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The Hinterland of Ancient : Remarks about an Ancient Cultural Landscape

著者 Abeywardana Nuwan, Bebermeier Wiebke, Schutt Brigitta journal or 世界遺産学研究 publication title volume Special Issue page range 37-43 year 2017 URL http://doi.org/10.15068/00148447 JOURNAL OF WORLD HERITAGE STUDIES Special Issue（2017） ISSN 2189-4728 The Hinterland of Ancient Anuradhapura: Remarks about an Ancient Cultural Landscape

Nuwan Abeywardana1, Wiebke Bebermeier² and Brigitta Schütt²

(1) University of , Department of Archaeology & Heritage Management, Mihintale; 50300 Sri Lanka; +94 (0)71 8352394, [email protected] (2) Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Geographical Sciences, Physical Geography, Malteserstr. 74-100, 12249 Berlin, Germany

Abstract

The slightly rolling terrain of the North Central Province in, Sri Lanka, is characterized by a semi-arid climate, with a deficiency of rainfall occurring during the summer months. Rice is the predominant crop, cultivated for the local markets. enables rice cultivation and is based on 2,000 years of traditional water harvesting techniques. Reservoirs, locally called Wewas or tanks, are the basis of this sophisticated system. Approximately 10,000 of the tanks that originated during the period of the ancient dry zone hydraulic civilization are still in use today. Most of the tanks are smaller scaled, frequently covering less than 5 hectares, and are generally aligned cascade-like alongside shallow valley courses. Canals and spillways connect them and build a complex system for floodwater harvesting, water storage, and water distribution components. The ancient hydraulic irrigation landscape, in the environs of Anuradhapura, with its sophisticated adaptation strategies to the local environmental conditions, was the economic basis for the flourishing of the Kingdom of Anuradhapura. Therefore, Anuradhapura can be identified as an example that clearly illustrates the interrelationship between nature and culture.

KEY WORDS: traditional knowledge, water management, irrigation

1. Introduction gneisses of the Precambrian age. The topography is composed of a flat terrain with The emergence of water harvesting systems in some gently rolling plains, accompanied by a Sri Lanka can be dated back to the 3rd century few isolated hills (Wagalawatta et al. in press). BCE (Withanachchi 2013). In the subsequent Further, Anuradhapura is located in the dry centuries, these systems developed into zone of Sri Lanka, which has an annual average unique and integrated structures, spreading precipitation of 1,198mm (Schütt et al. 2013). throughout the lowland dry zone of the country. Due to the continuous agricultural settlements, Nowadays, almost all of the river basins potential natural vegetation growth is scarce; draining the lowland dry zone utilize irrigation however, some secondary forests have schemes (Withanachchi 2013; Bebermeier et al. developed on the slopes of the isolated hills. 2017). Wet rice is the main crop, mostly cultivated Anuradhapura, located in the north in the valley bottoms. Chena agriculture, a central lowlands of Sri Lanka (8o 21’ N, 80o 23’ traditionally shifting cultivation method, is E; 89 meters above sea level), is the capital mainly practiced along the plateau divides of the North Central Province. The bedrock of (Wagalawatta et al. 2015). the study area is dominated by plutonic rocks, In the century BCE, Anuradhapura mostly granitic, migmatitic, and charnockite started to develop as one of the early urban

37 JOURNAL OF WORLD HERITAGE STUDIES Special Issue（2017） ISSN 2189-4728 centers in South Asia ( 1996). This places, providing sacral and administrative city development was accompanied by a functions (Figure 2). The World Heritage successive transition of its hinterland into a comprises the ancient Citadel, three major unique cultural landscape. The inner city, with monasteries, and extends over an area of its sacral, administrative, and representative about 16 square miles (40 km2). It also includes buildings, is surrounded by agricultural fields multiple of the surface and near subsurface and woodland. Human-made reservoirs, called monuments (Democratic Socialist Republic of tanks or Wewas, were used for water harvesting, Sri Lanka 2003). water storage, and water distribution sustained husbandry by providing irrigation water (Figure 1). In this rural area, irregular occurring monasteries, frequently accompanied by rural settlement areas, served as ancillary central

Figure 1. Distribution of tanks and archaeological sites in the environs of Anuradhapura. (Compiled using survey department 1:50,000 topo sheet numbers 25;26;30;31)

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Figure 2. Main heritage area in Anuradhapura, with the ancient fortified city center, the citadel and monasteries Jetavanaya, Mahavihara and Abhayagiriya. (Compiled using survey department 1:15,000 town map)

The principle land management system in the periodical rivulet (Maddumabandara 1985). ancient dry zone of Sri Lanka is the “tank This sustainable natural resource management cascade system” (Figure 3, Figure 4). It assures system in the ancient dry zone of Sri Lanka has the availability of water, which is the most been functioning since the 3rd century BCE and critical natural resource for agriculture and is still in use today. domestic purposes, throughout the year. These When Anuradhapura was inscribed water-conveying systems consist of a series of on the World Heritage List in 1982, the reservoirs, which alternates alignment with ancient site, with its architectonical remnants, paddy fields along the thalweg of shallow was considered in the nomination. The valleys. Being interconnected by canals, the cultural landscape, which had developed water is routed through the cascade and is synchronously with the city, has not yet been mainly utilized for paddy irrigation (Jayasundara included as part of the value of the site. This 2011; Panabokke 2002; Schütt et al. 2013). The paper will introduce the highly sophisticated tank cascade systems are defined as a water management system, which is still in use connected series of reservoirs, organized in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. By highlighting its within water catchment areas, and used for uniqueness, its potential as a World Heritage storing, conveying, and utilizing water from a cultural landscape is demonstrated.

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Figure 3. Schematic representation of the components of Figure 4. Schematic representation of the Wewa ecosystem (after tank cascade system (after Jayasundara, 2011) Jayasundara, 2011)

2. Significance of the Anuradhapura dry zone in the 3rd century B.C. to house the clavicle of hydraulic landscape, including natural and Buddha, and important religious relic cultural values presented by Asoka” (Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka 2003 p.7, 8). Anuradhapura was inscribed as a UNESCO Natural values, and the World Heritage site in 1982 based on the interrelationship between nature and culture, evaluation of the architectural and artistic have been neglected in defining the OUV of characteristics that meet the living heritage this site, even though the majority of cultural values. When defining the Outstanding heritage sites within the property have been Universal Value (OUV) for the Anuradhapura nested with rich natural values. In addition, the World Heritage site, the important interchange Buddhist monastic architecture in Sri Lanka of human values in the development of always demonstrates a rich interplay between architectural tradition played a pivotal role nature and culture. For instance, the higher (criterion ii). According to the definition in the elevated rock shelters, associated to inselbergs, Statement of Significance (SOS), “The sacred were enhanced to construct dwelling places city exerted a considerable influence on the for monks (Wagalawatta et al. 2017). The entire development of architecture during several landscape, surrounding Anuradhapura, could centuries. It includes remarkable monuments, be understood as a cultural landscape that particularly the Dagobas of colossal size, is of high value in regards to nature-culture placed on circular foundations and surrounded interlinkages. by a ring of monolithic columns, characteristics The hydraulic irrigation landscape, of the Sinhalese stupas” (Democratic Socialist in the area of Anuradhapura, illustrates an Republic of Sri Lanka 2003 p. 7, 8). early adaptation to the local environmental Based on criterion iii, the exceptional conditions. It can be understood as a result testimony to Sinhalese culture is acknowledged: of a complex technical, socio-economic, and “Anuradhapura attests in a unique and political interplay occurring in the last two specific way to the Sinhalese civilization. On millennia. Consequently, the hinterland of numerous occasions, the city was submitted to Anuradhapura can be understood as part the assaults of invaders from southern India: of the sensitive cultural heritage of ancient the , Pandyas, and Cholas. It stands as Anuradhapura. In terms of a cultural landscape, a permanent manifesto of the culture of Sri it developed as a co-evolutionary product of Lanka - impervious to outside influences” reciprocal human–environmental interactions (Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka during the last 2,000 years. Therefore, it is 2003 p.7, 8). crucial to identify the entire landscape as Finally, criterion vi, which demonstrates a cultural landscape, demonstrating the the attributes of living heritage values, was interrelationship between nature and culture, considered as a reason for inscribing for sustainable management in the future. Anuradhapura as a UNESCO World Heritage site. “The city is one of the principal shrines of 3. Current management arrangements of . A cutting from the fig tree of Buddha, Anuradhapura and the challenges for the brought there in the 3rd century, has flourished continuity of the agricultural landscape and, today, the Bodhi - tree spreads out over the center of the site from a sanctuary near to The management of the heritage site is focused the “Brazen palace”. The relics of Siddhartha on its cultural assets. The Governmental have, moreover, shaped the religious Department of Archaeology, established in topography of Anuradhapura, where the 1890, is the apex institution for the protection Dagobah Thuparama was built by the king Tissa and management of archaeological heritage

40 JOURNAL OF WORLD HERITAGE STUDIES Special Issue（2017） ISSN 2189-4728 in Sri Lanka ( 1940). the cutting of trees. A site or monument that Besides that, the Central Cultural Fund, is over 100 years-old, which is located on founded in 1980 under an Act of Parliament property of the State, which is not vested in the as a semi-government institution, carries Archaeological Department, may be declared out archaeological research, conservation, an ancient monument. This is announced by presentation, and management of principal the Hon’ble Minister for Cultural Affairs and heritage sites, including Anuradhapura National Heritage in a gazette notification, (Government of Sri Lanka 1980). Further, thus affording protection from destruction, the temple’s religious authorities are encroachment, unauthorized alterations, and directly involved with the maintenance and additions etc. The procedures, and the resulting management activities of the living heritage protections pertaining to ancient monuments, sites. applies similarly to privately owned sites Laws and regulations control and monuments, that are over 100 years-old, the protection and management of the once declared as protected monuments by country’s natural and cultural heritage. The the Hon’ble Minister for Cultural Affairs and base legislation, for the protection of the National Heritage. archaeological heritage of Sri Lanka, is the In general, human resources for the Antiquities Ordinance, which was enacted in conservation and management activities are 1940, followed by a major Amendment (No. 24) provided by the Department of Archaeology, in 1998. This legislation protects the island’s with financial support from the government. archaeological sites and monuments, focusing Additional funds are obtained from the temple on two scales: the site and monument-specific collections and used in the maintenance of the protection and the protection of the setting or major monastic sites. Very recently, the Central landscape in which a site is embedded. The Cultural Fund has taken over conservation and ordinance categorized sites and monuments in maintenance work, under the supervision of the following three categories: archaeological the Department of Archaeology, in . reserves, ancient monuments, and protected The Urban Development Authority, in Colombo, monuments. Management of archaeological supervises infrastructure development projects reserves is exclusively the obligation of the around the site. Archaeological Department, by order of the The Department of Archaeology is Commissioner of the Department of Lands, responsible for the planning of conservation on the request of the Director-General of activities, on an annual basis, and for their Archaeology. These archaeological reserves implementation. Very recently, integrated are strictly protected against theft, destruction, planning approaches have gained in importance; encroachments, construction of unauthorized for instance, the Mahamevnawa development buildings, and other interventions, such as plan consolidates the perspectives for the

Figure 5. Minor tank close to the town of Mihintale as an example the Sri Lankan dry zone hydraulic agricultural landscape (photograph taken by Nuwan Abeywardana, December 2008)

41 JOURNAL OF WORLD HERITAGE STUDIES Special Issue（2017） ISSN 2189-4728 Mahavihara monastery site (Figure 2) from the systems, and to adopt the management Department of Archaeology, the Central Cultural strategies of these systems to handle the Fund, the Urban Development Authority, temple possibly changing socio-economic and authorities, and numerous other stakeholders. environmental changes in the future. However, the surrounding agricultural landscape, in which most of the archaeological Acknowledgements properties are embedded, has been neglected in the previously illustrated management This research was undertaken in the frame processes. This is especially deplorable for of the project “Tanks as Ancient Measure of areas where ancient monuments can only be Integrated Watershed Management in the Dry understood through their interplay with the Zone of Sri Lanka,” kindly supported by the environment. In the dry zone of Sri Lanka, to this Volkswagen Foundation (Az. 88578). day, c. 10,000 small village tanks, built during ancient times, are still in use (Panabokke 2002; Tennakoon 2001). These systems are jointly managed by different stakeholders, such as the Departments of Agriculture and Irrigation, and on a local scale, by community-based farmer organizations, which are responsible for the management of the agricultural landscape linked with the tank cascade systems. In the coming decades, it is expected that the Sri Lankan society will face rapid socio-economic and environmental transitions. Corresponding to the IPCC climate change scenarios, Sri Lanka will be affected by rising temperatures and can expect a higher variability of monsoonal rainfall coinciding with an increase in floods and droughts (Ministry of Environment 2013). This will affect the functionality and management of the water harvesting systems and the related traditional knowledge. Rapid development processes will also change the traditional land use practices. Loss of the traditional systems, a potential adoption of new systems, and varying interest in agricultural activities are raising issues for the protection of landscape values.

4. Recommendations

Anuradhapura, and its hinterland, are considered as the center of the ancient hydraulic civilization in Sri Lanka. During past decades, the management process of its heritage focused on its archaeological and cultural attributes. The cultural values of the surrounding cultural landscapes, with its multiple reciprocal human–environmental interactions and sophisticated water harvesting systems, being rooted in the ancient , is not yet the focus of heritage management. The development of an integrated management approach, to protect this 2,000-year-old cultural landscape, would be a great challenge for future interdisciplinary research and heritage management. From the perspective of landscape archaeology, the major objectives are: to enhance the understanding of the development of the ancient water harvesting systems and its effects on the landscape and cultural development, to investigate traditional management aspects and traditional knowledge related to these

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