GREEN BELT FENNOSKANDIA

The vision of a green belt through Europe

1 BARENTSwatch

This edition of Barentswatch is pub- lished by Bioforsk Svanhovd, with support from the Norwegian Ministry of Environment.

Norwegian, English and Russian edi- tions are published.

Main editor: Snorre B. Hagen Editor: Runhild Dammen

Cover photo: Terje Kolaas Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus)

Layout: Runhild Dammen, Bioforsk

Print: Kursiv Media as

Translation: CBG Consult AB,Sweden Travelclub,

Webpage: www.bioforsk.no/bw barentswatch.com

ISSN 0806 – 5411

2 Photo: Rein Midteng. Innhold The vision of a green belt through Europe

“European Green Belt” is the vision of an ecological network, from the in the north to the in the south. A continuous belt of protected areas stretching over 12 500 km. The vision is that the Green Belt will stand as a living and a global symbol for transboundary cooperation in nature conservation and sustainable development.

The origin of the European Green Belt The divided the continent between east and west for 4 The Green Belt Initiative nearly 40 years. Along this east-west a unique ecological 6 Forests in Green Belt Fennoskandia network emerged - a green belt. The strong security along the the 9 Our common World Heritage russian-norwegian and finnish-russian border also gave nature a time to rest. 12 Biological crawler lane can save climate refugees among animals This green belt creates a home for many plants and animal species that are important to preserve! Today, many habitats are broken and plants up or lost due to different human activities, and this poses a major 14 Greenbelt i Norge, lengre og threat to biological diversity. viktigere enn tidligere antatt Today, we are also facing a different threat: The climate change. 16 Dead trees – a living environment The temperature rises and many species must escape to relocate to 18 Establishing the Pasvik-Inari their climate zone. Green Belt Fennoscandia could represent a north- south corridor for migratory species under changing conditions. We Trilateral Park can help species to survive by preserving contiguous belts of nature. 20 Wetlands for water, forests and Green Belt of Fennoscandia people – a powerful relationship A large number of associations, groups and authorities in 24 countries 22 Varanger among Top 100 birding are cooperating within the European Green Belt Initiative. Currently sites of the world there are three sections of activity to be distinguished: Balkans green belt in the south, ’s green and the green belt of Fenno- 24 Variety of mire ecosystems in the scandia, which constitutes the northern part. green belt og Fennoskandia

In 2010 signed, and Russia, a “Memorandum of Under- 26 Population fragmentation of wild standing”, an agreement that laid the foundation for further work on animal populations in the north Green Belt Fennoscandia. There are many challenges in cross-border 28 Animal life on the seabed: cooperation: Different countries has different rules, different cul- tures and languages, but as the articles in this issue of the Barents- Long term monitoring watch shows, as long as you are working towards a common goal the 30 From protected areas to green challenges are possible to overcome. infrastructure 32 Green Belt Life-project Runhild Dammen Communications advisor in a nutshell Bioforsk Svanhovd 34 Protected areas in GBF 35 Map

3 The European Green Belt Initiative : Joint effort for an ambitious goal

‘Nature knows no boundaries’ is an often stated slogan, but most relevant in Europe with its dense pattern of political which frequently follow natural features such as mountain ranges or river systems. Regarding the European Green Belt, nature does not only know no boundaries, nature is uniting across borders: people, organizations and states, large pristine areas throughout the continent, animal and plant populations as well as Europe’s history and future.

Gabriel Schwaderer1, Liana Geidezis2, Annette Spangenberg1, Melanie Kreutz2, Kai Frobel2 1EuroNatur, Regional Coordinator Green Belt Balkan 2BUND-Project Office Green Belt, Regional Coordinator Green Belt Central Europe

European Green Belt is a re- treat for many endangered animal and plant species and a very important corridor for the migration of endangered large mammals.

The outstanding importance of the European Green Belt for the continent-wide ecological network is obvious: 39 national parks are situat-

Wolf, Canis lupus, Photo: Paul Eric Aspholm Wolf, Canis lupus, Photo: Paul Eric ed directly along the Green Belt, 16 Along the Iron Curtain, which sepa- down in the inland in order to control thereof are trans-boundary protect- rated the continent in East and West the area more efficient. Whereas on ed areas. More than 3,200 nature re- for nearly 40 years, an outstanding the western side remote border areas serves can be found within a 25 kilo- ecological network and living memo- were less attractive for investors, metres buffer on either side of the rial landscape developed. Despite its sparsely populated and no major infra- European Green Belt. Consequent- inhumanity, the Iron Curtain granted structure was established. ly the European Green Belt is a re- nature a pause for breath along more treat for many endangered animal than 12,500 kilometres from the A lack of conventional land use and and plant species and a very impor- Barents Sea, along the Baltic Coast, agriculture as well as the absence tant corridor for the migration of through Central Europe and the of most anthropogenic disturbances endangered large mammals. There- Balkans to the Adriatic and Black Sea. along large parts of the Iron Curtain fore it represents a unique European and also in its surrounding led to the nature heritage. In the former countries conservation and development of The European Green Belt connects the use of border areas was mostly large pristine areas and a connected 24 European countries and a great prohibited, in some villages at the system of various natural and semi- number of pristine, natural and semi border people were forcefully settled natural habitats and landscapes. natural landscapes.

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Eurasian lynx, Lynx lynx, Foto: Paul EricAspholm Natural Specifics and Current State: Forests in the Green Belt of Fennoscandia

The concept of the ‘Green Belt of Fennoscandia’ (GBF) first appeared in the early 1990s, when Finnish and Russian (Karelian) researchers came up with their first proposals to preserve the natural complexes covering both sides of Russian-Finnish and Russian-Norwegian borders. The GBF was later nominated for inclusion in UNESCO’s World Heritage List.

Gromtsev Andrey Nikolaevich, Sc.D (Silvics and Forestry), Forest Research Institute of the Karelian Research Center, Russia.

On the Russian side of the border, the presence in these forests of the peared here less than 400 years ago the GBF is a forested strip of several two ma-jor areas that are absolutely on a vast area affected by naturally dozens of kilometers in width with different in terms of their natural occurring fires. The stands are the av- large fragments of well-preserved specifics. erage of 160-200 years old and make forest and mire complexes adjacent up the core age group. The age of to the vast natural areas which have Massif of spruce stands on north- upper tier of spruce, however, shows been largely transformed as a result lowland landscape (the Paana- sweeping amplitude – from 80 to 300 of anthropogenic impact – harvesting jarvi Lake area. See upper part of the years and even older. This evidences operations, hydro- and forest melio- figure). Its forest cover is markedly the formation of uneven-aged struc- ration. dominated by spruce forests (ac- ture of stands, which, in turn, is the counting for ca 85 % of the area) – key feature of climax forest commu- Stretching in the north-south direc- mainly, by a variety of whortleberry nities. With about 500-year growth tion, this strip of land runs along the spruce ones. Forest communities ap- cycle, they reach dynamic balance in border between Russia, Norway and Finland, thus embracing west periph- ery of the three Russian administra- tive regions – (ca 430 km, exclusive of the Barents Sea water area), Karelian republic (700 km) and Leningrad Region (140 km, exclusive of the Baltic Sea water area).

Unique natural site Ecologically, environmentally and recreationally speaking, this is a unique natural site of pan-European value. Its most valuable asset is the remaining smaller-sized indigenous forests con-centrated immediately within the countries’ borderline area. Vegetation here was formed in post-glacial period (about 10 thou- sand years ago) and was never un- dergoing any major anthropogenic impact. This practically makes them absolutely ‘indigenous’. They are the largest in the western sector of Eura- sian taiga and there is nothing simi- lar remaining westwards from Nor- Figure 1: The largest indigenous forest massifs in the Green Belt of Fennoscan- wegian fjords. The outcomes of our dia (classified satellite imagery and typical forests images). Symbols: 1) forest special-purpose research evidence lands; 2) logged areas; 3) non-forest lands (wetlands, forest , tundra); 4) lakes and rivers; 5) borderlines of Paanajarvi and Kalevalsky National Parks.

6 Figure 2: The largest indigenous forest massifs in the Green Belt of Fennoscandia (classi- fied satellite imagery and typical forests images).

the growth and the mortality of their located close to the Park, namely, In natural conditions, the stability of wood volume. northwards from it. pine-spruce balance was ensured by Massif of pine stands on north-Taiga periodically occurring fires that used This state of forests may last for an hummocky landscape (located west- to destroy spruce growth under the indefinite period of time – until the wards from the Upper Kuito Lake pine crown cover. On the major part lightning strikes them in one of the along the Russian-Finnish border, of mineral soil, the age of stands av- anomalously dry years. Against the see lower section of the figure). erage 120-160 years. Several stand background of the GBF, these for- With pine (ca 85%) dominating the alone pines were registered to be ests’ yield is low, the average volume forest cover, the territory features approximately 500 years of age. of 120-140-year-old stands being 115 the whole mosaic of natural forest Against the back-ground of the GBF, m3/ha. These spruce forests have commu-nities ranging from all-aged these forests’ yield is medium, the almost never been affected by se- pine-dominated pyric primitive plant average volume of 120-140-year-old lective cutting. They are the unique aggregations to climax spruce forests stands being 145 m3/ha. About half communities comprising fir-spruce- in almost absolutely ‘fire-immune’ of the forests growing on mineral tundra forests around low-hill ravines. soils have previously underwent low- terrain (500 m above sea level or intensity selective felling. Although more), that exist in the severe cli- This area also features the topo- this has resulted in a slight increase mate and grow on meagre soil. ecological series of forest phytocoe- of spruce trees in the areas abound- noses – so typical of eastern part of ing in pine, the communities’ struc- Vulnerable Fennoscandia – whose habitats, too, ture remains unchanged. Their specific flora and fauna is vary from rocky ones (up on the tops particularly vulnerable to any an- of crystalline-structure hummocks Flora and fauna here represent those thropogenic impacts (we mean their and ridges) down to swamped ones most typical of eastern part of Fen- sensitivity to atmospheric pollution, in depressions and flatter areas. noscandia. This relatively well-pre- regeneration efficiency after clear The crown cover of more than half served pine taiga massif is the largest cutting and resistance to recreation- of whortleberry pine forests (domi- in west Eurasia that has pronounced al load). While many natural sites nant in vegetation) hides abundant post-fire origin. Natural sites are pro- are protected within Paanajarvi Na- understory spruce, or spruce under- tected within Kostomuksha Nature tional Park (103 thousand ha), there growth. Unable to regenerate itself, Reserve (47 thousand hectares), Ka- are still more undisturbed areas pine is being ousted here by spruce. levalsky National Park (82 thousand

7 hectares) and a number of smaller anthropogenic transformation. They More details wildlife areas (reserves). For the represent cut-over patches (failed For more details (available in Russian time being, the large parts of pine areas), or secondary forests (growing and English) about the Russian part taiga at the periphery and close to on areas cut over at different times), of the GBF and the list of currently these protected sites remain uncut. or massifs of remaining taiga forests. existing publications go to RAS Ka- It should be noted that as indigenous relian Research Centre’s web page: The area of full-fledged protected forests get closer to the border line, http://green-belt.krc.karelia.ru/ sites established in Karelian part of their number increases. This is due section.php?plang=e&id=518. Most of the Russian-Finnish border totals ca to their remoteness from the traf- the materials posted cover the for- 250 thousand hectares. The GBF also fic arteries and re-stricted access to ests’ natural specifics; naturally and comprises vast indigenous forests of the borderland. At the same time, as anthropogenically induced dynamics Mur-mansk Region (Laplandsky Na- indigenous forests move southwards and associated flora and fauna. ture Reserve, for instance, with 280 they de-crease in number and almost thousand hectares). Protection is en- disappear in the area from 63ºE down hanced by long-established system to the Gulf of Finland. On the Rus- of water conservation districts – the sian side of the GBF, the area of the so-called ‘ecological cor-ridors’ that already functioning and planned pro- connect protected sites and are cov- tected sites (compris-ing secondary ered by all-the-year-round environ- forests) totals around 1 mln hectares. mental activities. No clear cutting is In Finland, the priority GBF sites are allowed in such corridors. either of-ficially protected or sched- uled for protection in the framework In general, the present-day forests of the national parks related pro- covering the area from the Barents grammes, old growth forests protec- Sea to the Gulf of Fin-land are de- tion plan, EU’s Network of Protected scribed as having various degrees of Areas Natura 2000, etc.

8 Preparation of a transboundary nomination: Our common World Heritage

The Green Belt is an important part of our common world heritage , and as early as 1995 the idea of a transboundary nomination of the «Green Belt of Fennoscandia» for the World Her- itage List appeared. The Green Belt represents a range of ecosystems from Arctic tundra at the Barents Sea coast, to mixed broad-leaf forests covering the islands of the Gulf of Finland, and a long and difficult prosess of including the «Green Belt of Fennoscandia» for the World Heritage List has started.

Alexey Butorin, Natural Heritage Protection Fund, Russia.

The high degree of conservation of relief and unusual shapes of various The preparation prosess these taiga ecosystems in the past moraine features, such as kames, The preparation was first widely was conditioned by strictness of the eskers, outwash plains, drumlins, discussed at the International Rus- national security belt along the borders. roches moutonnees, etc. The last sian-Finnish meeting in the Ministry Aside from the unique preserva- glacier receded 10,000 years ago and of Ecology of RF in autumn 1995. tion of the last tracts of old-growth this region’s landforms are among Later on, this subject has had wide taiga in the European part of the the youngest in the world. response, and in 1995-98 there has continent, this area has interesting been held many conferences and geological structure and relief. On The formation of its ecosystems is work meetings with participation of the one hand, the area is a part of still in the beginning stages and they Russian, Finnish, Norwegian and Ger- the ancient Baltic crystalline shield. are yet fairly unstable. Dissection man governmental and non-govern- Fragments of the shield appear as of terrain, tectonic depressions and mental environmental bodies. large and small ridges and individual abundant precipitation resulted in erratic massifs. On the other hand, formation of a multitude of pictur- The largest conferences were held the surface has been intricately esque lakes, appearing as the most at Petrozavodsk and Murmansk (Rus- transformed by glaciations, which fascinating trait of the local land- sia), Kuhmo (Finland) and the Island resulted in the undulating moraine scapes. A large number of rapids and of Vilm (Germany). The project of waterfalls on small rivers add to the nomination preparation has been re- spectacular natural beauty of the peatedly discussed with authorities area. of Murmansk and Leningrad regions and of the Republic of Karelia. Geographical position, climatic and geological features found their re- First, after the inventory has been flection in the remarkable mosaic of carried out, the Russian part of the picturesque landscapes and frequent Green Belt of Fennoscandia was pro- alteration of spectacular natural posed to include over 30 isolated complexes. Location of the region in nature sites forming the narrow line the taiga zone with predominantly (average width 20-30 km) along the light coniferous pine forests, com- Finnish and Norwegian boundary. All bined with its remarkable terrain and chosen forest and taiga tracts had multitude of lakes created its unique a high level of integrity, which was coloration. promoted by the strict near-frontier zone regime of the soviet period. By 1998 the number of the proposed sites has decreased to 20 and in- cluded only existing and projected protected areas of both federal and

Northern hawk owl. Photo: Ragnar Våga Pedersen. 9 Laplandsky Reserve Aim of establishment – the necessity of restoration and population num- ber support of wild at the , and also preservation of one of the two massifs of moun- tain-tundra ecosystems of the Kola Peninsula. Also protects a number of saami historical and archaeological .

Paanajarvi National Park Established for conservation of the unique natural complexes of Paana- jarvi lake and river Olanga basin, their use in environmental, recrea- tional, educational and scientific purposes. Forest covered area makes 75% of the area.

Kostomukshsky Reserve Nature is typical for Northern Kare- lia and is unique as an intact natural complex. Here dwells reindeer popu- lation. Aim of creation – conservation and study of typical biogeocoenosis Capercaillie. Photo: Terje Kolaas/naturspesialisten.no of Karelian north taiga and monitor- ing of development of the Reserve’s nature complexes. regional level. Diploma thesis of Eva Two clusters are located in Mur- Kleinn (Institute of Geography and mansk Region: Kalevalsky National Park Geoecology of the Karlsruhe Univer- - Pasvik State Occupies area adjacent to the Rus- sity) have played an important part (14 727 ha), sian-Finnish boundary, on the south in the project development at this - Laplandsky State Nature Biosphere – in immediate proximity to the Kos- stage. Reserve (278 435 ha) and organized tomukshsky Reserve. Henceforth, taking into considera- in 2011 Lapland Forest («Laplandsky tion the significant difficulties in Les») regional zakaznik (171 600 ha). Laplandsky Les regional zakaznik realization of such large-scale pro- Area between Laplandsky Reserve ject, and also taking account of the Three clusters are located in the and the Russian-Finnish boundary. experience of nomination prepara- Republic of Karelia: Protection regime foresees limita- tion of other natural properties, - Paanajarvi State Natural National tion of management use and restric- the number sites projected into the Park (104 000 ha), tion of main use cuttings. Green Belt, has decreased to 6. Five - Kostomukshsky State Nature Re- of the sites already have a federal serve (47 457 ha), Also there are a few areas with- protection status (3 Nature Reserves - Kalevalsky State Natural National out federal protection status to be and 2 National Park); one – regional Park (74 400 ha). pointed out as perspective clusters zakaznik. All the sites are united into to the site. 5 near-boundary complexes and, in Total proposed area 690 619 ha: 464 major cases, make a single whole 762 ha in Murmansk Region and 225 Perspectives of the «Green Belt with Finnish and Norwegian near- 857 ha in the Republic of Karelia. of Fennoscandia» transbound- boundary protected areas and have ary nomination doubtless natural significance. Proposed structure of the World During the 2004 the “Natural Herit- The territory actually presented for Heritage Site age Protection” Fund with the fi- the inscription on the WH List from Existing Russian SPAs proposed for nancial assistance of the Moscow the Russian side is a natural site con- inclusion into the Green Belt of Fen- Bureau of UNESCO (together with sisting of five separate clusters lo- noscandia. the Karelian Research Center, Kola cated along the Russian-Finnish and Biodiversity Conservation Center and Russian-Norwegian borders. Distance Pasvik Reserve Greenpeace Russia) has prepared the between the clusters is 30-150 km. The Reserve has been established for Russian part of the international nom- protection of intact European north- ination “The Green Belt of Fennos- taiga forests at the limit of their candia”. All necessary components spreading, and their flora and fauna. of the nomination file, including text

10 according to UNESCO format, maps, flora and fauna lists, official manage- ment plans, orders and decrees, bib- liography, have been collected and developed. The most valuable and conserved Russian natural complexes located along the Russian-Norwegian and Russian-Finnish boundaries have been proposed into the international WH site: Pasvik Reserve, Laplandsky Reserve, Kostomukshsky Reserve, Paanajarvi National Park, Kalevalsky National Park and Lapland Forest re- gional zakaznik. Total area of clus- ters makes 690 619 ha.

The prepared Russian part of the «Green Belt of Fennoscandia» nomi- nation is not an independent one and is not planned for autonomous pres- entation into the WHC. The natural, economic and political significance of the site is many times increased with the joining up of efforts of Russia, Finland and Norway in nominating and the following conservation of the «Green Belt of Fennoscandia» trans- boundary site. The interconnection of the three countries in this field is continued since late 1990-s, and at this stage the site consisting of the 5 transboundary clusters seems to be the optimal version of the nomina- tion:

- Pasvik Reserve – Vatsari wilderness (Finland) – Ovre Pasvik NP (Norway) - Laplandsky Reserve, Laplandsky Les - Urho-Kekkonen NP (Finland) - Paanajarvi NP – Oulanka NP (Finland) - Kostomukshsky Reserve - Friend- ship Park (Finland) - Kalevalsky NP – Kalevala Park (pro- jected) (Finland)

The next step in the preparation of the transboundary nomination should be the international expedition into the near-border SPAs with the aim of raising the attention to the project from the side of local administration, science and the population.

11 Biological crawler lane can save climate refugees among animals and plants

Man’s emissions of greenhouse gases means that the planet is becoming warmer. Particularly large temperature increases are expected in the northern areas of Europe and Asia. This threatens animal and plant life because species have to move to find their climate again. We can help species survive by preserving contiguous belts of nature that they can migrate in, referred to as biological crawler lanes. The shortest way is over the hills.

Sigmund Hågvar, Professor Emeritus of Natural and Environmental Protection, the Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway.

globally as quickly as possible, and two problems with protected areas: we must prepare ourselves for the many are too small to hold viable world becoming warmer. The green- populations of certain species, and house gases that have already been areas are often so isolated that an emitted will mean that the tempera- exchange of individuals and species ture will continue to rise regardless. between them is impossible.

Climate refugees When species have to migrate due The IPCC has warned that there will to climate change, many of the pro- be a number of threats to humans: tected areas will become heat traps: drought in some places, floods and it will be too warm to stay and the landslides in other places, powerful species that try to migrate will en- and destructive cyclones and a rise counter a number of barriers in the in sea level. Large numbers of peo- form of completely different natural ple will have to move and a new term environments such as towns, rivers, has already been in use for some lakes and seas. For example, special- time: climate refugees. However, ised species on a protected marsh not only people will have to move: surrounded by forest will not have plants and animals will also become access to new, contiguous marsh ar- The planet is becoming warmer climate refugees. Many species are eas where they can migrate. Simi- already migrating northwards to find larly, many of the old-growth species Global warming seems to be hap- their climate again, but migrations in a virgin forest reserve could not pening faster than the IPCC (In- like this are full of risks. British but- use the surrounding areas of clear- tergovernmental Panel on Climate terflies are now moving northwards, felling or young trees to migrate. In Change) estimated. The American but many species are also becoming addition, many species have poor dis- climate researcher James Hansen rarer because they are encounter- persal abilities. While birds and but- (2008) has warned the world that we ing environments that are unsuitable terflies are technically able to move could come to a tipping point where (Warren et al. 2001). over long distances, this does not ap- we lose control. More open sea in ply to wingless insects, earthworms, the North draws more heat, and the Creating scattered protected ar- snails, certain species of lichen and melting tundra releases ever more eas is not enough many others. methane, which is a strong green- So far, the most important measure house gas. This means that warming to preserve species has been the Biological crawler lanes: contig- can continue by itself. creation of protected areas. These uous strips of nature In the meantime we should do two are like scattered islands in a sea When species have to migrate, we things: reduce all CO2 emissions of other types of nature. There are can help them by preserving contigu- Photo: Rein Midteng

12 ous belts of nature – referred to as Protection of these forests will not biological crawler lanes. Since half only save Norway’s largest, continu- of Fennoscandia’s endangered spe- ous virgin/natural forest, but will cies are forest-inhabiting, the con- also help to preserve a biological servation of contiguous north/south crawler lane as far north as possible. running belts of old forest is very im- portant. In these belts, species can Steep crawler lanes move in fairly contiguous forest, with Where possible, crawler lanes should as few migration barriers as possible. be located in steep terrain because it is much shorter to crawl uphill Along the old Iron Curtain in Europe than along when moving to a colder there is actually one of these belts climate. As Figure 3 shows, climbing of nature, and it should be kept as four hundred metres gives a similar contiguous and intact as possible for climate effect as migrating hundreds the future (Figure 1). For us in the of kilometres north. From Hågvar North, the green forest belt between (1994). Finland and Russia is of particular importance. In the North, the belt continues in the Pasvik Valley before it fades out towards the Barents Sea.

Only recently, large natural forests that are worth preserving have been discovered north of Upper Pasvik Na- tional Park. (Map, page 15).

Where possible, crawler lanes should be located in steep terrain because it is much shorter to crawl uphill than along when moving to a colder climate. Photo: Rein Midteng

13 Green belt in Norway, longer and more important than previously thought

As a result of the conducted surveys of valuable pine forest in Pasvik (see article in Barents Watch 1-2010), valuable new knowledge has been gained about the extent and value of the Norwegian part of the Green Belt of Fennoscandia. Virgin and natural forests in Pasvik are the northernmost part of the Green Belt and represent priceless natural assets. They contribute to the increased variety and size of the Green Belt and therefore increase its total ecological impact.

Rein Midteng, biologist, Asplan Viak AS, Norway. Photo: Rein Midteng

14 Species requiring space, including bird species as- Buteo lagopus. Photo: Espen Tangen Årnes sociated with old-growth forest, are able to survive in the long term, unlike in most other forest land- scapes in Fennoscandia.

Valuable areas Norway’s knowledge of the valuable Records have documented that the natural areas within the zone of the Norwegian part of “The Green Belt Green Belt has until now been insuf- of Fennoscandia” in Norway is 50 km ficient. From the Norwegian side, long and also larger and more coher- it has not been clear whether the ent than previously thought. Green Belt of Fennoscandia extends much further north and is larger than Compared with most other forest previously assumed. Records funded landscapes in Norway, Pasvik a high by the County Governor of Finnmark proportion of natural forest at land- with surveys of old forest (habitat These newly discovered areas there- scape level. This means that species surveys), have indirectly document- fore have an important function in requiring space, including bird spe- ed that the belt in Norway extends 50 that they bind together the national cies associated with old-growth for- km further north than the trilateral park and nature reserve and should est, are able to survive in the long park between Norway, Finland and be managed with the perspective term, unlike in most other forest Russia. In fact, the belt in Norway is that these areas together form Nor- landscapes in Fennoscandia. intact and continuous, and consists way’s largest continuous natural of natural areas which have great forest. A smaller area (see figure in Pasvik has previously been mainly in natural value in a national and inter- Sigmund Hågvar’s article) has not yet focus for having occurrences of many national context. From Treriksrøysa been surveyed. Eastern species. This is still true, but to the north end of this continuous the main focus should instead be on belt, it is about 70 km. Pasvik’s unique natural resources re- lated primarily to the old pine forest. What natural resources has Nor- Map: Green, crooked line shows the con- way contributed to the Green servation areas that are not protected, Based on present knowledge of an- Belt? and the area with blue demarcation is cient pine forests in Norway, we can a joining area with some virgin forest Norway’s largest instances of virgin conclude that Pasvik’s old pine for- qualities. forest are found in Pasvik. This ap- ests are the most important core plies both to the largest contiguous The worlds intact forests land- area in Norway for pine forest-relat- areas and to the greatest number of scapes ed species dependent on old forests. acres. Pasvik’s natural forest massif is one This new knowledge should be the ba- of three Norwegian forests, which Pasvik has Norway’s largest con- sis for further trilateral cooperation together with adjacent large natu- tinuous area of natural forest. The on The Green Belt of Fennoscandia. ral forests in Sweden and Finland, is National Park and Store Sametti- There is also a need for surveying old defined as belonging to “The world’s Skjelvatnet Nature Reserve and ar- pine forest if natural resources are intact forest landscapes” (www.in- eas between these that are not pro- not yet documented. tactforests.org). Pasvik is directly tected constitute a continuous area connected with the Vätsäri area in with natural forests and marshes and Finland, which is one of these three waters of about 350 km2, of which areas. most is also virgin forest or ancient

Photo: Rein Midteng natural forest.

15 Photo: Rein Midteng. Dead trees – a living environment

Few places match the concept of “One man’s meat is another man’s poison” as well as dead trees. Even in old age, many years before a tree dies, it is invaded by different organisms, from bacteria to fungi and a host of animals and insects. From the tree falling on the ground until it is completely gone, these organisms have had trees as their habitat perhaps through hundreds of generations. They appear in a specific order from the pioneering phase to the final stage, many centuries later.

Leif Ryvarden, University in Oslo, Norway.

main defence is a dense and strong Decomposition Numerous organisms bark and a stock of various toxins, Decomposition occurs in a specific A tree in all its glory is not only a such as resin and similar compounds. order with pioneer species, which beautiful sight, but also a formida- It is also important to have high are generally specialists in breaking ble energy store. Through the leaves’ water pressure inside the trunk, so down what remains of the toxins. or needles’ photosynthesis, energy that there are no air pockets of oxygen, After each of these substances disap- is stored in the trunk in the form of which is a vital necessity for the at- pear, pioneer species lose their ad- cellulose and lignin, which together tackers. Even though many of them vantages and are slowly replaced by form a strong structure that holds the manage to penetrate the defence, other more competitive organisms. trunk up. Numerous organisms which the toxins and lack of oxygen mean The number of species in all groups live on what others have produced, that they remain almost in a dormant rises after the pioneer phase to a such as bacteria, fungi, insects and state or on what we might call the maximum when approximately 50- small animals, experience the tree as back burner. The important thing is 70% of the energy in the trunk is used a food source and attack it as best that they are in place when the tree up. Then it starts to decline until the they can. dies and air comes in and the pro- tree is completely gone. Studies have duction of toxins stops. When that shown that in the northern parts of Balanced arms race happens, they begin the breakdown Scandinavia, this may take up to 400 Over millions of years, the tree has process and utilise the energy for years for a large pine or spruce. developed a defence against these the production of spores and eggs of invaders, which in turn have de- various kinds. veloped and improved their attack weapons. There is a balanced arms race between them, where the tree’s

16 In a virgin forest there is biodiversity far greater than in a cul- ture-related forest with regular felling. In virgin forests, there will be many trees in all stages of decomposition, so that de- composers always find niches where exactly their life require- ments are met.

Need fungi therefore forms a fruit body on the Fungi are the most important partner trunk surface, so that spores are re- in the decomposition cycle. The leased into the air, where the wind reason is that the thread-like cells takes care of further transporta- can easily penetrate between the tion. The insects that inhabit wood, cells while the tree still retains especially beetles, which are the almost its entire mechanical strength most important group, just fly to the and density, which among other next tree, where after mating they things, makes it difficult for wood- lay eggs for a new generation. While boring insects to get into the trunk. insects are targeted, the spread of Fungal cells produce enzymes that fungal spores is completely arbitrary. break down cellulose and use glu- Each fruit body therefore produces cose, which is the main constituent millions of spores to make sure that Gloeophyllum sepiarium - a spe- of cellulose, for their own reproduc- some will land in the right place. It cies with high temperature tol- tion and to build up a fruit body. This may in passing be mentioned that erances and thus often invading work takes place day and night as several fungi have developed a rela- stumps and logs in exposed posi- long as there is water present, and tionship with insects, so that fungal tions. Very common as degrader spores or cells are included in the the temperature is above freezing. of wooden roofs in Scandinavia As the tree is eaten up, cavities form spreading process when the insect because of this. where bacteria, insects and small looks for a new suitable tree for animals become established. They reproduction. eat not only the pure wood, but first and foremost, the fungus-infected Biodiversity part of it, then they get both fungal In a virgin forest there is biodiversity nutrition and the tree’s. far greater than in a culture-related forest with regular felling. In virgin The wind spreads the genes: forests, there will be many trees in all stages of decomposition, so that decomposers always find niches where exactly their life requirements are met. During active logging, how- ever, the mature trees are removed, and there are few or no trunks on the ground. It is therefore very important that we have virgin forest areas in order to preserve the biological diversity that has evolved over millions of years, when all the forest was virgin forest where life processes could Brown rot in spruce. Only the Fomes fomentarius - perennial spe- develop freely. We should also re- heart wood is degraded while cies, most common on birch. Here member that both the trees and the the peripheral and younger wood under sporulation with deposits of attackers have evolved under differ- is resistant. white spores around the basidiocarp. ent climatic conditions, so that it is necessary to create national parks It is all well and good to live inside and forest reserves in all climate the tree, but sooner or later the fun- zones. gi have to spread their genes, that is, produce spores which can spread the species into new niches of life, so it will survive as a species. The fungus

17 Establishing the Pasvik-Inari Trilateral Park: Challenges and experiences

Pasvik-Inari Trilateral Park and its surrounding wilderness is located on the north-western edge of the taiga, in the area where Norway, Finland and Russia converge. A continuous stretch of land crossing three national borders is protected - five protected areas comprise the Trilateral Park. Environmental authorities and relevant stakeholders in the three coun- tries have cooperated since early 1990s in the areas of nature protection and management, environmental monitoring and research activities. The Trilateral Park is a unique example of long-term and constructive cooperation over three nation’s borders.

Tiia Kalske1, Bente Christiansen1, Vladimir Chizov2, Marina Trusova2 and Tapio Tynys3 1The Office of the County Governor of Finnmark (Norway), 2 The State Nature Reserve Pasvik (Russia) and 3 Metsähallitus Natural Heritage Services (Finland)

Nature, culture and here their ultimate limits of their dis- have each retained their distinctive history shared tribution. The area is also an impor- traditions. The lush valley of the Pasvik River tant nesting and resting place for a In earlier times the river was also an stretches from towards the large number of migratory birds. important channel from inland to the Barents Sea, appearing as a nerve of The Pasvik–Inari region is a meeting Barents Sea along which trades were life in the wide, forested, marsh and point for different cultures. Differ- transported. During the great log- small lake mosaic landscape. The ent Sámi groups live in the area: the gings of the 1920’s, logs were floated Lake Inari area and the Pasvik River Northern, Inari and Skolt Sámi. Since to sawmills located by the outlet of valley is known for its great nature the Early Middle Ages, Finns, Norwe- the Pasvik River. Later, the battle for and cultural values. The region com- gians and Russians also have settled nickel in Pechenga brought changes prises a unique nature system where in the region. Although different cul- to the area, as the rapids of the Pas- the European, Asian and Arctic spe- tures coexist in the area and have vik River were used to produce en- cies meet. Some of the species reach learned a lot from each other, they ergy for mining and smelting. Despite the changes the Lake Inari area and the Pasvik River valley has preserved its natural values and spe- cies diversity. The specific features of the area make it an attractive na- ture and culture destination.

Cross-border cooperation – chal- lenges, experiences, results and benefits Nature, animals and plants, and also pollution do not recognise man maid borders. The cross-border coopera- tion between environmental authori- ties in Norway, Russia and Finland emerged in the early 1990s. Annual meetings, exchange of information, joint mappings and field expeditions and also joint projects are conduct-

18 Pasvik-Inari Trilateral Park 1889, 4 km2

The five protected areas comprising the Trilateral Park are:

Russia : State Nature Reserve Pas- vik (Pasvik ) in: 147,2 km2 - established in 1992.

Norway: Pasvik Nature Reserve: 19,1 km2. Established in 1993 (Ramsar-status in 1996) Øvre Pasvik National Park:119 km2 Established in 1970 and extended in 2003 Øvre Pasvik Landscape Protection Area: 54 km2. Established in 2003.

Finland: Vätsäri Wilderness area 1550 km2. Established in 1991.

From the opening of the Piilola track 2009, crossing the Ellen river. Photo G. Reinholdsen ed. Over the years the knowledge of EUROPARCs ‘Transboundary short-term and long-term joint ben- the protected areas and challenges Park efits have to be recognised by all the connected to management and mon- In 2008 Pasvik-Inari Trilateral Park parties to see the day-to-day bene- itoring issues on common species was awarded the European certifica- fits of the cooperation. Also the tim- grew and also off course the friend- tion for ing of actions is important – and to ship between the persons involved EUROPARCs ‘Transboundary Park – act together when the time is right. in the daily work with the protected following nature’s design’. This cer- areas. tification provides managers of the Great thanks goes to all the pioneers In the early 2000 the idea of a joint protected areas with tools for main- and their later successors in the co- ‘Friendship park’ was introduced. taining a long-term, workable coop- operation, without their ideas, en- The Interreg project “Promotion of eration for nature management in thusiasm and working energy the nature protection and sustainable the future. cooperation would not have reached nature tourism in the Inari-Pasvik the results we witness today and the area” the years 2006-2008 intensi- Numerous challenges level of aspiration the cooperation fied and structured the cooperation There are numerous challenges for has for the future! towards what it is today. the cooperation to address; different The main objectives being: to unite legislation, different level of protec- the protected areas under a com- tion, many languages, different ter- mon name, and to establish a formal minology and methodologies, opera- framework for the management of tional culture, funding issues, border the common area despite the na- restrictions and formalities, possible tional borders. In the course of the conflicts between different interest project joint monitoring and harmo- groups and stakeholders, effects of nisation of methodologies on chosen water regulation and pollution issues border-crossing species were imple- etc. The experience is that almost mented (, waterbirds and all these challenges can be handled ), a joint action plan with an open and transparent com- Read more on our web site – and a joint vision was created, also munication, and mutual understand- www.pasvik-inari.net activities to promote local nature ing of the different cultures and op- tourist business were made. erational environments existing in the three countries. The human re- sources involved in the cooperation are also of crucial importance; both

19 Wetlands for water, forests and people – a powerful relationship

Water is essential. A diversity of life forms has arisen where water and land meet - in wetlands with high bioproduction and good living opportunities for wildlife and people. Wetlands are coastal bays, estuaries, rivers, lakes, wet meadows, marshes, reed beds, peatland fens and bogs. Wetland ecosystems account for a large part of the Barents region. Their services are vital for us. We need to use them wisely, and cooperate where national borders cut across such ecosystems.

Tobias Salathe, Ramsar Convention Secretariat, Switzerland Photo: Rein Midteng

20 Traditionally, people have used, recharge groundwater. These are the and are still using wetlands in many so-called water-related ecosystem different ways, as places to live, for services – essential four our provision grazing, haymaking, obtaining wood with good quality drinking water. or peat for fuel, and for hunting, Wetlands are the natural infrastruc- shooting and fishing. The ways in ture in the hydrological cycle. Here which people use wetlands took a they perform many functions. These more dramatic turn during the 20th services need to be valuated and century when modern technology and taken into account when considering practices, like the use of artificial sustainable development options. fertilisers and pesticides, were Highest priority should be given to introduced leading to the total avoid destruction and degradation reclamation or intensive use of many of ecosystems. Where this is not wetlands. Draining, damming up, possible, restoring lost ecosystem canalizing, filling in, cultivation, services is often an affordable choice. regulation, building development And still much cheaper than to have for industry, electricity production, to rehabilitate entire ecosystems and harbours, transport, farming, rec- their functions, or to replace them

reation and other purposes led to with constructed, technological solu- Årnes Grus grus. Photo: Espen Tangen significant encroachments and a drastic tions. biodiversity conservation. And they reduction in the area taken up by need to become showplaces for local certain wetland types. This has had The wetlands of the Barents region water management and sustainable repercussions for various habitats have global significance: think about development, for responsible tour- and life forms. Similar destruction carbon sinks. Peatlands cover 400 ism and the integration of cultural and degradation is still taking place million ha, about 3 percent of the aspects into natural site manage- today, albeit at a reduced pace. land surface of the Earth, much more ment. in the Barents region. In undisturbed Freshwater is abundant in the peatlands without agriculture, Along the Fennoscandian Green Belt, Barents region, and so are wetlands forestry and peat extraction, more where the Iron Curtain divided West- and associated wet forests, meadows carbon is fixed than might be re- ern from Eastern Europe, and where and peatlands. But a warming leased to the atmosphere through today the outer border of the Europe- climate may bring significant changes: methane gas. Bog drainage, on the an Union still maintains restrictions increased water run offs and floods, contrary leads to oxidation, soil com- of movements, important wetland provoked by storms, glacier melting paction and subsidence. Caring about ecosystems extend across the divid- and permafrost thawing. Oil and gas climate change means caring about ing line. Transboundary cooperation exploration, industrial and mining wetlands and biodiversity. Climate for the joint maintenance of these emissions are likely to continue to in- change mitigation is all about carbon wet forests, rivers and lakes provides crease acidification, water pollution - but adaptation to climate change is important opportunities for nature with heavy metals, persistent organ- all about water and wetlands. conservation and local development. ic pollutants and nutrients (eutrophi- A striking example is the Pasvik-Inari cation). The fragmentation of wilder- Forty years ago, in February 1971, region where Finland, Norway and ness areas will reduce biodiversity the first modern global environ- Russia meet. The lush valley of Pasvik and pristine areas suitable for lei- mental treaty was signed for the River stretches downstream of Lake sure and tourism. This scenario is not conservation of wetlands in the Ira- Inari to the Barents Sea. A wetland meant to paint a bleak picture, but nian town of Ramsar, at the shores system that serves as a subsistence to illustrate how important water- of the Caspian Sea, one of the most resource and transport route for the related ecosystems are for us, and coveted wetlands in the world. The inhabitants since centuries. A meet- that it is essential to work for their parties to this treaty, today 160, in- ing point for different cultures and conservation and wise use - even in cluding all four Barents countries, traditional lifestyles, particularly the the Barents region, where wetlands agreed to protect their wetlands, to Sámi reindeer husbandry. This area still seem to be abundant and appar- value their ecosystem services and should become a showcase for cross- ently safe. to account for them when taking border cooperation, to inspire and be development decisions that need to taken up by many other places along The best is to start with a water be compatible with the “wise use” the Green Belt between the Barents catchment basin approach: to focus approach developed by the conven- and the Baltic Seas. on the capacities of wetlands and tion. Ramsar Sites are wetlands of forests to improve freshwater qual- outstanding value, formally listed

Photo: Rein Midteng Further information about wetlands: ity, to withhold sediments and to under the convention. Currently 37 www.ramsar.org reduce erosion, to regulate water Ramsar Sites exist in the Barents flows and supply, to store water and region - only two of them in its Rus- support its infiltration in the soil and sian part. These are the hotspots for

21 Varanger among Top 100 birding sites of the world

Varanger has long been known among bird watchers internationally. The presence of Steller’s Eider (Polysticta stelleri) is the main reason for this. In the summer of 1979, Britain’s Richard Vaugh published his book “Arctic Summer.” This book deals with the whole Varanger Penin- sula and adjacent areas. The book “Top 100 birding sites of the world” came out in 2008, and for Norway only one site is mentioned, namely Varanger. These books have laid the foundation for the Varanger area becoming known internationally as an exciting area for birds.

Bjørn Frantzen, Bioforsk Svanhovd, Norway.

The project “Bird Tourism in Cen- The most important bird areas path. In the period from November tral and Eastern Finnmark” started in Finnmark to April/May, thousands of Steller’s in 2010 and will run until 2013. The The core area for bird tourists in Eider (Polysticta stelleri) and King Ei- background to the project was a large Finnmark is the stretch Varangerbotn der (Somateria spectabilis) winter on programme called “Natural heritage – Hamningberg along the outer coast the sea along the coast of Finnmark. that creates value” in which 15 na- in the south and east of the Varanger These beautiful arctic ducks that tional projects are included. What all Peninsula. All of the Varanger Penin- nest along the Northern Russian coast the projects have in common is that sula with the coast and easily acces- are easily accessible to birds watch- they have geographic proximity to sible mountain areas is worth visit- ers when they come to Finnmark. protected areas and will contribute ing. to increased turnover for local tour- Bird photography ism businesses, and more local sup- Bird cliff with Steller’s Eider Many of the tourists are keen ama- port for nature conservation among The bird cliffs, Ekkerøy and Hornøya, teur photographers with professional residents living near protected areas. are accessible to tourists. Hornøya equipment. Here they take pictures 27 small tourism businesses are par- outside Vardo, where tourists are that they can enjoy, as well as their ticipating in the project, which geo- taken over by boat, provides imme- friends and other people, since the graphically covers the coastal areas diate experiences of most species images are often posted on the inter- from North Cape to the border be- in the bird colony along a marked net as a documentation of the pho- tween Norway and Russia. tographer’s ability to take good and beautiful pictures. The port of Båtsf- jord is a place where photography is well organised by a local tourist com- pany (Arctic Tourist).

Tana Estuary Nature Reserve (zapovednik/zakasnik) has up to 27,000 Common Mergansers (Mergus merganser) in the autumn (August- October). The Tana estuary is a site that has not yet been fully discov- ered by tourists. Wonderful nature and lots of sea birds and seals.

Important bird areas in Finnmark 22 Steller’s Eider (Polysticta stelleri) Photo: Terje Kolaas/naturspesialisten

Species with eastern on to breeding grounds in Greenland Skills building through gaining knowl- distribution and Canada. At the North Cape is the edge about birds and their habitats, In the very East, Pasvik has always large Gjesværstappan bird cliff. Here how to be a good guide and the way been a popular area for bird tour- there is provision so that tourists can to the best bird areas are important ists. If you want to experience bird visit the bird cliff from boats. areas for training. species with an eastern distribution without having to travel to Russia, The path to good bird sites on Marketing measures Pasvik is a good alternative. the internet Marketing, in our context, consists of So that tourists can easily find their a conglomerate of measures. Some way via the internet to Finnmark, of the initiatives include participa- Migration of Pomarine Skua the project has established a collab- tion in major trade fairs for bird- Slettnes in outer Gamvik municipal- oration with the Norwegian Ornitho- watchers (Birdfair and Falsterbo), ity is known for the numerous birds logical Society (NOF) concerning the get our best bird areas described that migrate past on their way in establishment of a website (www. and documented in national and in- spring. In particular, the migration of finnmarkbirding.no) to describe the ternational media by famous people, Pomarine Skua (Stercorarius pomari- best places to watch birds in Finn- active blogging and organising on nus) and the Yellow-billed loon (Ga- mark, with further practical informa- the internet so that the visiting bird via adamsii) in May is well known and tion on where to stay, eat, shop, fly, tourist can easily find the areas that tourists from Europe come to see it. find boat and bus services, car hire he/she wishes to visit and all prac- At Slettnes there is also a well known companies, and more. This website tical information such as where to nature reserve (zapovednik/zakas- will be operational by summer 2012. stay, eat, hire a car. nik) with many nesting waders and skuas. Overnight tourists can stay Practical arrangements for the Local ties at the lighthouse, which is the best individual tourist business Local acceptance of arrangements place to observe birds from. In collaboration with individual for tourists is important. This implies companies, advice and practical as- that local people support local pro- Rare breeding birds sistance is given for biological field tected areas and species. The visit- A little further west we come to Por- preparations, such as how to set up ing guests come primarily to see na- sangen fjord where Valdak is known bird boxes and how to create a feed- ture. A hospitable local population for the spring migration (May) of the ing place for birds. Other important that is good at facilitating tourism is Lesser White-fronted Goose (Anser arrangements include the creation of just a bonus experience for tourists. erythropus), Norway’s rarest breed- hides to get good experiences of wild ing bird, and the migration of the birds as close as possible without dis- Red Knot (Calidris canutus) (> 40,000 turbing the wildlife. birds) which rest here before flying

23 Variety of mire ecosystems in the green belt og Fennoskandia

Stretching in north-south direction along the Finnish, Norwegian and Russian border area for 1000 km, the Green Belt of Fennoscandia (GBF) crosses over several natural zones – starting in the Arctic tundra and moving down to south-boreal zone (Moen, 1999). Each of them is described as having its own set of types of mire complexes formed under the combined influ- ence of climatic and geomorphic factors.

Oleg Kuznetsov, Head of Mire Ecosystems Laboratory, Institute of Biology, RAS Karelian Research Centre, Russia.

Different types og mires rence and salinity. Like forests, mire The GBF’s uppermost section – along Palsa mires are confined to south of ecosystems are demonstrative of a the Russian-Finnish border in south the Arctic tundra, while aapa can distinct bioclimatic zonal gradient, Arctic tundra and smaller part of be found the north- and mid-boreal whose each zone number certain north-boreal zone – is dominated zones. Dominant in mid- and south- types of mires (Yurkovskaya, 1992). by the ‘northern’ types of mires, boreal zones, ombrotrophic-sphag- namely, palsa mires (with permafrost num raised bogs may occur more up Mire ecosystems cores in their palsas) and Lapland north – in geomorphically favourable The GBF mires are home to some aapa (with heavily flooded string- areas. Mires in the GBF demonstrate 400 vascular plant species and 200 flark sites). But these two are not how diverse the mire ecosystems bryophytes. They have adapted to the only types to be found here. are in eastern Fennoscandia. They specific conditions in mire environ- are home to many species of vascu- ment and account for one third of lar plants and mosses inhabiting this the region’s native flora. With many The northernmost mires vast area. species inhabiting only mires, there’s in the world a big number of those concentrating On lower flatlands – areas with no The GBF features a variety of relief close to their habitat limits that are ground-water supply that get cov- forms and types ranging from moun- rare and protected in one or several ered by fairly thick snow in winter tainous hills to flatlands of differ- countries. Interlinked with territo- time – form ombrotrophic-sphagnum ent genesis – morainic, coastal and ry’s bioclimatic and landscape char- ridge-hollow-pool bogs. aqueoglacial. Valdai glaciation com- acteristics, the variety of mire eco- In Pasvik valley, they are the north- pletely receded from the GBF around systems finds its manifold reflection ernmost mires in the world. High peat 11-12 thousand years ago, which was in the GBF area. Mire ecosystems are acidity, low nutrients and oxygen con- followed by immediate formation of complex in structure and therefore tent explain why raised bog’s flora is the ecosystems (Elina et al., 2010). need to be classified at different lev- so poor and specific. Their sphagnum An indispensable part of all the GBF els – mire sites, mire complexes and ridges are only covered by dwarf landscapes, mires occupy the topo- mire systems. shrubs (black crowberry (Empetrum graphic lows. They are a natural re- The brief description of the GBF nigrum s.l.), wild rosemary (Ledum sult of small ponds eutrophication mires given in this article relies on palustre), bog-rosemary andromeda and waterlogging in wet soils that geographic types of mire complex- (Andromeda polifolia), heather (Cal- started shortly after the glacial re- es. Here occur almost all the types luna vulgaris), cloudberry (Rubus treat. Mires are highly variable in of mires typical of eastern Fennos- chamaemorus) and hare’s-tail cot- terms of composition, vegetation candia (Ruuhijärvi, 1983; Kuznetsov, tongrass (Eriophorum vaginatum); structure, size, age and peat thick- 2003). Paludification degree in cer- hollows are inhabited by rannoch- ness, which, in turn, depend on the tain GBF areas may vary between 10 rush (Scheuchzeria palustris), mud incoming waters’ mode of occur- and 50-60%. sedge and looseflower alpine sedge

24 (Carex limosa, C. rariflora); second- peat layer that rarely exceeds one here and almost never contain eu- ary pools are devoid of vegetation. metre, sloping fens are home to trophic plant species. The flora of The valleys of the streams are occu- rich variety of vascular plants and the sloping and the spring fens is pied by a multitude of mesotrophic bryophyte flora. They render special much poorer too. Although the ma- willow-sedge or sedge mires. Most of character to low-land landscapes jority of the fens here on the Finn- the mires here are intact. Some of and largely enrich the latter’s floral ish side of the GBF have been dried, them are covered by environmental variety. Sloping fens are very com- there are several which make part of activities of the international Pasvik mon in the biogeographic province the protected areas (Ulvinsalo, Patv- Nature Reserve. of Kuusamo – on both sides of the insuo, Koivusuo, Runa). Russian-Finnish border – where they Many of the mires on the Russian In eastern Fennoscandia, some of were first described as special type side – northwards from the Janisjarvi the mire complexes originate from in 1921 by Finnish wetland expert Lake (62˚N) – remain intact, whereas isolated depressions, which, over V.Auer. Due to carbonate rock out- the agricultural and forestry impact the course of their development, crops and availability of nutrients on those lying southwards – in north have become overgrown by peat delivered by the ground waters the Near-Ladoga area and Karelian Isth- and joined together. Thus appeared province is also rich in small-size eu- mus – started already in the 18th the complex-natured mire systems. trophic grass-moss fens. On the Rus- century. Only several mires have sur- Their components also include small sian side of the GBF, all the mires in vived and are now potential targets dead lakes (‘lambas’, or ‘source- this area remain intact, while in Fin- of protection. less lakes’) and mineral isles with land many have been reclaimed for waterlogged forests. Composed of agricultural and forestry purposes Unique natural complex small-sized mire complexes of vari- or peat harvesting. Here runs an ex- In general, the GBF represents a ous types, such mire systems stretch tensive network of protected natural unique natural complex with prom- for many kilometres. areas – Druzhba Russian-Finnish Park, ising potential for preserving east Kalevalsky National Park and a num- Fennoscandia’s rich biotic and eco- Dominated by Fennoscandian ber of Finnish protected areas that system diversity. Such preservation aapa mires cover many natural wetlands. can be ensured through sustainable More than half of the GBF belongs nature management and protected to north-boreal zone (down to Mid- and south-boreal zones (cross-border) areas to be newly es- (64˚20’N), where ridged tectonic In mid- and south-boreal zones, pre- tablished in the territory in question. landscapes are most common. The vail the zonal ombrotrophic-sphag- prevailing element in mire systems num ridge-hollow bogs (Ruuhijärvi, here is fennoscandinavian aapa (of- 1983; Yurkovskaya, 1992). Combined ten combined with sphagnum ridge with oligotrophic and mesotrophic raised bogs and mesotrophic grass- grass-sphagnum ones, they often sphagnum mire complexes). In low- form vast mire systems. In these GBF mountain and ridged landscapes zones, lie the ridged and morainic – in groundwater discharge areas landscapes whose underlying rocks and along the groundwater streams and quaternary deposits are mainly flowing at different slope gradients poor and acid. – form peculiar looking sloping fens. Aapa too can be found in mid-boreal Normally very narrow and with thin zone (down to 63˚N). They are poor

Palsa mires are northern mire complexes with permanently frozen peat hummocks, located at the outer limit of the permafrost zone. Palsa mires have high conservation status, being characterized by a rich diversity of bird species and unique geomorphological processes. Photo: Paul Eric Aspholm. 25 Population fragmentation of wild animal populations in the north

The Pasvik Valley in Northern Norway and its neighbouring areas of Inari in Finland and Pe- chenga in Russia is home to one of the northernmost brown bear population in the world. Quite unique ecological conditions, such as the existence and the relatively pristine status of coniferous forest at 70 ° North within the valley, allowed the bears to outlast the times of extensive hunt and extirpation in the last century.

Alexander Kopatz, Bioforsk Svanhovd, Norway.

In many regions of Europe large car- Habitat fragmentation nivores, including brown bears, have In addition to this, so called habitat been returning to areas in which they fragmentation caused by human ac- were extirpated. Brown bears can be tivities such as pollution, intensive found in most parts of Northern Eu- forestry, increasing infrastructure rope; however, their densities vary and spreading urban landscapes con- greatly over the landscape. Some stitute a major threat. populations of bears have grown sub- stantially, for example in Sweden to Besides human induced habitat an estimated size of about 3300 in- fragmentation, changes in the habi- dividuals. Norway inhabits approxi- tat composition evoked by climate mately 200 brown bears, concen- change are not fully understood yet. trated in four areas. Finland has an These anticipated changes are es- estimated brown bear population of pecially threatening to animals and circa 1500 bears. All these countries plants adapted to the arctic envi- are assumed to have connectivity ronment. A fragmented landscape Wolf, Canis lupus, Photo: Paul Eric Aspholm with the substantial bear popula- can cause the loss of connectivity tion of European Russia, accounting between populations, force some Barriers to migration around 40.000 brown bears. of them into isolation, increase in- The situation and debate of the breeding within those population Swedish wolf population in Southern Protection and restricted hunting fragments and, eventually, lead to Sweden is an example of how diffi- keeps these populations nowadays extinction. Therefore wild popula- cult it is to merge public, political stable, although the latter is also tions of e.g. brown bears are sensi- and biological interests. This popula- used to limit their growth rate or tive to habitat restrictions and de- tion started off with a few individu- might even lead to again a reduction struction and conservation efforts als and began to grow rapidly as soon of population size. Compared to the are directed towards enhancing and as one individual from one of the bear population of Sweden, many stabilizing connectivity among popu- eastern wolf populations migrated other populations are still small and lations. into the population. The fact that, vulnerable. Hunting is still a critical In this context, acceptance of large since, only a few individual wolves issue, especially when too high quo- carnivores by the human population have been successful in migrating tas are granted. Also, the impact of of a certain area is an important yet from east to west as well as vice illegal hunting is still very difficult sensitive issue. versa, underline the assumption that to quantify and estimate; the only barriers to migration occur in North- known fact is that poaching occurs ern Europe. Although the acceptance in most large carnivore populations. of brown bears is slightly better than

26 that of wolves, their situation is sim- ilar and difficulties of satisfying the demands of the human population and conservationists exist also here.

Isolated populations Even though the brown bear is one of the most studied terrestrial mam- mals, we still know very little about its biology. Bioforsk Svanhovd investigates the brown bear populations in North Western Europe. Since 2004, samples A so called factorial correspondence analysis visualizes the relationship between the genetic profiles of the sampled brown bears. This figure illustrates, that differ- from Norway, Finland, Sweden and ent groups can be easily distinguished according to the area the brown bears were Russia have been collected and are found: Pasvik - Norway, Finland, Russia (black squares); Kainuu - Finland (white); now scientifically analyzed. These Northern Karelia - Russia (blue); Southern Karelia - Russia (yellow) and Pinega - Rus- analyses of the population genetic sia (red). In an ideal, well connected population, the picture would not be that clear composition of the brown bears in and all genotypes would belong to one large group including bears from all areas this area, showed fragmentation of (colors). Source: Kopatz et al. 2012. the populations towards the south (Finland) and west (Sweden and cuts, fences etc. Research to further The results of frequent monitoring Norway) as well as to the further increase the knowledge about the will help to understand the current eastern direction (Russia) into con- population structure across the en- migration pattern of brown bears in centration areas of higher brown tire Northern European distribution the region and will enable more ef- bear abundances divided by areas of area is currently ongoing. ficient actions. These might include lower brown bear density. measures to increase connectiv- Given the fact that the Fennoscan- ity with the help of e.g. protection Especially the bears in the Pasvik dian brown bear populations of the zones, reforestation etc., as well as Valley seem rather isolated from Pasvik Valley and Eastern Finland to restrict hunting in vulnerable pop- the populations further south and probably represent the edge of the ulations and to identify areas where west and only a few animals seem to distribution zone of the large popu- hunting does not harm the popula- be successful in migrating between lations of Russia, these findings imply tion. these regions. This type of population further, more frequent monitoring structure is probably caused to some and research of the bear popula- The extent to which the still pristine degree by the distance between the tions with the help of genetics in the Pasvik Valley and surrounding areas areas, a fact that is known for many north. In order to identify landscape in Pasvik-Zapovednik in Russia as well large populations spread across a features that might pose as barriers as in Inari in Finland ensures survival vast area. However, it seems as oth- to migration, genetic and spatial in- and stability in the number of brown er factors add to this so called Isola- formation will be used. bears in the region, remains to be tion by Distance. These factors might found out. include water bodies, forest clear

A female with cub in Northern Finland. Photo: Alexander Kopatz. 27 Animal life on the seabed: Long-term monitoring and the pursuit of good environmental indicators.

Lis Lindal Jørgensen, Institute of Marine Research, Norge.

The Barents Sea is among the richest, cleanest and most productive waters in the world. How- ever, the ecosystem can also be vulnerable, especially to human impact and climate changes. Ecosystem-based management of human activities in the Barents Sea requires ongoing assess- ment of how the ecosystem’s state changes in relation to the environmental objectives set. The objectives are related to the destruction of habitats and biodiversity.

Ecosystem-based management parts of the ecosystem also suffer. lis) and commercial demersal fish The establishment of the Integrated This applies to both human activities caught with research trawlers (bot- Management of the Marine Environ- and natural changes. tom trawling) have been a staple of ment of the Barents Sea and the this bilateral cooperation. In 2003, Sea Areas off the Lofoten Islands 50 years of Norwegian – Russian the first attempt was made to ana- (management plan), is intended to cooperation lyse the entire bottom trawl catch, introduce holistic ecosystem-based For more than 50 years, manage- instead of throwing out the by-catch management. An important reason ment and monitoring of the Bar- again. This analysis included, among to implement ecosystem-based man- ents Sea was a Norwegian – Russian other things, a wide variety of ben- agement is precisely the growing rec- cooperation at the Institute of Ma- thic organisms that are caught with ognition that the biological and phys- rine Research in Norway and PINRO; bottom trawls. ical elements of ecosystems interact, Polar Research Institute of Marine both directly and indirectly. Fisheries and Oceanography in Mur- From 2003-2005, regular routines mansk. Annual cooperation meet- were adopted by all Norwegian (3) This means that if one part of the ings have been set routine between and Russia (2) research vessels for ecosystem is affected, this can have researchers and Fisheries from both how these benthic creatures were cascading effects so that all other countries. Shrimp (Pandalus borea- to be accumulated and processed on the joint annual eco-expeditions.

In 2006, PINRO and The Institute of Marine Research had the first species matrix ready, which included all ben- thic organisms caught with research trawlers in both the Russian and the Norwegian sector of the Barents Sea and the grey area. Since then, this cooperation has continued in all sub- sequent years and currently repre- sents the only long-term monitoring series we have on the fauna caught annually by trawlers (mega-fauna) and which covers the entire Barents Sea. The development of this long-term monitoring has been going on in par- Analysis of benthic animals in research trawls. Photo: Lis Lindal Jørgensen. allel with climate change and oil/gas operations and fisheries. This makes

28 this time series unique and is a substantial reason for it to be included in the “indica- tor development” in the management plan for the Barents Sea and Lofoten (Sunnanå et al 2009).

Joint Norwegian – Russian data matrix From the Norwegian and Russian sides, the project has included 1682 trawl stations on banks, shelves, pools and channels taken in the period from 2006 to 2008 (Figure 1). This covers about 30 km2 of seabed (the Barents Sea is about 1.4 million km2 in size), which have been examined for megafauna. All species or species groups were counted and weighed on all the boats that had benthic experts onboard (all Rus- sian and one Norwegian boat). On the oth- er boats (2 Norwegian boats), all animals were counted and weighed after being put together to make large groups.

All data entered into a joint Norwegian – Russian data matrix which now includes information on the prevalence and fre- Figure 1. The distribution of the number of individual benthic crea- tures taken annually (2006 to 2008) with bottom trawls. The area quency of about 476 taxa (337 to species that is covered by bottom trawls is about 18,000m2/per station. level). Most species belong to molluscs (snails, mussels), crustaceans (amphipods, shrimps, true crabs, false crabs), Cnidaria (hydrozoa, jellyfish, sea anemones, corals) and echinoderms (starfish, brittle stars, sea urchins, sea lilies). Number of species recorded per station varied from 1 to 84

29 Isopoden Saduria sabini på holothurian Molpadia borealis. From protected areas to green infrastructure

Protected areas are often advertised as ecological networks or green belts. But do they re- ally form functional green infrastructures for the conservation of biodiversity and valuable ecosystem services for society? Systematic spatial planning that includes both ecological and social systems is a way to improve the functionality of protected areas in their landscape context.

Per Angelstam, Marine Elbakidze, Robert Axelsson, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, School for Forest Management, Sweden

While sacred places have been pro- tected since ancient times, the modern idea of protected areas ap- peared a century ago in response to the heavy human footprint on eco- systems. Initially, the focus was on large trees, old forests and beautiful landscapes typical for the regions of a country. Much later the term biodi- versity was created to highlight the need to halt the loss of species. This increased the demand for protected areas to secure the representation of all ecosystem types, and to maintain species by securing sufficiently large areas. At present also the maintenance of valuable ecosystem services for hu- man health and wellbeing is increas- ing the demands of protected areas. To enhance biodiversity conservation, provisioning of ecosystem services Illustration photo: Beate Banken Bakke. ”Yield for traffic from the right”. and to improve the overall ecological quality of the broader countryside, the concept green infrastructure has Therefore conflicts about the crea- economic development. Developed emerged. tion of new protected areas may countries therefore tend to afford to arise, and tough negotiations about protect more, but have less natural Protecting areas usually means that how many protected areas are need- environments left. their lands and waters are no long- ed and what proportion of a region er available for commercial use that should be protected. The out- of renewable and non-renewable comes depend on the strength of natural resources such as wood, for different interests, and the level of hydroelectric development or mining.

30 What, where and how much? To implement on the ground the clear policy-level statements about the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services, solid empirical knowl- edge about species, habitats and processes in different ecosystems is crucial. What, where and how much are three central questions. “What” is about representation of all types of natural and culturally derived habitat qualities and biotopes. “Where” is about how patches of these biotopes are located in relation to each other in a given landscape for species to survive, and eco- logical processes to function. “How much” describes the need for a sufficient amount of such areas and how to maintain their ecological processes. Given such knowledge, systematic spatial planning can be carried out in three steps: Birch forest. Photo: Paul Eric Aspholm. Burning the forest. Photo: Juha Siekkinen

1. Strategic planning 2. Tactical planning 3. Operational planning Estimate if the amount of different To identify the location of existing To manage, restore and even re-cre- biotopes, such as old deciduous for- protected areas and areas that have ate sufficient amounts of structures, est, is sufficient for the conservation high conservation value but are not such as dead wood, and processes, of its species. Knowledge about how yet protected, and to assess wheth- such as fire, in the protected area much of a biotope that can disappear er or not the areas are located in network to make it a functional without loosing the species is crucial. the local landscape so that species green infrastructure. can use them. (Pasvik, p. 16).

Given short or long histories of use of natural resources different parts of the Barents Sea Region have retained different amounts of natural habitats. While local landscapes near centres of economic development in Sweden and Finland have very few natural areas left, several NW Russian regions have still, for some time, the opportunity to maintain biodiversity and ecosystem services.

Functional green infrastructures are an important prerequisite for sustain- able development. Assuring that networks of protected areas, such as the Barents Protected Area Network (BPAN), also will form functional green in- frastructures requires land-use planning that integrates biodiversity conser- vation with sustainable use of natural resources at the landscape level. This requires multi-sector and multi-level stakeholder collaboration in entire re- gions. Rather than only extracting natural resources, also products based on ecological and cultural landscape values need to be developed. The Barents Region context offers opportunity for innovative regional collaboration to assure that protected forest areas form functional green infrastructures for present and future generations.

31 Green Belt Life project in a nutshell

The main objective of the Green Belt Life project (2004-2008) was to safeguard the favour- able conservation status of thirteen Natura 2000 sites within the Fennoscandian Green Belt. The measures taken to achieve this objective included habitat restoration in drained mires and forests affected by forestry operations, and the reforestation of disused forest roads.

Hannele Kytö, Metsähallitus, Finland.

In addition, artificial nests were Improving the life of eagles built to strengthen the golden eagle Listed in Annex I of the Birds Direc- Golden Eagle. Photo: Jari Peltomäki population. An important part of the tive, the golden eagle is defined as project was monitoring the impacts vulnerable in the Finnish classifica- of habitat restoration and providing tion of threatened species. information on nature conservation. To strengthen the golden eagle popu- lation, four artificial nests were tak- en to protected areas.

Valuable information from fol- low-up studies Follow-up studies are conducted to find out how the various restora- tion measures help forests and mires return to their natural state. The collected data is used to establish methods that are the most effective ecologically and economically, and to identify erroneous practices. monitoring of bracket fungi showed In areas of restored forest, changes in that after restoration the number of the vegetation and tree stand as well species increased apart from some as species living in and on decaying burnt sites where the fire was excep- and burnt wood are monitored. The tionally intense. Several insects de- progress of the reforestation of for- pendent on forest fires arrived at the est roads is also followed. In restored burnt areas after the flames had sub- mires, attention is paid to the rate of sided. The most significant species Hundreds of hectares restored decay of peat and changes in ground- encountered in the areas was the en- A total of 577 hectares of forests and water depth. dangered beetle Phryganophilus rufi- 375 hectares of drained mires were collis, which is protected under the restored. The results of increasing decaying Nature Conservation Decree. wood and controlled burnings can In addition 4.1 kilometres of disused be seen relatively quickly. The stud- The success of the mire restoration forest roads were reforested, and ies have shown for example that ring measures cannot be confirmed until two hectares of gravel pits adjoining barking around the entire tree trunk after decades. At the moment it can the roads were landscaped. from relatively wide area is too harsh only be said that everything seems method for creating slowly decaying to go like planned. The water level wood. A strip of bark should always rose to the natural level right after be left for nutrients to flow. The the restoration and has stayed there

32 Burning the forest. Photo: Juha Siekkinen ever since which indicates that the out its operation! Habitat restora- mation boards and even a film called mires are returning to their natural tion was introduced in many ways “A Change for the Better”. state little by little. through a variety of channels. This also brought the magnificent nature For better understanding reserves covered by the project to Cross-border cooperation Habitat restoration measures gen- public attention. as a resource erate a lot of interest, as well as Cross-border cooperation is an es- strong views. In order to give as true The project organised public meet- sential part of operating within the a picture of restoration as possible, ings and discussions at various loca- Fennoscandian Green Belt. It is the a wide range of information must be tions and was active in providing in- extra spice which gives the right fla- provided on the methods and objec- formation on restoration measures. vour for everything. tives. Outcomes of the project include leaflets, both popular and scientific The project sites are part of three As the name suggests, the Green Belt publications, photographic exhibi- twin parks of Metsähallitus: the Ou- Life project was full of life through- tions, seminars, nature trails, infor- lanka and Paanajärvi National Parks, the Kalevala Parks and the Friend- ship Nature Reserve. The project surveyed flying squirrel populations in the Paanajärvi National Park, ex- amined the fire history of forests in the Kalevala National Park and par- ticipated in seminars and training events between the twin parks.

Researchers looking for bracket fungi. Photo: Juha Siekkinen.

33 PROTECTED AREAS ALONG GREEN BELT FENNOSKANDIA km2

NORWAY 1 Færdesmyra Nature Reserve 14 2 Neiden og Munkefjord Nature Reserve 12 3 Store Sametti-Skjelvatnet Nature Reserve 7,3 4 Gjøkvassneset Nature Reserve 0,1 5 Øvre Pasvik Landscape Protection Area 5,4 6 Øvre Pasvik National Park 11,9 7 Pasvik Strict Nature Reserve 1,9

FINLAND 8 Vätsäri Wilderness Area 155 9 Sarmitunturi Wilderness Area 15 10 Urho Kekkonen National Park 250 11 Värriö Strict Nature Reserve 12,5 12 Sukerijärvi Strict Nature Reserve 2,2 13 Oulanka National Park 27 14 Kalevala Park (under establishment) 33,5 15 Friendship Park 27,9 16 Ulvinsalo Strict Nature Reserve 2,5 17 Ruunaa Nature Reserve 7,4 18 Patvinsuo National Park 10,5 19 Koivusuo Strict Nature Reserve 2,2 20 Petkeljärvi National Park 700 21 Siikalahti Bird Wetland 445

RUSSIA 22 Pasvik Strict Nature Reserve 14,7 23 Laplandsky Strict Nature Reserve/Nature Biosphere Reserve 278,4 24 Kandalakshsky Zapovednik 705 25 Paanajarvi National Park 104,4 26 Kalevalsky National Park(under establishment) 95,9 27 Kivach Zapovednik 104,6 28 Kostomukshsky Strict Nature Reserve 47,5 29 Nizhnesvirski Zapovednik 416 30 Ingermanlandsky Strict Nature Reserve (under establishment) 14,2

This map indicates roughly the location of the protected areas. For detailed maps see: http://g.co/maps/b4a23. The map Green Belt (Fennoscandia) is open for editing on Google maps.

Naturbase For detailed information on protected areas in Sør-Varanger municipality in Finnmark, Norway: naturbase.no.

34 1 7 Foto: Rein Midteng.

Norway 8

15 22

9 23

10

11

24

Sweden 25 12 13

14 26 27

28 29

16

17 18 Finland 19 21 20

Russia

30

Estonia

35 La t via Bioforsk Svanhovd, N-9925 Svanvik www.bioforsk.no/svanhovd

Published with support from the Norwegian Ministry of Environment.