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A Palestinian Muslim plays table tennis in a rare competition among women in the Hamas-rum Gaza Strip, December 2009 (Photo: Mahmud Hams/Scanpix).

Women and Sport in Islamic Countries Modern sports claim to guarantee equality and ticipated in 26 of the 28 sports and in 137 of the especially the equal right to compete in them. 302 events.4 The Olympic Charter, and more particularly the The gradual increase in the number of female “Codification of the Fundamental Principles of Olympians clouds the reality that a woman’s op- Olympism” states that “every discrimination portunity to participate and compete in sports, with regard to a country or a person on grounds and in the in particular, de- 36 of race, religion, politics, … is incompatible with pends to a large extent on her cultural and reli- … belonging to the Olympic Movement”.1 The gious background. Traditionally, Islamic cultures t e r ‘Sports for all’ movement similarly aims at inclu- do not prioritise “modern sport”5 and thus the siveness and participation by all, men and wom- number of athletes from Islamic countries who en alike. Both movements are rooted in Western compete in the Olympic Games continues to be

d pfis ge rtru cultures, and it is the intent of this paper to ex- quite low. In 2008, 427 men (6 % of male ath- plore if and how Western sports discourses and letes) and 98 women (2 % of female athletes) practices can contribute to women’s develop- from Islamic countries6 competed in the Olym- ment in Islamic countries.2 pic Games. This is a small number in the view of This article focuses on sports and physical ac- the fact that around 20% of the world popula- tivities of girls and women in Islamic countries. tion adheres to . Up to the 1980s, only It will inform the readers about opportunities women from “secularised” countries, i.e. and barriers that these women’s faces in elite and pre-revolutionary Iran, had the opportunity sports (especially in the Olympic Games), as to compete in the Olympics. The first female well as at the ‘Sports for all’ level. Special focus Olympians from an Islamic country were two will be placed on the reasons for their (lack of) fencers from Turkey, who participated in the engagement in sports. In addition, the article Olympic Games in 1936.7 Iranian female track will discuss initiatives aiming at stimulating and field athletes and gymnasts competed in the sport participation by Muslim women Olympic Games in in 1964. In 1968 and 1972, the Iranian National Olympic Committee (NOC) did not send women to the Olympic Elite sports and women from Islamic Games, but in 1976, female athletes from Iran countries participated in competitions. Three Egyptian women qualified for the Olympic Olympic Games Games in 1960 but for unclear reasons they did Participation by women in the Olympic Games not participate. However, the Egyptian NOC was mirrors the development of women’s sports in amongst the first Islamic NOCs to send women general. In 1896, women were excluded from to the Olympics. In 1984, five female athletes re- the Games, but their participation rate grew presented in diving, and slowly and steadily from the time the Olympics synchronized swimming. The swimmers owed were held in Paris, (1900). In 1908 the their Olympic participation to Safeya (Sofi) percentage of female athletes was 2 %,3 8% in Tharwat a former athlete and powerful woman 1938, 11 % in 1960, and in 2008 (Beijing) more in the Egyptian Swimming Federation (Alsharif, than 42 % of the athletes were women who par- 2008).8 By gertrud pfister The success of the first generation of female Olympians from Islamic countries was based on their representation at the Games rather than on their results. Only with the participation of North-African athletes in the Olympics of the 1980s, women from Islamic countries took part 37 in the challenge for medals. In 1984, the Moroc- can, Nawal El Moutawakel, a 400m hurdler, won t e r a gold medal as the first woman from an Islamic country. In the 1992 Olympic Games, the Alge- rian native, Hassiba Boulmerka, became the Turkey was the most successful Islamic country

gold medal winner in the 1500m race. She ran in at the 2008 Olympics having won 8 medals, four d pfis ge rtru shorts causing such an uproar among religious of which were won by 20 female athletes. Two fundamentalists that she had to leave her coun- silver medals in the 10,000m and 5,000m races try. were won by , the female long With regard to the inclusion of women in the distance runner of Ethiopian origin. Sibel Ozkan national Olympic delegations of Islamic coun- won a silver medal in weightlifting, a sport with tries, progress has occurred over the past de­ a Turkish tradition (note that in 2004, the cades. More specifically, of the 160 NOCs invol­ weightlifter had become the first ved in the Seoul Olympics (1988), 42 (including Turkish female athlete to win a gold medal). In 21 Islamic country NOCs) sent only male athle­ 2008, another silver medal was won by Azize tes (Hargreaves, 1997, p. 227). 33 NOCs did not Tanrikulu in . 20 female athletes and include women on their teams to the 48 male athletes competed in the 2008 Beijing Olympics (1992), 28 NOCs to the Olym- Olympics. In addition, there were two further pics (1996), and 9 NOCs to the Olympics female medal winners from Islamic countries, (2000). Only three delegations (Saudi Arabia, an Algerian judoka and a Moroccan 800m run- Qatar and Kuwait) had “men only” teams in ner. 2008 at the Beijing Games. ’s delegation The low level of participation and low success consisted of three men and four women and the rate (6 medals out of 958 medals were won by North African nations included a considerable women from Islamic countries) clearly points to number of female athletes, even a women’s vol- the marginalization of this group in the Olympic leyball team (Bannayan, 2008). Oman and the Games, which is still a serious problem, but re- United Arab Emirates, for the first time, sent mains an under-researched and disregarded is- women to Olympic Games. sue.10 A view of the medal count at the Olympics in Many female Olympians from Islamic coun- 2008 shows that only a few delegations (nations) tries do not meet the required performance shared the medals: 15 of the more than 100 standards but compete in the Games because in teams won 75 % of the gold medals. The success­ some sports the countries are allowed to send at ful teams, with few exceptions, came from West­ least one competitor. In other sports they are ern industrialized countries and from .9 granted “wild cards”. With a few exceptions, these women have no opportunity to reach even other example is that of the Syrian female the second round of the competitions. They do athletes who compete in national and even in- not fail because they are less talented, have less ternational competitions, mostly in Pan-Arabi- will power or engagement but because they an, Asian or Mediterranean tournaments and have to struggle with constraints from the lack championships. Successful female athletes, as of training facilities and financial support to the Syrian Ghada Shouaa a ath- 38 conflicts with families or attacks from Islamists. lete, winner of the in the 1996 Although women’s participation in the Olympics Games, are treated as heroines (El Houda Kar- t e r is a contested issue among traditional Muslims, foul, 2010). The same is true for Malaysian ath- women from Islamic countries are extremely letes (Wirdati, 2006) and sports women from proud to represent their nations and their com- many other Islamic countries.

d pfis ge rtru patriots join their female athletes in the cele- These success stories should not hide the fact bration of national and Muslim identity. that women in Islamic countries are a small mi- nority in the competitive sports arena. They re- Competitive sports main marginalised when compared with male Despite the numerous barriers that exist, wo- athletes and are often stereotyped as unfemi- men in Islamic countries have managed to be- nine and bad Muslims. They lack resources and come successful athletes, even in martial arts facilities and face resistance based on religion, like karate or taekwondo. This is especially true tradition and culture. Structural and economic in the case of Turkey where the separation of problems impede sports development in many State and religion and the westernization of the Islamic countries but women more than men are middle classes in large cities provide a positive affected in many ways and to a much higher de- climate for women’s sports (Pfister, 1997). Ac- gree (Benn, Pfister & Jawad, 2010). cording to Koca and Hacisoftaoglu (2010) who It should be emphasised, however, that parti­ draw on information from the Turkish Govern- cipation in sports, and especially in elite sports, ment Agency for Sports, the number of female is not a valued activity per se. On the contrary, athletes has increased threefold since 1997.11 sports face criticism in Western as well as in Is- Currently, 13% of the 420,000 elite athletes in lamic countries. Top level sport is flaunted Turkey are women. Most of the 57,000 sports through commercialisation, affected by an in- women in the 23 million female population (15- creasing sexualisation of the athletes, and en- 64 years of age) compete in (approx. dangered by legal and illegal performance en- 1,100 women), taekwondo (9,000), hancements. Not participation but winning at (5,000), karate (4,000), and 2,000 or less in swim- all cost seems to be the aim of the athletes. ming, kickboxing, handball and judo. One example of women overcoming barriers Sports for all in sports is that of the Turkish elite athlete, Ha- Little is known about physical activities and mide Bıkçın Tosun, a bronze medal winner in ‘Sports for all’ in the case of girls and women in the 2000 Olympic Games and a , who co- Islamic countries. A situation overview of wo­ vers her hair in daily life and, to the extent pos- men’s sports and physical education in Bahrain, sible, also during taekwondo competitions. An- , Turkey, Iran and Oman is provided in the book Muslim Women and Sport (Benn, Pfister & Sultanate of Oman, one of the Gulf Sta- Jawad, 2010). The information provided as well tes with a tribal organization and Islamic gui- as other sources about Egypt and Kuwait, for ding principles. In the 1970s, the Sultan initi- exam­ple, indicate that in many of these coun- ated modernization nationwide which included tries “a substructure of girls’ and women’s sports a measure of women’s rights. Sports have no tra- has been established, although there remain dition in Oman but are supported due to their 39 huge disparities in financing between sports for potential benefits in political, educational and boys or girls; and sports for men or women” health related areas. A number of sport clubs t e r (Hargreaves, 2007, p. 82) emerged that cater specifically to men’s foot- Al-Hadair states in his PhD dissertation ball. Women’s sports, however, still face conside- (2004): “Throughout modern times, sport and rable resistance. According to Benn and Al-Sina-

other recreational forms of exercise have never ni (2010) “Almost the only physical activity that d pfis ge rtru been an organic feature of the cultural history receives approbation is walking. … Certainly of Muslim women”(here quoted in Hargreaves, class distinctions remain and the wealthy and 2007, 75). Schools and colleges may provide working Omani women can afford to attend the sports opportunities for female students (mostly new ladies gymnasiums springing up in the ci- gender segregated) (Hargreaves, 2007, Benn, ties.” The country reports in Muslim Women and Pfister & Jawad, 2010). Some Islamic countries, Sport reveal that two types of physical activities, e.g. Syria, Iran and Oman, have imported the i.e. walking and training in fitness centers are club system from Europe. Here clubs organise widely approved and find an increasing number sports and games but only a minority of club of adherents. However, the authors of the re- members and sports participants are girls and ports also emphasize that only the members of women. middle- and upper classes can afford the mem- In 2007, the 380 certified Sports Clubs in Syria bership entrance fees to these commercial cen- had 206,164 members, 19,740 were women ters. In some countries or cities, community ba- (9,6%). This is a very small number compared sed fitness facilities have been established, e.g. with the 5.3 million women in the age group 15- the “Ladies Locals” in , Turkey, that also 64 years. Sports practiced by girls and women in provide training opportunities for less affluent Syrian clubs include athletics, swimming, gymna- women (Koca & Hacısoftaoglu 2010, Benn, stics, basketball, handball, volleyball, table ten- Pfister & Jawad, 2010). nis, tennis, karate, judo, cycling, shooting, eque- These glimpses into women’s sports in Islamic strian sports, and more recently, football and countries show similarities and differences de- boxing (El Houda Karfoul, 2010). A similar un- pending on the heterogeneity of Islamic cultures der-representation of girls and women in sports and the various ways in which Muslim women can be found in Iran, although there exists a deal with their religion. There are huge opportu- “women’s sports movement”, promoted especial- nity differences between, for example, women ly by Faezeh Hashemi, the daughter of former from Egypt (where women enjoy a measure of Iranian President Rafsanjani (Pfister, 2010). freedom, at least in the big cities) and Saudi Ara- A specific combination of tradition and mo- bia (where women are not allowed to drive). In dernity permeates culture and lifestyle in the addition, class differences must also be consid- ered. Upper class women in all Islamic countries hammed) and emphasize that Mohammed advo- have opportunities to adopt active lifestyles – cated a healthy lifestyle, recommending physi- they have access to exclusive fitness centres, pri- cal activities such as running, horseback riding, vate sport clubs and spas or they use hotel facili- swimming and archery. Leila Sfeir emphasizes: ties. The majority of the female population has “Islamic religion in no way tries to depreciate, to adapt to various rationales and regimes of re- much less deny sport for women. On the contra- 40 ligion and culture and has to negotiate spaces ry, it attributes great significance and function and opportunities for physical activities. Women to physical strength and sport activities. Islam t e r in rural areas may still live in traditional ways has a constant concern with one’s body, cleanli- and have to contribute to the sustenance of their ness, purification and force, with segregation of families through physical work. the sexes. But certain religious elements, such

d pfis ge rtru According to Hargreaves (2007, p. 74), “The as Islamic fatalism … have been dominant fac- bodies of are experi- tors in controlling general access to sport” enced and mediated through different ideologi- (Sfeir, 1985, p. 300, Daiman, 1995). These argu- cal interpretations of Islam, within the particu- ments are supported by Islamic feminists, who lar political arrangements of specific countries continue to fight for the rights of girls and wo- and in ways that are penetrated to various ex- men to participate in sporting activities. tents by patriarchal relations of power and con- Sports feminists with a “faith based” ap- trol”. As already stated in the introduction, we proach, who operate within an Islamic fra- must consider that sports have their roots in mework, refer to the Koran as support for their Western cultures and that the globalized image demand of equal opportunity for girls and wo- of female elite athletes influence – positively men in sports and society. In contrast to secular and negatively – the notion of women’s sports in feminists, they believe that equal opportunity in Islamic countries. sports is compatible with the traditional Islamic rules with respect to “modest clothes” and/or se- Backgrounds and rationales gregation of the genders. Secular (sport) femi- nists – an almost silent minority – demand a se- Islam and women’s sport – empowerment and paration of state and religion; they opt for restrictions freedom of choice with respect to religion and Participation in sports by girls and women from lifestyle and demand that women be given the Islamic countries is influenced by religion in va- same access as men to all parts of society, inclu- rious complex and ambiguous ways while there ding sports. seems not to be a general prohibition of sports There is, however, a third view on women, in Islam, a rule that is also applicable to girls sport, and religion. Islamic feminists deny that and women.12 Islamic sports scientists empha- segregation based on gender and the necessity size that health and fitness are important for of wearing the veil, are requirements in the Ko- men and women alike and should be sustained ran. Some Muslim scholars argue that there are by sporting activities. They legitimize their no religious rules which prohibit participation point of view with various hadith (oral traditions in sports and/or the wearing of Western style about the words and deeds of the Prophet Mo- clothes while playing sports or in everyday life. However, in some countries and/or groups, wo- and enforces gender differences and gender hie­ men’s participation in sports remains irreconci- rarchies. Despite the claim of a universal area of lable with Islamic values and traditional and the application, the Sharia is used in different ways culturally rooted concept of femininity and the in Islamic countries. gender roles and relations that restrict women’s In Islamic societies, the family takes central actions to the home and family (Sfeir, 1985, p. focus. Age and sex determine one’s social posi- 41 300, Daiman, 1995). tion in the family as well as in society at large. According to Safeya (Sofi) Tharwat, board The hierarchical organisation of the family and t e r member of the Egyptian Swimming Union, the strict division of labour according to gender Egyptians have become more conservative in play an important role in the Islamic culture. their attitudes since the 1950s. She reports that The family as well as the community force its

“sports like fencing and horseback riding are members to assume specific roles and duties, d pfis ge rtru less criticized because the outfits do not reveal but in return promise support, protection and much of the woman’s body, but diving and swim- social status (Delaney, 1991). According to the ming cause challenges… So we fight for the Sharia, the husband is the head of the family girls’ rights to swim” (Alsharif, 2008). Hargrea- and decides on all major issues. He is obliged to ves (2007, p. 88) concludes that the greatest bar- care for sustaining his wife/wives who, in return, rier for participation in sports by women from is/are committed to obedience. The husband has Islamic countries is “the opposition that conti- the right and the duty to control and “protect” nues to face them from Islamist leaders who the family members, especially the women and wield power in their local communities. All girls whose modesty and – in Islamist contexts – forms of participation attract critical religious “covered” bodies signalise gender differences commentary from conservative Muslim clerics and hierarchies (Sfeir, 1985, Nakamura, 2002, … They encourage feelings of guilt and someti- Schirrmacher & Spuler-Stegemann, 2006). Gen- mes fear in young Muslim sportswomen who are der hierarchies and the social and cultural supe- ignorant of alternative Qu’ranic definitions of riority of men are based on the concept of hon- womanhood.” One of the numerous examples of our and the regulation of sexuality (Schiffauer, problems that Muslim athletes face despite wea- 1983, Khader, 2006). In Islam, sexual relations ring “modest” sporting attire, is the case of the only have a place inside of marriage. Sexual re- Afghani runner Mehbooba Andyar who was so lations of unmarried couples are strictly forbid- terrified by threats from Muslim fundamenta- den and can be severely punished (in case of lists that she decided not to participate in the adultery even by stoning). Female sexuality is Beijing Olympic Games. According to newspa- controlled by gender segregation. Women should per reports, she sought asylum in .13 either not appear in public or they must dress in “decent” clothes that fully cover their bodies. Gender roles and relations in Islam But we have to consider that gender roles and In the Islamic culture the relationship between rules are complex and contested and there are the genders and the situation of women are reg- various translations of the Koran as well as in- ulated by the Sharia, a legal system based on re- terpretations and negotiations with Islamic laws ligious rules. The Sharia focuses on the family and cultures. According to Islamic tradition, family respect- re, and tradition. In many countries the ability and honour of its male members depend covers the entire body with the exception of the on the moral integrity of the wives and the vir- face and the hands. ginity of the daughters. Men must control the Women have various and often intertwined female family members, prevent any actions reasons to dress according to Islamic rule. A which might dishonour them and sanction trans- woman can be forced to wear a veil but it can 42 gressions. In traditional Muslim communities, also stem from her own decision. For religious the main strategy is to control the women and to women, “modesty” is an embodied part of her t e r prevent them from having contact with the ­other identity and a sign of her obedience to God. gender. In the case of girls, this would include Some women wear a veil as protection against forbidding activities that could damage the hy- the male gaze. To wear a veil can also be a

d pfis ge rtru men (Khader, 2006). fashio­n mode or a habit. Women also choose to Leisure time physical activities, and sports cover their bodies, not for religious purposes but may impact the respectability of women and the because to “unveil” could be interpreted as an honour of their families in many ways. Women’s action against Islam. Thus, the veil signalizes so- participation in sports leaves them uncontrolled lidarity with Islamic traditions and resistance by the family and/or sports could empower girls against Western politics (Hargreaves, 2007, p. and women, weakening family influence. The 75). In recent years, a growing number of girls family’s reputation may also be endangered if and women also in Western countries have start- its female members were allowed to engage in ed to (re-)discover religion, to re-interpret Islam activities that are seen as unfeminine, against and to use the veil as an instrument of individu- Islamic laws or harmful to the female body (Na- al identity politics. kamura, 2002). Women who believe in Islam and follow its rules may decide not to cover their heads. Some Covering the body – the hijab muslim feminists even claim that neither the Meanings and practices Koran nor the hadiths demand that women are For women in Islamic countries, integrity means “covered” (or excluded from public life). Ac- following Islamic rules about the body and its cording to these women, the socially construct- representation in public. In Western countries, ed gender roles and rules are to be attributed to covering of the body, in Arab ‘hijab’, is seen as a a mixture of Islam and patriarchal traditions visible and highly contested sign of „otherness“, rather than to religion.14 and a cause for discrimination. For traditional Muslims, women’s covered bodies have become The hijab and sports symbols of Islam. “Women’s bodies are pivotal in The sports attire of Muslim women is especially the mix of religion, politics and culture ... are contested. In countries where traditional Isla- central in the construction of a diasporic, truly mic beliefs prevail, e.g. Iran and Saudi Arabia, global ‘Muslim society’” (Hargreaves, 2007, p. women must wear the hijab in public and when 76). However, “covering” has various forms and they participate in physical activities. In coun- meanings in Islamic countries, depending on the tries like Oman, where the hijab is not manda- religious affiliation, the environment, the cultu- tory but part of a still strong tradition, Omani women prefer (for various reasons) to wear tra- could argue that the aim of these principles is to ditional clothing when they are physically active guarantee fair conditions and that clothes that in a mixed gender environment. However, “mo- disadvantage the wearer do not affect the per- dest” dress does not necessarily restrict the acti- formance of the other athletes and the fairness vity range. Iranian women, for example, run, of the competition. Sports equipment manufac- hike, ski, bike, and even play soccer in the “pro- turers are currently developing new types of clo- 43 per attire”. Many Muslim women, however, pre- thes, among them body suits for swimming that fer to participate in physical activities in wo- could allow religious Muslim women to compete t e r men-only facilities not least because this allows in previously “forbidden” events. them to wear sports clothes and be untroubled by the men. Physical activities of girls and women from

Sports attire is also one of the main issues Islamic countries – structural and economic d pfis ge rtru constraining participation by women from Isla- barriers mic countries in the Olympics. The official dress Not only are religious and cultural restrictions codes in competitive sport do not conform to Is- barriers for women from Islamic countries, but lamic standards of modesty but most Muslim living conditions, legal prohibitions and discri- athletes opt to follow this code, claiming that minations may prevent them – with few excepti- does not conflict with their faith. This was/is also ons – from participating in sports, and more par- the conviction of Hassiba Boulmerka, gold me- ticularly in international sport competitions dal winner in the Olympics in 1992. “Boulmerka (Pfister, 1997, Pfister, 2003). is a symbol of resistance and progress of the Alsharif (2008) reports, for example, about Qur’an, and reflects the potential for Muslim the situation of sports , a coun- women to develop their interests in the modern try that allows Western clothes and lifestyles: world without rejecting their Muslim faith” “But while there’s been some record breaking, (Hargreaves, 2007, p. 83). However, dress codes women in this country continue to face challen- that require a bathing suit or a bikini (as in ges above and beyond the race to the finish line. ) do not only conflict with the They report unequal treatment and fewer privi- rules of many Islamic countries, but may also of- leges within sports federations, and face a nati- fend sensibilities of practicing Muslims. In some on that has long held a less than positive percep- sports it is possible to cover the body and hair. tion of their involvement in sport ….” Thus, the Bahraini Roqaya Al-Gassra, a 100m In many countries, women’s sports meet con- and 200m runner, competed in the Olympic frontation due to numerous concrete difficulties Games in and Beijing in long trousers, a ranging from the absence of girls’ physical edu- shirt with long sleeves and a scarf. She and seve- cation and the limited opportunities of practi- ral other athletes affirmed via their attire their cing and training to the lack of competition. The Islamic identity and gained approval and praise female soccer players in Palestine, for example, from traditional Islamic groups (Hargreaves, have only very limited access to the only grass 2007, p. 87). It can be discussed if these practi- field available and thus face huge difficulties to ces contradict the principles of modern sport train for international meetings. In addition to which calls for equal access and rules. But one the lack of sport facilities, difficulties travelling due to political conflicts with make pro- These women, according to Hargreaves, “State per training impossible (Kremers, 2010). feminists”, adopt and support the politics of Even in countries with ample resources and their governments, organise conferences and an aspiration of modernization, girls and women found national and international associations face major difficulties at the regional and local such as the Arab Women and Sports Association levels. Al-Sinani & Benn (2010) characterize the or the Islamic Federation of Women’s Sports. 44 situation in Oman as follows: “Main challenges The most spectacular event that placed Mus- remain in working with communities to educate lim sports women on the international agenda t e r men and women about the values of physical ac- are the “Muslim Women’s Games” (conducted in tivity. Also resources are needed to provide cul- 1993, 1997, 2001 and 2005 in Teheran). These turally appropriate facilities for women’s parti- games are the initiative of Fa’ezeh Hashemi

d pfis ge rtru cipation in schools and communities.” (daughter of former Iranian President Rafsan- The law or habit of gender segregation often jani). At the Muslim Women’s Games, the athle- leads to a scarcity of sport facilities for women tes march into the stadium wearing the hijab for with the consequence that women are excluded the official opening ceremony, watched by a from opportunities to engage in sporting activi- large audience of female and male spectators. ties and especially competitions. In addition, The women compete in the various events wea- the scarcity of “sport friendly” environments ring the usual sports attire but are not exposed such as parks and/or the hot climate does not en- to the view of men. The female judges, journa- courage girls and women to be physically active lists, doctors and coaches prove that such events in their leisure time (Al-Sinani & Benn, 2010). can be successfully held without any men in sta- However, when opportunities e.g. for walking or diums, gyms or at swimming pools. Delegates hiking, are available and culturally accepted, from 35 states participated in the Fourth Islamic the (male and female) population and particu- Women’s Games in 2005. The program consisted larly the middle and upper classes, enjoy active of 18 events including golf, karate, taekwondo leisure time. The Alborz range, north of Teheran, and futsal (indoor five-a-side soccer) as well as for example, attracts thousands of “Tehera- table tennis and volleyball for women with disa- nians” to hike and ski (Pfister, 2003). bilities.15 The most spectacular event was the opening ceremony. Large groups of (“covered”) Muslim women and sports – Initiatives for women – and men – performed a modern dance a change to psychedelic music, leading the 10,000 specta- There have been several initiatives to improve tors to standing ovation (but instigating critique the opportunities of Muslim women to partici- from religious leaders). pate in sport, and many of these initiatives were The Muslim Women’s Games were welcomed originated by both Western and Islamic femi- in Iran as an opportunity for women’s sports and nists striving for changes in an Islamic frame- as an alternative to the Olympic Games. Many work. Influential women in Egypt, Iran and other Iranian participants described the contact and countries used their political connections to lob- the competition with foreign women as a won- by for expand opportunities for girls and women derful experience. However, many athletes (and to participate in physical activities and sports. also many women from the West) pointed out that events of this kind would confirm and legi- kamura, 2002). The IOC rejected these demands, timize the exclusion of women from the “real” especially on the grounds that they interfere in world of sports. In addition, athletes complained the internal affairs of sovereign countries. This that the participants from Western countries decision did not solve the problem and did not were not top level athletes and that the events end efforts to improve the opportunity for fema- at the Muslim Women’s Games were not serious le athletes from Islamic countries to participate 45 and/or high ranked competitions. A British par- in the Olympic Games. The Atlanta-demands are ticipant described the different approach by supported by secular feminists and women’s t e r quoting Shirin, one of the players of the success­ rights activists such as Parvin Darabi, born in ful Iranian team: “’Why is the British team so Iran and currently living in the USA.17 Although weak?’ Arsenal, Manchester United – don’t they the IOC never adopted sanctions against NOCs

have women’s teams?” The British player tried with men only delegations, the Olympic climate d pfis ge rtru to explain that the players representing Britain has become more women friendly, indicated by were there because they were Muslim…that this the participation rate of women from Islamic tournament was special to them as it was the countries in the Beijing Games. only one in which conditions allowed them to These initiatives did not lead to intercultural remove their hijab to play. Shirin shrugged. She and interreligious dialogue about Muslim wo­ doesn’t wear hijab by choice, like the British men and sports. The statements of one of the girls do. ‘I’m ready to play anyone from any reli- founders of “Atlanta”, Linda Weil-Curiel, and gion,’ she said. ‘I’d like to have good competiti- the current Head of the Islamic Federation of on” (Steel, 2005).16 Women’s Sports, Faezeh Hashemi, illustrate am- Another important problem for many athletes bivalence and the incompatibility of both ap- is the lack of an audience and media coverage. proaches. Weil-Curiel attacked the IOC because Women’s competitions in Western countries are it did not force the NOCs of Islamic countries to seldom in the limelight. The lack of interest in send women to the Games: women’s sports is aggravated by the Islamic law “I see it as a double betrayal, a betrayal of the of covering the body, i.e. female athletes can spirit of sports and the Olympic Charter, … only be shown in photos or on film if wearing the and I see it as a betrayal of the Muslim athle- hijab. As a result, women’s sports are given little tes who think it normal to participate in inter- media coverage with negative consequences national competitions with the normal sports such as the disinterest of sponsors. gear … Why should we admit such a difference In contrast to the organisers of the Muslim which is a clear discrimination. If it is a mat- Women’s Games, held in Teheran, the Atlanta+ ter of religion why should Muslim men conti- Initiative, launched in the run up to the Olympic nue to compete amongst women, wearing Games held in Atlanta (1996), advocated for the shorts, because Islam is the same for men and participation of Muslim women in the “real” women, chastity and modesty is also for men O­lympic Games. This initiative by French wom- so why do men continue to compete?” (Linda en asked the International Olympic Committee Weil-Curiel in BBC in 2005, here quoted in (IOC) to exclude all NOCs from the Games who Benn, Pfister & Jawad, 2010). do not include women in their delegations (Na- “I think the system that there is only one mo- ways of practicing Isla­m. Some wore Western del in the world for sport, like the OG, is indi- clothes and hairstyles; others observed the Isla- rectly discriminatory for Muslim women … mic dress code.19 the wearing of shorts and tops – Islamic The purpose of the gathering was to identify clothing requires different conditions, effects means to improve opportunities for Muslim wo- records. They do not say ‘don’t come here’ but men and girls in and through sport and physical 46 in reality I cannot because I want to stay in education. Due to the widely different back- my hijab and I can’t go to that competition grounds of the work shop participants, the dis­ t e r because I must do that without hijab” (Faezeh cussions were very controversial owing to vary- Hashemi in BBC in 2005, here quoted in ing perspectives and priorities. Communication Benn, Pfister & Jawad, 2010). and cooperation between individuals and groups

d pfis ge rtru with different roots and cultural backgrounds ‘Accept and respect’ – a declaration about require willingness and the ability to see the Muslim women and sport world with the eyes of the “others”. Waljee As previously mentioned, there are many rea- (2008, p. 99) strongly criticizes international dis- sons for the marginalisation of Muslim women courses on gender that use Western models and in the world of sport. These include the rigid judge gender relations on the basis of measures rules of modern sports on one hand and the in- such as access, outcomes and performance, en- terpretation of Islamic laws and restrictions be- forcing thus evaluations from ‘outside’ whilst cause of cultural traditions on the other. The they “… fail to address … cultural and religious lack of understanding of the gender discourses specificity and economic realities of nations in and practices in Islamic and Western cultures transition or different cultural norms that frame call for inter-religious dialogues and cross-cul- gender relations.” tural cooperation. The question remained to what extent it is A workshop in Oman – sponsored by the Sul- possible to achieve balance between global va- tan Quaboos University and supported by lues and cultural diversity. In order to avoid this IAPES­GW18 provided the opportunity for a difficult issue, the Oman workshop participants cross-cultural discussion and an exchange of chose to focus on freedom of choice. We did this know­ledge, opinions and best practices based at the advice of Islamic feminists who shared on openness, the willingness to learn, and the their considerations about framing empower- attempt to understand each other. One man and ment for Muslim women from within the religi- 15 women (including the author) from 14 coun- on. “Islamic has been helpful in show- tries across Europe, the Middle and Far East, ing ways in which space can be created and experts on physical education, sport sciences negotiated for positive change. This knowledge, and Islamic studies as well as leading practitio- and the opportunity it created for women’s par- ners came together not to ‘represent’ their ticipation in physical activity, was important in countries but as individuals who wanted to sha- understanding the positions of those Muslim wo- re information, ideas and experiences with a men whose most essential layer of identity was cross-cultural perspective. Some women were religion and for whom, the display of this iden- atheists; many were religious and had different tity through adherence to modest dress codes was integral to sustaining that” (Benn & ration can be transferred to other areas, groups Kouskie-Jahromi, 2008). However, choice should or cultures. The text is recognized by a number also be possible for those women who re-inter- of international sport bodies that lobby for a pret Islam, adapt the rules to modern life and broad acceptance of the declaration and its combine their religion with Western attire and principles. elite sports. This is an option in most Islamic 47 countries, as the case of female athletes from In- Concluding remarks donesia, , Morocco, and Turkey in This article provided reasons for the marginali- t e r the 2008 Olympics has demonstrated. zation of Muslim women in sports and raised It has to be mentioned that the workshop par- new issues like equality in elite sports. Sports ticipants’ focus on ‘freedom of choice’ is not un- are attractive because they provide equal condi-

problematic because it inherently includes the tions for competitors, but they compare perfor- d pfis ge rtru structure/agency dilemma. In this particular mances and, focus on differences in order to case, one can question whether women (and identify the very best athlete. As such, competi- men) are really free to make decisions about tive sports have a limited opportunity to consi- their lives or are their choices determined by der diversity and to include “otherness”. Sports their families, environments, culture, and socie- federations may be amenable to female compe- ty? It took one exciting week to come to a con- titors wearing long trousers but these athletes sensus and to draft the declaration “Accept and will not be compensated if they are disadvanta- Respect”20. The declaration supports Islam as an ged by their choice of dress. The “Accept and enabling religion that endorses women’s partici- Respect” declaration should have a strong focus pation in physical activity: “1) We affirm the im- on physical education and sports for all; this is portance of physical education and physical ac- where diversity and inclusiveness can be incor- tivity in the lives of all girls and boys, men and porated. women. 2) We recommend that people working Many issues could not be addressed in the de- in the sport and education systems accept and claration. Gender segregation in sports, i.e. “Wo- respect the diverse ways in which Muslim wo- men’s Games”, that relegates women to their men and girls practice their religion and partici- “own” events remains a contentious issue. Is pate in sport and physical activity, for example, participation in these Games satisfying and em- choices of activity, dress and gender grouping. powering or do they simply reinforce marginali- 3) We urge international sport federations to zation of women’s sports? This question arises show their commitment to inclusion by ensuring also for other population groups and events, for that their dress codes for competition embrace example, homosexual people and the “Out Islamic requirements, taking into account the Games”. principles of propriety, safety and integrity.” The Western rooted ‘sports for all’ movement This declaration is directed to Islamic and may also pose problems. The issue is whether West­ern countries as well as to religious and Western “body politics” that emphasize youth, sports leaders encouraging them to accept the slimness and fitness for women, can and should choices of women (and men) and to respect their be integrated into the lifestyle of women from cultural backgrounds. The essence of this decla- Islamic countries. References Hargreaves, J. (1997). Sporting females. Critical Al-Sinani, Y. & Benn, T. (2010). The Sultanate of issues in the history and sociology of women’s Oman and the position of Omani girls and wo- sports. London: Routledge. men in the field of physical education and spor- ting activity. In T. Benn, G. Pfister, & H. Jawad Hargreaves, J. (2007). Sport, exercise, and the (eds.), Muslim women and sport. London: Rout- female Muslim body: negotiating Islam, politics 48 ledge. In print. and male power. In J. Hargreaves & P. Vertinsky (eds.), Physical culture, power, and the body. Lon- t e r Alsharif, A. (2008). Ladies at the Forefront. don: Routledge, 74-101. Egypt Today, July. Khader, N. (2006). Ære og skam. København: Bor-

d pfis ge rtru Bannayan, A. (2008). Muslim Sportswomen Gain gen. Standing in Beijing. Womens eNews. http://www. womensenews.org/story/athleticssports/080807/ Koca, C. & Hacısoftaoglu, I. (2010). Sport partici- muslim-sportswomen-gain-standing-beijing pation of women and girls in modern Turkey. In (2008-08-07). T. Benn, G. Pfister, & H. Jawad (eds.),Muslim wo- men and sport. London: Routledge. In print. Benn, T. & Kouskie-Jahromi, M. (2008, August). Evidence and Influence, making a difference for Kouskie-Jahromi, M. (2010). Physical activities girls and women in physical education and and sport for Iranian girls and women. In T. sport. Paper presented at the IAPESGW Sympo- Benn, G. Pfister, & H. Jawad (eds.), Muslim wo- sium during the International Convention on men and sport. London: Routledge. In print. Science, Education and Medicine in Sport. Gu- angzhou. Kremers, S. et al. (2010). Palestinian Women’s National Football Team Aims High. In T. Benn, Benn, T., Pfister, G. & Jawad, H. (eds.) (2010),Mus - G. Pfister, & H. Jawad (eds.), Muslim women and lim women and sport. London: Routlegde. In print. sport. London: Routlegde. In print.

El Houda Karfoul, N. (2010). Women and Sport Nakamura, Y. (2002). Beyond the hijab: female in Syria. In T. Benn, G. Pfister, & H. Jawad (eds.), Muslims and physical activity. Women in Sport & Muslim women and sport. London: Routlegde. In Physical Activity Journal, (11). 21-48. print. Pfister, G. (1997). Frauen und Sport in der Tür- Daiman, S. (1995). Women in Sport in Islam. In kei. In M. Klein & J. Kothy (eds.), Ethnisch-kultu- ICHPER-SD Journal, 32(1). 18-21. relle Konflikte im Sport. (127-145). Hamburg: ­Czwalina Verlag. Delaney, C. (1991). The Seed and the Soil. Gender and Cosmology in Turkish Village Society. Berke- Pfister, G. (2003). Women and Sport in the Iran: ley/Los Angeles/Oxford: University of California Keeping Goal in the Hijab. In I. Hartmann- Tews Press. & G. Pfister (eds.), Sport and Women. Social Is- sues in International Perspective. (207-223). Lon- 5. The definition of the term sport varies widely depending don: Routledge. on language and culture. In a broad sense, sport means “sport for all” and includes a variety of physical activi- ties. “Modern” sport with a focus on quantitative perfor- Schiffauer, W. (1983). Die Gewalt der Ehre. Frank- mances, competition and record orientation emerged in furt: Suhrkamp. the 19th century. 6. Included are countries with more than 70% Muslims among the population in and North Africa. The states 49 Schirrmacher, C. & Spuler-Stegemann U. (2006). of the former USSR are not taken into consideration. For Frauen und die Scharia. München: Goldmann. the numbers of male and female athletes at the Games of 2008, see http://en.beijing2008.cn/. t e r 7. http://www.metu.edu.tr/~settar/hp4.htm; see also Sfeir Sfeir, L. (1985). The Status of Muslim Women in (1985) with data about elite sport of Muslim until 1984. Sport: Conflict between Cultural Tradition and 8. See also http://www.egypttoday.com/article.aspx?Article ID=8092

Modernization. International Review for the So- 9. See the Overall Medal Standings: http://results.beij- d pfis ge rtru ciology of Sport, 20(4), 283-306. ing2008.cn/WRM/ENG/INF/GL/95A/GL0000000.shtml. 10. See also many web sites, among them http://muslimahme- diawatch.org/2008/08/14/muslimahs-at-the-beijing-olym- Steel, J. (2005). Sport and the scarf. BBC NEWS, pics/ 9. December 2005. 11. www.tuik.gov.tr. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4511680. 12. On women’s sport in Islam, see K. Lindsay K et al. (1987). Islamic Principles and Physical Education. Unicorn, 13(2), stm 75-78; Sfeir (1985); S. Yaldai (1988). Frauensport im Islam. In P. Jakobi & H.-E. Rösch (eds.), Frauen und Mädchen im Waljee, A. (2008) Researching transitions: gen- Sport. (121-134). Mainz: Matthias-Grünewald-Verl.; Dai- man (1995); K. Walseth & K. Fasting (1999, June). Islam dered education, marketisation and Islam in Ta- Women and Sport. Paper presented at the Women’s Worlds jikistan. In S. Fennell, & M. Arnot (Eds) Gender 99. 7th International Interdisciplinary Congress on Women, Education and Equality in a Global Context, Lon- Tromsøe. Further readings P. de Knop et al. (1996). Impli- cations of Iran on Muslim girl’s sport participation in We- don Routledge, 87-101. stern Europe. Sport, Education and Society, 1(2). 147-164.; K. Walseth (2006). Young Muslim women and sport: the Wirdati, M. R. (2006). Muslim Women and Sports impact of identity work. Leisure Studies, 25(1). 75-94.; D. Dahl (2007). Zum Verständnis von Körper, Bewegung und in the Malay World: The Crossroads of Modernity Sport in Christentum, Islam und Buddhismus – Impulse zum and Faith. Chiang Mai: Silkworm books. interreligiösen Ethikdiskurs im Spitzensport. Berlin: Logos Verlag. 13. Times Online. 10. July 2008, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/ Notes tol/sport/more_sport/article4304884.ece 14. See for the literature about the veil Hargreaves (2007). 1. The Olympic Charter: http://en.beijing2008.cn/spirit/sym- 15. http://www.mwlusa.org/news/iran_women’s_games.htm bols/charter/index.shtml 16. See also http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/ar- 2. This article deals with women from Islamic countries (see chives/2005/09/27/2003273432. footnote 6). Muslim refers here to the home country and 17 http://www.homa.org/ culture of the women and does not indicate religion or 18. International Association of Physical Education and religiosity. Sport for Girls and Women. 3. 1900 and 1904 the Games were conducted as part of a 19. The participants came from Bahrain, Bosnia and Herzego- World Fair, and there was not a clear definition which vina, Denmark, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, , Morocco, events were Olympic and which not. Therefore 1908 was Oman, South Africa, Syria, Turkey, the United Arab Emi- chosen as point of departure. rates and the United Kingdom. 4. See the webpage of the Beijing Olympics: http:// 20. See the declaration in the webpage of IAPESGW http:// en.beijing2008.cn/ www.vagacms.co.uk/vagacms/iapesgw/ianews.aspx