Literacy: a Case Study on the Responses of Babies Aged 0-12 Months to Traditional Texts and Electronic Readers

DISCOVERING THE E-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BABIES AND EARLY E- LITERACY: A CASE STUDY ON THE RESPONSES OF BABIES AGED 0-12 MONTHS TO TRADITIONAL TEXTS AND ELECTRONIC READERS

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

Allyson Ann Bowcutt

Graduate Program in Education

The Ohio State University

2013

Dissertation Committee:

Dr. Barbara Kiefer, Advisor

Dr. Evelyn Freeman

Dr. Barbara Lehman

Copyrighted by

Allyson Ann Bowcutt

2013

ABSTRACT

Today, reading with infants has taken on a whole new meaning and place in homes and care facilities throughout the world in the form of electronic readers. These e- readers, or e-books, provide opportunities for infants to engage in "textual experiences" without the use of a "traditional" book.

Some parent groups and organizations maintain that infants do not reap benefits from electronics; favoring human interaction and unstructured play to enhance development. Some believe that electronics may actually be changing the way babies’ brains develop, and others recognize that many babies of the 21st century are already connected to technology through their parents, and that electronic books can be used as learning tools to potentially enhance development.

I chose to work with three babies (aged 0-12 months) and two of their teachers, at a child development center in the South. The purpose of the study was to describe their behaviors, gestures, vocalizations and other actions as babies engaged with adult teachers who read aloud e-books and traditional books with them. While research has shown the effectiveness and importance of reading traditional books with babies and toddlers, no attention, at this time, has been paid to the responses of babies to electronic readers.

A qualitative approach was used as I went into the babies’ environment and observed the teachers reading a “traditional” book and electronic book with them once a week. While there, I took field notes and video of their reading processes and jotted

down analytical memos in the field notes. The teachers also read with and documented their observations of the babies once a week. Member checks, or brief “check-ins”, took place with the teachers throughout the study; both verbally, and through e-mail.

My findings showed that the actual responses (behaviors, gestures, actions, etc.) from the babies when reading both electronic books and traditional books were very similar. In addition, the teacher participants in the study also believed, based on their observations, that there were no additional benefits to reading with the electronic book over the traditional book; and they preferred reading with the traditional book.

Unexpected findings, based on repeated observations and experiences of and by the teachers, showed that more language about the content of the book was used when they read with a traditional book; and that when reading with an electronic book, they talked more about the actual electronic device (iPad, screen, etc.) than the book content

(kitty, ball, etc).

If the reader, in this case, a teacher was not familiar or comfortable with using the electronic device (when reading with the e-book) findings showed this to have negative implications on the overall reading experience with the reader. On the other hand, the electronic book was also shown to have potential as a positive repositioning tool for the infants, by eliciting a behavior that was not observed when reading only with the traditional book.

Additional findings showed that the babies sucked on, hit, swiped, patted, and attempted to eat both formats of books; and while the traditional books (generally board books) were made to withstand these developmental behaviors, the electronic book

iii format was not always conducive to the behaviors, or the ZPD (zone of proximal development) of the infants.

These findings demonstrate the importance of reading aloud, as similar responses from the babies occurred during read aloud experiences with both formats of books in my study. Findings also showed the importance of being engaged in the actual content of the text; which was shown, in my study, to be especially important when reading with the e- book. In addition, those reading to the infants should have a responsibility to become familiar with the reading device which, while not highly favored over traditional texts in this study, could very likely be an integral part of development for these infants: in literacy and in life.

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to:

Kevin and Harper Anne

For not only believing I could do this, but for proving that Happily Ever Afters exist; and not only in the books we read together.

And to Baby Girl #2; whose little kicks kept me going!

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This dissertation would not have been possible without the support and love of my husband, the nap time of my firstborn, or the gentle kicks from Baby Girl #2 (coming in August of 2013!). Each hug and nudge in the right direction reminded me of my own mother’s best advice: “We do not quit”. I have now lived, and must acknowledge the statement: “We do not quit; even when having two babies in twenty-one months, moving across the country, finishing a PhD, and writing a dissertation.” For my own daughters:

Dream big, and never give up. Thank you to my own little family. You are my first priority, my roots, and my wings: I love you too much.

Of course, it also took “a small village” to reach this goal; and I would like to acknowledge that village. First, a sincere thank you to a dear mentor, and colleague: Lisa

Patrick. Her positive kindness and willingness to help and answer questions, through the whole process, was essential in much of my success as a student, and as a researcher. A big hug and thanks goes to Dr. Joen Iannucci, for her endless belief in me, for always setting the bar high, and for pushing me to “Doctor”. And so much of this dissertation is for Dr. Dillard; who didn’t know it, but who inspired me in so many ways. She reminded me why I had chosen this path, and her teachings kept the light alive even through the really long stretches.

Second, I’d like to acknowledge and thank my committee for their expertise; and for being willing to work with me, from all locations, to help me reach my goals. A dear

vi thank you goes to Dr. Kiefer, the walking library, for being so full of knowledge and for her willingness to share a little with me. To Dr. Freeman, for her endless wisdom, kindness, encouragement, and thorough revisions. Her sweet patience and positive enthusiasm gave me continued hope. To Dr. Lehman for her commitment to the field of

Children’s Literature and the passion in which she teaches and leads. I hope to always

“go well” and follow her example in academia.

Third, to the babies, their parents, and the teachers who participated in this study

(and also the staff at the center). Their Southern hospitality was truly tangible; and I’m so thankful they allowed me into their lives and space for a brief period of time. Also, to

Dr. Talbert and Dr. Goree, at Baylor University, for their brilliance and kindness when embracing me and my questions as a researcher. A special thanks also goes out to Kitty

Reeves, in the Department of Computer Science at Ohio State, for her expertise of formulas in Excel. My analysis could not have been accomplished without her!

Finally, to my colleagues and anyone else that will walk this path. May the force be with you; and may you always remember with what passion you began! Go well! And

GO BUCKS!

vii

VITA

2004 B.S. Elementary Education Brigham Young University-Idaho Rexburg, ID

2004-2008 Classroom Teacher Davis School District Farmington, UT

2008 National Board Certified Teacher

2008 M.A. Teaching; Teacher Leadership National University of La Jolla La Jolla, CA

2008-2011 Program Coordinator College of Dentistry The Ohio State University Columbus, OH

Present Researcher Baylor University Waco, TX

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Education

Children’s Literature

Teacher Leadership

Teaching and Learning

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ...... ii Dedication ...... v Acknowledgements ...... vi Vita ...... vii Table of Contents ...... ix List of Tables ...... xiii List of Figures ...... xv

Chapters: 1. Defining the Study ...... 1 Introduction to Chapter 1 ...... 1 Background of the Question/Problem ...... 2 Purpose of the Research ...... 6 Research Questions ...... 9 Significance of the Study ...... 10 Limitations of the Study...... 13 Definition of Terms...... 15 Summary of Chapter 1 ...... 15

2. Review of Related Literature ...... 17 Introduction to Chapter 2 ...... 17 A Historical Perspective on the Early Books for Infants ...... 17 Distinguishing Characteristics of the Traditional Book for Infants vs. the E-reader ...... 21 Interactive Books ...... 22 Electronic Books ...... 23 An Examination of the Benefits and Theories of Healthy Development Related to Reading Aloud with Infants ...... 23 Cognitive Development ...... 25 Interpersonal Experiences ...... 26 Predictability ...... 26 Art ...... 27

Subject content ...... 27 Social Development ...... 28 Language ...... 29 Emotional Development ...... 30 Morality...... 31 Physical Development ...... 31 The Literature on Reading Response with Infants and Young Children ...... 33 Purposes, Practices, and Benefits of Reading with Children Birth to Age Five ...... 33 Literacy Development Occurs Before Acquisition of Oral Language...... 34 Studies Proving the Benefits of Reading with Infants and Small Children ...... 35 Observational Diaries...... 36 The Role of Another Human in Reading ...... 37 Case Study of Electronic Books and Preschoolers ...... 38 An Examination of the Literature Regarding Electronic Readers ...... 38 Educational Benefits of Reading Aloud Compared to Providing Children with a Talking Book...... 40 Summary of Chapter 2 ...... 42 Main Points that Support this Study ...... 42

3. Methodology ...... 44 Introduction to Chapter 3 ...... 44 Restating of Research Questions and Purpose ...... 46 Theoretical Frame ...... 47 Sociocultural Theory in this Case Study ...... 48 Sociocultural Theory and Technology ...... 50 Qualitative Inquiry ...... 50 Selection of Participants ...... 52 Description of Participants: Teachers and Babies ...... 53 Selection of Traditional Books and E-Books...... 56 Setting ...... 61 Summary of Data Collection Procedures ...... 63 Data Collection Procedures ...... 64 Research Design...... 66 Case Study ...... 66 Data Collection Methods ...... 67 Participant Observation ...... 68 Field Notes ...... 69

Video Recording ...... 70 Member Checks ...... 71 Data Analysis Procedures and Description ...... 73 Organization and Transcription of the Data ...... 73 Types of Analysis: Thematic Analysis using Inductive and Deductive Methods ...... 79 Thematic Analysis ...... 80 Analysis Methods: Codes and Themes ...... 81 Finding Codes ...... 81 Secondary Coding ...... 82 Thematic Methods ...... 82 Repetition ...... 83 Similarities and Differences ...... 83 Cutting and Sorting ...... 84 Missing Data ...... 84 Ideas Guiding Analysis ...... 85 Trustworthiness and Validity ...... 86 Triangulation ...... 86 Repeatability ...... 87 Truth ...... 87 Summary of Chapter 3 ...... 88

4. Presentation of the Findings...... 90 Introduction to Chapter 4 ...... 90 Background of the Findings ...... 91 Research Questions Addressed ...... 93 Description of the Findings ...... 95 Babies Responses to Electronic and Traditional Texts ...... 95 Explanation of the Data: Babies' Responses ...... 98 Pertinence of Book Format for Infants ...... 104 E-reading with the Infants ...... 105 Reading Traditionally with Infants ...... 111 E-reading: The Reader's Experience and Read-Aloud Responsibility ...... 119 Reading Aloud at the Center ...... 119 Reader's Experience with the Books ...... 120 Readers Comfort Level with the Books ...... 120 Summary of Chapter 4 ...... 128

Findings from the Data Summarized ...... 128

5. Contributions and Research Implications of This Study ...... 131 Introduction to Chapter 5 ...... 131 Discussion of Findings ...... 133 Overarching Research Question ...... 133 Sub-Question A ...... 134 Sub-Question B ...... 134 Sub-Question C ...... 137 Contributions of this Study ...... 140 Research Implications for Parents and Caregivers ...... 142 Research Implications for Education ...... 146 Sociocultural Theory in Education ...... 147 Future Studies ...... 150 Summary of Chapter 5 ...... 152 Final Thoughts ...... 153

APPENDIX A: Sample of Teacher Observation Sheet ...... 156 APPENDIX B: Sample of Written Field Notes ...... 158 APPENDIX C: Final Member Check E-mail Form ...... 160 APPENDIX D: Recruitment Scripts ...... 163 APPENDIX E: Teacher Observation Form Permission Letter ...... 167

REFERENCES ...... 169

xii

LIST OF TABLES

Table

1 Emergent Literacy Patterns in Very Young Children ...... 5

2 A Guide to Sharing Literature with Infants ...... 12

3 The Benefits of Reading Traditional Books with Infants ...... 42

4 Description of Traditional Books at the Center ...... 57

5 Titles and Descriptions of Original Electronic Books used in the Study ...... 58

6 Description of Additional Electronic and Traditional Books ...... 61

7 Investigator's Data Collection Procedures ...... 65

8 Sample of Transcribed Field Notes ...... 74

9 Sample of Transcribed Video Notes ...... 75

10 Sample of Teacher's Transcribed Observation Sheet ...... 76

11 Sample Transcribed and Combined Master Document for KL ...... 77

12 Description of Major Sections that Address Research Questions in Chapter 4 ...... 93

13 Frequency of the Description of One Word Responses from the Babies

to Both Types of Books ...... 97

14 Notes from the Field: Data Showing Infant Responses to Electronic Texts ...... 107

15 Notes from the Field: Data Showing Interaction Examples with the

Electronic Reader ...... 109

16 Notes from the Field: Data Showing Developmental Behaviors of a Baby with

Both Types of Text ...... 112

17 Notes from the Field: Data Showing Early Literacy Behaviors ...... 115

xiii

18 Comparisons of Emergent Literacy Patterns in Very Young Children

with Research Observations ...... 117

19 Notes from the Field: Data Showing Reader Behaviors to both types of Books ...122

20 Notes from the Field: Data Showing Comfort Level with the Electronic

Reading Device ...... 125

xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

1 Excel Spreadsheet ...... 79 2 Organization of Data Analysis Documents...... 95 3 AB's Electronic Book Visual Response Representation ...... 100 4 AB's Traditional Book Visual Response Representation ...... 101 5 CE's Electronic Book Visual Response Representation ...... 101 6 CE's Traditional Book Visual Response Representation ...... 102 7 KL's Electronic Book Visual Response Representation ...... 102 8 KL's Traditional Book Visual Response Representation ...... 103

CHAPTER 1

DEFINING THE STUDY

Introduction to Chapter 1

When I set out to earn a PhD in Children's Literature, it wasn't initially in the cards to have a baby girl right in the middle of exams, but I did. Harper Anne changed not only the basic core of my life, but what was important in my studies...and why. As my studies intermingled with my everyday “first-time-mom” and “student-of-the-twenty-

first century” life, so did my research interests. As a result, my first exam questions took

a turn in the direction of babies and technology; and I continued to research and reason in

the field as my personal life intersected with my professional one.

Because technology is an integral part of my new-mom life, much of my interest

for this study occurred after reading Oxford Neurologist, Dr. Susan Greenfield’s, (2011,

2012) theories on the ways engaging with technology may actually change the ways the

human brain is developing. She states:

The wonderful thing about being born a human being is that although we are equipped with pretty much all the neurons we will ever have, it is the growth and connections between the brain cells which account for the growth of the brain after birth. We human beings don't run particularly fast, nor see particularly well, and we are not particularly strong compared to others in the animal kingdom: but we have the superlative talent to adapt to whatever environment we encounter. (2011, p.1)

The rationale behind mind change therefore runs as follows: the human brain will adapt to whatever environment impinges on it; the cyber-world of the 21st century is offering an unprecedented environment; therefore the brain may be adapting in unprecedented ways. We should try to

foresee what these changes might be, both positive and negative: only then can we minimize the threats and harness the opportunities (2012, p.1).

Because I did not have the capabilities to physically scan babies’ brains to see if there was a change over time in brain function (although I’m confident that at some point this research will take place), I wanted to test the research with what I knew: babies, literature, and reader response.

I was most interested to see if the technology (electronic book) was noticeably changing the reader response in babies by how they responded during my research, or if

“e-reading” was simply adding to traditional early literacy patterns. These patterns were discovered by Clay (2000) and Birckmayer et al.'s (2009) in their findings on young children’s experiential behaviors in emergent literacy with traditional books (i.e. holds the book right side up, turns the pages, etc.).

As I researched, I found many studies regarding early literacy and reading with infants; some recent, and a great deal written nearly thirty years ago. With the past and current information present, I initially put my findings (and questions) into practice with my daughter. In addition to daily book reading, I naturally began to incorporate electronic books on the iPad e-reader into our reading time. Our experiences, along with my background knowledge, led to questioning everything from the format of the electronic book to the reading experience, to the effect it will have on all babies' initial experiences with literacy.

Background of the Question/Problem

“… human learning presupposes a specific social nature and a process by which children grow into the intellectual life of those around them.” (Lev Vygotsky, 1978, p. 88)

Babies are naturally curious about their world, and seek out information to make sense of it (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2002). Books provide foundational literacy experiences which help them to construct meaning, contribute to overall development, (Tillotson,

2005) and encourage cognitive, social, and emotional growth. Engaging with print at an early age also encourages language acquisition, vocabulary growth, and promotes emergent literacy strategies needed to read (Clay, 2000).

Early literacy is not the "teaching of reading" as stated by Multnomah County

Library (MCL,2012, p.1), but rather the first ways babies are prepared to read. Early literacy is a baby who chews on a book (MCL, 2012, p. 1) or when the baby hears, looks at, or handles "lots and lots of books" (Kimmel & Segal 1988). These “book behaviors” are the first steps in a baby's developing literacy skills (National Center for Infants, 2012, p. 1).

Lindskoog and Hunsicker (1989) found that mothers who “talk to their babies all the time, about everything, are preparing them to be readers” (p. 15). As they talk and read, babies learn "phonemic awareness (the ability to perceive individual sounds in the stream of speech) especially in the first eight to ten months" (RTYB, 2010, p. 1). Adults are one of the richest resources for children because they are one of the only mediums, aside from older children, computers, television, (and now, potentially, electronic devices), which can bring considerable knowledge, language, and print to them. (Roskos,

Tabors, & Lenhart, 2009).

While there are rival theories about the ways children develop language, there is a

"substantial agreement" that even very young infants respond to adults soothing words

and sounds of their language (Sawyer, 2004, p. 25). Social interaction further enhances

the "natural expansion" of language (Williams & Davis, 1994, p. 38), and through repeated readings children become aware of the social need to use their language for communication (McLaughlin, 2006).

When humans read, talk, or play with their babies they are "stimulating the growth of the brain and building connections" that will become the building blocks for literacy. In addition, brain development research shows that reading aloud to a baby every day "increases his brain's capacity for language and literacy skills and is the most important thing one can do to prepare him for learning to read" (MCL, 2012, p.1).

Whitehead and Makin (2004) state:

Scientists have known for some decades that babies are born already prepared to find other people interesting and worth communicating with from the start. They are now also able to show that babies’ brains are highly adaptable. The main connections in the brains of newborns are not pre-wired or fixed, but are actively linked up as babies respond to being cuddled, fed, changed and talked to by regular [caregivers]. This very ordinary stimulation from a few caring people is crucial to brain development, but babies are also stimulated by suitable toys, movements, sounds, shapes and strong colours. Brainy babies develop as caring adults talk to them, cuddle them and have lots of fun with them. (p. 16)

In addition, interactive, engaging dialogue between children and adults is a major factor in literacy development (Morrow, 2001). When adults use children's literature as a major tool in providing acquisition of literacy (Jalongo, 2004), they are providing a

"practice ground" of oral language development and establishing skills needed to produce

more sophisticated thinking about print over time (Morrow, 2001; Soderman, Gregory, &

O'Neill, 1999).

Marie Clay (2000) an educator from New Zealand, discovered that young children

learn much about literacy, long before they can read, in the ways text is presented to

them. She termed her ideas as “concepts about print”, which suggest that simple ways

children hold books, and turn the pages, affect their success as young readers. As children

develop, it is vital that book choice correlates with developmental milestones in order to

promote proven developmental-based literacy skills. What happens when the book

choice (i.e. electronic book) inhibits early literacy behaviors such as turning an actual

page, or understanding the difference between the cover and a page in the story? What

about the concept that books in America are read (in their entirety) from left to right?

Birckmayer et al.'s (2009, p.42) list of young children’s experiential behaviors in emergent literacy focuses on the known practices of early literacy with the traditional book:

Table 1

Emergent Literacy Patterns in Very Young Children 1. Child recognizes a particular book 2. Is able to turn the pages of a board book 3. Points to pictures in a book 4. Holds a book right side up 5. Looks at a book from front to back, or whatever way is appropriate for the language in which the book is written and the culture from which it comes 6. Recognizes a book by the cover 7. Makes comments about pictures in books 8. "Reads" the words in a book (telling the story by looking at the pictures)

Comprehension is also a vital aspect of early literacy, as a baby as young as four

months can recognize his or her own name according to the website Reading To Your

Baby (RTYB, 2010). While most e-books do emit sounds and words, some argue that

“[electronics] cannot provide the necessary words babies need to hear” (RTYB, 2010.

p.1). In order for babies to gain listening comprehension, they need to “hear language

that is personally directed at them; language that is conversational and interactive (p.1).”

Listening comprehension predicts reading comprehension and begins when they

understand words they hear.

Thirty-three years ago, Lindskoog and Hunsicker (1989) spoke about the ill

effects screen watching has had on literacy development of young readers. They pled the

case: “human beings are not apt to invest great concentration in this mental activity called

reading if they have become dependent upon a fascinating machine that discourages

analysis, imagination, and integration; aside from floating in the womb, there are few

states of mind more passive than watching [a screen]” (p.7).

Today, Dr. Ari Brown discusses the achievement culture, and the greater need for

children to have experiences in understanding the world around them (Moore, 2011). Dr.

Brown did not discuss having a problem with touch screens, “which are becoming more

ubiquitous every day”, but she wants to “better understand how using them affects young

children socially, physically, and emotionally” (Moore, 2011, p.1). My study will fill

some gaps in the research, building a bridge from past studies to the current “e-world” of

this century, and the ways in which infants (aged 0-12 months) are responding to this new

screen technology in the form of an e-book.

Purpose of the Research

There is very little literature on the response of young children with electronic readers; and none that I could determine featuring infants and early literacy. Two of the most recent studies featuring young children and electronic readers were conducted by

Parrish-Morris and Collins (2006) and Caplovitz (2005), and are featured in chapters 2 and 3, respectively. However, today, the interactive books of the past have taken on a whole new meaning and place in homes and care facilities throughout the world in the form of electronic readers. These e-readers, provide opportunities for children to engage in "textual experiences" without the use of a "traditional" book.

In 1999, the American Academy of Pediatrics issued a statement discouraging the use of electronic media by children under the age of two saying that they learn best from

“live interaction with humans, not screens” (Moore, 2011, p.1). Today, they have reviewed roughly 50 studies, defining media as "television programs, prerecorded videos,

Web-based programming, and DVDs viewed on either traditional or new screen technologies" (Moore, 2011, p.1, my emphasis) such as electronic books.

The AAP maintain that this particular age group does not reap benefits from electronics; stating that “unstructured play time is more valuable for brain development than electronic media” and that “young children learn best from live interaction with humans, not screens. TV viewing at sleep time can cause poor sleep habits, irregular sleep schedules; and young children with heavy media use are at higher risk for language delays” (p.1).

However, the National Association for the Education of Young Children

(NAEYC), notes its contrasting viewpoint, and has updated its policy on electronics as they recognize that “technology and interactive media have great potential as enhanced learning tools to support the development of young children” from birth to three years

(Gentry, 2012, p.1). NAEYC recognize that babies are already connected and exploring

new digital habits. Its policy states:

As technology increasingly finds its way into mainstream culture, the types and uses of technology in early childhood programs have also expanded dramatically to include computers, tablets, e-books, mobile devices, handheld gaming devices, digital cameras and video camcorders, electronic toys, multimedia players for music and videos, digital audio recorders, interactive whiteboards, software applications, the Internet, streaming media, and more. These technologies are increasingly expanding the tools and materials to which young children have access both in their homes and in their classrooms, affecting the ways in which young children interact with the world and with others. (Gentry, 2012, p.1) The option of electronic gadgets, books, and toys has become an option for every new baby, and parents are torn between the old reliable and their expensive hi-tech cousins (Dowd, 2012). The question really becomes, do babies need this technology now? Will they be left behind when they reach kindergarten if their well-meaning parents choose to forego the electronics and stick with what they grew up with?

Many experts in the field of childhood education agree that technology has

its place in learning for infants (Dowd, 2012). However, many argue that real

people and real objects that allow them the greatest freedom to explore their

environments are more effective. Susan Haugland (as cited in Dowd, 2012), of the

Educations Resource Information Center Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early

Childhood Education (ERIC), states:

Since children this age learn through their bodies, they respond best to activities requiring the use of their eyes, mouths, hands, and legs. [Electronics] are not helpful in teaching the developmental skills that children this age need to master: crawling, walking, talking, and making friends. Most fancy electronic toys require only the press of a button—simply not enough physical stimulation to offer much educational benefit to young children. For babies, interactive [objects], such as those where a child shakes a rattle and a stuffed toy

that responds with different movements and sounds, may offer a bridge to physical learning not previously available from computerized infant [objects] (p.1).

Gentry (2012) maintains that it is normal for cultural shifts in society to happen

over decades, but since the “explosion of new technology, it seems that things have

happened over night” (p.1). While theories on education do generally follow a pendulum

motion, it seems that what’s happening in the world of early literacy, especially with

infants and technology is that “parents who are pressed for time and who embrace

technology themselves are welcoming babies into a new world for experiencing words

and language in addition to the tried and true comfortable world of lap reading” It’s

almost as if “lap reading is ‘out’ and software driven reading lessons are ‘in’” (Gentry,

2012, p. 1).

A purpose of this study, then, is to observe responses of babies to “e-reading” in

order to uncover information regarding early literacy patterns in this decade; and record

and analyze their behaviors, gestures, vocalizations, and other actions. While research

has shown the effectiveness and importance of reading books with babies and toddlers

(Sulzby, 1983; Teale, 1984; Crago & Crago, 1983; Cochran-Smith 1982), no attention

has been paid to responses of babies to electronic readers. The purpose of this case study

was to discover the response of babies aged 0-12 months to electronic readers at a child

development center affiliated with a university in the South.

Research Questions

This qualitative research design, using a multiple holistic case study involving three babies (two girls and one boy: ages 4, 5, and 7 months) sought to explore, identify, and describe their responses with an electronic reader (e-books) and traditional books. 9

The study focused on three babies in a child development center affiliated with a university in the South.

The study specifically addressed the following overarching question:

How do three babies' (aged 0-12 months) at a child development center

affiliated with a university in the South, respond to an electronic reader (e-

books) and traditional books?

The following sub-questions were also addressed in this study:

A. How do babies responses compare when responding to electronic books

versus traditional texts?

B. How do teachers describe changes of the infants' behaviors or reactions in

regards to the purposes and/or benefits of reading (i.e. social, emotional,

behavioral) with babies aged 0-12 months as e-readers are introduced to

their reading time?

C. How do babies respond to the different ways that e-readers are presented

to them (i.e. teachers using verbal and/or non-verbal cues)?

Significance of the Study

Another purpose of this study was to uncover understanding based on an area in child development and education where a paucity of research has occurred. Although there was an explosion of case studies and personal diaries conducted on the success of reading with infants in the 1980’s; since then, there have been limited studies, and none, that I can find, focusing on the new wave of electronic readers in the 21st century with infants.

Much of the literature involving technology, reading, and the combination of the two, suggests conflicting agendas. Lindskoog and Hunsicker (1989) state:

Some people assume that hours of adult words and phrases pouring from a mechanical box should improve children’s vocabulary and self-expression. But since this obviously has not happened [in regards to the television], Winn suggests that prolonged [screen] viewing permanently retards the development of the brain’s left side, where the center for logical speech is situated. No matter what the program content, Winn maintains, looking at moving images produced on a screen by tiny dots is going to have some physiological effect upon the eyes and brain. (p. 7)

In contrast, Johnson's (2009) Wall Street Journal Online article on how the e- book will change the way we read and write, suggests that it will not be a "simple matter of trading ink for pixels" but will "change the way we read, write, and sell books in profound ways" (p.1). He also suggests that reading is a "solitary act" and that, instead of becoming more machine driven, it will make the act of reading into something "more social" (p.1). Social media and the internet (which most electronic books are also capable of having as a feature) allow for reading experiences to take place across the world, due to capabilities provided by the internet.

In the book Raising Readers: a guide to sharing literature with young children,

Lamme (1980, pp. 5-7) describes the characteristics of reading traditional books with babies (see columns 1 and 2). Her information is featured in the first two columns in

Table 2. I have added a third column on the far right, showcasing elements of the electronic reader when shared with infants.

Table 2

A Guide to Sharing Literature with Infants

Characteristics Activities Electronic Reader 0-6 months Exploring by listening: Read books that “sound Babies can “receive” receiving language good” that you enjoy language from the e-book, it reading; sing songs. may even become familiar, but it will never be a person Exploring by feeling: Read books that provide While e-books are reaching out. different textures; help advancing to differing child to turn pages. “touch” methods, a baby currently cannot experience more than the smooth texture of the machine. Exploring by gumming. Let infant have teething E-books are much more ring or toy while you are expensive, and cannot be reading; read aloud while gummed while reading. feeding. Sawyer (2004) and Anderson (2006), both agree that board books should be durable and from sturdy materials if an infant should happen to put the book in his or her mouth. Exploring by looking. Try books with large, clear E-books show clear, vibrant pictures, especially those and (an additional feature) with faces. MOVING images! 6 months- 1 year Small object play Let child hold a small This can easily be done in object while you read; addition to the moving participation books. images on the E-reader. Developing memory and Pick an object illustrated in The e-reader itself is a two “object permanence” (the the book and let child find dimensional object. concept that something does the page it is on; repeat Therefore, while the screen not go away even when stories; look at photograph provides 3-D imagery of the covered). albums of family members. actual book, the pages are bound to a two dimensional object, and cannot be separated from the e-reader. It is easy to trace something back a few pages, by simply dragging ones finger up or across the screen.

Continued

Table 2 Continued

Developing curiosity Read stories that start on Some elements of the e- one page and end on the reader produce additional next page; books that ask elements of curiosity due to questions. their hidden or blinking animated features. According to the touch of the child, the e-book can respond in multiple ways. Learning names for things Point as you name things. This can be doubly enforced if speaking when reading the e-book. Developing recognition of Books with adults/care Easily accomplished with mother and father. givers shown; photograph an e-reader (may have to albums. use additional verbal assistance). Continuing language Songs lullabies, rhymes, Easily (and oftentimes) development sounds. repetition. used in addition with the stories on the e-reader. Continuing language Repetition Books This works in congruence development: sentences. with e-books.

As shown, electronic books can provide a much different experience with early literacy and responses to reading. Thus, the significance of this study will be to further uncover differences, similarities, strengths, and weaknesses of each type of text.

Limitations of the Study

This study may be limited by its focus on a multiple, holistic case study of three babies (from 3.5 to 7 months at the start of the study) in a single child development center as opposed to a variety of environments and varied development stages in individual

babies. This limited focus may also make it difficult to generalize the results to the entire

“infant-body” as it is known that each child matures and develops at his or her own rate.

While the caregivers (known as “teachers” in this study) do have a bond with the

babies, they are not their parents, and this may cause another limitation. In addition,

there are many types of electronic readers, and the type that was specifically used for this

case study (iPad Mini), as well as the exact “delivery” methods may vary in different

cases.

The length of this particular study was approximately 10 weeks. Due to the small window of age and stage development in infants, the length will be a limitation in this particular study, as it would be informative to follow these infants for years to find more information about electronic reading in this century. In addition, while I do showcase recent studies, a great deal of the research on reading with infants, as well as case studies that follow early literacy patterns in very young children, date back nearly thirty years.

While I have featured the studies I believe to be relevant and “tried and true”, it is important to note the years in which each research scenario took place.

Another limitation, and one that I hope will be a springboard for a follow-up study to this research, is of Socio-Economic Status (SES) and electronic readers.

Currently, the most inexpensive electronic reader costs $199, and most “e-books” purchased for small children are an additional fee (ranging from $.99 and up). While my study does not focus on “haves and have nots”, the fact that this type of reading suggests that one is able to afford it in order to access it, will certainly affect a large number of the population in relation to the nature of my findings. This idea, however, may change as

more options for use may become readily available in public spaces (libraries, etc.) as

well as public schools.

Definition of Terms

Traditional Book - Written or printed work consisting of pages glued or sewn together along one side and bound in covers (Oxford Dictionary, 2013).

Picture Book - A book containing many illustrations, especially one for children (Oxford Dictionary, 2013).

Electronic Book - The electronic counterpart of a printed book, which can be viewed on a desktop computer, laptop, smartphone or e-book reader. A large number of e-books can be stored in portable units (PC Mag, 2013).

Application (App) - The term has been shorthand for "application" in the IT community for a long time. However, it became popular with the consumer for mobile applications in smartphones and tablets after Apple debuted the iPhone (PC Mag, 2013). The "apps" are small, square icons that can be touched, on the iPad, to open a book or other program.

E-Culture - My own term, referring to the social realm or "culture" that exists when using technology to teach with, interact with, or learn from.

Early Literacy - According to Multnomah County Library (2012) early literacy is everything children know about reading and writing before they can actually read and write. Early literacy is a baby who chews on a book, a toddler who wants his favorite book read over and over, and a preschooler who "reads" the story to you from memory.

Teacher - For the purposes of this particular study, the teacher is the person in the room reading with the infant(s).

Baby - For the purposes of this particular study, when I speak about babies, I mean infants aged 0-12 months. I used “infant” and “baby” interchangeably throughout.

Summary of Chapter 1

This study will help to uncover ways babies are responding to traditional readers,

as well as electronic readers in two possible situations 1) With verbal cues and interaction

from the “reader” and 2) with no verbal cues, just holding the electronic (talking) book up to the child. However, I did not give “delivery” instructions to the teachers. I was interested to discover if this technology is changing the way babies read and interact

(Greenfield, 2012), or if it is simply adding to the overall early literacy patterns as established by all normal-functioning babies exposed to literature at an early age. My findings will be used to inform parents, early caregivers, and literacy enthusiasts of the updated research on reading with babies.

Someday, I hope, along with Jonathan Kozol (1998), that:

…teachers [and parents] insist that every little child in our country—rich or poor; black, brown, or white; whatever origin or background—would have the chance to read books [in all their forms]. Not for any other reason than the fact that books bring joy into our lives, not because they’ll be useful for a state examination, not because they’ll improve SAT scores, but solely because of the intense pleasure that we get from books. If [adults are] not willing to defend the right of every child to enjoy the treasures of the earth, who will? (p.1)

In working with my own child, I discovered that exposure to the electronic texts, as well as interaction with them, was second nature to her. She could turn pages with a traditional book sooner (nine months) than the electronic "turning" of the pages which happened at 13 months. However, it could have been that she had more individualized access to the books in her room versus the supervision she receives with the electronic book. In any case, both books provided time spent together, as I was careful to "read" the electronic book together. It is my belief that both types of books contribute to different strengths in each area of development; and will both be useful as babies continue toward a literate and e-literate lifetime of reading.

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction to Chapter 2 The purpose of the following literature review will be to explore matters related to early literacy and infants aged 0-12 months. This review of related literature covers the multifaceted layers of the comparison between the traditional books and its new counterpart, the electronic book. A historical perspective of each, and the purposes for which they are most effectively used are presented. In addition, research on the benefits and theories of healthy development (social, cognitive, emotional, & physical) are also featured, along with the literature on reading response with infants and young children.

My review continues by featuring comparative case studies and diary logs involving research findings related to infants and reading (including a case study using electronic readers with preschool-aged students). The last section of this chapter includes exploration on the educational benefits of reading aloud with infants.

A Historical Perspective of Appropriate Books for Infants

Long before iPads, Nooks, Kindles, or board books, stories were still being told.

Sung in the halls of castles, or told around fires, from the fifth to the fifteenth century

(Huck, Hepler, & Hickman, 1993), these stories had no need for pages. The first

interactive books weren't objects at all, but were real interactions among people, with facial expressions and hand gestures accompanying the words.

During the 15th century, children learned to read from hornbooks. These tiny wooden paddles (measuring 2 3/4 by 5 inches) covered with printed parchment of alphabet, vowels, or the Lord's Prayer, were perfect for tiny hands. Sometimes even made of gingerbread, Huck, Hepler, and Hickman (1993) declare that what made these books unique was that "now a child could handle them and see the print up close" (p.

111).

These medieval "board books" lasted for over 200 years, being primarily used for tools of instruction, and were then replaced with ABC books and primers. Due to the high mortality rate of young children, an influx of religious books brought forth by Henry

VIII was very prominent in the 1500's (Anderson, 2006; Huck, Hepler, & Hickman,

1993).

Chap books appeared in the 1580's as one of the first booklets providing entertainment for children. However, in 1744, A Little Pretty Pocket-Book by John

Newbery (Anderson, 2006) "deliberately and openly set out to provide amusement for children, something no other publisher had had the courage or insight to do" (Huck,

Hepler, & Hickman,1993, p. 115).

Moral stories written for toddlers, such as Early Lessons for Children, appeared in the 1760's, and while there was controversy over fairy tales being told to young children,

Beatrix Potter began to write her own series for children in 1887. She was determined to see a story made into "a little book for little hands" (Anderson, 2006, p. 8). These books

quickly became household names and have since been published in board book and other formats.

Huck, Hepler, and Hickman (1993) note that as more books for entertainment and identification increased, more publishers recognized the need for the young children to

"identify and name objects" Therefore, they began producing many of these simple, sturdy, "first books" (p. 175).

In the late 1930's, Dorothy Kunhardt created a book for her daughter, Edith, by adding interactive elements to a board book. The final product was Pat the Bunny, published in 1940. Her son, Philip Kunhardt (1990) details the development of the first interactive book:

Before "Pat," books for very little children were for reading aloud and looking at. This one was for playing with as well. Right on the pages themselves were a variety of real things all babies love to go after. There was a fluffy little cottontail to pat, a peekaboo cloth to pick up and peep behind, a red ball that squeaked, a shiny mirror to look into, a daddy's scratchy beard to feel, a miniature book about a bunny with pages to turn and a mother's wedding ring to stick a finger through. It was the original 'touch and feel' book, as they call the genre in the trade today, and even though it has inspired a hutch of imitations, Golden Press still goes on cutting and gluing and stamping out and hand-finishing a quarter of a million new copies of 'Pat' each year (p. 1).

As research on the effectiveness and importance of reading board books and interactive books with babies and toddlers emerged (Sulzby, 1983; & Teale, 1984), the

"trickle of board books turned into a bewildering flood" (Odean, 2004, p. 3). While a handful still use the board book format to "initiate a personal connection to books and language" (Odean, 2004, p. 3), many do not. Today, Odean (2004) worries that

"television and movie tie-ins abound in cluttered, wordy board books, and fine picture

books, published mostly for older children, are being reduced in size and inappropriately

presented in board-book form for babies and toddlers" (p. 3).

This is problematic, as specific typeface, font, layout, and colors are formatted

specifically for young audiences. Many picture books do not lend themselves to the

transformation. Oftentimes, illustration details and portions of the text are lost, and

careful attention to the publishing information should be paid (Ash, 2010). For example,

board books illustrated in simple black and white, such as Hoden's (1993) White on Black

and Black on White, and Linenthal's (1998) Look, Look! are ideal for newborns whose

eye sight is not yet fully developed, but who respond well to contrast (Sawyer, 2004; &

Odean, 2004).

It is imperative that one understands the true distinguishing characteristics of

board and interactive books in relation to very young children as they play an important

role in development, language, and beginning a joyful relationship with literature.

Distinguishing Characteristics of the Traditional Book for Infants vs. the E-reader

To better understand correct uses for board books, as well as utilization of

interactive texts, there is a need for defining varying characteristics of the two. Board

books, in content and format, are designed for very young children. Hughes-Hassel &

Cox (2010), Huck, Hepler, & Hickman (1993), Odean (2004), Sawyer (2004), and

Anderson (2006) agree that board books should be durable; generally range in size from three to twelve inches square, usually consist of ten to twelve sturdy cardboard pages, and have a glossy, easy wipe-off finish on each side. Most will have rounded corners to

prevent harm to the eye, and most should have simple, bright, contrasting, uncluttered

pictures often with just a one word label, or short caption describing the illustrations.

Board books can also be "puffy" or made of "foam-filled cloth" (Huck, Hepler, &

Hickman, 1993, p. 176) such as Roger Priddy's (2003) cloth and rag books. Hughes-

Hassel and Cox (2010) maintain that if the board books are created with very young children in mind, they focus on "familiar objects, feature people, and/or match the short attention span and high energy level of infants and toddlers." (p. 4) Odean (2004) also emphasizes the need for "judiciously placed questions" to "pull in little listeners" as well as "invitations to make animal or vehicle noises" (p. 4).

Ash (2010) declares that board books are a format-specific subgenre of the traditional picture book; however, a book need not be traditional for it to be effective. In

Kenya, Tomlinson (2002) describes how women "print letters, numbers, proverbs, and pictorial messages on bright Kanga Cloths, the traditional all-purpose cloth used for clothing, curtains, tablecloths, and other household purposes." These may not fit certain descriptions of board books, but are "economical, practical, versatile, and visible" (p. 8).

Interactive books. As technology sweeps through every facet in 2012, interactive books for babies and toddlers take on a myriad of definitions. At one end of the spectrum are board books with textured pages or other interactive elements (such as transformations, pull-tabs, pop-outs, pull-downs, etc.), and on the other end are books on electronic devices (storytimeforme, 2010) and apps for e-readers.

Traditional interactive books, or "toy books" as Huck (1993, p. 179) refers to them as, feature titles such as "chunky flap books", "lift-the-flap books", "scratch &

sniff", and "mirror" books. Some examples include: Santoro's (1993) Open the Barn

Door (chunky flap book), Katz' (2000) Where's the Baby's Belly Button? (lift-the-flap),

Laden's (2000) Peek-A-Who? (window cut-outs), Van Fleet's (2003) Tails (touch and feel), Aigner-Clark's (2009) I See Me!: A Mirror Board Book (mirror), and Schoenberg's

(2010) The Baby Hustle which features "wiggles and giggles" or moveable parts.

More innovative interactive books, featuring varying technological elements, are

Sharp's (2007) I Love You More Than...which showcases a music box that produces music along with flashing lights, and Seder's (2007) Gallop, showing a technology referred to as "scanimation" which allow the illustrations to move quickly and appear as if a horse is galloping on a small screen across the book.

Due to the vast range of texts available in so many varying formats, Evans (2005) reasons that interactive books and text itself have "come to include not only words-plus- images, but moving images with their associated sound tracks, too" (p. 13). Wepner and

Ray (2000) classify books such as Gallop (2007) "with minimal animation" to those that expand the book with an "extensive array of animated features", as "electronic books" (p.

172).

Electronic books. As advances in technology pervade the literacy world, these multimodal texts redefine interactive texts, and communicate in different ways (Evans,

2005). Morrow, Freitag, and Gambrell (2009) note that the animation in the texts contribute to motivating children, and Wepner and Ray (2000) declare that "with its multisensory, multidimensional, and multipersonal characteristics, [these books] offer young children an important communication medium for using their receptive and expressive skills to develop as literacy learners" (p. 170).

The future of books is uncertain (Huck, Hepler, & Hickman, 1993), as is the

language we use to discuss literacy (James, 1999). However, with uncertainty comes

excitement! Technology and electronic books give opportunities for developing literacy

that aren't available through other means (Wepner & Ray, 2000), and allow children a great deal of control over their interaction with books. Morrow, Freitag, and Gambrell

(2009) agree, that children can now determine the pace of the story presentation and when the pages are turned, select a story to read and reread, and can even "interact with characters in the book" (p. 28).

Robinson and Mackey (2003) state:

Literacy occurs as a set of situated practices; that is, we read as part of a social world in real contexts, and our literate behaviors are influenced by and influence the world we are in. One impact of televisual texts and television in particular, has been to reposition children both in the world and in their relation to texts. Children now approach all their texts as multiliterate interpreters (p. 126).

An Examination of the Benefits and Theories of Healthy Development Related to Reading Aloud with Infants

For decades, there has emerged a sizable body of research discussing the many benefits of reading aloud to young children as well as its effects on specific populations who are at risk for school failure (Wood & Salvetti, 2001). Time and time again, studies show that book reading in the home makes distinct contributions to young children’s literacy development (Dickinson & Smith, 1994) as well as later success in school.

While young children use experience, environment, and people as powerful teachers, they also discover their place in the world through print. Davis and Williams

(1994) emphasize the need for young children to have experiences with literature, which

allow them to “hear, tell, create and explore the world around them” as they seek to find

meaning (as cited in Sawyer, 2004, p. 2).

Reading aloud and often to young children (even before they are born) promotes

healthy development through social interaction, as well as literacy development through

language structure. Continued engagement with picture books not only aides in becoming a literate adult, but also builds a solid foundation for enjoying books and taking time to read later in life (Jalongo, 2004).

This section provides a review of early literacy research, as well as a study of

language acquisition and child development. It also examines the benefits, purposes, and

effective practices of reading aloud with children in the first five years of life.

Techniques that promote effective literacy practices and language acquisition are

highlighted, as well as the importance and effects of providing a literate environment

early on. Additionally, effects of socioeconomic status on literacy, language, and school

achievement, as well as loopholes in the research that can be further studied will also be

uncovered.

The physical, social, emotional, and cognitive domains of child development are

closely related, and reading experiences should foster the integration of these domains”

(Sawyer, 2004, p. 23). Child development studies formerly relied on behavior patterns to

identify benchmarks for developmental growth of young children; but later research has

shown that children’s growth patterns are uneven, and development is not simply the

“result of the maturation of neural cells” but instead, is explained through the evolution

of new experiences (Kiefer & Tyson, 2010, p. 29) Interactions and experiences with

board and interactive books, whose characteristics are made specifically for the very young audience, assist in healthy development.

Recent research indicates that Piaget, a famous theorist of childhood and cognitive development, “probably underestimated the thinking capabilities of young infants” (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2002, p. 153). Children’s experiences with literature begin at a very early age. Even before they can talk, babies enjoy the sounds of the human voice reading stories and poetry. Their eyes are increasingly able to focus on color and shape, and by the time they are beginning to talk, their vision has developed to the point where they show interest with small details in illustrations and often enjoy searching for specific objects in pictures (Kiefer & Tyson, 2010).

Cognitive Development

A prominent educational psychologist, Benjamin Bloom (1956) identified three

“domains” of learning, cognitive being one. Within the cognitive domain, he defines various skills that promote learning and recognition. Board books are an important tool in learning, and can be used in an exchange to help young children observe, compare, and classify items to name a few. Morrow, Freitag, and Gambrell (2009) use board book characteristics to compliment each domain in the following:

• Observing – Keep looking! (Selsam & Hunt,1989) • Comparing –Big & Little (Jenkins, 1996) • Classifying- My Very First Book of Colors (Carle, 2005) • Organizing- I Can Get Dressed! (Silverhardt, 2003) • Summarizing – The Gingerbread Man (Galdone ,1983) • Evaluating –Ruby the Copycat (Rathmann, 2006) (p.5)

Interpersonal experiences. While genes contain general organization information of the brain’s structure, experience determines how and when genes become expressed. Solo experiences with books such as Aigner-Clark’s Baby da Vinci or

Scholastic’s (2004) My Happy Baby attach easily to a car seat and include mirrors to engage children’s cognitive awareness early in life. Interpersonal relationships are also important and are a primary source of experience that shapes how genes express themselves (Siegel, 1999, p. 14 emphasis added). The small, durable format of board books promotes touch, handling, and exchange of ideas (Morrow, Freitag, & Gambrell,

2009).

Ash (2010) describes the thin line between board books that contain some semblance of a story, and those that simply support contextual understanding. Regardless of text on the page, some board books lend themselves to “point and say” experiences. In order to engage in interpersonal experiences, Ehlert’s (1997) Color Zoo, and Fox’s

(1997) Time for Bed promote easy interaction.

Predictability. Thinking, for young children, is based on their perceptions at the present moment and can be observed in their response to books (Siegel, 1999). Studies show that tiny infants have the ability to form expectations and are able to anticipate future events (Haith, Hazan, & Goodman, 1988; Haith & McCarty, 1990; Nelson, Ellis,

Collins, & Lang, 1990). Therefore, many board and interactive books should feature predictable text and pictures.

Young children respond well to these repetitive elements as they have difficulty holding an image in mind as it changes form or shape (Siegel, 1999). Carle’s (1998)

Have You Seen my Cat or Martin’s (1998) Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See?

provide a predictable rhythm and illustrative matter for very young children to listen to.

As they respond to and have experiences with the text, children are able to perceive,

reason, and recall (McLaughlin, 2006) which sets early literacy patterns for later, when

older children read the text as soon as they are able to understand the language patterns.

Art. Finnegan (2001) found that using art images offers an opportunity for

important cognitive growth in reflection, expression of language skills, and creative

expression in how a child chooses to respond. In addition, using art images may also

provide readiness for learning at preschool and kindergarten. While some are not ready

to understand a complex tale, like in Rey’s (2010) board book edition of Curious George,

they can certainly find the illustrations of an active monkey intrinsically interesting

(Honig, 2007) and become cognitively engaged through the art.

There are many mediums used in illustration, even in board book format. Ash

(2010) states that, for a young child, “the jump from a real object to a visual

representation of that object is often a shorter distance when the representation is

photographic” (p. 87) Effective, photographed board books include Miller’s (2009) Baby

Faces, Oxenbury’s (2009) Clap Hands, and Oxenbury’s (2009) Say Goodnight.

As young children are developing motor skills and hand-eye coordination, and especially after infants are capable of differentiating between light and dark, it is important to use colorful art. Seeing and interacting with tangible images facilitates development across all domains, including cognitive (Guyton, 2011).

Subject content. In a study conducted by McDonald (2007) the book Ten Black

Dots (Crew, 2010) was used to better understand children’s abilities to match a row of

numbers to another. The book offers illustrations that children can copy and configure in varying mathematical arrangements. Other examples of board and interactive books that offer subject-specific elements, in congruence with illustration patterns that enhance cognitive development, are Somer’s (2009) 123 Chicago: A Cool Counting Book, or

O’Keefe’s (1992) One Hungry Monster: A Counting Book in Rhyme Board Book which combine numbers and repetition. Adams’ (2011) BabyLit series features appropriately designed counting classics. Romeo & Juliet, Little Miss Bronte, and Pride & Prejudice enhance cognitive development through counting, and also serve as a first Language Arts experience with literary classics.

Social Development

Montague and Walker-Andrews (2001) discuss the importance of social development in young children and how “affective communication” can be established.

Infants as young as four months are able “discriminate and respond in meaningful ways to others’ emotional expressions” (p 826). The primary motivation for book reading socially, is to cause the attention of “moving mouths, soothing voices, and expressive eyes” that accompany the activity. The early building blocks of social development are grounded in the reliability and frequency of using board books (McLaughlin, 2006, p.

81).

Social stimulation begins with the enjoyment of interactive or board books that will keep their attention when television and computers beckon. The colors, textures, and formats persuade the child to first look, then to discuss and listen, to remember and recite from memory, and finally to read (Jalongo, 2004).

Language. Through daily social interactions with board books, children learn to recognize familiar objects and relate them to people, routines, and other familiar events.

Through “naming and pointing”, board books help “build a toddler’s vocabulary and aid in understanding language” (Hughes-Hassel & Cox, 2010, p. 4). Book sharing provides opportunities for receptive and expressive language development (Otto, 2006); and while young children will not perfect their pronunciation for several years, the establishment of

“crucial phonological patterns” will serve them for life (Herschensohn, 2007, p. 106).

Board books promote language development by supporting a child’s need to communicate with others (McLaughlin, 2006) and, while looking at books on their own, toddlers “learn new words every day, speak using groups of words, and ask many questions” (Wardle, 2003, p. 318). Simple pictures will appeal to infants, while older toddlers will begin to be ready for a story line.

Honig (2007) states that when the text is too complex, it is the reader's responsibility to simplify it. Dependent on the child’s ability to comprehend “poetic cadence, rhythms, and rhymes” it is important to add new elements to the story when the toddler is ready. Kiefer and Tyson (2010) support this notion, as children’s capacity to produce language lags behind their ability to understand it. It is crucial that they hear and read good writing “beyond their own level of conversation” (p. 32).

Odean (2004) encourages the use of board books with animals as they naturally lead to using social strategies to imitate the animal sounds. Board books such as

Boynton’s Moo, Baa, La La La (1982) and Hudson’s Animal Sounds for Baby (1995), support this notion and also feature humor and diversity.

Emotional Development

From age 2-5 children’s discussion of emotion increases, and their emotional vocabulary expands (Wellman, Harris, Banerjee, and Sinclair (1995). Board books, like

Aliki’s (1986) Feelings help build personal relationships and allow exploration of human feelings and motives. They can also help communicate self-acceptance and model coping strategies for children who are learning to deal with powerful emotions (Jalongo,

2004, p. 8) The sharing of basic appraisal processes, that interactive book talk promotes, helps to establish an emotional relationship which is a “fundamental part of attachment in the early years and throughout the lifespan” (Siegel, 1999, p. 142).

While emotional competence does not require interactivity with literature, Zambo and Hansen (2007) maintain that the “ability to control one’s emotions in an age- appropriate way, hinges on the quality of children’s attachment established in the first three years of life” (p. 32). During these first three years, board books such as Crary’s

(1996) When You’re Mad: and You Know It can increase appropriate discussion on handling anger.

Morrow, Freitag, and Gambrell (2009) have found that literature contributes to the emotional development of children in three important ways:

1. Literature shows children that many of the feelings they experience are the same as those of other children.

2. Literature explores feelings from several viewpoints

3. Literature can help children through difficult experiences…and can play an important role in helping children develop positive self- concepts. (p. 4)

McBratney’s (2005) Guess How Much I Love You? Murphy’s (2005), I Like It

When…, and Tompert’s (1992) Will You Come Back for Me? encourage discussion on

strong, intimate feelings while Albee’s (2003) Blue’s Checkup, Frankel’s (1979) Once

Upon a Potty, and Gomi’s (1997) Everyone Poops allow for lines of communication on

human behaviors.

Morality. A part of emotional maturity includes an understanding of

appropriate moral behavior. In order for children to become “fully functioning”

persons, their basic needs must be met. As they grow, they must feel loved,

understood, and that they are becoming interdependent (Kiefer & Tyson, 2010, p.

33) Research conducted by Walden and Baxter (2010) showed that by the end of their first year of life, infants base their behavior on emotional messages that parents communicate.

Kiefer and Tyson (2010) maintain that young children are generally constrained by the rules that adults have made. In a young child’s eyes, “behavior is totally right or totally wrong, young children tend to judge an act by its consequence, and they believe that bad behavior and punishment go together” (p. 33). Board books such as Agassi’s

(2002) Hands are not for Hitting, Parr’s The Feelings Book, and Shannon’s (2005) David

Smells! can elicit productive discussion, and include images that assist in promoting positive behaviors.

Physical Development

Children are growing up faster than ever before, and this physical development influences attention span as well as interests (Kiefer & Tyson, 2010). When they begin to identify themselves within the larger world context, seeing familiar events (Ash, 2010)

like Uzon’s (2010) Hello, Baby!, a photographed board book series capturing the first year of life, assists in a visual representation of someone like them who is reaching developmental milestones such as sitting up, reaching out, crawling, and finally walking.

In the early years of life, there are a “variety of physical and social characteristics of the child’s home environment that are particularly critical for early brain development”

(Owens, 2002, p. 164). Recent studies show that babies hear and see better than they

once thought was possible (Huck, Hepler, & Hickman, 1993). Young children learn

much about the world through their senses (Ash, 2010). Board books are made to be

read, but many also invite interactivity by “providing textures to explore, flaps to lift, tabs

to pull” (p. 89). Some interactive and board books used to engage the senses include:

Bolam’s (2009) Colors and Counting, or Katz’ (2009) “Where is” series –Where is

Baby’s Beach Ball (2009), Where is Baby’s Belly Button (2000), and Where is Baby’s

Mommy (2004). Each text provides opportunity for finding, seeing, and hearing.

In a study conducted by Ludemann (1991), findings suggested that sometime around 10-months, infants can discriminate between happy and surprised facial expressions which promote the reasoning behind reading books such as Mrs. Mustard’s

Baby Faces (2007) and My Face Book (2011) that feature multi-ethnic baby faces with varying expressions. As children get older, their size, muscularity, and coordination as well as any newly acquired traits will often be reflected in their book choice (Keifer and

Tyson, 2010). Herzog’s (2011) Little Sports series and Let’s Dance Little Pookie (2008) encourage physical movement during the reading process.

The Literature on Reading Response with Infants and Young Children

Purposes, Practices, and Benefits of Reading with Children Birth to Age Five

Soderman (1999) states:

Children do not reach a magical age which adults can open up their heads and pour knowledge inside. Rather, we now recognize that from the time that adults start talking, singing, chanting, and reading stories to babies, children begin a life-long journey down the path of literacy. From their earliest moments of life, young children begin to unravel the mysteries of making meaning in our world of spoken and written language (p. 22).

Some mothers begin reading to their babies before they are born; and research indicates that they hear their mothers and react to their voices (Anderson, 2006). Recent studies show that "if a mom reads a particular story or rhyme to her baby over and over before she is born, the baby will be able to tell that rhyme from another rhyme even when she is only a few days old" (Honig & Brophy, 1996, p. 12).

From birth to age two, babies fit into Piaget's (a famous theorist of childhood and cognitive development) sensorimotor stage. During this time, "schemes are based primarily on behaviors and perceptions" as they do not yet reason like an adult (McDevitt

& Ormrod, 2002, p. 144). As a result, before they are readers, babies are listeners

(Roskos, Tabors, & Lenhart, 2009), and they must discern different sounds and their significance. Research in the past forty years has "revealed the astounding abilities that newborns start with, and how they shift their perceptual skills to language production later in the first year of life" (Herschensohn, 2007, p. 29).

In their week-by-week description of infant's developmental milestones, Curtis and Schuler (2005), indicate that by week 16 a baby is ready to listen to a story, and his or her language skills are sharpened through read alouds. At six months of age they 33

suggest that a baby is “capable of reacting to the voice intonation, inflection, and prosody

of the reader" (Holland, 2008, p. 383).

Infants respond to texts by making their own sounds; this helps them to express

emotion. Words are acquired slowly at first, but increase quickly thereafter. At about the

age of one year, words are becoming even more meaningful to a child (Sawyer, 2004).

Book sharing provides rich opportunities for both "receptive and expressive language

development that contributes not only to oral language development but to emergent

literacy as well" (Otto, 2006, p. 135).

According to Chall’s (1996) 4 stages of Reading Development, infants to age six

fall within the prereading stage, or Stage O. In this stage, they develop awareness of the

sounds of words and can recognize most letters of the alphabet. They can also pretend to

read a book and know enough to hold the book right-side up and turn the pages one at a

time (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2002, p. 335). However, these pre-reading activities

depend little, if at all, on the actual print in the book (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2002).

Therefore, the act of reading aloud becomes an even more effective tool in introducing

and solidifying literacy elements.

Literacy Development Occurs Before Acquisition of Oral Language

Nearly three decades ago, Elizabeth Sulzby (1983), began to trace developmental

patterns in young children's emergent literacy attempts using their favorite story books.

William Teale (1984) also conducted many emergent literacy studies, which led to the

idea that "developmental patterns were being internalized" during parent-child storybook readings. (p. iv). In 1987, both Sulzby and Teale (1987) summarized their research with

six generalizations, the first being that "storybook reading is an integral part of family

life", and the last that "children spontaneously engage in storybook reenactments" (p. iv).

Research, as pointed out by Dickinson and Smith (1994), demonstrates that

"considerable literacy-related development occurs before children receive formal reading

instruction and during this time they acquire oral language" (p. 105). Therefore, children

are never too young to reap the benefits of being read to (Anderson, 2006).

Studies Proving the Benefits of Reading with Infants and Small Children

Whitehead (2002) summarizes the study of a baby boy, Dylan, living in London

with his English mother and American father who shared books with both his

grandparents and parents beginning at 8 weeks of age:

Right from the start Dylan was involved with all kinds of print, not just picture books, because his [caregivers] often held him while they looked at newspapers, magazines, TV listings, adult books, etc. From 3 months Dylan was a very noisy and pro-active book sharer! He would gurgle, squeal, kick his legs, bang the pages and scrabble on the paper with his fingers. By 8 months a real sense of humour emerged as Dylan giggled helplessly when the animals in his favourite book fell out of a big bed with ‘thuds’, ‘bumps’ and ‘crashes’. Dylan would watch the face of anyone reading to him very closely and also scan the illustrations slowly and thoroughly, as if searching for clues about how the story was going. By 9 months Dylan liked to read quietly on his own and his favourite position was on his back with a book or magazine held up over his head. He now sounded as if he was reading because his vocalisations were varied, rhythmic and very expressive. (p. 25)

In a case study performed by Holland (2008), an infant was read aloud to before birth to six-months of age. The results confirmed that parents and caregivers reading aloud to infants is paramount in developing literacy skills such as "print book awareness, print awareness, vocabulary development, fluency, and comprehension" (p. 1).

DeBruin-Parecki (2008) reveals that reading aloud can significantly enhance

young children's "background knowledge, vocabulary, concepts about print, familiarity

with different text structures, and phonological awareness" (p. 102). These, including the

"conscious awareness of linguistic units" such as syllables, rhymes, and phonemes

(Evans & Shaw, 2008, p. 90) are also developed in addition to oral language

comprehension and print knowledge (Roskos, Tabors, & Lenhart, 2009, p. 56).

Meyer, Stahl, Linn, and Wardrop (2001) note that the "positive effects on

children's reading achievement from parents' reading to them seem to have taken place

before children begin school" (p. 71). To this end, it is essential for a literature rich

environment to be a staple in the children's environment before school, so they do not

miss out on these essential years in literacy development.

In the early 1980’s, the Baghban couple (1984) decided to study their daughter’s

reading development as an academic topic. The results turned into the book entitled My

Daughter Learns to Read and Write. In a later publication on the text, Baghban states:

“When Giti was born, we were overwhelmed with her maintenance, colic, and our

classes. Yet somehow even in the distraught first year, we managed to work in rhymes,

games, songs, and picture books…although I knew I was looking for outstanding achievements when I began the case study, what impresses me today is how much I underestimated her ability” (p. 238 – 239 my emphasis).

Observational Diaries. Crago and Crago (1983) were inspired by New

Zealand librarian Dorothy White whose Books before Five (1954) chronicled her daughter Carol’s reactions to books she encountered in her preschool years. Crago and

Crago (1983) also used a similar format when recording their own daughter’s early

literacy experiences. Anna, who was born in 1972, entered an environment where books

were important, and “children's books especially so” (p.i). It was an “entirely natural and

predictable part of her growing up” (p.i), that her parents introduced her to books early

and read to her frequently. After she was six months old, they began showing her picture

books at irregular intervals, and shared them with her daily from eleven months. It was at

this time that they began keeping a diary of her responses. Maureen states:

Anna's first consistently used words did not emerge until around fifteen months, so that the amount of verbal response to be observed was not great; but we now regret our ignorance of the potential significance of nonverbal behavior—smiles, gestures, evidence of attention or inattention—much of which must have been apparent and of which our diary makes no mention at this time. (p. i)

The Role of Another Human in Reading In 1982, Marilyn Cochran-Smith conducted a case study: The making of a

reader: a case study of preschool literary socialization. While my research interests do

not involve understanding babies’ relationship with printed text; Cochran-Smith’s study

also focused on the ways adults help children developmentally move from oral to written

language.

Her case study was based on participant observation, interviewing, and audio-

recording of storyreadings at a private, middle-class nursery school in Philadelphia. She found that adult-child oral storyreading ultimately “served as a key to the transition and

transformed the reading of essayist literacy from an internalized, automatic process to an

explicit, deliberate process (p. i).

Elley (1989) synthesized two experiments where teachers read aloud to children.

Pre and post-tests revealed that oral story reading "constitutes a significant source of

acquisition, whether or not the reading is accompanied by teacher explanation of word

meanings" (p. 174).

Case Study on Electronic Books and Preschoolers

In her 2005 study, Caplovitz was among the first to examine whether

electronic books aided emergent literacy skills in preschool children. In her study, (taken

from her abstract), one hundred thirty-seven 4-year-old children were assigned to three conditions: (a) book only condition, (b) machine with no instruction condition, (c) machine with instruction condition. Parents and children were given differing instructions to perform for a five week period of time. “Emergent literacy skills were assessed before

the intervention and following the intervention period. There was no evidence to suggest

that either being read the books or using the machine had any differing effects on the

emergent literacy skills of children overall. There was some evidence to suggest that

having the electronic talking book interferes in child’s ability to recall important story

information” (2005, p.i).

An Examination of the Literature Regarding Electronic Readers

Shortly after his publication of Raising Confident Readers: How to Teach Your

Child to Read and Write – from Baby to Age 7, Gentry (2012) became a prominent name

in babies and early literacy. The following three questions and answers are taken from

his website:

1) Can babies really read and is it natural?

Most parents and even some educators don’t understand that the young child’s brain is hard-wired for early reading, but advances in brain imaging are changing that misconception. Scientist Patricia Kuhl, co-

director of the University of Washington Institute for Learning & Brain Sciences, and her colleagues have shown images of white matter in the 9- month-old brain connecting areas used for talking, grammar, reading, and social interaction with areas for listening and understanding. Dr. Kuhl reports that the track that connects areas of the brain used for reading is present in infants before 12 months of age.

2) Why not just lap read?

When lap reading, the question becomes “Where are your baby’s eyes looking?” It’s well established that children don’t learn to read by looking at the pictures or at Mommy’s or Daddy’s face during lap reading. Some of the new software driven reading tools use overt means to evoke the child’s visual and verbal attention to the printed word, making this important quality of first good teaching easy for parents because attention to word properties is built directly into word games. For example, the programs use subtle and informal introduction of letter-sound correspondence and left-to-right directionality of spelling. Parents make sure the child’s eyes are in the right spot for reading simply by pointing to a curser that tracks a word’s spelling from left to right on the computer screen in concert with vocal presentation of the word.

3) Is E-reading with your baby safe?

Teaching early reading requires intimate physical contact, such as snuggling with a book or cuddling with the baby or toddler at the computer. Perhaps the best thing about either lap reading or cuddling at the computer with word games is that the activities build positive parent- child social interactions and expand opportunity for the parent and the child to talk and have fun with books, concepts, and words. The big question is how is the baby/toddler responding? Is the child having fun while learning? If the technology makes it easy for parents to customize reading “lessons” and present them in a brief game-type format that a child enjoys, it’s safe. If your 2-year old can read the word grandpa on a cell phone app along with a pic of grandpa waving, you have found your mojo as a reading teacher. If you are using the DVD as a baby sitter, it’s harmful. Babies don’t learn language or reading by watching TV alone, they are people persons (p.1).

There is no doubt that the sweeping facets of technology will pervade the lives of all humans in this, the techno-generation. Eaton (2012) explains, “My babies have one thing in common that they don’t share with me; some of their first toys were software

apps on mobile devices that are more powerful than the computers that took Neil

Armstrong to the moon” (p.1). He goes on to describe the apps that contain “colorful graphics, sound effects and video inserts of things like babies laughing…there’s repetition, and dynamic use of colors, shapes, numbers, music and noises” (p. 1). So what part of this doesn’t align with the research on best “books” for infants? What defines a book? Moreover, what defines effective reading time for babies?

Books are wonderful and essential tools for babies, but Whitehead and

Makin (2004) want to ensure that “care, education settings, as well as homes, should never deny babies the pleasures of soft toys, old bags and boxes, mud, sand, water, leaves, shells, cooking pots and lids, bricks, rattles and blankets!” (p. 22)

Educational Benefits of Reading Aloud Compared to Providing Children with a Talking Book

Bianca Florence, a thirteen year old, high achieving student wrote an essay entitled “How I Learned to Read” (Gentry, 2012). In it, she offers some tips on how she came to love reading:

• Start early—even at birth. • Make reading a routine. • Make reading fun with songs and games. • Be proud of your child’s efforts. • Provide lots of repetition. • Make plenty of books available—libraries help! • Pay attention to your child’s special interests. • Read both fiction and nonfiction.

Bianca goes on to state the importance of reading every single day. "My mom read to me from the day I came home from the hospital. Read even if you think your child doesn’t understand what’s being read or that they won’t remember it when they are

older." (p. 1) She also talks about the emotional benefits that were established from their

experiences with books: "The greatest impact on how I feel about reading was created by

learning together; my mom and I are so close to this day because of all the time we spent

reading together. The mother-daughter bond we have created is everlasting, and it started

the day I got home from the hospital after birth when she read to me (p. 1)".

The educational benefit of sharing books at home with caregivers has recently

proven to increase early success in mathematics and science (Whitehead & Makin, 2004).

Project Bookstart, a project and case study conducted in Birmingham, England asked

parents to share books and poetry with their babies and join a local library. Evidence of

“making a flying start in mathematics and science by the time [the babies] were 7 and 8

years old” occurred as a result of early reading (p. 22). Whitehead and Makin (2004, pp.

22-23) discuss additional benefits of reading traditional books with infants:

Table 3

The Benefits of Reading Traditional Books with Infants Cuddles and stories Pictures Black marks

The babies in your care Looking at the pictures in The little black marks we will soon associate books books and talking about call print are of great and storytelling with love, them helps babies make interest to many babies as security, closeness and sense of what is going on they can see them very pleasure. They will also in a book. It is the start of distinctly. Babies who are hear a special story learning to create stories shown lots of books, language that has very that give meanings to magazines and other print satisfying rhythms and pictures. Looking very gradually begin to repetitions. These good closely at pictures also understand that the ‘black feelings about language, develops the useful marks’ are also telling a stories and books can last literacy habit of story. (Whitehead and a lifetime. concentrating on tiny Makin (2004) details. This becomes very important when older children start to become readers and look at words, letters and small changes in groups of letters.

Summary of Chapter 2

Main Points that Support this Study

In my review of the past and current literature and research, I have found four distinct messages that occur repeatedly in regards to babies and early literacy. Each of these are the main points that support my study:

1. Reading with babies is effective for educational, social, emotional, and

cognitive growth. (Sulzby, 1983, Teale, 1984, Tillotson, 2005, Jalongo, 2004, Clay,

2000, Morrow, 2001, Soderman, Gregory, & O'Neill, 1999).

2. Reading aloud to infants is beneficial in book language, structure, new concepts, comprehension, new vocabulary and solidification of other early literacy

elements. (Chall, 1996, McDevitt & Ormrod, 2002, McVicker, 2007, Roskos, Tabors, &

Lenhart, 2009, Anderson, 2006, Honig & Brophy, 1999, Sawyer, 2004, Williams &

Davis, 1994, McLaughlin, 2006).

3. Actual objects, human interaction, and "play" have proven to be more

effective than technological related "interactions". (Caplovitz, 2005, Lindskoog &

Hunsicker (1989), Whitehead & Makin (2004), Moore (2011).

4. Technology and interactive media have great potential, as enhanced

learning tools, to support the development of babies. (Gentry, 2012, Evans, 2005,

Morrow, Freitag, & Gambrell, 2009, Wepner & Ray, 2000, Robinson and Mackey,

2003).

As one of the first studies of its kind, my study will help fill in the gaps of

the research beginning with electronic books and early literacy. As the explosion of

smart phones and e-readers touch nearly every home in the United States in this 21st century, electronic books will eventually become a form of early literacy. Chapter 2 proposes a case that strongly supports the act of reading aloud with a person; however, my research will also provide a continuation of research and comparison of the benefits

electronic books will hold for the future generation as well.

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

[Children] cannot and need not reinvent artifacts that have taken millennia to evolve in order to appropriate such objects into their own system of activity. The child has only to come to an understanding that it is adequate for using the culturally elaborated object in the novel life circumstances he encounters. (Quoted in Newman, Griffin, & Cole, 1989, p. 63)

Introduction to Chapter 3

The purpose of this study was to discover, more clearly, the ways babies from birth to one year responded to electronic versus traditional texts. A 10 week, qualitative

(multiple holistic case study) method was used to conduct an in-depth analysis of

responses of three babies, aged 0-12 months responses to electronic readers. Research took place in a childhood development center affiliated with a university in the South.

Studies regarding traditional reading experiences with infants and young children have taken place (Cochran-Smith 1982; Crago & Crago, 1983 Sulzby, 1983; Teale,

1984), much of the "groundwork" in the field being sown in the eighties. This study has potential to add to the research regarding the twenty-first century explosion in electronic books, and the responses of very young children to the interactive (sometimes animated), screen version of various texts, in addition to updated responses on traditional texts.

Very little, if any, research has been conducted on electronic readers, and there are conflicting ideas among various groups regarding babies and early e-literacy.

This 10 week reading response process was conducted in on-site, structured

contexts (at the development center). Using qualitative measures, I explored, identified,

and described babies' (aged 0-12 months) reading responses to traditional and electronic

(e-readers) books. Throughout the process, I used data collection methods such as observation, field notes, videotaping, teacher observation sheets (of the babies), and member checks (of teachers).

As the subjects of the study were infants and could not provide any dialogue, I

observed physical behaviors and gestures such as smiles, reaches, points, page turns, and

holds; as well as verbal cues such as cooing, babbling, and repeating sounds over time. I

also paid close attention to their interactions with the teachers, in order to find similarities

or differences in electronic and traditional book reading; and to identify early literacy

patterns in initial reading experiences (with the two forms of books).

In this chapter, I will first restate my overarching questions; then describe my

ideological perspective, theoretical frame, and research method. Second, I will discuss

the selection process of the babies (and ages), the site of the case study, procedures for

my data collection, and the process used to analyze my data. Finally, I will discuss the

structure of validity and trustworthiness in regards to the qualitative methods I chose to

use in this study.

The implications of this study may be affected by the limitations of

generalization. It is inappropriate to generalize the practices of these caregivers and

specific babies to the whole population of babies and parents (or other caregivers) as

there are many other factors that may contribute to the whole early literacy experience

(including, but not limited to, number of siblings in the household, text rich environment in the home or care center, specific bond represented with the person reading to or presenting the text, frequency of books being read, as well as the specific age or development of the baby, see also: limitations).

However, it is important to note that electronic books will always be a fixture in the lives of the babies born in this decade whether they are exposed to them daily in their homes, are exposed to them in public settings (such as airports, etc.), or, eventually see them in their classrooms. We have been slowly moving toward, and are now in the middle of an “e-revolution” where “e-literacy” is just one aspect of the empire.

Restating of Research Questions and Purpose

To reiterate, the purpose of this study was to examine three babies’ responses to electronic readers versus their responses with traditional text at a child development center which serves children of faculty and students at the university. The following questions were used as a structure and guide through the qualitative research process:

How do three babies (aged 0-12 months) at a child development center

affiliated with a university in the South, respond to an electronic reader (e-

books) and traditional books?

The following sub-questions were also addressed in this study:

A. How do babies' responses compare when responding to electronic books

versus traditional texts?

B. How do teachers describe changes of the infants' behaviors or reactions in

regards to the purposes and/or benefits of reading (i.e. social, emotional,

behavioral) with babies aged 0-12 months as e-readers are introduced to

their reading time?

C. How do babies respond to the different ways that e-readers are presented

to them (i.e. teachers using verbal and/or non-verbal cues)?

Theoretical Frame

My research will be conducted through the overarching Social Science Theory lens. I chose this lens to guide the design of my study because my findings will be based on a theory of culture and institutions (and I believe, based on prior research, that it will eventually include power issues such as race and class, but I had no findings to back up this idea). The more specific theoretical framework is founded in the Sociocultural

Theory (Vygotsky, 1978) which states that cultural and social interaction play a fundamental role in the development of cognition, or learning.

Culture is the "fabric of life, the theme that runs through humanity...it encompasses, but is not limited to, the beliefs, values, and norms, that a group shares. It often guides behaviors, cognitions, [and] decisions." (McBride, 2011, p. 7). For young children more specifically, Rogoff (1990) writes, "Children's cognitive development is an apprenticeship—it occurs through guided participation in social activity with companions who support and stretch children's understanding of and skill in using the tools of the culture” (p. vii).

Using the Sociocultural Theory as a guide in my exploration of the babies' culture, as well as the social interaction they are involved with as part of the e-reading process, will provide insight on the effects of the "e-culture" (or electronic culture of the

21st century) as well as the social responses occurring in the babies' individual responses.

I chose to name this social realm or "culture" that exists when using technology to teach

with, interact with, or learn from as e-culture, as the addition of electronic elements provides an additional element to the social world of humans and books. This study of

the culture can assist in identifying if any problems exist, why they exist, and how to

attempt to solve them (McBride, 2011, p. 7).

Sociocultural Theory in this Case Study

The psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978, 1986, 1987) laid the groundwork for the

Sociocultural Theory and nurtured the thought that "parents, caregivers, peers and the

culture at large were responsible for the development of higher order functions" (Cherry,

2012, p.1). Vygotsky (1978) believed that:

every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals (my emphasis, as cited in Cherry, 2012, p. 1).

Therefore, his theory holds true as research of the past and present proves that

traditional reading with babies elicits only positive benefits. It is important to note that

the purpose of this study was not intended to find fault or undermine the purpose of the

electronic book as an object interfering with "true" social interactions between people,

but rather to discover the responses of the babies to social objects, to which they may or

may not be able to form some sort of "social/virtual" relationship with. In addition, it

was important to understand the responses taking place with the social interaction of the

teachers.

Vygotsky (1978) describes this concept with the metaphor of a pointing finger.

In the beginning, it is a behavior that does not necessarily hold meaning; however, as

people react to the movement, it begins to acquire meaning. Therefore, the gesture itself becomes something of an interpersonal connection which was socially constructed as meaning was introduced. (my emphasis, idea cited in Kearsley, 2012). It was also

important to be aware of the social and cultural implications provided by the electronic

book, as it speaks and interacts as if it were a human, but is not.

Based on Vygotsky's ideas in Explorations in Learning and Instruction (Kearsley,

2012), "full cognitive development requires social interaction" (which does not rule out

the social interaction of an electronic book) and, that "cognitive development is limited to

a certain range at any given age" (p.1) which brings us to an important concept of the

Sociocultural Theory, and one impacting this study, the Zone of Proximal Development

(ZPD).

Vygotsky (1978) states that this zone is the "distance between the actual

development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of

potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in

collaboration with more capable peers" (my emphasis, p. 86). This zone also defines

functions that have not yet matured but are in the process of maturing; an example which

may include early literacy in relation to reading. As the babies are learning early literacy

behaviors, they are unable to do most behaviors on their own, but it is my theory, based

on prior research, that their responses will suggest important behaviors they will eventually master individually in the literacy process.

As was stated by Scott & Palincsar (2012):

Given the comprehensive nature of Sociocultural theory, its educational implications for assessment, curriculum, and instruction are broad-ranging, and only a glimpse of them can be provided in this entry. For example, Sociocultural Theory—in particular the notion of zones of proximal development—would suggest that the goals of educational assessment should be to: (a) identify abilities that are in the process of developing, and (b) attempt to predict what the learner will do independently in the future. (p. 1)

Sociocultural Theory and Technology

With the expanse and need of technologies in the 21st century, "scholars, working from a sociocultural perspective, are working to expand concepts, such as distributed cognition, to include not only people and artifacts, but also digital technologies" (Scott &

Palincsar, 2012, p. 1).

Shaffer and Clinton (2006) support the electronic book trend by challenging the idea that humans occupy a "privileged position in psychological analyses. They argue that media, such as video games, word processors, and analytical tools create new skills and habits of mind, in addition to shifting the focus from reading and writing the printed word to multimodal literacy." (as cited in Scott & Palincsar, 2012, p. 1). This concept sheds light on the social impact of electronic books in the early literacy behaviors of babies aged 0-12 months.

Qualitative Inquiry

My research aligns with the qualitative method of inquiry, as it aims to study the human experience in my research design. Polkinghorne (2005) defines qualitative

research as "inquiry aimed at describing and clarifying human experience as it appears in

people's lives" (p. 137). He also goes on to describe the researcher’s role in this type of

research:

Researchers using qualitative methods gather data that serve as evidence for their distilled descriptions. Qualitative data is gathered primarily in the form of spoken or written language rather than in the form of numbers. Possible data sources are interviews with participants, observations, documents, and artifacts. The data is usually transformed into written text for analytic use. Selection of interview participants requires purposive and iterative strategies. Production of interview data requires awareness of the complexity of self-reports and the relation between experience and languaged expression. (p. 137)

Qualitative researchers are interested and concerned with specific questions and

ideas. They're interested in asking "why" questions and are concerned to "'build' theory

from the ground of experience of practitioners; to research face to face levels of

interaction; to focus on the everyday or routine" (Talbert, 2012, p.1).

Dr. Tony Talbert (2012), the qualitative research professor at Baylor University, lists other defining traits of the qualitative researcher:

• A qualitative researcher approaches a study as if they know very little about the people and places they will research. • A qualitative researcher attempts to loosen themselves from their preconceptions of what they will find, what the people will be like, and what will go on in the setting. • A qualitative researcher considers it presumptuous to state exactly how to accomplish their research and what specific questions they will pursue. • A qualitative researcher’s plan evolves as they learn about the setting, subjects, and other sources of data through direct examination. • A qualitative researcher’s full account of procedures is best described in retrospect, a narrative of what actually happened, written after the study is completed. • A qualitative researcher avoids going into a study with hypotheses to test or specific questions to answer. They believe that shaping the questions should be one of the products of data collection rather than assumed a priori.

• A qualitative researcher’s study itself structures the research, not preconceived ideas or any precise research design. • A qualitative researcher’s work is inductive. (pp.3-4)

In relation to my specific study, the qualitative research design will be

"naturalistic" (Talbert, 2012, p. 2) which will require me to enter the actual setting (the

development center) to acquire data. In addition, the qualitative design will help to

"elicit verbal, visual, and tactile data in the form of descriptive narratives like field notes

[and video recording]." (Talbert, 2012, p.2) In addition, I will also become the key

instrument in all areas of the research collection, analysis, research design,

interpretation and writing. The qualitative approach demands that "the world be

examined with the assumption that nothing is trivial" (Talbert, 2012, p. 2)

Selection of Participants

Following my PhD examinations, my family relocated to the South. When we arrived, I quickly became affiliated with the prestigious university nearby, and consulted with a few professors in the education department. In so doing, I was informed about the

Child Development Center associated with the university which was keen to the type of research I was interested in.

I met with the director at the center to discuss my questions, and was given a tour of the facility and information about their research protocols. Following IRB approval, I sent a recruitment and permission letter home (see Appendix D) with parents of the babies aged 0-12 months in order to proceed with my selection.

Upon the return of the permission slips, three babies qualified (by age) and were

selected for my study: two girls (ages 4 and 5 months), and one boy (age 7 months).

Each baby was Caucasian, and his or her parents were associated with the university.

In addition, the two teachers already working with the babies at the center agreed

to participate in the study; and were “recruited” with an IRB-approved script concerning the processes and procedures with an option to stop participation at any point without penalty (see Appendix D). There were no known risks apparent to the babies or the teachers in taking part in this study.

The selection of participants in this study was purposeful. As Maxwell (2005) states:

In qualitative research, the typical way of selecting settings and individuals is neither probability sampling nor convenience sampling. It falls into a third category, which I will call purposeful selection. This is a strategy in which particular settings, persons, or activities are selected deliberately in order to provide information that can't be [acquired] as well from other choices." (p. 88) Marshall (1996) states that an "appropriate sample size for qualitative study is one that adequately answers the research question" (p. 523). He goes on to say, "for simply questions or very detailed studies, this might be in single figures...the number of required subjects usually becomes obvious as the study progresses" (p. 523). In this case, the chosen babies were almost chosen for me, as my ideas were presented and the parents of the babies in the specific age range chose whether or not to allow them to participate.

Description of Participants: Teachers and Babies

As a reader, it is important to understand the backgrounds and discourses- or ways

of being (Gee, 1990) of the babies and teachers, to better absorb the explanations and 53

findings in this chapter. I used the term discourses synonymously with response style, as

the basis of this study was observations of response. It is important to note that all initials

used to identify the babies and teachers are pseudonyms; and involved participants' actual

initials have no relation to these initials.

There were two main teachers in the classroom, and a few student helpers who

were occasionally in the classroom. The two teachers, PW and RH, were the only two who read to the babies each week (by themselves and in front of me). RH, a Caucasian teacher in her twenties held a BS in Neuroscience, and was the head teacher of the babies.

PW was an Asian teacher, originally from the Philippines, in her sixties; and held an

Associate’s Degree in Child Development. Both had a noticeably strong relationship with the infants, and were not only aware of their specific needs, but the other babies’ needs in the classroom as well.

The babies, two girls and a boy, each changed and grew through the process; and, from the beginning, I realized how important it was to note how different his or her reactions, gestures, interests, and temperaments were. The varying ways the babies responded, very noticeable as early as six months, proved response style to be an important discovery in the observation of the infants. Each child had a unique way of expressing his or herself during reading time with both types of books, and was an additional indication that every child has great potential to respond very differently while being read to.

Despite their differences, each remained true to his or her response style, or discourse, throughout the reading experience. “Discourses are ways of being in the world,

or forms of life which integrate words, acts, values, beliefs, attitudes, social identities, as

well as gestures, glances, body positions and clothes” (p. 142). I used this definition to

create a descriptive discourse for each baby, or his or her “identity kit…in which [he or

she] act[ed], talk[ed]…or took on a particular social role that others (especially I)

recognized” (Gee, 1990, p. 142). I found this to be important for the reader to understand

more fully as the observations that took place.

AB, a Caucasian female, was just over three months old when we started the

study. She had a very calm disposition and, while looking at the books, would also hold

onto a hand of the teachers throughout the reading experience. In Table 13, the reader

will see that from all of her behaviors “hand” or “fingers” occurred among the top five

repeated words from observations during her reading time with the teachers; therefore,

the data assisted in assigning her the“ hand-holder” response style.

CE, also a Caucasian female, was just over four months old when the study began. Throughout the study, CE always wanted the book (or the iPad) in her mouth; and

toward the end of the study, she was getting strong enough to tear anything away from

the teachers just to get it in her mouth. The data in Table 8 shows that the word “mouth”

was the second most repeated word in her reading observations (electronic and

traditional). Further notes from the field (discussed later in this chapter) will also

showcase her exploration of the books using her mouth. Therefore, she was of the

“mouth-explorer” discourse, or response style.

KL, a Caucasian boy, was seven months old when we started the process and was

the most verbal throughout. It could have been his developmental stage, being older than

the girls, but because he had the most “sounds” represented in his data (i.e. “oooo!”, “ma,

ma, ma”) he was of the “babbler” discourse. The data in Table 13 shows that the word

“Oh” was the third most common word repeated in his observations using three different

methods. It is important to note that neither of the girls had any actual spoken words, or

babbles, featured in their most repeated responses.

These discourses or descriptions of response style also remind the reader that, while most normal functioning infants’ behaviors fall within certain developmental patterned norms, all children’s growth patterns are unique and uneven; see also: limitations as described in Chapter 1. Development is not simply the “result of the maturation of neural cells” but instead, is explained through the evolution of new experiences (Kiefer & Tyson, 2010, p. 29).

Since there is currently very little research on infants and electronic readers, these findings will fill current gaps in electronic book and early literacy research by building a bridge from past studies to the current “e-world” of this century.

Selection of Traditional Books and E-books

In the selection process of the books used in this research project, I used guidelines (and actual traditional and electronic books) from the literature described in

Chapter 2. In order to keep the research as minimally invasive as possible, I initially used the traditional books already at the school (see Table 4) which were described by the director of the center as "developmentally appropriate; soft cloth books and board books with few words on the pages and large pictures." She also added that this format "allows conversation with the infants". 56

Table 4

Description of Traditional Books at the Center

Brown Bear, Brown Bear What Do You See? by Eric Carle I Love You As Much by Laura Krauss Melmed Toes, Ears, & Nose by Marion Dane Bauer Big and Little by Samantha Berger and Pamela Chanko Mary Had a Little Lamb by Iza Trapani The Little Engine that Could published by Platt and Munk Look at my Hands published by Teeney Books, Ltd.

The actual e-reader was an iPad Mini, a mini tablet e-book reading device which features a 7.9 inch color, multi-touch display. This reading device can store up to at least

500 books which are usually downloaded from various sources onto the device. When selecting a book to be read, the reader touches the app for the book he chooses to read and it comes up on the screen. Some books have actual "pages" to turn, others do not.

Some "speak" when reading out loud to the reader, some don't, and some have options to hear the reading or to just view the words. The actual device has the option to turn sound on or off.

I initially chose ten electronic books to be used for the ten weeks, based on their differing characteristics, in an effort to show the babies a range of electronic books. I

later added and took away some titles based on member check discussions with the teachers. Table 5 discusses the original electronic books in greater detail:

Table 5

Titles and Descriptions of Original Electronic Books used in the Study

Title of E-book Description of Features • set up as a "story board" instead of a Pat the Bunny "turn the page" book original by Dorothy Kunhardt • music • animation • read-to-me options • coloring options • interactive "water the garden", "bang the pots and pans" and "find yourself in the mirror" options • "find the egg" in each picture encourages uniformity throughout • page turning options Where is Baby: a fun guessing game for • traditional illustrations little ones by Cindy Bracken • animation Dr. Suess' ABC • music original by Dr. Suess • read-to-me options • turn-the-page arrows Continued

Table 5 Continued

• music Peter Rabbit • animation when touched original by Beatrix Potter • corner animation turning

• photographs Animal Alphabet • swipe the screen page turns by David and Diane Wright • photographs Everyday Colors • swipe the screen page turns by Kay de Silva • animation People Who Help • read-to-me options Baby First Vocabularry's: • "game mode" where you can touch the characters on the screen and move them around

• animation Hogworld: Gnart's Adventure • read-to-me options • "game mode", touch the characters and move them from one scene to another • Video game-like • animation Three Little Piggies: Kids Academy App • read-to-me options • page swipe and turn • animation The Aunt and The Grasshopper • music original Aesop's Fables • book rotates and the characters "come to life" on the screen with animation and talking • photographs of babies Faces • swipe the page options by Cindy Bracken

Because my research was qualitative by design, I wanted it to be as "naturalistic"

(Talbert, 2012, p. 2) as possible, which is why I initially asked the teachers to read one traditional book (already at the center) and one electronic book (of their choice) as if they

were simply choosing books for reading time. However, after the fourth week of data

collection, I began to notice a lack of tangible cross comparison among my field notes

and video recording.

Due to the nature of the study, and the lack of true “verbal” data, it was

imperative that opportunities for comparison be established in my data collection

procedure. After a member check with one of the teachers (explained in further detail

later in this chapter), I decided to have the teachers read the same electronic book as

board book.

After one baby’s initial reaction and recording, at six months, to the reading of

Pat the Bunny on the iPad as well as in its original form, it was decided that this was the more effective way to continue the data collection. For the following weeks, the table below lists the traditional (board) and electronic books that were used (chosen using criterion from Chapter 2). By keeping the titles exactly the same, or as similar as possible, with the two separate formats, the comparisons between each book sharing experience became more clear to me as the researcher.

Table 6

Description of Additional Electronic and Traditional Books

Electronic Book/ Description of Features Traditional Book/ Description

Pat the Bunny by Dorothy Kundhart Pat the Bunny by Dorothy Kundhart

Description: An e-book set up with a home Description: An interactive board book that screen of choices for the pages (does not allows the babies to pat the fur on the initially turn pages left to right). bunny, see themselves in a mirror, lift Interactive features that allow the babies to flaps, etc. make noise with pots, help the children sled down the hill, and “find” the hiding bunny

Moo Baa La La La by Sandra Boynton Moo Baa La La La by Sandra Boynton

Description: An e-book with repetitive Description: A board book featuring sounds of animals and extensive pop-up repetitive animal sounds and animal animation features illustrations

Animal Sounds an iTot App Animal Touch and Feel a DK Learning Book Description: Animal pictures (photographs) and sounds they make Description: An interactive board book that allows babies to touch “whiskers” on a cat, pet the furry hair on the dog, and touch the smooth scales of a fish Good Night Moon by Margaret Wise Good Night Moon by Margaret Wise Brown Brown

Description: An e-book with illustrations Description: A board book featuring and animated features repetitive text, black and white illustrations and contrasting red and green illustrations

Setting

The case study took place at a child development center affiliated with a university in the South. This center serves as an exemplary learning environment for

students of the Department of Family and Consumer Sciences as well as other university

students requiring observation and experiences for their course work.

The center is dedicated to providing model developmental care for each child in a

stimulating, secure and caring learning environment. The teachers seek to create the

richness and diversity of experience that will take the children along new paths, deepen

their understanding and their skills, and give added complexity to the talents and personal

qualities.

Currently, the center has daily reading time with their infants aged 0-12 months;

however, they had not yet introduced e-readers into their daily curriculum until my IRB

was approved and the babies began viewing e-readers during their reading time.

This development center is well-known for its “best practices” research; as well as

for accepting many children whose parents are professors at the nearby university, and, at

one time or another, have conducted research in the social science fields. Along with

other curriculum, the babies are read to (from traditional readers) each day

While the majority (not all) of the children in the center come from homes where

one or both of the parents are professors at the University, and many have had internet

and TV use since birth, up until recently, the “best practices” educational procedures in

the school did not support technology. As the educational pendulum has swung back in

the direction of technology, the center has chosen not to bring the computers or e-readers back into the classroom, as stated by the director "the children all have access to these things at home".

Summary of Data Collection Procedures

I collected data via field notes, observation, video, and observation sheets on site

at the center. After permission from the parents, teachers, and the IRB committee, I

supplied the baby unit with an iPad Mini, a mini tablet e-book reading device with ten installed electronic books (adding more as the research went along), in order to observe responses from the babies in the classroom.

For 10 weeks, the babies were read to twice a week (for the purposes of this study), on natural rotation, from one of their two rotating teachers. Each “reading period” the babies were read to from a traditional book as well as an electronic book. I observed once a week and took field notes from a non-invasive observation room while video was recording simultaneously. During this time, I followed the “natural” lead of the teachers and babies in regards to time spent reading. This was most often established due to the interest and/or attention span of the infants on any given day. Some reading sessions were just over a minute per book, and one session lasted well over seven minutes for just one book.

One additional time during the week, the teachers read a traditional and electronic book, with each baby, without me present, and filled out a teacher observation sheet (see

Appendix A) at the end of their reading time. None of the teachers were initially

"directed" in their reading behaviors or book choices; they were simply asked to include the electronic reader in their daily reading time (as they had already been implementing traditional book reading time in their daily instruction). However, after we discussed a more effective way to compare the books, we decided that the teachers should read the same title of book with both forms of books each week.

Data Collection Procedures

The table below indicates the questions and measures used to collect the data.

The main research question is featured as the guiding question overall, followed by the sub-questions: A, B, and C. As the study took place, I used Case Study Elements

(featured in the second column) to organize the questions into themes and showcase more specific questions (for myself) that came up during data collection.

Table 7:

Investigator’s Data Collection Procedures

How do three babies (aged 0-12 months) at a child development center affiliated with a university in the South, respond to an electronic reader (e-books) and traditional books?

Sub Question Case Study Elements Data Collection Procedure

A. How do babies I. Early Literacy Patterns responses compare when A. Do babies reach for, • Field Notes responding to attempt to turn pages electronic books (if pages are • Videotaping versus traditional available), hold the texts e-book right side up, or attempt to touch the e-book? B. How do II. Purposes & Benefits teachers describe changes of the A. Why are the babies read • Teacher Observation Sheet infants’ behaviors to (purposes and benefits or reactions in of reading to babies)? • Teacher Member Check/E- regards to the purposes and/or mail benefits of reading (i.e. social, emotional, behavioral) with babies aged 0-12 months as e- readers are introduced to their reading time?

Continued

Table 7 Continued

B. How do III. Delivery Methods teachers describe changes in the A. Who reads to the • Teacher Observation Sheet purposes and/or babies? benefits of • Field Notes reading (i.e. B. How do babies social, emotional, respond to the e- • Videotaping behavioral) with reading time? babies aged 0-12 months as e- C. How do babies readers are respond differently to introduced to the traditional reading their reading time? time? D. How often are the babies read to?

C. How do babies IV. Examining Baby respond to the Response to different ways Electronic Readers that e-readers are presented to them A. How do babies • Field Notes (i.e. teachers respond when the using verbal teacher simply • Video Taping and/or non-verbal presents the e-book to cues)? the baby? • Teacher Member Check/E-

B. How do the babies mail respond when the teacher uses verbal • Teacher Observation Sheet interaction in addition to the e-book?

Research Design

Case Study

I chose the case study method as it is used in qualitative research for the

"investigation of an individual group or phenomenon" (Sturman, 1994, p. 61 as cited in

Bassey, 1999, p. 26). As a former educator and new mother, I wanted to conduct

research that would help fill the gaps in the research on the emerging phenomena that is

"electronic literacy" with babies, as well as "contribute to the advancement of knowledge

and wisdom about the experience and nurture of personal and social development

towards worthwhile living and the acquisition" (Bassey, 1999, p. 39).

My case was defined by the individual act of sharing books with three infants

aged 0-12 months at this particular development center. My inquiries led to a specific

class or small group phenomena which assisted in solidifying my analytical frame. As a

case study researcher, it was important that I understood my case and its specific

phenomena in order to fully “explain why things happened as they did, and generalize or

predict from a single example [which] required an in-depth investigation of the interdependencies of parts and of the patterns that emerge" (as cited in Bassey, 1999, p.

26). Following my study, my final report will "provide a rich (i.e., vivid and detailed) and holistic (i.e., describes the whole and its parts) description of the case and its context”

(Bassey, 1999, p.6). This was accomplished through the effective collection and analysis of data.

Data Collection Methods

The study of babies’ responses to electronic texts is dealing with the study of a human, lived experience which is often a "difficult area to study. It is multilayered and complex...[and] unlike objects of nature, the layers of experience are not rigidly ordered, nor are its moving contents related according to mathematical patterns" (Polkinghorne,

2005, p. 138).

Therefore, the data I gathered needed to consist of lived experiences which were

unbiased and full of rich detail. I knew that a skilled observer is able to "identify and

describe observations that will contribute to a clarified and satiated description"

(Polkinghorne, 2005, p. 144); so after careful consideration, I chose many ethnographic

research methods for my case study. This section will discuss the background and

relevance of participant observation, field notes, video recording, observation reports

from the teachers (teacher observation sheets), and informal member checks as my data

collection methods.

Participant Observation

For many years, participant observation has been a "hallmark of both

anthropological and sociological studies" (Kawulich, 2005, p. 1). As part of my

coursework for PhD, I was enrolled in an ethnographic research course where

observation was the key to our semester-long research project. During the process I realized that observation was the most effective method of data collection for me, as I

was able to use most of my senses to gather information. I also quickly learned that "not

everything that is sensed in an interview situation is significant"(Polkinghorne, 2005, p.

144) and became more detailed in the things I looked for. In qualitative research there

are different levels of participant observation. In this setting, I was a passive participant.

Taylor and Bogdan (1984) discuss several tips on conducting observations that

were helpful throughout my data collection. They state that the researcher should:

• be unobtrusive in dress and actions; • become familiar with the setting before beginning to collect data; 68

• keep the observations short at first to keep from becoming overwhelmed; • be honest, but not too technical or detailed, in explaining to participants what he/she is doing. (as cited in Kawulich, 2005, p. 1)

Using these tips, I was able to become familiar with the center and set up an

unobtrusive place for observations. It was also helpful that the center was equipped with

a mirrored window and headphones with a speaker so I could see and hear more clearly

without the babies being disturbed by my presence.

Participant observation allowed me to check for nonverbal expression of feelings

and record the ways the babies and teachers communicated with each other. It also

provided many considerations for me as a researcher including, but not limited to:

"ethics, establishing rapport, selecting key informants, the processes for conducting

observations, deciding what and when to observe, keeping field notes, and writing up

[my] findings" (Kawulich, 2005, p. 1).

Field Notes

In order to record my observations, I chose the initial method of field note taking.

In his text on writing field notes, Wolfinger (2002) states that once in the field, the

researcher is already deciding what to write about by asking herself what she notices,

what she chooses to focus her attention on, and what she remembers. While I focused on these questions, I preferred the alternate strategy suggested which was to "systematically and comprehensively describe everything that happened during [that] particular period of time" (Wolfinger,

2002, p. 90).

In so doing, I kept in mind Spradley's (1980) list so I was able to keep my mind

fixed on most important items to record in the observation:

1. Space: the physical place or places 2. Actor: the people involved 3. Activity: a set of related acts people do 4. Object: the physical things that are present 5. Act: single actions that people do 6. Event: a set of related activities that people carry out 7. Time: the sequencing that takes place over time 8. Goal: the things people are trying to accomplish 9. Feeling: the emotions felt and expressed

(Spradley, 1980. p. 78 as cited in Wolfinger, 2002, p. 90)

While I was careful to capture as much detail as I could in my field notes (see

Appendix B), I knew from prior experience that I could miss important gestures or responses while writing. Since the salience of the observation was highly subjective and depended upon my research context (Wolfinger, 2002, p. 89) I also used a video camera to capture items I may have missed during the reading experiences.

Video Recording

By video recording my observations of the babies and teachers at the center, I knew I would be able to capture information that I could replay. While there, I set up a video camera in the room, in a space minimally invasive to the babies and teachers.

Initially, I thought this would enable me to capture "everything" I had missed during my observation and field note taking experiences. However, Penn-Edwards (2004) warned of the improper use of the video recorded material which I kept in mind during my video analysis:

The visual mediums of photography, video recording, and film dominate human’s most developed sense, that of “sight”. The signs and symbols

embedded in the pictorial content of the visual messages are recognized, arranged in a complex flow of sequential images, and decoded and marshaled into patterns in the brain. Images are potent persuaders, but their abstraction and change in meaning over time encourage misunderstanding and improper use, so clarity of thought and expression are vital. (p. 266)

I also learned that I was using and interpreting with two types of recordings: observational and subject response recording (Penn-Edwards, 2004). In observational recording, the "camera is focused on a specific action and records material that may be used as a database for coding and interpretation, for evaluation, or for profiling purposes"(p. 268). A component of observational recording is subject response recording which also "stimulates reflection and discussion of the viewed material "(p. 269).

According to Penn-Edwards (2004) video recording is an effective qualitative research tool but it requires "judicial thought in its use and justification in its reporting"

(p. 270). Therefore, my final data collection method (in order to justify what I was seeing, and to avoid biased assumptions) was member checks.

Member Checks

One sub-component of the case study is a member check or, in my particular research, checking in with the teachers, informally, to inquire if what I'm seeing in my observations aligns with what they are seeing. I chose to do this informally (in sporadic verbal conversations) as well as with their own observation sheets (See Appendix A).

I was hesitant to use this method as part of my design based on conflicting points of view. However, I chose Cohen & Crabtree (1996), Morse (1994), Angen (2000) and

Sandelowski's (1993) criticisms to guide the format of my member checks and questions involved in my survey:

• Member checking relies on the assumption that there is a fixed truth of reality that can be accounted for by a researcher and confirmed by a respondent. • From an interpretive perspective, understanding is co-created and there is no objective truth or reality to which the results of a study can be compared. • The process of member-checking may lead to confusion rather than confirmation because participants may change their mind about an issue, the interview itself may have an impact on their original assessment, and new experiences (since the time of contact) may have intervened. • Respondents may disagree with researcher's interpretations. Then the question of whose interpretation should stand becomes an issue. • Both researchers and members are stakeholders in the research process and have different stories to tell and agendas to promote. This can result in conflicting ways of seeing interpretations. • Members and researchers may have different views of what is a fair account. • Members strive to be perceived as good people; researchers strive to be seen as good scholars. These divergent goals may shape findings and result in different ways of seeing and reacting to data. • Members may tell stories during an interview that they later regret or see differently. Members may deny such stories and want them removed from the data. • Members may not be in the best position to check the data. They may forget what they said or the manner in which a story was told. • Members may participate in checking only to be 'good' respondents and agree with an account in order to please the researcher. • Different members may have different views of the same data (as cited in Cohen & Crabtree, 1996, p.1).

Due to the many criticisms of member checks (as listed above), I compensated for them by initially meeting with the teachers before the research began, discussing the importance of their honest contribution to the study (not by my coercion or suggestion).

They were told they were not required to participate, and that they would not be receiving any compensation for participating either. I told them there was no "correct" way to read with the infants, but that I would simply be checking in to see if my own observations were lining up with their experiences and observations (see Appendices D and E).

As a final member check and follow-up to the study, the teachers filled out a sheet

via e-mail answering three questions regarding their participation in, and feelings about,

the study (see Appendix C). This additional measure allowed the teachers to summarize

their personal observations and experiences with the babies without any input or

unintentional bias from the researcher (me).

Data Analysis Procedures and Description

Organization and Transcription of the Data

The first step in data analysis was to record, transcribe, and organize the different forms of data into one “medium”. In this case, I used a computer to initially transcribe and record the field notes, video recordings, and member checks. First, I typed my written field notes (See Appendix B) into a word processor, and created one document for each infant. A sample of the transcribed field notes in a Word Document is featured below in Table 8 (initials represent the babies’ initials):

Table 8

Sample of Transcribed Field Notes KL ANIMAL TOUCH AND FEEL: 2:36 ELECTRONIC TRADITIONAL *read first Usually RH does not use sound when she Looking up from the book until RH uses reads on the electronic book: she told me his hand to touch the fur of the dog the babies usually stare at it like it’s a TV screen, but for this format of book she turns the sound on and also makes her own sounds. Monkey noise: H scoots up and laughs Looks as she points to the text and the pictures Reaches for the book and sits up RH touches, then helps H to touch the whiskers Opens mouth and eyes wide Looks at the pictures Touches the screen Eyes staring at the book Stares and moves closer when he hears the Engaged in the text sounds Engaged with the sounds of the pig on the RH helps him touch the fish skin iPad, but when RH makes the oink oink sound, he looks up and her and laughs out loud (MOST INTERACTION I’VE SEEN TO THIS POINT…IS IT AN AGE THING?)

Following this, I viewed the videos and transcribed all of them from video to

Word Document. In some cases, I combined or added additional observations to the already transcribed field notes (capturing behaviors I may have missed). A sample of transcribed video notes is featured in Table 9 below:

Table 9

Sample of Transcribed Video Notes AB CE Electronic Book: Traditional Book: Electronic Book: Traditional Book: The Three Little Look at my Hands The Three Little Look at my Hands Pigs Pigs LENGTH: 1:51 LENGTH: 1:43 LENGTH: 2:33 LENGTH: 3:46 PW: "it's an iPad" J PW Look AB, I PW holds the iPad Once PW turned is staring at the have a hard book in up and CE reaches the page CE begins screen, not touching my hands. Points to for and grabs the pointing to the it. PW begins the picture on the screen book reading this front and says: The time..."Once upon a title is Look at my time..." hands". AB is still, staring at the book, eyes intent on the images on the front. Another baby PW "See this is a PW "what do we Sucking on book approaches J and picture of a hand" have here? It's an she smiles at him. touches J's hand and iPad..." strokes it: "this is your hand". "this is your right hand".

Finally, I transcribed all of the teacher’s original written observation sheets (See

Appendix A) creating a Word Document of the information. A sample of the transcribed observation sheet is featured in Table 10 (it is important to note that I typed the words from each teacher exactly as written):

Table 10

Sample of Teacher’s Transcribed Observation Sheet Teacher Observation Sheet 1/14

Teacher: PW Baby: KL 7 months 1/14/13 Traditional Book: Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See? Eric Carle Child will look at the book and listen at the same time touching the pages. He would also like to slide his fingers on the page and make sound. After a few seconds, he will then hold the book and pull it from my hands. He is slow at times make loud sounds like “mah, mah, mah” Electronic Book: Pat the Bunny KL listens and at the same time touches the screen – and makes the pages turn. He also slides his fingers on the screen to make a sound. H babbles “mah, mah, mah, mah,” this time.

After transcribing the field notes, video recordings, and teacher observation sheets, I cut and pasted each babies’ combined data from all three sources: field notes, video recording, and teacher observation sheets, to create one “Master Document” of each babies’ action responses. I separated each Master Document into only two categories: “Responses to Electronic Book” and “Responses to Traditional Book”.

Within each, I also listed the date the observation(s) took place. A sample of a very small portion of the Master Document for one baby, KL, is featured below:

Table 11

Sample of Transcribed and Combined Master Document for KL KL Seven to Ten Months

1.7.13 Responses to Electronic Responses to Traditional Book Book PW starts with Pat the KL loses interest as PW tries to Bunny. KL is not initially pronounce the name of the engaged with the iPad author. (music and all) Another baby is crying, When she opens the book KL and KL's attention is fully grabs for the pictures and on the other child becomes engaged in the story by looking and touching. PW starts to point and KL begins dragging his hand touch the elements and KL across the "board" type stares at the screen, mouth material of the book which open. Another baby is makes a screeching sound. hitting the book with a toy. Hannah is watching the screeching sound. PW makes a note of KL making a sound with his hands. "You can't hear the sound "Tap, tap, tap" it does make a anymore"...then the page sound...it is smooth (while turns. KL is hitting the parroting what KL was doing screen, but not acting with the book). KL starts "invested" in the book. He smoothly running his fingers keeps looking away when over the book again. the sound is off or between pages. PW does not know how to turn the pages very easily. The other babies come over KL is standing and pounding and begin interacting with on the book. The other babies the elements by touching come over. PW says: The the screen. ducklings say "quack, quack, quack" She thinks she is losing the PW has both babies in her lap book again... and another baby tries to turn the page The page suggests that the babies wave bye-bye. "Can you say bye?" She waves.

It is important to note that I also jotted down member check notes after speaking

with the teachers, and also recorded their responses via e-mail in their final “member check” but these two data collection methods were not included in the Master Documents for this step of analysis. They are described in Chapters 4 and 5, respectively.

After I had saved each babies’ Master Document, I inserted the entire body of text, for each individual baby, into an Excel Spreadsheet. I separated each word into individual cells, and, using the code: =COUNTIF(A1:Q307,"WORD") was able to find the number of times a word was repeated. Since I was analyzing non-verbal responses, repetition of response words (such as "looking", "grabs", and "touching") seemed to be the most effective measure of repetition for this study. A sample of the excel sheet is featured using Figure 1, below:

Figure 1: Excel Spreadsheet. This figure illustrates the way I inserted a text only document into a Spreadsheet, separating the entire document into single words, and finally separating each word by cells. I used the data to extract the numeric frequency of frequently occurring responses from the babies. Results are shown in Table 13.

For the remainder of the analysis, I used the information from the Master

Document for each of the babies’ responses, as well as member check notes recorded in the analytical memo section of my field notes. It was using qualitative methods (featured in more detail later in this chapter) such as: similarities and differences, cutting and sorting, missing data, and repetition (as is featured in the Spreadsheet), that my findings emerged.

Types of Analysis: Thematic Analysis using Inductive and Deductive Methods In order to begin analysis, it was important to understand the type or types (in this case) of analyses as well as the methods I’d be using to analyze my data. I had originally started the study with an inductive approach to the research, and stayed true to this

“bottom up” (specific to general) approach through my analysis. In using the inductive

approach to the research, I “immersed [myself] in the documents in order to identify

dimensions or themes that seemed meaningful” (Berg, 1989,pp. 111-112).

In addition, because a small part of my sub-questions were more specific, directly related to behavioral, social, and emotional growth among infants (see Table 3), a small portion of my analysis was also deductive; which happens when moving from more general to specific. Berg (1989) states that “in many circumstances, the relationship between a theoretical perspective and certain messages involves both inductive and deductive approaches; but in order to present the perceptions in the most forthright manner, a greater reliance on induction is necessary” (p. 112). While my qualitative research was more exploratory and open-ended in the early stages, it does include both inductive and deductive methods toward analysis.

Thematic analysis. According to subvista (2010), thematic analysis is:

a conventional practice in qualitative research which involves searching through data to identify any recurrent patterns. The exploratory power of this popular technique can be enhanced by the analyst lacking previous knowledge of the research topic as they are not guided by any preconceptions. Thus, the analyst does not have to be an expert in the research topic. However, in order to begin analysis a researcher must have at least some conceptual understanding to guide the insight processes (p.1).

The thematic analysis approach supported my mainly inductive approach as my initial codes and themes emerged from the data itself (the main document taken from three sources of the babies responses) and were not imposed by me. In thematic analysis, it was also important that my data collection and analysis took place simultaneously

(innovative learning, 2013), with exception of the teacher observation.

While analyzing, I initially labeled some of the emerging themes using “codes”

(discussed in the next section). The major difference between the two types of analysis

(thematic and content) is that the codes, themes, or categories are “not set, and the number of themes is not predetermined” (innovative learning, 2013, p.1); this allows as many themes as I, the researcher, identified to be presented in my findings.

However, since I had analyzed my data during data collection, I was in the process of watching emerging themes appear, and had ideas for emerging findings before all of the collection was complete. Therefore, I moved “back and forth between new concepts and the data” (subvista, 2010, p.1). A small part of my deductive analysis took place using the idea of content analysis as I went along but while the induction portion of my research created themes, the deduction portion verified them (subvista, 2010).

Analysis Methods: Codes and Themes

Finding codes. According to Strauss (1987), “any researcher who wishes to become proficient at doing qualitative analysis must learn to code well and easily; the excellence of the research rests in large part on the excellence of the coding” (p. 27).

Since most of my data, featured in each baby’s Master Document, contained one word sounds and observations, I started to find additional and overarching themes by coding.

The act of discovering these themes is what “grounded theorists call open coding and what classic content analysts call qualitative analysis” (Berelson, 1952, as cited in Gery and Bernard, 2003, p. 88).

Coding begins the process, but is only the initial step to further and more rigorous analysis. It was not just labeling my codes from the Excel document, but it was linking;

as it “lead [me] from the data to the idea and from the idea to all the data pertaining to that data” (Richards & Morse, 2007, p.137). Saldana (2009) describes a code as a “word or short phrase that symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a portion of language-based or visual data” (p. 4). Since my research was basic, descriptive, visual data I chose to assign codes, in my first cycle, using Excel and the babies’ responses that occurred most frequently. Additional visual representations of this process are featured in Chapter 4 (see Table 13).

Secondary coding. According to Saldana (2009): Rarely will anyone get coding right the first time. Qualitative inquiry demands meticulous attention to language and deep reflection on the emergent patterns and meanings of human experience. Recoding can occur with a more attuned perspective using First Cycle methods again, while Second Cycle methods describe those processes that might be employed during the second (and third and possibly fourth … review of data (p. 10).

Therefore, I took my first cycle of coding in content analysis and expanded to themes in my second cycle. As I noticed the most frequent behaviors from the babies emerge, I was able to link larger ideas and concepts from the Master Documents to create these themes.

Thematic Methods

A theme is a “cluster of linked categories conveying similar meanings” (subvista,

2010, p. 1) and can come from both the data (inductive) or from my prior theoretical understanding of the phenomena (deductive) (Gery & Bernard, 2003). In analyzing my text, I chose to follow the model set forth by Gery & Bernard (2003, p. 85):

• Discover themes and subthemes • Winnow themes to a manageable few (decide which are important) • Build hierarchies of themes or codes • Link themes to theoretical models

When identifying themes, I quickly found that more was better, so that I had

enough information to sort through and categorize; but that all themes were not equally

important (Gery & Bernard, 2003). It was important that I kept in mind the salience of each theme as I began the identification process. In this case, I found that repetition,

similarities and differences, cutting and sorting, and looking for missing data were the

most effective measures of analysis in answering my research questions. The following

section will describe my reasoning behind using these methods of analysis.

Repetition I used a repetitious pattern in my initial coding techniques using Microsoft Excel;

and, therefore, chose to more carefully identify repeating elements for second cycle, or

more in depth (Saldana, 2009) theme recording. Gery & Bernard (2003) state that

“repetition is one of the easiest ways to identify themes” and that “some for the most

obvious themes are those topics that occur and reoccur” (p. 89). When looking for

patterns, it was important for me to know that “idiosyncrasy is a pattern" (Saldana, 2003,

p. 118). and that important secondary themes emerged as I paid attention to these

patterns.

Similarities and Differences Another method used in finding themes was asking myself what was different

about the data I had collected on the behaviors of the babies during traditional reading

time compared to their behaviors during the electronic book reading time. If there was

already a theme present in both, it was important that I noted any differences between the

two and I broke them down to find subthemes. Gery & Bernard (2003) give an example:

Suppose an investigator compares two video clips and finds that both express the theme of anxiety. On careful scrutiny, the researcher notices that the two instances of anxiety are both weak, but one is expressed verbally and the other through subtle hand gestures. The investigator codes these as two new subthemes (p. 91).

Cutting and Sorting A traditional method, often used before word processors, is the cutting and sorting method. This involves “identifying quotes or expressions that seem somehow important and then arranging the quotes/expressions into piles of things that go together” (Saldana,

2009, p.5). In so doing, I also discovered that I grouped things together not just based on complete similarities, but also because of differences. I did a great deal of cutting and sorting (using a word processor) because, according to Gery & Bernard (2003):

Cutting and sorting is the most versatile technique. By sorting expressions into piles at different levels of abstraction, investigators can identify themes, subthemes, and metathemes. Searching for indigenous typologies and combining word lists and KWIC (key words in context) is particularly useful for identifying subthemes. In contrast, techniques that analyze aggregated data such as word cooccurrences and metacoding are particularly good at identifying more abstract metathemes. (p. 103) Missing Data

Since the bulk of my approaches to uncovering themes consisted of finding what was there, I chose to finally ask myself what was missing from the data. I chose to do this as Gery & Bernard (2003) suggested that “researchers have long recognized that much can be learned from qualitative data by what is not mentioned” (p. 82). In so doing, I was careful to make sure I wasn’t finding simply what I was looking for.

Ideas Guiding Analysis

As is common in qualitative research design, I was continually analyzing and

reflecting during my data collection process. In so doing, I was able to shape the course

of my study for more effective comparisons; and I believe, final results. Throughout the

process, I used a common qualitative analysis method for case studies referred to as

OTTR (TSAO, 1995), which stands for "observe", "think", "test", and "revise":

Observe: initial observations are made and tentative hypotheses are formulated.

Think: consideration is made of what additional information must be collected to rule out alternative explanations or confirm initial hypotheses.

Test: additional information is collected through subsequent observation or review.

Revise: analysis of subsequent observations and review occurs, and initial hypotheses are reexamined.

The OTTR process continues until the initial hypothesis can be confirmed or until an alternative explanation is required to accommodate new data.

(TSAO, 1995, p. 3)

This process was helpful during and upon completion of the data collection, because I felt comfortable with the information, and it guided the direction of my analysis. This process also helped with the authenticity and trustworthiness of the research, as the inductive and deductive approaches allowed overarching and emergent themes to come together in the findings.

Trustworthiness & Validity

The nature of qualitative research, which arises from a post-positivist rejection of the idea that the objective truth must be single or static (Talbert, 2012, p. 16), can take many different directions. As a result, the research is very much studying a human experience and the production of a series of subjective methods of data collection.

Because this research method is more subjective than the quantitative method, there is much discussion on the "validity" of a qualitative case study. The validity of this case study was founded on three important measures of trustworthiness: triangulation, repeatability, and truth.

Triangulation

In qualitative research it is important that the researcher does not make assumptions or become affected by personal bias during a study. One way to prevent this from happening is to use “multiple lines of sight” (Berg, 1989, p. 4) or data collection methods during the study which is often called triangulation.

In this process, each method “reveals slightly different facets of the same symbolic reality; and every method is a different line of sight [to help the] researchers obtain a better, more substantive picture of reality; a richer, more complete array of symbols and theoretical concepts; and a means of verifying many of these elements”

(Berg, 1989, p. 4).

In this study, I used the data collection methods: observation, field notes, video recording, teacher observation sheets (see Appendix A), and member checks/e-mail with the teachers. By using multiple data collection methods, my findings could not be “made

up” by me, or even go in a biased direction. Having the teachers record their own responses with the babies, and then comparing my notes with theirs, allowed me to see if any bias was taking place.

Checking in, informally, with the teachers also assisted in keeping the actual research on track and pertinent to the overarching research questions. More than once in the study, checking in allowed for us to slightly shift the reading process or type of books which proved to be more effective in data analysis and findings.

Repeatability

The true essence of validity comes with repeatability. Bassey (1999) states that

“in the simplest analysis reliability is the extent to which a research fact or finding can be repeated, given the same circumstances, and validity is the extent to which a research fact or finding is what it is claimed to be. (p. 75). While each baby was completely different, responded differently, reacted differently, and ultimately, learns differently, I have confidence that if the study were to be repeated in the same circumstances, the researcher would find similar results. I know this, due to the concept of triangulation, or using multiple means of collecting and analyzing the data so as not to be biased by the researchers personal assumptions or theories.

Truth

"Many espouse their own theories of validity" states Talbert (2012) and "adopt what they deem to be more appropriate terms [than validity] such as: trustworthiness, worthy, relevant, plausible, confirmable, credible, or representative" (p. 16). In relation

to my study, I use the idea of truth in relation to the research process as a recording of factual events, processes, recordings, and observations taken from multiple perspectives.

According to Talbert (2012):

It is the notion of truth and our claim to it that is central to all perspectives on validity. These notions of truth do not merely concern the factual events or statements recorded during the data gathering, but the research process as a whole. One cannot objectively attempt to establish which truth is more valid or which validity is more truthful. This argument is meaningless because in order to do so, one must espouse a subjective stance (p .17).

In order to break down the truth of my research process as a whole, I used

Bassey's (1990) idea that ethics in research falls under three categories which are “respect for democracy, respect for truth, and respect for persons” (p. 73) The integrity of my research is such that it upheld these three categories throughout the process. There was respect for democracy as I consulted with the teachers throughout the process. There was respect for truth in the validity and true nature of the data collection in all forms; and finally, respect for persons was the very basis of this study. As an educator and new mother, I found a new gap in the research of early literacy, and technology that needed to be explored to shed insight for the upcoming generation.

Summary of Chapter 3

In choosing the methods of research for this study and then carrying them out, I quickly discovered that there was “no single set of categories [or themes] waiting to be discovered, [but that] there are as many ways of seeing data as one can invent” (Dey,

1993, 110). I was hopeful that my inquiries described and clarified the human experience as it appeared (Polkinghorne, 2005, p. 137), and that my qualitative approach showed that

I had examined the babies' world with the “assumption that nothing [was] trivial”

(Talbert, 2012, p. 2).

Using the Sociocultural Theory as a lens throughout this process, I was constantly

aware of the social and cultural elements working together in the nature of this study; and

how new they were (as evidenced by some unexpected findings in the caregivers

response to the electronic reading). I found each carefully researched method to be appropriate in the gathering and analysis of the data, and the combination of inductive and deductive reasoning as a “two-way bridge between theory and research” (about.com,

2013, p.1) to be appropriate in uncovering the final themes for identifying theories and

presenting my findings in Chapter 4.

CHAPTER 4

PRESENTATION OF THE FINDINGS

Introduction to Chapter 4

The purpose of this study was to observe the reader response of three babies to electronic and traditional books in order to uncover information regarding early literacy patterns of infants in an increasingly digital world. Special attention was paid to their behaviors, gestures, and overall “reading experiences” with traditional books and e-books

. The previous chapters have discussed opinions about studies on electronic books

(Lindskoog & Hunsicker, 1989; Johnson, 2009; Gentry, 2012); and the effectiveness and importance of reading traditional books with babies and toddlers (Sulzby, 1983; Teale,

1984; Crago & Crago, 1983; Cochran-Smith 1982).

In this chapter, I will present the findings and results related to my research questions:

How do three babies (aged 0-12 months) at a child development center

affiliated with a university in the South, respond to an electronic reader (e-

books) and traditional books?

Sub-questions:

A. How do babies' responses compare when responding to electronic books

versus traditional texts?

B. How do teachers describe changes of the infants' behaviors or reactions in

regards to the purposes and/or benefits of reading (i.e. social, emotional,

behavioral) with babies aged 0-12 months as e-readers are introduced to

their reading time?

C. How do babies respond to the different ways that e-readers are presented

to them (i.e. teachers using verbal and/or non-verbal cues)?

Several tables and figures will be presented in three main sections (and two sub- sections) to concisely describe the emerging ideas. Throughout each section, the research questions this study was founded on will be addressed, and findings will be discussed using results from my data to draw conclusions. Finally, the findings will be summarized at the end of this chapter. Throughout this chapter, the teachers and babies initials will be used as I refer to them; therefore, the reader will find a brief description and introduction of them in the following section. It is important to note that these initials are pseudonyms of the actual participant's initials.

Background of the Findings

The following three sections (and two sub-sections) will describe the ways these three babies respond to traditional books and e-books, the role of the adult/caregiver/reader of the book(s), and similar studies that reaffirm my own data findings. Each section is outlined in the left column of Table 12. All of the nine findings, or themes, presented in this chapter were found using the research methods discussed in Chapter 3; and will be explained within each section as salient points and description about them emerge.

Each of the three sections (and two sub-sections) addresses the main research question guiding this study:

How do three babies (aged 0-12 months) at a child development center affiliated with a university in the South, respond to an electronic reader (e- books) and traditional books? These sections also address the more specific sub-questions (A, B, and C) as well as additional case study element questions that guided my own thinking (as shown in

Table 7: Investigator’s Data Collection Procedures, found in Chapter 3). As a guide to the reader, before the findings are presented, Table 12 shows the sub-questions and case study elements (from Table 7) that are addressed in each section of Chapter 4.

Research Questions Addressed

Table 12

Description of Major Sections that Address the Research Questions in Chapter 4 Major Sections in Chapter 4 Research Questions and Case Study Elements Addressed in Each Section Taken from Table 7 in Chapter 3

I. Babies’ Responses to Addresses Research Sub-Question A: How Electronic vs. Traditional do babies responses compare when Texts responding to electronic books versus traditional texts?

Case Study Element IA: Do babies reach for, attempt to turn pages (if pages are available), hold the e-book right side up, or attempt to touch the e-book?

II. Pertinence of Book Format for Addresses Research Sub-Question B: How Infants do teachers describe changes in the purposes and/or benefits of reading (i.e. social, emotional, behavioral) with babies aged 0- 12 months as e-readers are introduced to their reading time?

Case Study Element III B: How do the babies respond to the e-reading time? Case Study Element III C: How do babies respond differently to the traditional reading time? a. E-reading with the Addresses Research Sub-Question B: Infants How do teachers describe changes in the purposes and/or benefits of reading (i.e. social, emotional, behavioral) with babies aged 0-12 months as e-readers are introduced to their reading time?

Addresses Research Sub-Question C: How do babies respond to the different ways that e-readers are presented to them?

Addresses Case Study Element IV A: How do babies respond when the teacher simply presents the e-book to the baby?

93 Continued

Table 12 Continued

E-reading with the Addresses Case Study Element IV B: Infants How do the babies respond when the teacher uses verbal interaction in addition to the e-book?

Addresses Case Study Element II A: Why are babies read to (purposes and benefits of reading to babies)?

b. Traditional Reading with Addresses Research Sub-Question B: the Infants How do teachers describe changes in the purposes and/or benefits of reading (i.e. social, emotional, behavioral) with babies aged 0-12 months as e-readers are introduced to their reading time?

Addresses Case Study Element II A: Why are babies read to (purposes and benefits of reading to babies)?

Addresses Case Study Element III A: Who reads to the babies?

Addresses Case Study Element IIID: How often are the babies read to? III. c. E-Reading: The Reader’s Supports all research questions by presenting findings from my data Experience and Read-Aloud supporting information about the role and responsibility of the reader when reading Responsibility with infants.

Conclusion

Summary of Data Findings

Description of the Findings

Babies Responses to Electronic and Traditional Texts

I chose repetition, as my initial qualitative analysis method, in making sense of all the transcribed video, field notes, and teacher observation notes because it is “one of the easiest ways to identify themes” and that “some of the most obvious themes are those topics that occur and reoccur” (Gery & Bernard, 2003, p. 89). As described in Chapter 3,

I combined three data sources (my field notes, my transcribed video recordings, and the

teacher observation sheets) by cutting and pasting the text from each to create one Master

Word Document for each baby.

Each document was then separated into two sections each: responses to traditional texts and responses to electronic texts. Finally, I separated each to create six separate documents (each of the three babies’ responses to traditional texts, and three responses to

electronic texts). Figure 2 below illustrates the ways in which the data was organized:

AB AB CE CE KL KL

responses to responses to responses to responses to responses to responses to

traditional electronic traditional electronic traditional electronic

texts texts texts texts texts texts

Figure 2: Organization of Data Analysis Documents. This figure illustrates the way in which the transcribed field notes, video notes, and teacher observation sheets were organized into six separate Word documents.

In the next step, I copied and pasted the text from each of the six separate documents (two for each baby) into Microsoft Excel where I used a formula

(=COUNTIF(A1:Q307,"word") to find the high frequency responses of each baby to each type of book, or the number of times a word was repeated. The following table, Table

13, shows the results of my findings, each number in parentheses being the number of times the word or response from each baby occurred in the three forms of data (field notes, video, and teacher observation form).

Table 13

Frequency of the Description of One Word Responses from the Babies to Both Types of Books AB: CE: KL: AB: CE: KL: Traditional Traditional Traditional Electronic Electronic Electronic BOOK (39) BOOK (64) BOOK (31) SCREEN SCREEN SCREEN (29) (63) (45) PAGES (22) MOUTH PAGES (13) EYES (14) MOUTH (24) TOUCHES (30) (10)

HAND(S) PAGES (19) *LOOKING PAGE (10) BOOK (21) PAGE (10) (14) (10)

PAGE (11) *LOOKING PICTURES BOOK (10) *GRABS *”OH” (9) (18) (9) (16)

*STARING *POINTING FINGERS (9) *LOOKING HANDS (13) BOOK (9) (10) (13) (10) *HOLDING *GRABS AROUND (6) FINGERS *TOUCHING SOUND (10) (10) (8) (12) (8)

EYES (10) PICTURES SOUND (6) *READING *TOUCHES *MAKES (9) (8) (10) (8)

STILL (8) HANDS (8) *TOUCHING *STARING *READING BABIES (5) (6) (10) (8)

Continued

Table 13 Continued

*POINTS *READING *ENGAGED AWAY (5) *LOOKING *LOOKS (7) (8) (5) (10) (8)

*LOOK (7) *TRYING *POINTS (4) BUBBLES *TRYING BACK (8) (4) (9) (6) CLOSER *PUTS (8) *READING *POINTING SOUND (9) AWAY (6) (4) (4) (6)

PICTURES *TURN (6) *HOLD (4) *POP (4) BACK (8) *POINTS (5) (6)

*READING *GETS (3) *BABBLING HANDS (3) AROUND HAND (5) (3) (8) (5)

FACE (5) *PULLS (2) *MAKE (3) *TURN (3) *SMILES OPEN (2) (4) *notes the most frequently repeated action responses from the babies

Explanation of the Data: Babies’ Responses

In each column, the words appear in order (from top to bottom) as the most

frequently repeated word taken from three sources of data (field notes, video recording,

and teacher’s observation sheets). The first column shows that, with every child, “book”

and “screen” or in other words, the book format, were the two most popular re-occurring

words. However, these words merely describe the format of the two types of books, and

are not action responses.

I chose to include these and some other common, re-occurring words that came up

over and over again in the coding process as they show indicators of response styles (i.e.

"bubbles", "hands", or "oh") and infant references (i.e. "babies", "sound", & looking

"away") during the reading time(s). It is important to note that I chose not to include the term iPad or the babies’ or teachers’ initials in the frequency representation (as they would have been highly represented words as well).

Since all responses from the babies were, overall, non-verbal, the most frequently repeated action responses from the babies are marked with an asterisk. Table

13 reveals that the action responses of the babies were so similar across both types of texts that the results based on their responses alone did not show that one type of book over another was preferred or elicited more (or different) responses from the babies.

As a qualitative researcher, I did not enter the field of study with any preconceived notions, but I did think that the babies’ responses would show more

“actions”, “responses”, or “verbal babbling” with either the traditional or the electronic book. Therefore, one may conclude from this inital data set that that if read aloud, both types of books have the potential to elicit similar responses from infants (aged 0-12 months), and will most likely provide the developmental and educational benefits of reading aloud as described in Chapter 2. However, later findings in my study show that the reader experience was very different based on the format of the book.

To further illustrate these findings, in addition to the table, I used the same textual data (from each baby’s Master Document) to create visual figures featuring the babies’ responses, or initial codes. I cut and pasted all of the data from the six individual Master

Documents (two for each baby, traditional and electronic responses) into an online software program: www.wordle.net. This program generated visual figures showing the

most frequently occurring words (the most repeated word represented by the largest

word, the least repeated word being the smallest word). Featured below are the visual figures represented by each baby’s response to electronic and traditional texts taken from: transcribed field notes, video, and teacher observation sheets in my study. The way in which the words are presented show the reader, in a more visual form, the data represented numerically in Table 13.

Figure 3: AB’s responses to the Electronic Book. This figure illustrates repeated words (largest words being repeated most often) from electronic book responses via transcribed video, teacher observation, and field notes.

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Figure 4: AB’s responses to the Traditional Book. This figure illustrates repeated words (largest words being repeated most often) from traditional book responses via transcribed video, teacher observation, and field notes.

Figure 5: CE’s responses to the Electronic Book. This figure illustrates repeated words (largest words being repeated most often) from electronic book responses via transcribed video, teacher observation, and field notes.

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Figure 6: CE’s responses to the Traditional Book. This figure illustrates repeated words (largest words being repeated most often) from traditional book responses via transcribed video, teacher observation, and field notes.

Figure 7: KL’s responses to the Electronic Book. This figure illustrates repeated words (largest words being repeated most often) from electronic book responses via transcribed video, teacher observation, and field notes.

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Figure 8: KL’s responses to the Traditional Book. This figure illustrates repeated words (largest words being repeated most often) from traditional book responses via transcribed video, teacher observation, and field notes.

Table 13 and Figures 3-8 show that in all three of the babies’ data, the actual format of the book (i.e. “screen” and “book”) appeared most often during all forms of recorded observation. This is important, because while the frequency of reoccurring action responses were too similar to find pertinent differences in the babies’ responses to the electronic versus traditional texts, it was the format and readers of the books that produced the most salient findings involving infants and early literacy in this study.

These findings are discussed in the following sections.

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Pertinence of Book Format for Infants

In her 2005 study, Caplovitz was among the first to examine whether electronic

books aided emergent literacy skills in preschool children. There was no evidence to

suggest that either being read the books or using the [electronic] machine had any

differing effects on the emergent literacy skills of children overall. However, according

to a 2006 study of children ages 3-5 at Temple University, both “parents and pre-school

children had a more [effective] and positive interaction when sharing a reading

experience with a traditional book as opposed to an electronic book” (Moretz, 2006, p.1).

The nature of my study, pertaining directly to the babies, was based primarily on

gestures and behaviors versus verbal responses (although there were a few verbal sounds

noted such as: “mah, mah, mah” or “oooo” especially from baby KL). Because of this, my initial coding experience with single words, as shown in Table 13, did not produce any pertinent differences in the frequency of responses for “more frequent”, “different”, or “more beneficial” reading patterns between the babies and the two different types of text. However, from the reader’s perspective (in this case, a teacher at the development center) the outcomes or "benefits" (taken from her observations) did differ when using the different types of texts during reading time. When asked in a member check e-mail

(see Appendix C) if there were any social, emotional or behavioral benefits of introducing the e-reader during reading time, RH, a teacher, stated:

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After analyzing the data using the Excel sort (of individual words) for my initial coding, I went back for secondary coding to the same field notes, transcribed videos, teacher observation sheets, and this time, added in the member checks and e-mail quotes from the teachers. I used the cutting and sorting method of analysis by arranging sections into similar “piles of things that [went] together” (Saldana, 2009, p.5). In so doing, I was able to uncover important patterns, or themes, in my data that were pertinent to the responses of the babies to both types of texts. The findings began to produce “pros” and

“cons” in choosing book format for infants. The pros and cons of e-reading and traditional texts along with implications of reading with both are featured in the following sections.

E-Reading with the infants. Beyond the information in field notes and video that I observed, the teachers both had strong opinions about their “e-reading” experiences with the babies. Their concerns and/or preferences addressed the findings, or themes, taken from cutting and sorting member check e-mails, field notes, teacher observation sheets, and transcribed video recordings.

These findings were that:

• The format of the electronic book produced more “screen watching” or

“playing with toy” reactions from the infants.

• Using mouths and flapping hands (hitting the screen without purpose) in order

to discover their surroundings, is appropriate developmental behavior in

infants 0-12 months (Gentry, 2012), and the electronic book format conflicts

with the reading process when these behaviors are exhibited.

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• The electronic book has the potential to add to the reading experience by

potentially repositioning the infants in the world and in their traditional

relation to the text (Mackey, 2003). Using the e-book as a "tool” during the

reading experience, provides an alternative space for the reader; and may add

a different component to the infant's textual experience that could not be

achieved with a traditional book and human reader alone.

Small portions of the actual transcribed data are reproduced below to show the

reader how these findings were discovered in the research process. When RH was asked how she would describe changes in the purpose of her reading when reading with the electronic book versus the traditional book, she replied:

I personally did not like reading with the electronic reader with the infants. I noticed the children acting like the reader was a toy to play with and figure out instead of focusing on the book itself that was on the e-reader. So for them, while reading with the e-reader, the purpose was to play with the device instead of focusing on the benefits of reading (personal communication, March 13, 2013).

PW responded with the following commentary on e-book reading:

I had an ambivalent feeling about it [reading with the e-reader]. It seems to me as so unnatural to be just holding an e-book versus the hard copy of the book. I was also very uncomfortable about it - because once a child touched the screen, the page was changed and then was not just able to keep right on it again (personal communication, March 13, 2013).

Table 14 shows two (of the many) samples in my data revealing that 1) the format of the electronic book produced “screen” or “playing with toy” reactions and 2) the developmental stage of these infants (ages ranging from 3.5- 10 months) encouraged the use of their hands and especially mouths (Gentry, 2012) to explore and discover their surroundings. This was not conducive to most

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effectively reading with the electronic book as it would change screens or shut off entirely when touched without specific purpose by the infants.

Table 14

Notes from the Field: Data Showing Infant Responses to Electronic Texts

January 24: Member Check When speaking with RH before I started the camera, she said: "when I read with the iPad you'd like me to shut the sound off, right?" I told her whatever she would do naturally would be what I would like for her to do. She then said: "When I leave the sound on, the babies watch the iPad like a screen, just staring. When I shut it off, they respond more like it's a book." I found that insightful.

February 13: Field Notes In order for the page to stay the same, RH has to hold CE’s hand away from the screen until she’s finished reading the text.

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An additional thought on infants and their normal developmental patterns and behaviors during reading, which was solidified by my data, was produced by Gentry

(2012):

In addition, the actual format (and price tag) of the electronic book made it very problematic for the babies to suck on the book, and would probably be very unlikely that a parent would leave the electronic book in a bedroom or playroom for the baby to have access to. As a result of this, electronic interactions would most likely need to be more "scheduled" than that with the traditional book, that an infant could explore on her own.

On the other hand, a “pro” to the e-reader found in my study, was when animal noises were used on the iPad and repeated by the reader, RH. In this particular case, the noise or sounds initially coming from the iPad enabled KL to interact more freely with the teacher, and elicited interaction that was not observed with the traditional book.

Morrow, Freitag, and Gambrell (2009) agree, that by using an e-reader children can now determine the pace of the story presentation and when the pages are turned, select a story to read and reread, and can even "interact with characters in the book" (p.

28) as was shown in this reading experience with KL. A small example showing his behavior, taken from the data, is featured in Table 15:

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Table 15

Notes from the Field: Data Showing Interaction Examples with the Electronic Reader

February 22nd: Analytical Memo Usually RH does not use sound when she reads on the electronic book, she told me the babies usually stare at it like it’s a TV screen or a toy, but for this book[animal sounds] she turns the sound on and also makes her own sounds.

February 22nd: Video Transcription KL is engaged with the sounds of the pig on the iPad, and when RH makes the “oink oink” sound, he looks up at her and laughs out loud (This is the most interaction I’ve seen to this point!)

March 1st: Analytical Memo Last week (KL at 9 months) I noticed a “noticeable” difference in behavior when reading with the electronic book. (More verbal noises, more giggles, and more interaction as a whole with the teachers).

KL’s behaviors with the e-reader and this story exchange showed an example of

Robinson and Mackey’s (2003) ideas on using texts as “multiliterate interpreters” where the impact of the televisual text actually repositions the child both in the world and in their relation to the text. In this case, his “literate behaviors [were] influenced by and

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[did] influence” (p. 126) his interactive reading experience (although, it is important to note that he was never “reading” the e-book alone, which could have produced alternative outcomes).

Based on this exchange with the text and the data produced, it can be inferred from my data and past studies that a “pro” to e-reading with infants is that there is an actual tool (other than a person) that can reposition the child both in the world and in their relation to the text (Mackey, 2003), and their behaviors or responses can be influenced by them. There was a noticeable change in engagement when KL heard the animal sounds coming from the e-reader followed up by the teacher making the sounds aloud.

As this section revealed, there were more “cons” than “pros” when addressing the electronic book response for infants (as expressed by the teachers). This was also true with preschool aged children from past studies (Caplovitz, 2005; Moretz, 2006). Three themes emerged and were described in this section regarding the electronic book: one

“pro” and two “cons”:

• The format of the electronic book produced more “screen watching” or

“playing with toy” reactions from the infants.

• Using mouths and flapping hands (hitting the screen without purpose) in

order to discover their surroundings, is appropriate developmental

behavior in infants 0-12 months (Gentry, 2012), and the electronic book

format conflicts with the reading process when these behaviors are

exhibited.

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• The electronic book has the potential to add to the reading experience by

potentially repositioning the infants in the world and in their traditional

relation to the text (Mackey, 2003). Using the e-book as a "tool” during

the reading experience, provides an alternative space for the reader; and

may add a different component to the infant's textual experience that could

not be achieved with a traditional book and human reader alone.

Reading traditionally with infants. While the majority of Chapters 1 and 2 address the benefits of reading aloud traditionally with infants, two major points were reaffirmed through my study and past literature on the topic in this section:

• Traditional books for babies (most generally board books) are made with the

babies’ developmental behaviors in mind. The durable format is conducive to

their developmental behaviors (i.e. using mouths to explore, flapping hands,

hitting pages, etc.).

• Traditional book features, (pages, having a top and bottom, directionality,

etc.) or Concepts of Print (Clay, 2000) are the same across traditional subject

content which can assist in promoting (established) early literacy behaviors

from infancy. My study shows these behaviors beginning as early as 6

months.

The following table, Table 16, contains a small sampling of data from CE’s reading experience which addresses the finding that traditional books for babies

(generally board books) are made with babies’ development in mind. The durable

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formats of the books are conducive with the way they discover their worlds. This theme was especially useful for CE, as her “mouth-explorer” response style provided much exploration during each reading session.

Table 16

Notes from the Field: Data Showing Developmental Behaviors of a Baby with Both Types of Text

January 14: Teacher Observation CE grabs the traditional book and pulls it to her mouth. If I hold onto it, she made a loud sound oooh, and tried hard to put it in her mouth. As CE touches and grabs at the iPad, PW tries to "turn" the pages and CE's little fingers keep flipping the pages and the screen.."Okay...let's go back, let's go back" {at this point PW has not read anything to CE}

January 24: Field Notes CE grabs the iPad and almost gets the corner of it in her mouth. PW (intake of air) "bunny's hiding!" "are you going to eat it?" after CE continues to try to put it in her mouth. After the third time of trying to put it in her mouth, "we'll call it quits"

February 13: Field Notes CE is touching the screen and the story turns pages “CE, let’s go back”. PW has to hold CE’s hand so the story stays on the page she wants it on. CE grasping all sides of the screen, PW hasn’t started reading yet because the pages won’t stay on the screen.

Continued

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Table 16 Continued

CE won’t let go of the iPad. As she won’t let her touch the screen she looks up and around, still trying to grasp and hold onto all sides of the iPad. Pries her fingers off.

PW reads one word and CE picks the entire iPad up and puts it in her mouth

PW: “this is not for your mouth” CE putting it in her mouth or hitting the screen, it’s in her mouth again.

“Look, what’s this?” IN HER MOUTH IT GOES

In mouth, licks the screen

As shown in the data CE held true to her response style, and did not want to keep the iPad out of her mouth. It wasn’t her fault; as it is developmentally appropriate and even expected at her age. However, the small, durable format of board books better promoted touch, handling, and exchange of ideas with the infants (Morrow, Freitag, &

Gambrell, 2009). Hughes-Hassell & Cox (2010), Huck, Hepler, & Hickman (1993),

Odean (2004), Sawyer (2004), and Anderson (2006) also agree that durability should be among the top qualities of board books (which they were); and that they should have a glossy, easy wipe-off finish on each side.

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Most of the traditional books, read with the infants, had rounded corners to prevent harm to the eye, and most had simple, bright, contrasting, uncluttered pictures often with just a one word label, or short caption describing the illustrations. The mere format of the traditional board book is better suited developmentally for infants as was reaffirmed in

my data findings.

The second finding, in this section, that emerged from my data findings, was that

features of traditional books (reading direction, page elements, etc.) are the same across

subject content which can assist in promoting (established) early literacy behaviors from

infancy. As children develop, it is vital that book choice correlates with developmental

milestones in order to promote proven developmental-based literacy skills (Clay, 2000).

The traditional book format allows infants to turn pages the same way (considering the

particular country reads from left to right).

When using the electronic book, each book had differing features. According to

Chall’s (1996) 4 stages of Reading Development, infants to age six months fall within the

pre-reading stage, or Stage O. In this stage, children are developing awareness of words sounds, and can also recognize letters of the alphabet. They can also pretend to read a book and know enough to “hold the book right-side up and turn the pages one at a time”

(McDevitt & Ormrod, 2002, p. 335).

At six months, AB already showed emergent literacy patterns in my study, by her interaction with the traditional books. As her response style suggested, she would hold the hands of the teachers reading with her; and Table 17 also shows some of her early literacy patterns (i.e. opening and closing the pages with her hands) of Pat the Bunny. It also shows a small sample of notes from the field that emphasize the finding, or theme,

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that traditional book features (reading direction, page elements, etc.) are the same across subject content which can assist in promoting (established) early literacy behaviors from infancy.

Table 17

Notes from the Field: Data Showing Early Literacy Behaviors

March 1: Field Notes & Transcribed AB trying to get closer and closer to the book Video

Closes the book by herself

Opening and closing by herself

Back and forth

Staring at the pages and the book as she moves it Open

Open

Continued

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Table 17 Continued

PW: “open, close, open, close”

Smiling

February 18: Analytical Memo *obvious, but the perks to having pages in a book is the ability for babies to grab them! *DEVELOPMENTAL! February 18: Field Notes CE grasps and hits the screen changing it off of the book: RH needs to find the book and re-start it. Analytical Memo Turning of the pages: this is an early literacy (traditional) “must” and cannot easily be done with the electronic book and the timing of being able to adjust to attention spans, etc.

To emphasize the strengths of traditional books and their role in traditional emergent literacy (this could change as e-literacy begins to enter classrooms and homes) I chose to compare features using Birckmayer et al.'s (2009, p. 42) list of young children’s experiential behaviors in emergent literacy with traditional texts (left column) with the experiences from my study and the electronic book to emphasize the importance of these findings.

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Table 18

Comparisons of Emergent Literacy Patterns in Very Young Children with Research Observations Traditional Literacy Patterns Electronic Literacy Patterns

Child recognizes a particular book The iPad contains several books, and the “reader” must navigate through several screens to find the book he or she wants to read.

Is able to turn the pages of a Every e-book is different. Some you swipe, some you push an arrow, there is board book no “orthodox method” of page turning.

Points to pictures in a book Oftentimes, if objects are pointed to in a swift, downward or upward motion the screen will change.

Holds a book right side up There is no “top or bottom” with the e- reader. The image will flip “right side up” as you rotate the device.

Looks at a book from front to back, or Some electronic books read from “screen to screen” with no directional whatever way is appropriate for the purpose. language in which the book is written and the culture from which it comes

Recognizes a book by the cover While there are covers to the books, there are several books contained in one device, and numerous covers cannot be chosen (or looked at) at once.

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The comparisons show the obvious strengths in early literacy development for infants with the traditional texts, as interactions with books, whose characteristics are made specifically for the very young audience, assist in healthy development of infants.

However, before they can speak and read, reading aloud (with either type of book) can significantly enhance young children's "background knowledge, vocabulary, concepts about print, familiarity with different text structures, and phonological awareness" (Evans

& Shaw, 2008, p. 102).

These, including the "conscious awareness of linguistic units" such as syllables, rhymes, and phonemes (Evans & Shaw, 2008, p. 90) are also developed in addition to oral language comprehension and print knowledge (Roskos, Tabors, & Lenhart, 2009, p.

56). Traditional book features, (pages, having a top and bottom, directionality, etc.) or

Concepts of Print (Clay, 2000) can also assist in promoting (established) early literacy behaviors from infancy.

To this point, I’ve discussed the differences between the electronic and traditional book reading experiences with the infants. While there were multiple differences in the process and the outcomes of reading with these differing formats, one control in my study was that the teachers read aloud to the babies using both types of texts (with an occasional voice over or animal sound from the electronic book).

I was surprised to find an entire theme, or finding, based on the reader’s (in this case, the teacher’s) comfort level of the technology. This was found in the ways the text was delivered to the babies. As a result of these teacher’s reading experiences with the

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babies, findings illustrate potential awareness or “responsibilities” parents and caregivers should consider (especially as it pertains to reading e-books with infants). These ideas are featured in the following section.

E-Reading: The Reader’s Experience and Read-Aloud Responsibility

Reading aloud at the center. At the center, the babies are read to by the teachers and, occasionally, student helpers. On average, they read about three books a day with each child. Mornings and afternoons the teachers try to read one “group” book, and some days they go through many books back to back in one day. It is obvious that the center, its teachers, and their philosophy agree that reading with the babies is effective. When asked in a member check e-mail about the benefits and purposes of reading (in any form) with the babies, the teachers responded as follows:

[Reading is] a great time to bond with infants! It also helps with language development helping infants to learn the natural cadence of language as well as vocabulary exposure. Reading also helps develop several important prereading skills. Reading with infants also helps to establish a love for reading in the infant. It shows them that language and books are important (RH, personal communication, March 13, 2013).

[Reading] will help in their language development and propel their emergent literacy as they grow and develop. Reading to babies is very important because we are instilling in them the love of reading and learning and will help them in their cognitive, social and emotional development (PW, personal communication, March 13, 2013).

In both teacher responses, the teachers emphasized the importance of healthy development and its correlation with reading aloud. The existing literature suggests that by week 16, a baby is ready to listen to a story (Curtis and Schuler, 2005), and his or her language skills are sharpened through read-alouds. At six months of age, a baby is

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“capable of reacting to the voice intonation, inflection, and prosody of the reader"

(Holland, 2008, p. 383). In addition, “considerable literacy-related development occurs before children receive formal reading instruction and during this time they acquire oral language” (Dickinson and Smith, 1994, p. 105).

Therefore, while the infant’s capacity to produce language lags behind her ability to understand it (as was shown in the nature of my study); it is not the books themselves, but hearing the text that promotes language development by supporting [the babies’] need to communicate with others (McLaughlin, 2006). It is also crucial that they hear and read good writing “beyond their own level of conversation” (Kiefer & Tyson, 2010, p. 32).

While the initial purpose of this study was to observe responses of babies to “e- reading”, throughout the research process unintentional findings were uncovered about

the teachers by finding missing data and filling in the gaps by cutting and sorting

repeated teacher observations which reoccurred in my observational data (as well as again in their personal statements). These were pertinent findings, related to teacher or

reader experience, which naturally occurred while observing the babies' responses during

their shared reading experiences. Patterns emerged when the teachers read with the

electronic books to the infants (aged 0-12 months). These findings will be re-stated and

discussed in the following two sections: Reader's experience with the books, and Reader's comfort level with the books.

Reader’s experience with the books. Three themes were found and will be described in this section regarding the relationship of the reader, in this case, the teachers,

with the electronic book:

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• Fewer words, or utterances, including the titles and authors of the books were

read when the teachers read with the electronic book.

• When reading with the electronic book, more time was spent talking about

the book format (iPad) than the actual book content (kitty, ball, etc.)

• The knowledge comfort level of using an electronic book, affected the

reading experience for the teacher reader, and therefore, could have some

effect on the overall reading experience for the infant (frequency, etc.).

Table 19 shows a small sampling of pertinent examples, taken from multiple data collection methods, that show examples, from the teachers, which led to these findings.

In this particular case, I discovered missing data and filled in the gaps using repetition,

and cutting and sorting. I also took note of the similarities and differences in analyzing

the data for the findings.

In reference to the electronic books, I did not find any specific "benefits" of

reading with them. However, when shifting the focus of direct infant response behavior

to the experience of the reader, I found great dissonance in the reading experience, which,

one would assert, could have affected the reading experience for the infant.

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Table 19

Notes from the Field: Data Showing Reader Behaviors to Both Types of Books

January 14: Video Transcription Traditional Book:

PW takes the subject content of the book and turns it into vocabulary with CE...touching and rubbing her hand she labels by saying "this is your hand, this is your hand Electronic Book:

As CE touches and grabs at the iPad, PW tries to "turn" the pages and CE's little fingers keep flipping the pages and the screen.."Okay...let's go back, let's go back" {at this point PW has not read anything to CE} Electronic Book:

PW "You want to touch this iPad, huh?"

Again: "you want to touch this iPad don't you?" PW looking around nervously, trying to keep the image on the screen, then trying to keep it out of CE's hands. CE finally grabs the bottom of the iPad and flips it. Traditional Book: While pointing: "look, it's a kitty cat, a ball, "look, a shelf with lots of drawers"

CE is watching and engaged with her eyes and hands as PW is pointing and labeling objects in the book.

Grasping the edges of the book and bringing it closer to her face

"That's right, this is a flower in a flower bed" CE holding the book, looking at each picture and holding it close. Continued

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Table 19 Continued

January 30: Analytical Memo I have also noticed that, overall, fewer words are generally read aloud when reading with the electronic book.

February 13: Analytical Memo Again, I’ve noticed that more text is read with the traditional books. It seems that every time, the title of the book and the author is read to the babies when being read the traditional book. It has not happened with the electronic book.

February 18: Analytical Memo I have noticed that the teachers read the electronic books first. I have never suggested they read with a certain format first, but I wonder why they choose to read electronic first? Is it to “get it over with”?

As shown in the small sampling of data showcased in Table 19, my study showed more teacher utterances about the book elements (pictures, words, repetitive interactions, etc.) with the traditional book versus the electronic book. In comparison, there was far more talk about the “device” when reading the electronic book than the actual content of the book. As shown in the video transcription from January 14th, PW never talked about the traditional book format, but instead the “kitties”, “balls”, and “flowers”. In contrast, instead of speaking about the book content of the e-book, she consistently referred to the iPad while reading the electronic book.

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Similar findings occurred in a 2006 study at Temple University involving

preschool aged children (3-5), their parents, and electronic versus traditional readers.

While the findings showed that the total utterances the readers (parents) made were

“roughly equal between the two types of books” (which differed from my study), “there

was a significant difference in the proportion of content-and behavior-oriented

comments” (Moretz, p. 1).

Collins (a researcher in the study, as quoted by Moretz, 2006, p.1) was struck by the “stark difference between the content-related utterances in reading traditional versus e-books; [she] didn't realize there would be a two-fold difference. [She] thinks this happens because we're more comfortable with traditional books and so we play a more active role in the reading process; but with e-books, we let the books lead" (p.1).

There were numerous instances, in my study, that showed the electronic book

“leading” the reading time (even though the teachers consistently read aloud with the electronic book). Table 20 showcases the role of the “leading” e-book with PW during

my study. This was largely due to her comfort level in using the device, as will be shown

in Table 20.

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Reader’s comfort level with the books.

Table 20

Notes from the Field: Data Showing Comfort Level with the Electronic Reading Device January 7: Analytical Memo PW reads to CE and KL, but is unfamiliar with the electronic element of the iPad. I thought she and RH had gone over the electronic elements on the iPad, but they have not.

January 7: Field Notes PW decided to sit down right in the middle of all the babies (instead of choosing a chair). She was noticeably frustrated with her lack of knowledge concerning the e- reader and the whole of the babies getting in on the reading experience.

PW uncomfortable with the e-book (trying to get it to the right page, looking up at me, etc.) CE touches and changes the story, PW doesn't know how to change it back

PW is trying to touch elements and CE is reaching for the things she's touching on the screen, but is uncomfortable in the elements and the screen turns off of the book. She needs my help to resume the reading.

January 14: Field Notes She seemed very uncomfortable with the iPad still, and even after weeks of reassurance, asked at one point if she needed to hold the book away so the babies didn't scratch the screen. I reassured her that it was a welcome thing for the babies to touch the screen.

Continued

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Table 20 Continued

January 24: Field Notes RH is reading with the babies for the first time today. She is in her early twenties, has a BS in neuroscience, and would like to be a child psychologist someday. She has an iPad herself, and easily maneuvered the iPad during reading time.

January 30: Field Notes As a side note, PW is getting more comfortable using the iPad during reading time, and it shows in her interactions

As shown in the notes from the field, it was obvious that PW was uncomfortable

with the e-reader. In later Member Check e-mail communication she even stated that she

was “very uncomfortable” reading with the e-book. While both teachers preferred the traditional method of reading with the infants, it was important to note comfort with technology between the two teachers and the different experience each had during observation in their interactions with the device. RH, was more familiar with the technology (as she had an iPad at home) and, overall, did not spend as much time focused on the device. PW spent a majority of her reading time with the e-readers and infants concerned with the process of maneuvering the e-book.

Parish-Morris (also a researcher at Temple University, as quoted in Moretz, 2006) stated:

Parents who are talking about the content with their child while reading traditional books are encouraging early literacy, whereas parents and

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children reading electronic books together are having a severely truncated experience.

It is important to note, however, that in Parish-Morris’ & Collins' particular study,

some books did “read” out loud to the children while the parents were “reading” with their children. In this study, the teachers opted to shut the sound off almost entirely during their electronic book sharing experiences.

McDevitt & Ormrod (2012) note that most pre-reading activities depend little, if at all, on the actual print in the book (my emphasis). Therefore, the act of reading aloud becomes an even more effective tool in introducing and solidifying literacy elements. It is

this very idea that causes conflict among scholars and researchers when studying and

comparing the strengths and weaknesses, or pros and cons of the traditional book versus

the electronic book. The idea that a "talking" device can take the place of human to

human interaction is indeed in question as the actual delivery of text is not as important

as the actual interaction.

Three themes were found and described in this section regarding the relationship

of the reader to the type of text:

• Fewer words, or utterances, including the titles and authors of the books were

read when the teachers read with the electronic book.

• When reading with the electronic book, more time was spent talking about the

book format (iPad) than the actual book content (kitty, ball, etc.)

• The knowledge comfort level of using an electronic book effected the reading

experience for the teacher reader, and therefore, could have some effect on the

overall reading experience for the infant (frequency, etc.).

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Summary of Chapter 4

As a former educator, new mother, and researcher, I have become quickly

enamored with the abilities of babies. I can see why recent research indicates that the

famous Piaget even “probably underestimated the thinking capabilities of young infants”

(McDevitt & Ormrod, 2002, p. 153). In the past forty years, studies have "revealed the

astounding abilities that newborns start with and how they shift their perceptual skills to

language production later in the first year of life" (Herschensohn, 2007, p. 29).

I have also become very familiar with the notion that all children’s growth patterns

are uneven, and that development is not simply the “result of the maturation of neural

cells” but instead, is explained through the evolution of new experiences (Kiefer &

Tyson, 2010, p. 29). In my study, new experiences took place for babies and their

caregivers, and through the process the following nine themes, or findings, emerged from

the data:

Findings from the Data Summarized

The following nine findings, or themes, were found using qualitative data collection methods and analysis as described in Chapters Three. Each finding was then described in detail, throughout this chapter, using small samples or examples from the data and analysis. The following list describes and lists the findings in summary:

1. Reading aloud with the babies from both types of books produced such

similar responses that these findings may show that if read aloud, both types

of books have the potential to elicit similar responses from infants (aged 0-12

months), and will most likely provide the same developmental and

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educational benefits of reading aloud as found by past research on reading

aloud with infants.

2. The format of the electronic book produced more “screen watching” or

“playing with toy” reactions from the infants.

3. Using mouths and flapping hands (hitting the screen without purpose) in order

to discover their surroundings, is appropriate developmental behavior in

infants 0-12 months (Gentry, 2012), and the electronic book format conflicts

with the reading process when these behaviors are exhibited.

4. Traditional books for babies (most generally board books) are made with the

babies’ developmental behaviors in mind. The durable format is conducive to

their developmental behaviors (i.e. using mouths to explore, flapping hands,

hitting pages, etc.).

5. The electronic book has the potential to add to the reading experience by

potentially repositioning the infants in the world and in their traditional

relation to the text (Mackey, 2003). Using the e-book as a "tool” during the

reading experience, provides an alternative space for the reader; and may add

a different component to the infant's textual experience that could not be

achieved with a traditional book and human reader alone.

6. Traditional book features, (pages, having a top and bottom, directionality,

etc.) or Concepts of Print (Clay, 2000) are the same across traditional subject

content which can assist in promoting (established) early literacy behaviors

from infancy. My study shows these behaviors beginning as early as 6

months.

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7. Fewer words, or utterances, including the titles and authors of the books were

read when the teachers read with the electronic book.

8. When reading with the electronic book, more time was spent, by the reader,

talking about the book format (iPad) than the actual book content (kitty, ball,

etc.)

9. The knowledge comfort level of using an electronic book effected the reading

experience for the teacher reader, and therefore, could have some effect on the

overall reading experience for the infant (frequency, etc.).

Contributions of this study, as well as parent/caregiver implications, educational implications, and potential future studies based on this one are featured in

Chapter 5.

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CHAPTER 5

CONTRIBUTIONS AND RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS OF THIS STUDY

Introduction to Chapter 5

How do babies’ responses compare when responding to electronic books versus traditional texts? This is the crucial question that guided and focused this study in an attempt to fill the gaps of the research in emergent literacy; and, ultimately to improve educational and parental practice. Of the few studies that have examined the “e- relationship” of traditional versus electronic texts, there have been no findings on infant response (to my knowledge at the time of publication). While infants are not yet able to verbalize their “learning patterns” or actually “read”, studies have shown that book sharing with infants provides rich opportunities for both "receptive and expressive language development that contributes not only to oral language development but to emergent literacy as well" (Otto, 2006, p. 135).

As they talk and read, babies learn "phonemic awareness (the ability to perceive individual sounds in the stream of speech) especially in the first eight to ten months"

(RTYB, 2010, p. 1). In addition, reading aloud to a baby every day "increases his brain's capacity for language and literacy skills and is the most important thing one can do to prepare him for learning to read" (MCL, 2012, p.1). Therefore, this qualitative case study sought to create a better understanding of the babies’ relationship with both types of texts, and also elicited findings concerning the reader’s experience while reading with

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the babies. Comfort level and ideas concerning the reader’s responsibility (as babies

cannot yet “read” to themselves) were also showcased.

The study focused on a child development center associated with a prestigious

university in the South. My findings showed that the actual responses (behaviors,

gestures, actions, etc.) from the babies when reading aloud both types of texts were very

similar (see Table 13). The teacher participants in the study believed that, according to

their experience, there were no additional benefits to reading with the electronic book

over the traditional book; and they also preferred reading the traditional books with the

infants.

Further results showed that more language about the content of the book was used

when reading with a traditional book; and that when reading with the electronic book,

there was more talk about the device (versus the book’s content). The reader's familiarity and comfort level with the actual reading device showed an effect on the overall reading experience, in this case, teachers; and the electronic book as a repositioning tool to the text for the infants was also explored. Finally, the babies sucked on, hit, swiped, patted, and attempted to eat both formats of books, but the electronic book format was not always conducive to these developmental behaviors, or the ZPD (zone of proximal development) of the infants.

A qualitative approach was used as I went into the babies’ environment and observed the reading experiences with their teachers once a week. While there, I took field notes and video of their reading process and jotted down analytical memos in the field notes. The teachers also read with the infants, separately, and documented their observations of the babies once a week (See Appendix A). Member checks, or brief

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“check-ins”, took place with the teachers throughout the study both verbally and through e-mail.

A further discussion on the findings, key contributions of this study to the field of education, research implications for caregivers and parents; and research implications for education as well as ideas and suggestions for pertinent future studies will be discussed in this chapter.

Discussion of Findings

Emerging from the data collection and analysis were nine themes, or findings, from the study of three infants (aged 0-12 months) and their two teachers at a child development center in the South. This section will re-state the guiding research questions of this study and describe the answers (or lack of answers) to these questions. In addition, the nine findings will be re-visited and discussed in further detail using existing literature on the topics.

Overarching Research Question

This study specifically addressed the following overarching question:

How do three babies (aged 0-12 months) at a child development center

affiliated with a university in the South, respond to an electronic reader (e-

books) and traditional books?

When analyzed, the results using field notes, video recording, and teacher observation sheets showed minor, if any, differences to the responses of the babies to both types of texts. If I were to summarize the answer to this question using my findings, in three simple words, they would be: “about the same”.

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However, this overarching research question, and the process of the study led to many more ideas and findings about the actual impact of book format (electronic vs. traditional) and how, elements of the differing formats of books changed the entire reading process for the teachers and babies. In the sections below, the existing sub- questions and findings are addressed and elaborated on using additional sources.

Sub-Question A

Sub-question A asked: How do babies responses compare when

responding to electronic books versus traditional texts?

Simply put, the answer to this question, as stated above is, “about the same”.

Reading aloud with the babies from both types of books produced such similar responses that these findings may show that if read aloud, both types of books have the potential to elicit similar responses from infants (aged 0-12 months), and will most likely provide the developmental and educational benefits of reading aloud as described in Chapter 2.

These research findings solidified Jeremy Greenfield’s (2012) sentiments that

“the question as to whether you should read to your kids on a different medium (meaning the electronic book versus the traditional book) is a stupid question. Reading to your kids is good, period; it’s good to read to your kids, regardless of format” (p. 1).

Sub-Question B

Sub-question B asked: How do teachers describe changes of the infants' behaviors or reactions in regards to the purposes and/or benefits of reading (i.e. social, emotional,

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behavioral) with babies aged 0-12 months as e-readers are introduced to their reading time?

In personal communication, the teachers stated the following:

As discussed at length in Chapter 2, and agreed upon by the teachers in this

particular study, the benefits of reading aloud have a large impact on the physical, social,

emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and overall development of infants. Actual findings

from my study describing developmental patterns or behaviors, from the babies'

responses, and book format were:

Physical Development: Traditional books for babies (most generally board books) are made with the babies’ developmental behaviors in mind. The durable format is conducive to their developmental behaviors (i.e. using mouths to explore, flapping hands, hitting pages, etc.).

Physical, Cognitive, and Social Development: Traditional book features, (pages, having a top and bottom, directionality, etc.) or Concepts of Print (Clay, 2000) are the

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same across traditional subject content which can assist in promoting (established) early literacy behaviors from infancy. My study shows these behaviors beginning as early as 6 months.

However, Sub-question B specifically asks about potential benefits to the infants as e-readers are introduced. RH, a teacher, summarized her observations by stating:

I did not observe any additional benefits when the e-reader was introduced that were not seen when just using traditional books. I did observe some benefits, but that was while traditional books were being used as well (personal communication, March 13, 2013). Actual findings from the research showed developmental patterns or behaviors while using the electronic reader. They were:

Physical, Cognitive, and Behavioral Development: Using mouths and flapping hands (hitting the screen without purpose) in order to discover their surroundings, is appropriate developmental behavior in infants 0-12 months (Gentry, 2012), and the

electronic book format conflicts with the reading process when these behaviors are

exhibited.

Physical, Cognitive, Social, and Behavioral Development: The electronic book

has the potential to add to the reading experience by potentially repositioning the infants

in the world and in their traditional relation to the text (Mackey, 2003). By having

another “social tool” during the reading experience, the electronic book may add a

different component to their textual experience that could not be achieved with a

traditional book and human reader.

As a former educator, mother, and now researcher on this topic, I have

noted that there are more “cons” than “pros” to the overall reading experiences,

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with both the teachers and the infants, in this study in regards to electronic readers. However, the world is in swift “e-motion” and while these findings are valid, I still feel it is important for my own children to experience this type of text appropriately. While the electronic book may not be the most appropriate for infants, technology and electronic books also give opportunities for developing literacy that aren't available through other means (Wepner & Ray, 2000), and allow children a great deal of control over their interaction with books.

Professor Michael Merzenich, of the University of California, San Francisco, gives a neuroscientific perspective on the upcoming generation’s interactions with technology:

There is a massive and unprecedented difference in how [digital natives'] brains are plastically engaged in life compared with those of average individuals from earlier generations and there is little question that the operational characteristics of the average modern brain substantially differ (as cited in Greenfield, 2012, p.1).

It is during the crucial first year of life that so many neural connections are formed in infants. Dr. Ari Brown (as cited in Moore, 2011) makes note of the achievement culture of this generation and the greater need for children to have experiences in understanding the world around them. It is my belief that technology will most definitely become an integral part of their world (if it hasn’t already).

Sub-Question C

Sub-question C asked: How do babies respond to the different ways that e-readers are presented to them (i.e. teachers using verbal and/or non-verbal cues)?

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In the very beginning of my study, unprompted, RH asked me if she could shut

the iPad sound off when reading to the infants. She stated: "When I leave the sound on,

the babies watch the iPad like a screen, just staring. When I shut it off, they respond

more like it's a book" (personal communication, January, 2013). While I didn’t ever have

this discussion or give direction to PW, she always read aloud or along with the e-book, and had the volume turned down when it was on so that I could barely make out a sound.

In summary, the teachers both read aloud during both types of reading experiences; and the babies did not seem to respond in markedly different ways to either

(see Table 13). However, unintentional; and yet, important and pertinent findings arose as the teacher’s simply read with the electronic book. In the beginning of the study, I almost felt guilty for asking one teacher to read with the electronic book; because in every action and word she showed distaste for it. As the study continued, her actions suggested she was more at ease with the electronic book, but at the end of the study she confirmed how uncomfortable she was using it.

The data from transcribed field notes, video, teacher observations sheets, and member checks showed the following findings:

• When reading with the electronic book, more time was spent talking about the

book format (iPad) than the actual book content (kitty, ball, etc.)

• Fewer words, or utterances, including the titles and authors of the books were

read when the teachers read with the electronic book.

• The format of the electronic book produced more “screen watching” or “playing

with toy” reactions from the infants.

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• The knowledge comfort level of using an electronic book effected the reading

experience for the teacher reader, and therefore, could have some effect on the

overall reading experience for the infant (frequency, etc.).

These findings, or themes, are important in understanding the inadvertently negative implications technology can impose when used as a literacy tool; these also note that the reader’s comfort level and/or familiarity with the electronic device can have a bearing on the overall reading experience, based on reoccurring observations in this study.

The content and actual use of words during reading is an important part of the experience. Lindskoog and Hunsicker (1989) state that caregivers who “talk to their babies all the time, about everything, are preparing them to be readers” (p. 15); and as they talk and read, babies learn "phonemic awareness (the ability to perceive individual sounds in the stream of speech) especially in the first eight to ten months" (RTYB, 2010, p. 1).

Adults are one of the richest resources for children because they are one of the only mediums, aside from older children, computers, television, (and now, potentially, electronic devices), which can bring considerable knowledge, language, and print to them

(Roskos, Tabors, & Lenhart, 2009).

In addition, emotional and physical health and development are strengthened during the bonding time reading provides. If the electronic book is “leading” or interfering in this process, my research findings suggest that it could, potentially, decrease the developmental benefits of reading aloud when an electronic book is used; as

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the readers were not focused on the content of the story, and did not read as many content

words as they did with the traditional texts.

Contributions of this Study

Reading aloud with the babies, from both types of books, produced such similar responses from the infants (see Table 13) that one may conclude that if read aloud, both types of books may have the potential to provide developmental benefits of reading aloud with parents and caregivers (as described in Chapter 2). Based on my findings, and the existing research of reading aloud with infants and small children, a primary contribution of this study is that regardless of book format, reading with infants (aged 0-12 months) should take place.

Reading to infants and small children has proven to be effective for educational, social, emotional, and cognitive growth (Sulzby, 1983, Teale, 1984, Tillotson, 2005,

Jalongo, 2004, Clay, 2000, Morrow, 2001, Soderman, Gregory, & O'Neill, 1999); and reading aloud to infants is beneficial in book language, structure, new concepts, comprehension, new vocabulary and solidification of other early literacy elements (Chall,

1996, McDevitt & Ormrod, 2002, McVicker, 2007, Roskos, Tabors, & Lenhart, 2009,

Anderson, 2006, Honig & Brophy, 1996, Sawyer, 2004, McLaughlin, 2006).

The teachers in my study agreed that reading aloud was beneficial for the infants, but that the introduction of the electronic book did not elicit any more benefits (based on their observational responses) than reading with the traditional text. In fact, my findings showed that if reading an electronic book, it is important for the reader to be aware of the e-book content and the actual device; and to be comfortable or at least familiar with its

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features. Finally, findings from this study showed that traditional books (more specifically, board books) are more developmentally appropriate for infants than electronic books (even those made specifically for very small children).

These contributions are significant due to the increase of electronic items pervading the twenty-first century, and the influx of technology in babies’ worlds – which, for many, has naturally crossed over into everyday shared experiences with adults, such as reading. As of today in education, there is the concept of emergent or early literacy which for the purposes of my study with infants is not the "teaching of reading"

(MCL,2012, p.1), but rather the first ways babies are prepared to read.

In this century, these concepts may also need to be updated with “emergent e- literacy” behaviors as the ways in which babies learn to read and even begin to think could be changing (Greenfield, 2011, 2012) based on the ever-growing techno-world they are growing up in.

The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) has updated their policy on electronics as they recognize that “technology and interactive media have great potential as enhanced learning tools to support the development of young children from birth to three years” (Gentry, 2012, p.1). They recognize that babies are already connected and exploring new digital habits. So, while my findings show several negative implications featuring electronic reading, it is important to keep in mind the positive findings, strengths, and evolution of the “e-generation”, and not disregard the tried and true methods of “traditionally” reading with babies.

Technology is increasingly finding its way into mainstream culture: especially in preschools, daycare centers, and homes (Gentry, 2012, p.1). While

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the babies in my study did not “e-read” with their parents at home, I’m finding that preference, theory, and opinion differ among new parents in this decade (in my personal interactions with peers); and, as evidenced by the electronic boom of the twenty-first century, the technology cannot be ignored.

Gentry (2012) seems to think what is happening in the world of early literacy,

especially with infants and technology is that “parents who embrace technology

themselves are welcoming babies into a new world for experiencing words and language

in addition to the tried and true comfortable world of lap reading. It’s almost as if lap

reading is ‘out’ and software driven reading lessons are ‘in’” (Gentry, 2012, p. 1). If this

is the case, the results from my study are of importance for parents and caregivers in

considering reading options with their infants aged 0-12 months.

Research Implications for Parents and Caregivers

Implications of the findings in my research show that parents and caregivers have an

important responsibility since infants cannot read for themselves or to themselves. It is

important that the reader is aware that she is exposing the infants to a very important and

different culture (e-culture) that should be presented in the most effective way(s)

possible.

Based on the action responses of the infants and overall observations of both babies

and readers, I believe that the reader of the book, whether it is a parent, sibling, teacher,

or caregiver, should have a responsibility (and, in some cases, an e-responsibility) to:

1. Become familiar with the book format so the focus is not on the device but the

reading experience.

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2. Read aloud (as much as possible while using both formats) and make sure the

content or text is being presented regardless of book format.

3. Establish interpersonal relationships during reading time. This is a primary

source of experience in the reading process that shapes how genes express

themselves (Siegel, 1999, p. 14 my emphasis)

In cases where caregivers or teachers may feel inadequate using technology,

professional development courses could be offered on e-reading devices so that their

comfort and “e-literacy” level are more effective in using the technology. Parents may also seek assistance using tutorials on the Internet, or appropriate user manuals.

Since infants aged 0-12 months are not yet in the educational system, many of the findings from my research will be of immediate benefit to parents and caregivers, but are still applicable for healthy development in later school years. Babies require a lot, especially in their first year, so reading aloud with infants may pale in comparison to the daily demands of diapers and feedings; however scientists have known for decades that these infants are born “ already prepared to find other people interesting and worth communicating with from the start” their brains are “highly adaptable”, and main connections in their brains are not pre-wired or fixed, but “are actively linked up as babies respond” to their caregivers (Whitehead & Makin, 2004, p. 16).

It is during this quickly-developing first year that babies must be read to, especially aloud. Not only will these textual experiences encourage language acquisition and vocabulary growth, but they will promote emergent literacy strategies needed to read

(Clay, 2000). When looking back on her early experiences with her daughter, Baghban

(1984) emphasized how much she had underestimated her own child’s ability.

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When looking back on experiences with my own daughter (who is, today, 16 months),

I realize how much I underestimated her ability. We started reading with her before she was born, and while she is not forming sentences yet, she can hold a book (of both forms), turn the pages, and “pretend” like she is reading both. She interacts with me during the reading experience, and the traditional emergent literacy patterns are being manifested daily. I know that the earliest of experiences with reading aloud (even when she seemed too young to be bothered with it) were of great value for her current and future development.

While the importance of parents and caregivers reading aloud to infants has been emphasized again and again; it is the new technology of the electronic books that are presenting situations that must be handled responsibly by the readers (who are, most often, parents or caregivers). My study showed that the teachers spent less time talking about the story and reading the actual text to the infants on the electronic reader. In addition, the teacher’s own level of “e-literacy” or knowledge of the device, if not

“familiar” or “capable” also interfered with the whole reading experience. Overall, the babies’ responses were similar when reading with both readers, but the teachers still preferred the traditional book.

Existing research with electronic versus traditional texts with preschoolers aged

3-5 (Parish-Morris & Collins, 2006) shows even more concerning effects. Instead of

asking their children about the electronic book content, parents would often say: “show

me”, “play it”, “good job, or go to the next one; all this chatter may [have] interfered with

comprehension” (Parrish-Morris & Collins, 2006, as cited in Guernsey, 2011, p.1).

Parrish-Morris & Collins (2006) also tested how well children understood the stories on

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electronic devices. Those “reading” with their parents and the e-book did “significantly worse than those who sat with their parents reading print. Parents may have interrupted more often because it was hard to get used to the device or too many images beckoned to be clicked” (Guernsey, 2011, p. 1)

Guernsey (2011) even goes to lengths to state that the devices (which e-books are presented on) can “unintentionally cause parents to hamper their child’s learning” (p.1); and Parish-Morris (as cited in Moretz, 2006) emphasizes that “we shouldn't use e-books to replace traditional books, and we shouldn't expect them to do something that they don't; they're not substitutes for a human being" (p. 1). So, with what we know, what can we as parents and caregivers do? Just today, I attended a baby music class with my 16- month-old. The teacher informed us that the company is discontinuing all traditional books, and instead, replacing them with electronic books. This is the direction of our daily connections, classes, and engagement with our young children. So, instead of ignoring the “wave of the future” there are few things we must do.

First, be aware of “dialogic reading”; this is “conversational interaction” that can be “critical to learning”. This concept, dubbed by Grover Whitehurst, director of education policy at the Brookings Institution (as cited in Guernsey, 2011, p.1), is vital even when engaging in “print” with the electronic book. Second, when reading with an electronic book, make sure you pay attention to where your baby’s eyes are looking.

Parents can make sure their babies' eyes are in the right spot for reading, simply by

“pointing to a curser that tracks a word’s spelling from left to right on the computer screen in concert with vocal presentation of the word” (Gentry, 2012, p. 1). This will help with traditional emergent literacy patterns (Clay, 2000).

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Finally, the bottom line, as stated by Gentry (2012):

If the technology makes it easy for parents to customize reading “lessons” and present them in a brief game-type format that a child enjoys, it’s safe. If your 2-year old can read the word grandpa on a cell phone app along with a pic of grandpa waving, you have found your mojo as a reading teacher. If you are using the DVD as a baby sitter, it’s harmful. Babies don’t learn language or reading by watching TV [or looking and listening to a screen alone], they are people persons (p.1).

Research Implications for Education

Reading aloud with infants has crucial benefits for early literacy and later school success; which makes continued educational implications pertinent. My study did not show any additional benefits of using an electronic reader strictly in regards to the babies’ responses, but also did not show any blaring detriment to their individual reading responses (see Table 13). Therefore, when adults use children's literature (possibly in either form) as a major tool in providing acquisition of literacy (Jalongo, 2004), they are still potentially providing a "practice ground" of oral language development and establishing skills needed to produce more sophisticated thinking about print over time

(Morrow, 2001; Soderman, Gregory, & O'Neill, 1999) as long as they are using language while using the device, and reading aloud.

Beyond the reading-aloud benefits in language arts, an additional educational benefit of sharing books with children or caregivers has recently proven to increase early success in mathematics and science (Whitehead & Makin, 2004). Project Bookstart, a project and case study conducted in Birmingham, England, asked parents to share books and poetry with their babies and join a local library.

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Evidence of “making a flying start in mathematics and science by the time [the

babies] were 7 and 8 years old” occurred as a result of early reading (p. 22). When

humans read, talk, or play with their babies, they are "stimulating the growth of the brain

and building connections" (MCL, 2012, p.1) that will become the building blocks for

literacy. As the explosion of e-reader "books" and "apps" emerge, there could also be more interactive math and science exploratory opportunities offered using only this specific type of medium.

Sociocultural Theory in Education

I used the Sociocultural Theory in education as a guide in my exploration of the

babies’ e-culture (electronic culture or experiences of the 21st century), as well as the

social interaction they were involved with as part of the e-reading process. This did provide insight on the introduction of “e-culture” as well as the social responses occurring in the babies’ individual responses.

The study of this type of culture, or “e-culture”(not that of race, religion, etc.) assisted in identifying important ideas relating to the early reading responses of babies when introduced to the “new” format of electronic texts. It can be inferred, from the results of my data, that they were socially and culturally quick to adapt to the new format of the book, which could be an explanation for the very similar responses to both types of texts (see Table 13).

Just as the three of these babies showed very unique “discourses”, or response styles, (Gee, 1990) all have and will continue to be shaped by the Sociocultural Theory, or, the cultural and social interactions which will play a fundamental role in the development of cognition or learning (Vygotsky, 1978) as they are exposed to different

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forms of technology, and potentially expected to adapt to them throughout their infancy and school years.

In my study, AB started as young as 3.5 months by experiencing the new features of the electronic reader. This exposure assisted in her “e-development”, and her introduction to “e-culture” which she would have not been able to explore by herself. It was Vygotsky (1978, 1986, 1987) who nurtured this idea that “parents, caregivers, peers and the culture at large [therefore, eventually educational institutions] are responsible for the development of higher order functions” (Cherry, 2012, p.1). Vygotsky (1978) also believed that:

“every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals.” (my emphasis, as cited in Cherry, 2012, p. 1).

If infants are first exposed to technology on a social level, with parents and caregivers, they will then have the opportunity to flourish as the relationships continue throughout their educational years. While “full cognitive development requires social interaction”, (Vygotsky, 1978) this does not rule out the social interaction of an electronic book. However, “cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given age”

(p.1, my emphasis), which is where the ZPD, or the Zone of Proximal Development becomes part of the educational implications.

This zone is the “distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable

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peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86 my emphasis). This zone also defines functions that have

not yet matured but are in the process of maturing; an example which may include early

literacy and e-literacy patterns in relation to reading and infants.

As the babies are socially learning early literacy behaviors (in multiple forms), they are unable to perform many on their own. However, it is my theory, based on prior research, that their responses suggest important behaviors they will eventually master individually in the literacy process as scaffolding is available throughout their educational experience. To further emphasize this point, Scott & Palincsar (2012) state:

Given the comprehensive nature of Sociocultural theory, its educational implications for assessment, curriculum, and instruction are broad-ranging, Sociocultural Theory—in particular the notion of zones of proximal development—would suggest that the goals of educational assessment should be to: (a) identify abilities that are in the process of developing, and (b) attempt to predict what the learner will do independently in the future. (p. 1) As literate and e-literate babies enter the school systems, it will be the educators’ responsibilities to understand the implications of digital technologies on their past and future schema, and build on that socially constructed world. Greenfield (2011,2012) states:

The implications of such a sweeping ''mind change'' must surely extend into education policy. Most obviously, time spent in front of a screen is time not spent doing other things. Several studies have already documented a link between the recreational use of computers and a decline in school performance. Perhaps most important of all, we need to understand the full impact of cyber culture on the emotional and cognitive profile of the 21st-century mind (p.1).

This century is like no other in being dominated by powerful, all-pervasive technologies. What an irony if such technologies, whilst enabling us to live longer lives, at the same time diminished our individual human potential at the very time we had an unprecedented opportunity to express it. Alternatively, an era could dawn in which each individual human mind was stretched, stimulated, and fulfilled as never before. We need to draw

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on the collective expertise of scientific disciplines, educationalists, media, policy-makers and, above all, the general public (p.1).

Future Studies

My study was the first of its kind in relation to infants and their responses to

electronic and traditional texts; and my findings are just beginning to scratch the surface

of this broad area of research. With its ever-changing and new possibilities, the ways

infants (and, as shown in this study, adult readers) interact with technology has the potential to change daily. My study provides a solid beginning, but there are so many more questions that need to be explored.

Among the additional questions worth asking, is whether or not the babies’ responses to both texts would have greatly differed had I made certain the teachers did not read aloud, while the e-book was "reading, during the electronic book time. In addition, the sampling size could be broadened to include differences in not only gender, but many different stages within the first year, as well as race, religion, and other cultural differences that may account for the different ways in which babies are read to.

Further studies could also examine the adult-readers’ relationship and comfort level with technology before their reading experiences with the infants, in order to further understand the implications of “techno-age” (which may or may not have any relation to actual age) and how that may affect specific responses or early literacy behaviors during or their introduction to “e-culture”.

Another potential extension of this study could be a longitudinal study identical to mine, but could follow the same group of infants from infancy (0-12 months) through the emergent stages of literacy, and finally to the stage in which they can read. This could

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then be compared to a control group of infants (aged 0-12 months) who were not exposed

to electronic texts in infancy, to compare and see if e-reading did shape the way they

learned to read (as verbal interaction could actually be observed eventually).

As mentioned in the beginning, and throughout this paper, I am most interested in

Dr. Greenfield’s (2011, 2012) controversial studies on the ways the human mind may

truly be changing or adapting to technology. I know “brain scan” studies have been done

before, but as a parent, I would be leery to approve of a scan on my own infant for a

study similar to this. Therefore, IRB may be difficult to achieve in order to discover

actual “changes” in the brain as it adapts to a “techno-world”.

Finally, a separate, but related study could focus on the socio-economic (SES) gap

among infants and children who have access to electronic books versus those who don’t.

The participants in my study, coincidentally, did not have dramatic differences in race, culture, or socio-economic status; and even though most did not read with electronic

readers at home, they do have access to multiple forms of technology.

Jeremy Greenfield (2012) wrote a recent article titled: When E-Books Don’t

Matter, where he focused on Reading is Fundamental, a national, non-profit organization based in Washington D.C. This organization is dedicated to promoting reading and literacy among economically disadvantaged children; and while their plans included supplying those they serve with e-readers, federal funding cuts put the plans on hold.

Greenfield says, “The organization hoped to head off what it sees as a gap between children who grow up with the latest learning tools and reap

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commensurate advantages later in life, and those who do not” (p.1). The CEO of the program emphasized her concern in “the digital divide” and stated:

I fear that many of our children in low-income areas aren’t going to have as much access to the readers themselves or tools needed to read the digital books. It’s something that is really moving along and we’re going to leave some of those children behind. They won’t have the skills needed when schools, all of a sudden, go to e-readers for their text-books, perhaps. (as cited in Greenfield, J, 2012, p.1)

This quote and ideas help to ask further questions that may result as an extension from this study:

• Knowing what we know, will traditional books still become a thing of the

past?

• How can we preserve use and instruction using traditional books, while still

using and embracing (while teaching our children to embrace) technology in

all of its forms?

E-literacy, literacy, and the attached implications begin at infancy, as is shown in this research and its findings. However, as infants grow to adulthood, there will be larger questions associated with the technology and the ways in which it will affect their education, literacy, and lifestyles.

Summary of Chapter 5

Specific suggestions and information for parents, caregivers, and future educators have been featured throughout this chapter. The implications of this study and its findings can be important tools in this, the early stages, of understanding specific responses of infants (aged 0-12 months), and their caregiver-readers, in relation to technology (in this case, the electronic book).

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These findings demonstrate the importance of the reader reading aloud and being

engaged with the actual content of the text, especially when reading with the e-book. In addition, those reading to the infants should have a responsibility to become familiar with the reading device which, while not highly favored over traditional texts in this study, could very likely be an integral part of social and literacy development for these (and all) infants of the twenty-first century.

Studies such as this depend on future studies to develop and expand upon current

findings in order to benefit humankind, in this case, the youngest of our kind: infants (0-

12 months). It is my hope that future studies, including those featuring important issues

such as power and race, in regards to electronic literacy, will add to this literature.

Final Thoughts

I began this research as a brand new mother to a bright, blue-eyed baby girl (who has, since, transformed into a bright, blue-eyed, sprinting toddler). Our initial experiences with literature, both traditional and electronic, questioned my instincts as a scholar, researcher, and especially mother. The ways in which she quickly and naturally engaged with each type of book piqued my interest about using technology during our reading time (something I had not been exposed to as an infant).

During this time, I read an article by Dr. Greenfield (2012) and was fascinated with

her ideas on mind change. She believes that “the human brain will adapt to whatever

environment impinges on it...and that the cyber-world in the 21st century is offering an

unprecedented environment; therefore the brain may be adapting in unprecedented ways”

(p.1). I felt I could potentially be watching this take place with my infant daughter and

her responses and interactions with electronic books.

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With other caregivers, parents, and educators in mind, I broadened my questions

and embarked on an observational study. I was most interested to see if the technology

(electronic book) was noticeably changing the reader response of three babies (aged 0-12

months) at a center, by how they responded to the electronic book; or to see if “e-

reading” was simply adding to “traditional” early literacy patterns (Clay, 2000).

The initial purpose of this study was to observe responses of the babies to “e- reading”, and to describe their behaviors, gestures, vocalizations and other actions as they engaged with adult teachers who read e-books and traditional books with them.

Throughout the research process, however, unintentional and pertinent findings were discovered relating to teacher experience and responses while reading to the infants with the e-book.

These findings emphasized the need for greater attention to be paid to interaction

and overall reader responsibility when reading aloud with an electronic book. It was also

important to note that even though there were “negative implications” of the technologic

elements interfering with, or leading the reading experience during my observations,

technology and interactive media also have great potential, as enhanced learning tools, to

support the development of babies (Gentry, 2012; Evans, 2005; Morrow, Freitag, &

Gambrell, 2009; Wepner & Ray, 2000; Robinson and Mackey, 2003).

It is my belief as a former educator, researcher, and mother that literacy and e-

literacy will intersect in education and daily life; I believe it’s already happening. The

first year in an infant’s life is crucial, and the exposure to these technological elements

can be appropriate if presented correctly. It is up to this generation of parents and

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caregivers to find the delicate balance of e-literacy and literacy when reading, in any format, with babies.

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APPENDIX A SAMPLE OF TEACHER OBSERVATION SHEET

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APPENDIX B SAMPLE OF WRITTEN FIELD NOTES

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APPENDIX C FINAL MEMBER CHECK E-MAIL FORM

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E-literate Babies

Teacher Member Check via E-mail

1. Why are the babies in your care read to (What are the purposes and benefits of reading to babies)?

PW: "This will help in their language development and propel their emergent literacy as they grow and develop. Reading to babies is very important because we are instilling in them the love of reading and learning and will help them in their cognitive, social and emotional development."

RH: "It’s a great time to bond with infants! It also helps with language development helping infants to learn the natural cadence of language as well as vocabulary exposure. Reading also helps develop several important prereading skills. Reading with infants also helps to establish a love for reading in the infant. It shows them that language and books are important."

2. If you noticed any, how would describe changes in the purpose of your reading when reading with an electronic versus a traditional book?

PW: "I believe, I had an ambivalent feeling about it. I seems to me as so unnatural to be just holding an e-book vs. the hard copy of the book. I was also very uncomfortable about it - because once a child touched the screen, the page was changed and then was not just able to keep right on the it again."

RH: " I personally did not like reading with the electronic reader with the infants. I noticed the children acting like the reader was a toy to play with and figure out instead of focusing on the book itself that was on the e-reader. So for them while reading with the e-reader the purpose was to play with the devise instead of focusing on the above stated benefits of reading.”

161

3. Were there benefits of reading (i.e. social, emotional, behavioral benefits) with babies aged 0-12 months as e-readers were introduced to their reading time?

PW: " I believe I cannot really tell about benefits about the e-book reading yet."

RH: " I did not observe any additional benefits when the e-reader was introduced that were not seen when just using traditional books. I did observe some of the benefits listed under the first question, but that was while traditional books were being used as well."

162

APPENDIX D RECRUITMENT SCRIPTS

163

RECRUITMENT SCRIPT FOR TEACHERS

Text of verbal consent script for teachers This is the script that I was used for verbal consent for the teacher observations, questionnaires, interviews, and checks

Introduction: My name is Allyson Bowcutt; and I'm a PhD candidate in Literature for children and Young Adults from Ohio State University. I am conducting research on babies (aged 0-12 months) responses to traditional and electronic texts. As you currently read with the babies in your care daily, I would very much appreciate if you would be willing to participate in an extension of that through this study.

Prior to this conversation, the babies included in the study were granted permission from their parents to participate.

Age check: Can I first ask how old you are? Only persons 18 years and older are allowed to participate in the study.

Procedures and duration: This study will be for a ten week period. I will be observing and taking field notes in the observation room. Beyond your responsibility of reading traditional and electronic books with the babies in your care, at the usual times of day you read with them, there will be an observation sheet for you to fill out once a week. I will also be informally checking in with you to make sure I am seeing what you are experiencing with the babies.

Recording: In addition, I will also be video recording you once a week. The recordings will only be viewed by me and other key personnel on this project, and will be password protected. Do I have your permission to record for these purposes?

Participation: There is no obligation for you to participate in this study; you can refuse to participate. Furthermore, you can stop the observations, questionnaire/observation sheets, or conversation with me at any time. You will not be compensated for your time, but the study may contribute to a better understanding of early literacy in babies aged 0- 12 months.

Confidentiality: I will not record your name or other personally identifiable information. Any written information will contain initials of you and the baby you are reading with, and will be locked up.

Contact Information: If you have any further questions about the research project, please contact Allyson Bowcutt

Do you verbally agree to participate in this study?

164

This form has been reviewed and approved by The Ohio State University's Internal Review Board (IRB) through the Office of Responsible Research Practices, 300 Research Administration Building, 1960 Kenny Road, Columbus, OH 43210. Phone (614) 688- 8457.

RECRUITMENT & PERMISSION LETTER FOR PARENTS OF THE BABIES

Text of written consent for parents This was given to parents of the babies

Dear Parents,

My name is Allyson Bowcutt; and I'm a candidate for PhD in Literature for Children and Young Adults.

I am conducting research on babies aged 0-12 months responses to electronic texts; and would very much appreciate the participation of your baby while at the development center. As they are unable to give consent, I am asking for your written consent in their behalf.

Existing research shows the effectiveness and importance of reading "traditional" books with babies; and the purpose of this study is to also observe responses of babies with electronic readers in order to uncover information regarding early literary patterns in this decade; and how books with screens effect their behaviors, gestures, and overall “reading experiences”.

Procedures and duration: This study will be for a ten week period, and will focus on the traditional and electronic reading responses of your baby with the teachers (at the center). I will be observing, taking field notes, and video recording during my research (in the observation room at the center). I will be communicating with the teachers only; and will not be interacting directly with your babies.

Recording: In addition, I will also be video recording your baby and his or her teachers once a week. The recordings will only be viewed by me and other key personnel on this project, and will be password protected.

Participation: There is no obligation for your baby to participate in this study; you can refuse consent for him or her to participate. Furthermore, you can stop your baby's participation in the research at any time. There will be no compensation for your baby, but the study may contribute to a better understanding of early literacy.

Confidentiality: I will not record the name of the center, your baby's name, the teacher's name(s) or other personally identifiable information. All written material containing initials will be locked up.

165

The signature on this form is voluntary and indicative of consent.

Statement of Consent: I have read the above information, and have received answers to any questions I asked. I consent on behalf of my baby:

Your Signature ______Date ______

Your Name (printed) ______

In addition to providing consent, I also consent to having the baby's reading time video- recorded.

Your Signature ______Date ______

Signature of person obtaining consent ______Date ______

Printed name of person obtaining consent ______Date ______

This research has been reviewed and approved by The Ohio State University's Internal Review Board (IRB) through the Office of Responsible Research Practices, 300 Research Administration Building, 1960 Kenny Road, Columbus, OH 43210. Phone (614) 688- 8457.

Thank you so much for your help!

For questions or concerns, please contact:

Allyson Bowcutt

166

APPENDIX E TEACHER OBSERVATION FORM PERMISSION LETTER

167

Teacher Observation Form Permission Letter Text of written consent for teachers' observations This was given to teachers before they recorded their written observations

Dear Teacher,

As part of the research in regards to babies aged 0-12 months responses to electronic and traditional texts, I am asking that you record the results of your observations with the babies once a week.

The observation sheet consists of only two questions and should take about 15 minutes to complete. You must be 18 or older to participate. Only key personnel in this research project (including myself, the principal investigator, and the Office of Responsible Research Practices) will have access to your responses.

Completion of this observation sheet is voluntary and indicative of consent. There is no compensation for the completion of these forms; however, in so doing, babies, parents, and teachers may benefit from the findings. There will be no foreseeable risks involved in this process for you. Data will be password protected.

You can refuse to participate or stop at any time, without penalty or loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled.

For questions about your rights as a participant in this study or to discuss other study- related concerns or complaints with someone who is not part of the research team, you may contact Ms. Sandra Meadows in the Office of Responsible Research Practices at 1- 800-678-6251.

This form has been reviewed and approved by The Ohio State University's Institutional Review Board (IRB) through the Office of Responsible Research Practices, 300 Research Administration Building, 1960 Kenny Road, Columbus, OH 43210. Phone (614) 688- 8457.

Thank you so much for your help!

For questions or concerns, please contact:

Allyson Bowcutt

168

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