J. “Assessment Crisis: The Absence Of Assessment FOR Learning.” Phi Delta Kappan Professional Journal (2002). 6 June 2002
208 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009
student-centered adj. e
(stud¯ens - se› n't e r ) Focused on the student’s needs, abilities, interests, and learning styles with the teacher as a facilitator of learning. Notes Appendix
Teaching in DYS educational programs often includes a number of challenges. It is important for us as educators to remember, however, that these challenges pose unique opportunities for creative approaches to engaging students and teaching subject matter. The Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) included in this section are meant to provide guidance and to prompt further discussion about how to better support quality instruction in a DYS classroom.
Frequently Asked Questions: Teaching ELA in DYS. . . 212 Teaching a Diverse Group of Students...... 213 Managing Your DYS Classroom ...... 216
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 211 Frequently Asked Questions: Challenges of Teaching ELA in DYS
The following Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) reflect challenges of teaching ELA in DYS and were provided by teachers working in DYS programs involved in the development of this guide. These FAQs are in no particular sequence and are grouped into two general categories—teaching a diverse group of students and managing your DYS classroom.
It is important for us as educators to remember that these challenges pose unique opportunities for creative approaches to engaging students and teaching subject matter. Thus, these FAQs are meant to prompt further discussion about how to support quality instruction in a DYS classroom. Teachers are encouraged to refer to their Regional Education Coordinators, Teaching Coordinators, Instructional Coaches, and colleagues for more information.
TEACHING A DIVERSE GROUP OF STUDENTS
• What are some general, effective teaching strategies to use in my classroom? • How do I engage students in a literary unit? • What are effective ways to teach writing? • How do I create assignments that can challenge such a diverse group of students? • It seems as if all my students need or would benefit from an Individualized Educational Plan (IEP), but many do not have one. How do I handle this situation? • How do I provide meaningful education to every student in my classroom when there are such wide age, grade, and ability gaps? • How can I differentiate for learners in a DYS classroom? • How do I provide meaningful and objective assessment across such wide ability gaps, and how can this assessment be encouraging while also being honest? • How much “correcting” should I do to a student’s writing? • How do I find materials that can interest and challenge such a diverse group? • How can I teach whole works of literature in a DYS context?
MANAGING YOUR DYS CLASSROOM
• Most teachers are not trained in the subtleties of teaching in a DYS environment. How do I adjust? • What are some effective behavioral strategies to use in my classroom? • Many students don’t seem to care about school. How do I handle this? • How do I teach a continuous unit when students are constantly coming and going? • How do I manage time in a DYS classroom?
212 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Teaching a Diverse Group of Students
Q: What are some general, effective teaching strategies to use in my classroom? A: The most effective teaching strategy is to plan an effective standards-based ELA lesson every day. An effective lesson would include time spent on: • teaching the necessary vocabulary in a meaningful and interesting way; • teaching background information concerning the time period or any important historical or social issues that are necessary in order to understand the lesson; • hands-on activities; • making connections to the students’ personal experiences and prior knowledge; • differentiating instruction and using visual organizers as needed; and • reading, writing, listening and speaking every day. When the students perceive the classroom as a place for learning, a place to try new skills without the fear of failure or ridicule, and a place with clear and consistent expectations, the students’ anxieties are put aside and effective learning takes place.
Q: How do I engage students in a literary unit? A: Using hands-on activities during, or at the end of, a unit, works well with this population as it gives them a chance to be creative. During a unit on reading or writing poetry, have students pick a poem and illustrate it; or have students write their own poems and illustrate the poems and create a book of poetry. During a Shakespeare unit, bring in famous Shakespearian quotations and have students create a poster displaying the quotations. At the end of a Romeo and Juliet unit, have them create a board game based on Romeo and Juliet—this will force students to go back into the play to create their game and they can play the game when they’re done. Hands-on projects allow students to be creative and the product becomes their own. Also, because it represents them as an individual, they take pride in the outcome, so be sure to display their work in your classroom.
Q: What are effective ways to teach writing? A: It is important for students to have many opportunities to write in the classroom. Some students have “hated” writing for so long, that just to have them write something on paper would be a success. One of the biggest problems with motivating students to write is the “fear factor”: The fear of the “red pen,” the fear of spelling, the fear of not knowing the “right” answer. Part of motivating a student to write is to make them feel comfortable doing so. Once a student has enough trust in a teacher to put thoughts on paper, it is up to the teacher to discover the most effective way of teaching that specific student. Some students will need visual organizers. Most will need emotional support and positive feedback (“I know you can do a great job with this,” “an excellent start,” “awesome use of adjectives,” etc.). It is helpful when the students understand the purpose of their writing. Will their writing be displayed, and if so, how and where? What are the boundaries/expectations of their writing? How will this writing assignment be useful to them in the “real world?” Can they use slang? Does length matter? Each assignment may have a different answer to these questions, but the more clearly you explain the assignment the less resistance. There are texts that DYS has distributed that are useful for teaching writing. The 6+1 Traits of Writing and the Alabama Writers Forum Writing Our Own Stories are excellent resources. The Massachusetts Department of Elementary & Secondary Education has examples of a past writing prompt for MCAS testing as well as the scoring guide used. Students are able to see what type of essay they need to write that will gain them a 6 as opposed to an essay that will gain them a 1. Using writing within a unit tends to be more effective than a writing unit that stands alone. Once writing becomes a part of the culture of the classroom there are more opportunities for directly teaching a specific writing skill that you have noticed a student needs. Some students prefer using a computer or NEO for their writing rather than writing in longhand. There will even be students who prefer to use a pencil over a pen or a pen over a pencil. Anything that you can do as a teacher to make the environment more “writer friendly” for the individual student will encourage that student to write. ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 213 Teaching a Diverse Group of Students (continued)
Q: How do I create assignments that can challenge such a diverse group of students? A: Use writing as a means to challenge students to work at their own levels. Make sure that lessons are supplemented with a great deal of thoughtful, independent writing on the part of the students. Avoid simple recall questions, and instead guide the students in the creation of thoughtful text-to-world, text-to-text, and text-to-self pieces. The higher level thinking required by these activities will allow students to work at their own level and challenge themselves wherever they are. Literary criticism also works extremely well for this. Students with lower-level skills might write a piece of criticism in which they explain why they like a particular line or idea, while a student with higher-level skills might investigate a recurring image used by the author and explain what the image symbolizes. This type of writing not only helps students challenge themselves at their own level, but it also allows the teacher to see more clearly how well a student is understanding, connecting to, and deciphering the ideas and materials that have been presented.
Q: It seems as if many of my students would benefit from an Individualized Educational Plan (IEP), but many do not have one. How do I handle this situation? A: If a student missed a lot of school before they became committed, they will obviously have gaps in their education. The reality is that many students come to DYS with a plethora of academic deficits that are either legitimate learning disabilities that were never diagnosed and/or addressed; or they have missed so much school, it has created gaps that need to be filled in and present as learning disabilities. A student with a low reading ability may not necessarily have a learning disability, because with practice they could get themselves up to the appropriate level. • Consult with a Special Education teacher. • Are there school records for you to look at? • Consult with the other DYS teachers in your program. • If the student was in another DYS facility, talk with that teacher.
Q: How do I provide meaningful education to every student in my classroom when there are such wide age, grade, and ability gaps? A: The best way to make sure that everyone is being challenged is to create lessons that are able to be meaningfully approached by every student at his or her own level. This means a number of things. It means using high-quality texts that are able to be understood by beginning readers while providing both modeling and subtlety to those who are further along. It means working with a number of “higher level thinking” questions that are able to provide intellectual and creative challenges to a wide range of students. It also means having the students do a great deal of individual writing in reaction to what they have learned. Each student will write (in reaction to the lesson) at their own level, challenging themselves to be thoughtful about whatever question, idea, or concept they are best suited to approach.
Q: How can I differentiate for learners in a DYS classroom? A: Try to design all of your lessons in such a way that the information is always presented in various ways. Strive to present all information visually and orally. Before class, put together handouts defining key concepts, ideas, and themes for students who need this as a supplement to lectures. When lecturing, take notes on the board for visual learners. When looking at or reading a piece of text, provide the students with handouts so that they can read along. Strive to include as much mixed media as possible. Use images, music, video clips, etc. Connect ideas and themes across media so that the student can create threads of understanding.
214 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Teaching a Diverse Group of Students (continued)
Q: How do I provide meaningful and objective assessment across such wide ability gaps, and how can this assessment be encouraging while also being honest? A: Develop a rubric that balances objective and subjective components. For example, objective components might include a student’s sentence structure, organization, punctuation, spelling, etc. Subjective components might include improvement over time, effort, thoughtfulness, etc. Creating this kind of balance will allow students to feel positive about their effort and improvement at their own level even if their skills are objectively below grade level. Be sure to explain the rubric to students, and be clear about your expectations. Also, be sure to link the rubric to the specific learning objectives laid out each week. Also, be sure to explain to students that even if their objective component scores are low, large gains can be made with consistent effort. For more information on assessment, please refer to the assessment section of this guide.
Q: How much “correcting” should I do to a student’s writing? A: Rather than cover a student’s writing with corrections, pick a few things that you want that student (or the whole class) to be focusing on. This will provide the student with achievable and meaningful goals for improvement without overwhelming them or lowering their confidence. For example, if you are teaching a unit on organization, let the students know from the outset that you will be focusing on organization when editing/correcting their work. Also, try to have a couple of things that each individual student is working on. One student might be working on trying to break up his or her thoughts into sentences. Another student might be working on avoiding slang, and yet another student might be working on correct usage of apostrophes. Each student will arrive at your class with unique skills and deficiencies, and you should identify and focus on a couple of achievable and specific individual goals for each student in their writing.
Q: How do I find materials that can interest and challenge such a diverse group? A: Do not rely entirely on the books you find on your shelves. Be creative. Use the library, the internet, etc. Trust that your students will appreciate great writing. Try to find pieces of writing that can be understood by lower level students, and yet are pieces of such high quality as to provide modeling and thought-provoking concepts for the higher level students. For example, consider the poetry of Langston Hughes. The language is often simple, but the images and ideas are not. A student with lower-level skills might contemplate and attempt to criticize or mimic Hughes’s use of repetition, while a student demonstrating higher-level skills might criticize or mimic Hughes’s repeated use of nature as a metaphor for both struggle and achievement.
Q: How can I teach whole works of literature in a DYS context? A: Many ELA teachers wonder how to teach whole works of literature in a DYS context, where new students may arrive at any time and stay for as little as two days. Even when students do stay longer, a group that begins a session together is unlikely to remain intact through an entire unit. One strategy is to choose short works—stories, poems, articles, and one-act plays—that can be read in one or two class periods. This approach is valid, but can also be quite limiting. Another approach is to choose longer works that are episodic or dramatic. Such works will have recurring patterns and sections that can stand on their own. Two works mentioned in the season on Exploring Traditions (The Odyssey and Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl) are good examples of this kind of literature. A student entering class mid-way through the reading of either one would need some background information to grasp what was going on, but could start reading almost anywhere in the text and still comprehend and be able to respond to the main ideas of the piece.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 215 Managing Your DYS Classroom
Q: Most teachers are not trained in the subtleties of teaching in a DYS environment. How do I adjust? A: When we became teachers, the majority of us never expected to be teaching in a DYS setting, but here we are. While the setting is unparalleled, our mission is the same as a traditional school teacher, that is, to provide students with a quality education. As DYS teachers, we experience a variety of tensions and issues that are unique to the population we serve, but we must find a way to reach our students regardless of the issues they bring to our classroom. For the most part, our students have not been successful in school; they are dealing with personal and legal issues that we are unaware of; and they are facing an uncertain future. The result is that students have the potential of reacting to situations in a negative manner, and as a result, they can disrupt an entire classroom, but there are ways for teachers to deal with these issues: • Flexibility is a must, so always have a contingency plan. • Don’t worry about what doesn’t get done today; you’ll all be there tomorrow. • Don’t take things personal—remember they’re kids in a difficult position. • Talk with peers about their classroom management and teaching styles. • Talk with students—many times all they need is a sympathetic ear. • Give students space to deal with their feelings. • Talk with clinical and line staff, they may have insights that will help you.
Q: What are some effective behavioral strategies to use in my classroom? A: Students act out for various reasons. It is very important for the teacher to work closely with the clinicians and line staff in order to be aware of what factors may be an obstacle to the students’ learning on a given day. For example, a change in medication, a negative telephone call, a death in the family, etc. may affect that student’s behavior on that day. Behavior is also related directly to the effectiveness of a lesson plan. If a lesson is interesting, and presented in a way in which the student can understand the work yet feel challenged, there are less behavioral issues. When students are engaged in the learning process, they are not engaged in acting out. It is therefore essential that students’ needs be met within each lesson, regardless of their grade level. It is also important that students have: • a clear understanding of the expectations of the classroom both academically and behaviorally; and • an understanding of how their performance in the classroom affects their success in the overall program. There are some useful tools in managing behavior. Rubrics are an excellent tool for students as they help them to visualize the expectations of the assignment. Also, reviewing the objectives for the day, explaining all directions clearly and receiving enough feedback to know that every student understands the assignments, are very helpful. Positive reinforcement goes a very long way in maintaining behavior. Catch your student doing something good as often as possible and point out that positive behavior! Not only have you made that one student feel good about himself as a student, you have pointed out behavior that you want modeled for other students. Offering small rewards may also be effective in motivating students to behave. The classroom atmosphere can help to control students’ behavior. Upholding rules consistently from student to student, maintaining calm and quiet surroundings, putting a classroom routine in place, and keeping the tone upbeat and positive will also help to keep behaviors under control. When there is an issue that needs to be addressed it is important to do so privately. Taking a student from the classroom and having a quick and quiet conversation in the hallway can help a student get back on track before the difficult behavior escalates.
216 ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 Managing Your DYS Classroom (continued)
Q: Many students don’t seem to care about school. How do I handle this? A: Many DYS students have not been successful in school for a variety of reasons that will never be known to us. For some, DYS school is the only school they will receive all year. The fact is most students have not bought into the how an education is beneficial to their lives and are more concerned with day-to-day survival than reading a novel and discussing its themes. • Talking with students and respecting their opinions and experiences will allow for an open conversation. • Talk with students about the value of an education and its implications for their future. • Explain to them that they have a legal right to an education. • Explain to them that many of their dreams are reliant upon an education. • Show them the correlation between levels of education and salaries earned.
Q: How do I teach a continuous unit when students are constantly coming and going? A: Strive to create mini-units that represent a coherent whole while each individual lesson can nonetheless stand alone. For example, you might create a mini-unit that spends five days developing students’ understanding of perspective in writing. Each day might find the students looking at a different author, text, or approach. Discussion and writing assignments will pertain to that day’s text, and thus a student entering for his or her first day can jump right in. Each class should begin with a review of the material that has already been covered in the unit, and thus a new student should at least be caught up with definitions and general concepts. A student who has been present for the entire unit will have a broader understanding of the concepts, because he or she has participated in the examination of more materials and approaches. However, the student who enters for only one or two days is able to participate and learn from the moment he or she arrives.
Q: How do I manage time in a DYS classroom? A: Create structure and consistency. Begin class with an anchoring activity each day. A five- or ten-minute writing prompt works extremely well. Plan out the way you are going to use the time during class, and explain to the students at the beginning how things are going to go. Do not spend the entire class on any one type of learning activity. For example, do not lecture for the entire class. Similarly, do not expect the students to write for an entire hour. Balance these elements. Balance discussion with practice, lecturing with writing, reading with activities. Again, explain to the students in advance how their time is going to be spent so that they can anticipate and adjust. The more consistently organized and structured your class, the more able students will be to adjust and grow into expectations. Our students thrive on structure and clarity.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 217 Notes Acknowledgements
This English Language Arts (ELA) Instructional Guide is the second edition of what was the first in a series of Instructional Guides developed to better focus the content and delivery of education services in the Department of Youth Service (DYS) facilities across the state of Massachusetts. All of the guides are in alignment with national standards as well as with the Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks from the Massachusetts Department of Elementary and Secondary Education, and they reflect the extensive services provided by the Comprehensive Education Partnership (CEP), an education reform effort supported by the Commonwealth Corporation and the Hampshire Educational Collaborative on behalf of the Massachusetts Department of Youth Services.
The content within these pages comes from dozens of talented and dedicated practitioners who have generously shared their expertise and best thinking about effective ELA instruction. In particular:
DYS educators Naomi Baldwin, Karen A. Brown, Donna Cohen, and Evan Gentler provided insight in shaping this guide and shared exemplary teaching materials that are featured in this guide for use and adaptation by their professional peers.
Susan Connell Biggs, Bruce M. Penniman, Kristen Iverson, Karen Sumaryono, Dawn Fontaine, and Momodou Sarr of the Western Massachusetts Writing Project at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, provided vision and guidance in the development of the guide and contributed content on curriculum organization, writing and literature instruction, working with English language learners, culturally responsive teaching, and inclusion strategies.
The following individuals and organizations were also instrumental in creating this guide:
Kathy Rho, Janet Daisley, Sonal Vyas, Jody Price, and Michelle Paniagua of the Commonwealth Corporation in Boston, MA
Shirley Gilfether, Robin Warner, Kelly Ryll, Woody Clift, Mary Lou Chapman, and Ken Pransky of the Hampshire Educational Collaborative (HEC) in Northampton, MA
DYS Reading Specialists, Carol Johnson and Kat McClelland
Kelley Brown of Easthampton Public Schools and Beth Wohlleb Adel of The Springfield Renaissance School
Infinite Media, Inc. in Lynn, MA, and Lynn Yanis of The Writer For You in Ware, MA
We especially want to recognize the Department of Youth Services, its students, and the teachers and program staff who work every day to bring clarity and focus to the delivery of educational services in the DYS system.
We offer special thanks to Christine Kenney, Director of Educational Services, who provided valuable feedback and support on this guide throughout its development.
ELA INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE 2009 219
Teaching Language Arts in the DYS Schools 2009 Instructional Guide