The Kurux of Bangladesh: a Sociolinguistic Survey

DigitalResources Electronic Survey Report 2011-40

The Kurux of Bangladesh: A Sociolinguistic Survey

Sayed Ahmad Amy Kim Seung Kim Mridul Sangma

The Kurux of Bangladesh: A Sociolinguistic Survey

Sayed Ahmad Amy Kim Seung Kim Mridul Sangma

SIL International ® 2011

Abstract

This paper reports on sociolinguistic research conducted among the (Oraon) Kurux community living in northwest Bangladesh. This research was conducted in July 2005. The goals of the research were to investigate linguistic variation among Kurux, long-term viability of Kurux, speakers' language attitudes towards Kurux and other languages, and speakers' bilingual abilities in Oraon Sadri and Bangla. Wordlist comparisons, questionnaires, interviews, and a Bangla Sentence Repetition Test were used. Especially interesting are the demographic patterns of bilingual ability that are emerging in the community and the influence of Bangla on the Kurux language. 3

Preface

As part of SIL Bangladesh’s project to develop the minority languages of Bangladesh, we researched the Kurux-speaking members of the Oraon (or Urao) community. This report is the fruit of the field research conducted in July 2005. There will be a separate survey conducted later for the Sadri-speaking members of the Oraon community.

The research would not have been possible without the help of many, especially Sayed Ahmad and Mridul Sangma who worked so well and uncomplainingly alongside us to gather and input data. We are very glad that they are part of the SIL Bangladesh team. But we want to reserve our deepest appreciation for the people and leaders of Gabindanagar, Chandipur, Tajnagar, Boldipukur, Lohanipara, Dulhapur, and Rameswarpara who extended warm welcomes and gave their cooperation even though they were busy in the midst of harvest season. We want to thank them for making themselves available for this work, and more than that, for accepting us so readily. We remain humbled by their genuine warmth.

In addition, we believe that a big reason for their willing hearts is due to their love for their mother tongue, and we hope that such a love will motivate further efforts and cooperation.

Seung and Amy Kim Language Survey Specialists SIL Bangladesh January 2006 Dhaka, Bangladesh 4

CONTENTS Abstract Preface 1. Introduction 1.1. Purposes and goals 1.1.1. Study of the language varieties 1.1.2. Language attitudes and vitality study 1.1.3. Bilingualism study 1.2. Location 1.3. History and people 1.4. Language 2. Summary of findings 2.1. Study of the language varieties 2.2. Language attitudes and vitality study 2.3. Bilingualism study 3. Study of the language varieties 3.1. Procedures 3.2. Discussion of sample 3.3. Results 4. Language attitudes and vitality study 4.1. Procedures 4.2. Discussion of sample 4.3. Results 4.3.1. Language use – in spoken domains 4.3.2. Language use – in written domains 4.3.3. Language attitudes – regarding language use 4.3.4. Language attitudes – towards language classes 4.3.5. Language vitality 5. Bilingualism study 5.1. Perceived bilingualism 5.1.1. Procedures and discussion of sample 5.1.2. Results 5.2. Measured Bangla bilingualism 5.2.1. Procedures 5.2.2. Discussion of sample 5.2.3. Results 6. Recommendations Bangla translations of section 1.1, section 2, and section 6 Appendix A. Wordlists A.1. Standard procedures for counting lexical similarity A.2. Wordlist notes A.3. Wordlists Appendix B. Questionnaires B.1. Sociolinguistic questionnaire B.2. Subject biodata questionnaire B.3. Community information questionnaire Appendix C. Sociolinguistic questionnaire responses C.1. Language use responses C.2. Language attitudes responses

C.2.1. Regarding language use C.2.2. Towards language classes C.3. Language vitality responses C.4. Bilingualism responses C.5. Language variation responses Appendix D. Bangla Sentence Repetition Test D.1. Standard Sentence Repetition Test procedures D.2. Bangla SRT D.3. SRT scores Appendix E. Subject biodata E.1. Wordlist and CIQ informant biodata E.2. Sociolinguistic questionnaire subject biodata E.3. SRT subject biodata Appendix F. Kurux community information F.1. Gabindanagar F.2. Chandipur F.3. Lohanipara F.4. Dulhapur References

1. Introduction

1.1. Purposes and goals

The purpose of this sociolinguistic survey was to gather information that would be useful in planning a language-development program for the Kurux speakers of Bangladesh. While SIL Bangladesh believes that the ultimate decision for undertaking such a program belongs to the Kurux community, we also recognize that sometimes the initiative has to come from outside the community and that implementation is also best done through partnerships with interested experts. Thus, our purpose is to serve the Kurux community and any interested partners by providing current and useful information. To meet our purpose, we approached the survey with the following goals:

• To investigate linguistic variation among Kurux speakers living in different pockets of Rajshahi division • To determine Kurux speakers’ attitudes towards their own language and towards other languages • To assess the long-term viability of Kurux • To assess Kurux speakers’ abilities in Bangla and Sadri.

To accomplish these goals, this sociolinguistic survey of the Kurux of Bangladesh was carried out in three interrelated parts: 1) a study of the language varieties within Kurux, 2) a language attitudes and vitality study, and 3) a bilingualism study. Table 1 gives a summary of the sociolinguistic methods used in this survey.

Table 1. Overview of methods Study Method Brief description Focus Sample size • Lexical variation • 5 Kurux Study of the Lexical among language villages, language similarity 307-item wordlist varieties including varieties comparison one in West Bengal • Language • 57 subjects preferences from 5 • Attitudes towards villages Language various languages Sociolinguistic A 21-item attitudes and • Language-use questionnaire questionnaire vitality study patterns • Long-term viability of Kurux in Bangladesh • Perceived ability in • 57 subjects Sociolinguistic A 6-item any second from 5 questionnaire questionnaire language villages Bilingualism A 15-sentence • Measured ability to • 108 study Sentence test calibrated to speak Bangla subjects Repetition Test RPE levels 1 to from 3 (SRT) 4+ villages

1.1.1. Study of the language varieties

The first method, or tool, used was a 307-item wordlist taken at four Kurux villages in Bangladesh (Gabindanagar, Boldipukur, Lohanipara, and Dulhapur). These villages were chosen to capture a representative geographical sample of the Kurux communities spread throughout Rajshahi division. In addition, we used wordlist data taken at a Kurux village in India (Dima in West Bengal); this wordlist was taken several years ago by linguists working in India. These five wordlists were then compared in order to determine the lexical similarity between each pair. See appendix A.1 for standard procedures for counting lexical similarity.

1.1.2. Language attitudes and vitality study

A sociolinguistic questionnaire was used to assess patterns of language use among the Kurux, their attitudes towards their own and other languages, and the long-term vitality of Kurux as a spoken language in Bangladesh. This information gives an indication as to whether the Kurux community would need, accept, and use materials translated into their own language. The sociolinguistic questionnaire is given in appendix B.1.

Interviews with Kurux leaders and the Community Information Questionnaire (CIQ) were also used to gain insight into the language attitudes and vitality situation of the Kurux in Bangladesh. See appendix B.3 for the CIQ and appendix F for the community information itself.

1.1.3. Bilingualism study

A Bangla Sentence Repetition Test (SRT) was developed specifically to assess the level of bilingualism in Bangla among minority language speakers in Bangladesh. This test focuses on people’s ability to speak in standard Bangla, although it also gives an indication of people’s Bangla comprehension ability. It is also a useful tool for identifying segments of the population which are more-or-less fluent in standard Bangla than the Kurux population as a whole. Standard SRT procedures are given in appendix D.1.

In addition to using the Bangla SRT to measure Kurux speakers’ Bangla ability, six questions from the sociolinguistic questionnaire were used to assess how the Kurux perceive their abilities in Bangla, as well as in other languages. The CIQ was also used to gather information about the depth and breadth of bilingualism.

1.2. Location

Like most of Bangladesh, Rajshahi division is an endless stretch of fertile rice paddies, broken in places by jute and sugarcane fields, and, of course, rivers big and small. Lying in the northwest corner of Bangladesh, with India sharing most of its border, it contains some of the most fertile and flood-prone land in Bangladesh. Rajshahi division is also home for the Urao of Bangladesh. But, as if there had been some pre-arranged treaty, the Kurux-speaking Urao reside almost entirely in the northern half of Rajshahi division, while the Sadri-speaking Urao live mainly in the southern half.

See figure 1 for a rough approximation of the area where Kurux speakers reside and for an orientation to its relation to the rest of Bangladesh. Figure 2 gives a close-up view of Rajshahi division, with approximate locations of the villages we researched. 8

Figure 1. General location of Kurux speakers in Bangladesh. 9

Figure 2. Approximate location of Kurux villages researched.

1.3. History and people

The original ancestors of the Kurux people are said to have come from the south of India where there are many groups speaking Dravidian languages that are related to Kurux. According to their own legends, they “originally lived in the Carnatic, whence they went up the Nerbudda river and settled in Bihar on the banks of the Son….the tribe split into two divisions, one of which followed the course of the Ganges and finally settled in the Rajmahal hills, while the other went up the Son and occupied the north-western portion of the Choto Nagpur plateau. The latter were the ancestors of the Oraons or Kurukhs” (http://92.1911encyclopedia.org/O/OR/ORAONS.htm). Even today, Choto Nagpur in Jharkand, India, is considered the “homeland” of the Kurux, and it is most likely the place from which the Kurux of Bangladesh came, starting nearly 100–200 years ago.

In Bangladesh, most of the Kurux (up to 65,000, according to one estimate) live as agriculturalists. While some own their land, most work as day laborers. In addition, there are those who grow up in cities, get a good education, and, if they are fortunate, find work at non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or private companies. The Kurux lament, as do many of the minority language speakers in Bangladesh, that even after getting an education, it can be very difficult to get government jobs.

Whereas perhaps 50% of the Kurux living in India are Christian, the percentage seems to be higher in Bangladesh. Many of the larger Kurux villages seem to be located next to Catholic missions, and there are a number of Kurux Fathers and Sisters.

1.4. Language

Kurux belongs to the northern branch of the Dravidian family of languages. Most of these languages are found in central and southern India and also in Sri Lanka. There are over 200 million speakers of Dravidian languages. Perhaps the most well known are Tamil and Malayalam (southern branch) and Telugu (south-central branch).

The languages that are closest linguistically to Kurux are Brahui (found in Pakistan) and Paharia (found in India and Bangladesh); this is represented in figure 3 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dravidian_languages).

DRAVIDIAN

Northern

Brahui Kurux Paharia

Figure 3. Language classification of Kurux.

2. Summary of findings

2.1. Study of the language varieties

A comparison of wordlists showed 84–93% lexical similarity among the four Kurux villages in Bangladesh where wordlists were gathered. This suggests the language is quite uniform in Bangladesh. However, when compared to a wordlist taken from a Kurux speaker in India, the similarity dropped to 39–41%. Also, considering they are in separate language families, there was a fairly high similarity (20–23%) between the Kurux spoken in Bangladesh and standard Bangla. This suggests the Kurux in Bangladesh have borrowed a lot of Bangla words. See section 3 for details of the results and appendix A for the wordlists.

2.2. Language attitudes and vitality study

Language use and attitudes questions together indicate the Kurux have only a somewhat positive attitude towards their language. Adults appear to use it fairly widely in Kurux villages, but many children reportedly speak Bangla as their first and best language. Similarly, the Kurux seem to be in favor of having their children learn to read and write 11

Kurux, but, at the same time, they acknowledge a desire for Bangla to play an important part in their lives.

Language-vitality data, as a whole, indicates pure Kurux language in Bangladesh is not very vital and will possibly be out of use within one generation. This change will take place more slowly in the more remote areas, but even those areas will experience such change unless intervention is made.

2.3. Bilingualism study

The Kurux people’s perceptions of their own language abilities show there is widespread bilingualism in Kurux and Bangla. Even at the age of 5 years old or younger, Kurux children are using both languages in their daily lives.

SRT data shows that a person’s level of education is the most telling factor in determining his ability in standard Bangla. Whether a person is a Christian or not also seems to be an important factor. Currently, the largest segment of the Kurux population that is not fluent in standard Bangla is that of uneducated non-Christians. These people represent a minority of the population. Most other subsets are probably able to use standard Bangla literature fairly well, and this ability will improve as the education level of the population increases.

Finally, although a number of Kurux people said they can speak Sadri, the population as a whole is not sufficiently fluent in Sadri to use Sadri literature adequately.

3. Study of the language varieties

3.1. Procedures

Comparing the vocabulary of language varieties is one way to measure the lexical similarity among them. During this survey, lexical similarities were calculated as a percentage of words from a 307-item list which resemble each other in sound (Blair 28–9). In each village, a wordlist was gathered from one person, but there were always others around the primary wordlist giver who could confirm or correct the word given. Thus, a separate wordlist from a second person was not needed. The researchers transcribed the wordlists using the International Phonetic Alphabet. They then compared the wordlists by following the established procedures outlined in appendix A.1. The WordSurv © computer program designed by SIL (Wimbish) was used to do the final lexical similarity calculations.

3.2. Discussion of sample

Wordlists were taken at the following Kurux villages in Rajshahi division from speakers who had lived there for a number of years: Lohanipara, Boldipukur, Dulhapur, and Gabindanagar. These villages were chosen primarily to give good geographical representation of the Kurux living throughout northern Rajshahi division. (See section 1.2 for a map of these villages.) In addition, from linguists working in India, we acquired a wordlist taken from a Kurux speaker in Dima, in the West Bengal state of India.

Generally, only one full wordlist was taken from each site. However, as hinted at above, there was always more than one source of information. In cases where two different but valid words were given by two people, both were accepted. 12

3.3. Results

Table 2 shows the results from analyzing the Kurux wordlists. The letter before the village name is that village’s code letter for the wordlists given in appendix A.3. A comparison of these five wordlists to a standard Bangla wordlist is also given.

Table 2. Lexical similarity chart

D Lohanipara 93 C Boldipukur 89 87 E Dulhapur 87 86 84 B Gabindanagar 39 39 40 41 A Dima, West Bengal 20 20 23 22 12 0 Bangla

The results show that the Kurux language is quite similar throughout Rajshahi division and that there is clearly a common Kurux language spoken in Bangladesh. The numbers confirm what we heard over and over: that there is no problem for Kurux speakers to understand each other no matter where they live in Bangladesh. The lowest similarity (84%) is between Gabindanagar and Dulhapur. Because these two are the farthest apart among the four villages, it’s possible that there is less contact between them than between other villages (and the fact that Gabindanagar is largely Catholic, while the residents of Dulhapur are Hindu might also contribute to less contact). Of course, the 84% is not lower enough than the other numbers to be of great concern, but we point it out because there seems to be a possible explanatory cause.

At first glance, the Kurux spoken in India seems to be a different language than the Kurux spoken in Bangladesh. Can it be that, over time, the languages have deviated enough to be only 39–41% lexically similar? Perhaps, but the change, over time, is probably not the only reason for the low similarity.

Another reason could simply be the differences introduced to the wordlists by the different ears and transcription styles of the people who took the wordlists. It is notoriously difficult to do fine comparisons between wordlists taken by different people. Also, there is no guarantee that the exact same words were elicited. Every language has shades of meaning and general vs. specific terms that make it a challenge for one person to always elicit the same word, much less for two people. Finally, it must be noted that the wordlist taken in Dima contained only 210 words, whereas our list had 307. That meant that with fewer words to compare, the differences/errors in elicitation could have been amplified. Thus, we suggest that the result of 39–41% similarity be taken with a healthy dose of caution and even skepticism until further research can confirm it.

Finally, a few words on the comparisons with Bangla. Given the 20–23% lexical similarity results between the Kurux of Bangladesh and Bangla, it seems that Bangla forms a notable portion of the everyday vocabulary of Kurux people. This is especially significant because Kurux and Bangla are members of totally different language families. Thus, we would have to attribute the presence of Bangla to borrowing; actually, the fact that many Kurux people told us that more and more people are using more and more Bangla words these days tells us that they haven’t just borrowed Bangla words, they’ve adopted them. If nothing changes within the Kurux community, it seems likely that more and more Bangla words will replace Kurux words in the future. This hints at a decreasing vitality of the Kurux language in Bangladesh. 13

At first glance, the vitality seems stronger in Dima since only 12% of their words have similarity with Bangla. This suggests that they haven’t adopted as many Bangla words into their everyday vocabulary. This could be true. Of course, we don’t know how much Hindi they may have adopted, or if the differences between Bangla and the Bengali spoken in West Bengal could account for the lower percentage.

As usual, we see that wordlists alone have limited explanatory power. They cannot tell us the reason for every anomaly or give insight on what is happening to the language in any one place. However, they can shed light on general trends and truths and, from the results of the Kurux wordlist, we can say that the Kurux spoken in Bangladesh is largely the same and that the differences probably will not be obstacles to language-development work.

Note: Questions 8a–d on the sociolinguistic questionnaire were designed to elicit native intuition/experience about differences in speech among the Kurux. However, the results only confirm the wordlists and shed no new light. Only five of the 57 respondents thought that there was any sort of difference in spoken Kurux and, even then, they each said that they could understand all of the speech.

4. Language Attitudes and Vitality Study

4.1. Procedures

A study of language attitudes is generally carried out in an effort to ascertain people’s perceptions of the different speech varieties with which they have contact. By studying how various languages are perceived, it is possible to get an idea of how positive or negative people are towards their own language and towards other language varieties.

A study of language vitality is designed to assess the probability of whether a language will be used by mother-tongue speakers in the future. This is done by asking subjects which language(s) they use in various domains, during everyday situations in which one language variety is considered more appropriate than another (Fasold 183). Studying language vitality is also done by comparing language use across generations and studying children’s language abilities. Such an assessment is an important part of the recommendations of a sociolinguistic report because any recommendations regarding language and literature development are dependent upon the projected long-term vitality of the language.

A sociolinguistic questionnaire was administered as a way of gathering language attitudes and vitality information. The questions were generally asked in Bangla. If a given subject was not fluent in Bangla, the questions were asked in their mother tongue. The questionnaire is in appendix B.1, while the subjects’ responses are in appendix C.

In addition to the sociolinguistic questionnaire, observation and informal interviews were used to gain further understanding into the language attitudes and vitality situation of the Kurux in Bangladesh.

4.2. Discussion of sample

The sociolinguistic questionnaire was administered to a total of 57 Kurux people in five villages in Bangladesh. The subjects were chosen based on age, sex, and education levels so as to get a wide variety of subjects. Among the 57 subjects, 30 were male and 27 were 14 female. Twenty-five subjects were educated (defined as having completed 8 th standard or higher) and 32 subjects had not completed 8 th standard and therefore were categorized at “uneducated.” Furthermore, 29 subjects were younger (defined as less than 35 years old), and 28 were “older.” With regards to religion, 34 of the subjects said they are Christian, 20 said they follow their traditional Sonaton religion, and three said they are Hindu. Finally, the mother tongue of each subject and also of each subject’s mother was Kurux. Two of the subjects said their father’s mother tongue was Sadri, and the other 55 said their father’s mother tongue was Kurux. Complete biographical data for each sociolinguistic questionnaire subject is in appendix E.2.

The five locations where the questionnaire was administered were chosen as representative of the areas within Bangladesh where Kurux is spoken. There is a relatively large population of Kurux living in Thakurgaon sub-district of Thakurgaon district, so two villages were visited in this area: Gabindanagar and Chandipur, the latter being slightly more remote. The area south and west of Rangpur city is another main area of the Kurux in Bangladesh; three villages were visited in this area. Lohanipara of Bodorganj sub-district is in the westernmost part of this Rangpur area and is relatively remote. The Boldipukur/Tajnagar village area of Mithapukur sub-district, on the other hand, is located near a Catholic mission and is quite close to Rangpur city. Finally, the Dulhapur/Rameswarpara village area of Mithapukur sub- district is reportedly the southernmost village area in which the Kurux live.

4.3. Results

For all items in the questionnaire, data is presented for all 57 subjects combined. In addition, when responses are notably different, according to a particular demographic factor, that is also mentioned.

4.3.1. Language use – in spoken domains

To do a study of language attitudes and language vitality, it is useful to first be aware of people’s language-use patterns. The sociolinguistic questionnaire contained five questions that asked subjects which language they speak most of the time in a given situation. There was also a question that asked subjects which language they speak most in a typical week. The aggregate of subjects’ responses is given in table 3. The results are given as a percentage of subjects who responded with the answer for each category. Because some subjects said they use more than one language “most of the time” in some situations, the sum of percentages for some questions is greater than 100 percent.

Table 3. Language use among the Kurux Response Key: NA = not applicable

Question Response What language do you use most of the time… Kurux Bangla Sadri NA …at home? 96% 9% 2% - …with your Kurux friends? 100% 5% 2% - …at church/temple? 70% 35% 2% - …with Sadri speakers? 12% 42% 47% 2% …with shopkeepers in the market? - 100% - - …in a typical week? 68% 30% 4% -

Results from the language-use questions indicate that the Kurux language is fairly widely used in Kurux villages in Bangladesh, especially for everyday conversations that take place in the home and with Kurux friends. All subjects said they use Kurux with Kurux friends in their village, and nearly all subjects (55 subjects; 96%) said they use Kurux most of the time at home. There were, however, five subjects (9%) who said they use Bangla most of the time at home. This includes three people who said they use both Kurux and Bangla “most of the time” and could not say which they use more. The other two subjects who said they use Bangla – and not Kurux – most of the time at home are both younger, uneducated women. This is significant in that it is generally young women who have the most influence on their children’s first language. Thus, though Kurux is still commonly used in Kurux villages, it is possible that Bangla will become more and more common as the medium of communication even in Kurux homes and among Kurux friends. It should also be mentioned that the one subject (2%) who said she speaks Sadri at home and with friends, said she also speaks Kurux in both settings. Her father is Sadri, and her mother is Kurux, so her language-use patterns are understandable.

Apparently, Kurux is also frequently used at the churches and temples that some Kurux people go to: 70% of the subjects said they use their mother tongue in such a setting. Looking at subjects’ responses according to their religion, however, shows that Sonaton and Hindu subjects are much more likely to use Kurux at their place of worship than are Christians. Of the 34 Christian subjects, 21 (62%) said they use Kurux most of the time at church, but of the 23 Sonaton and Hindu subjects 19 (83%) said they use Kurux most of the time at the temple. This difference could be because Christians tend to use more written materials at church than do Sonatons and Hindus at the temple, and these materials are often more widely available in Bangla.

Because both Kurux and Sadri speakers say they are ethnically Urao, and because Sadri serves as a language of wider communication (LWC) in parts of Rajshahi division, the Kurux sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects were asked specifically what language they speak with Sadri speakers. As table 3 shows, it is not common for Kurux speakers to speak in Kurux with Sadri speakers, presumably because most mother tongue Sadri speakers do not speak Kurux well. Only seven subjects (12%) said they speak Kurux with Sadri speakers. The others use Bangla (24 subjects; 42%) or Sadri (27 subjects; 47%). Some people went on to comment that many Kurux do not speak Sadri well and thus must use Bangla to communicate. (The question was not applicable for one older woman who said she never speaks with Sadri people.) This question was designed to give the researchers some initial insight into whether the Kurux would be able to use Sadri literature well. This data indicates that they probably would not.

Just as the Kurux must sometimes use Bangla to communicate with Sadri speakers, so they must use Bangla with shopkeepers in the market. All 57 of the subjects said they use Bangla—and only Bangla—most of the time with shopkeepers in the market. In these situations, the Kurux use Bangla out of necessity, since non-Kurux people in these settings generally do not speak Kurux or understand it well.

The final language-use question, which asked about use in a typical week, indicates that a majority of Kurux do still use their mother tongue most of the time: 39 subjects (68%) gave this response. Thirty percent, however, said they use Bangla most of the time. Looking at these responses further, according to subjects’ age and education, shows some interesting trends. These numbers are given in table 4. 16

Table 4. Language used most in a typical week, according to age and education of the subjects

Response Question Kurux Bangla Sadri Language used most in a typical week: Overall 68% 30% 4% Younger 62% 34% 7% Older 75% 25% - Educated 60% 40% 4% Uneducated 75% 22% 3%

When compared with the older and the uneducated subjects, the younger and the educated subjects are more likely to use Bangla most of the time. Although a majority of the younger and educated subjects do still use Kurux more often, there is a definite trend toward more Bangla use. As the Kurux become more educated and as the younger generation replaces the older generation, it is likely that even more people will use Bangla most of the time, unless something is done to reverse this trend.

4.3.2. Language use – in written domains

Sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects were also asked three questions about their use of language in written form. First they were asked about their literacy ability in any language. Of the 57 questionnaire subjects, 35 (61%) said they are able to read and write letters and notices written in some language. The other 22 people (39%) said they are not literate in any language. Not surprisingly, all of the subjects who had been classified as “educated” said they can read and write notices in some language, but only ten of the 32 “uneducated” subjects (31%) said they are literate. Because educated people were sought out for the sampling of this questionnaire so as to get a broad range of opinions, the sample is not representative of the Kurux population as a whole. Rather, the sample is more educated than the general population. Thus, the overall literacy rate among the Kurux in Bangladesh would be lower than 61%.

The 35 subjects who said they are able to read and write letters and notices in some language were then asked in which languages they are able to do so. All 35 (61% of the entire sample) said they are literate in Bangla, and ten subjects (18% of the entire sample) said they are literate in Kurux. A couple of subjects also said they can read and write in English (two subjects) or Santali (one subject). Literacy in Bangla, then, is much more prevalent than is literacy in Kurux. This is not surprising, since Bangla is the medium of education for most people in Bangladesh.

Finally, the 35 subjects who said they are literate were asked which script(s) they use for each language. Of course, all 35 subjects said they use Bangla script to read and write Bangla. Also, all ten subjects who said they are literate in Kurux said they use Bangla script for reading and writing Kurux. The three subjects who said they are literate in English or Santali said they use Roman script. Thus, for the relatively few Kurux speakers in Bangladesh who do write their mother tongue, Bangla script appears to be the script of choice.

4.3.3. Language attitudes – regarding language use

Looking at people’s opinions about language use is useful in understanding their attitudes towards their own and other languages. Thus, in addition to being asked what languages they do use in various situations, sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects were asked what language they think should be used in three specific situations. A summary of responses to these questions is given in table 5.

Table 5. Summary of responses to questions about what languages should be used Response Key: DK = does not know

Question Response What language should be used… Kurux Bangla DK …by a mother with her children? 93% 9% 2% …at church/temple? 77% 28% - …as the medium in primary school? 21 % 81 % 2%

The responses in table 5 show that most people think a Kurux mother should speak her mother tongue with her children. On the surface, this may seem to indicate that the Kurux have pride in their language and want it to be used in the home. There were, however, five people (9%) who said a mother should speak Bangla with her children. Four of these five people were young and four were women. If the opinion of many young Kurux women is that mothers should speak Bangla with their children, this indicates a less-positive attitude toward their mother tongue. It is also an indicator of how vital the language is; this is discussed further in section 4.3.5.

A majority of subjects also said Kurux should be used at church or the temple: 44 subjects (77%) gave this response, and 16 subjects (28%) said Bangla should be used in this setting. In looking at the responses people gave about the language they actually do use for worship (see table 3), it is worth noting that a few more subjects said their mother tongue should be used at church or temple than those who actually said they do use it. Overall, 70% said they do use their mother tongue at their place of worship, but 77% said their mother tongue should be used there. Interestingly, among the 34 Christian subjects 27 (79%) said their mother tongue should be used at church. This is considerably higher than the 62% who said they do use their mother tongue at church. Among the 23 Hindu or Sonaton subjects, however, only 17 (74%) said Kurux should be used at the temple, but 83% said they do use it there. Strong conclusions cannot be drawn from this small amount of data, but it does seem Christians are interested in using Kurux in church more than they actually do. This indicates at least somewhat positive attitudes towards their mother tongue.

On the other hand, the Kurux seem to be fairly like-minded about wanting Bangla to be the medium of education in primary school. Eighty-one percent of the respondents (46 people) gave this response, and only 21% (12 people) said Kurux should be used in this domain. Although there is a strong preference for Bangla, this in and of itself does not indicate a negative attitude towards Kurux. Rather, it is very possible the Kurux consider good Bangla skills important for attaining higher levels of education and getting good jobs. It could be for practical reasons, then, that they think Bangla should be the medium of education in primary school.

Looking at responses to this question according to subjects’ education shows some interesting differences in opinion. These responses are shown in table 6.

Table 6. Language that should be used as the primary school medium, according to education of the subjects

Response Question Kurux Bangla DK School medium preference: Overall 21% 81% 2% Educated 40% 68% - Uneducated 6% 91% 3%

An outsider might expect that educated people, who tend to be more proficient in Bangla, would think teachers should speak Bangla in primary school. As the numbers in table 6 show, however, among the sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects, it was the uneducated people who were much more likely to want Kurux children to attend Bangla-medium primary schools. It may be that these people do not speak standard Bangla as well as they would like to and that they want the children in their communities to have an opportunity to learn Bangla better. Some educated people, on the other hand, may feel that they speak Bangla well enough for their purposes and would prefer to have Kurux children learn at a mother tongue-medium school. In spite of these differences in opinion, according to education level, it still seems clear that most Kurux people think Bangla should be the medium of education in primary schools.

Sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects were also asked for their opinions about writing Kurux. Although Kurux has been developed to some extent in India, many Kurux in Bangladesh are not aware of this. Thus, subjects were first simply asked if they thought Kurux should be written. Fifty subjects (88%) said they did think it should be written, five subjects (9%) said it should not be written, and two subjects (4%) said they did not know.

The 50 people who said they thought Kurux should be written were then asked what script should be used to do so. Ten of these 50 subjects said they did not know which script should be used. Of the remaining 40 subjects, 33 (82%) said Bangla script should be used to write Kurux, six (15%) said Roman script should be used, and one person said Devnagri script should be used. Thus, although Kurux has been developed using Devnagri script in India, there is a clear preference here for it to be written using Bangla script.

Some Kurux leaders were also asked for their opinions on the issue of script. All those who were asked said Bangla script should be used because this would be easiest for the many people who already know it. One leader did go on to say that, although Bangla script is best for the people, Devnagri would be better for preserving the Kurux language. His fear was that if Bangla script is used to write Kurux, then Kurux as a language will disappear. His opinion is likely influenced by the fact that some Kurux books have been published in India using Devnagri script. Even this leader, who showed a preference for Devnagri script, did say this would pose a problem because everybody would have to be taught this script. Practically speaking, it does seem that, for Kurux speakers living in Bangladesh, Bangla would be the script of choice for reading and writing Kurux.

4.3.4. Language attitudes – towards language classes

Another set of language attitudes questions focused on literacy classes for Kurux children. Subjects were asked if they would send their children (or children from their village) to a multilingual education (MLE) class designed to teach them how to read and write first in Kurux and then in Bangla. Their responses show positive attitudes towards Kurux children’s learning to read and write in their mother tongue: 55 (96%) of the subjects said they would send their children to such a class, while only two subjects (4%) said they would not.

The 55 subjects who said they would send children to such a class were also asked why they would do so. Their reasons varied but can be grouped according to the responses shown in table 7.

Table 7. Reasons subjects gave for sending children to MLE literacy classes

Reason Response Rate To learn Kurux (better) 60% To learn both Kurux and Bangla 9% To learn (in general) 13% To preserve or develop Kurux 13% To be able to start with Kurux 4% because Bangla is hard at first Other 7%

Table 7 shows that, of the 55 subjects who said they would send Kurux children to Kurux and then Bangla literacy classes, the most common reason for answering this way was because they thought their children could learn Kurux better through such a class. Thirty-three subjects (60%) gave this reason, and another five subjects (9%) said they wanted children to attend such a class to learn both Kurux and Bangla. Seven people (13%) simply said such a class would be a good opportunity for the children “to learn,” seven other subjects (13%) said such literacy classes would help to preserve or develop the Kurux language, and so they would send their children for that reason. Two other people (4%) indicated it would be good for children to be able to first learn in Kurux, because Bangla is difficult for them at first. These two insightful people were getting at the heart of multilingual education.

The two people who said they would not send their children to Kurux and Bangla MLE classes were also asked why. One older woman said that, in her opinion, Kurux cannot be written, so such a class would not be possible. Another woman said Kurux children do not need to learn through Kurux, because they are already learning through Bangla.

Finally, the 55 subjects who said they would send their children to MLE classes were asked what they would be willing to give the teacher each month. This question was asked in an attempt to better understand whether people are truly interested in such classes, but it was often somewhat difficult for people to answer. Among the 55 subjects, 46 (84%) said they would give some amount of money each month, and a few specified the amount, which ranged from 10 to 50 taka per month. Three other subjects said they would give a certain amount of rice each day or each month, three said they didn’t know what they would give, and three said they wouldn’t give anything. These answers lend more support to the idea that 20 the Kurux in Bangladesh are in favor of having their children learn to read and write in Kurux.

All of these language use and attitudes questions combined indicate that the Kurux have only a somewhat positive attitude towards their language. They use it fairly widely in Kurux villages, nearly all think mothers should use it with their children, and many said they would send their children to a class where literacy in their mother tongue is taught. At the same time, they acknowledge a desire for Bangla in their lives: most think Bangla should be the medium of education in primary schools that Kurux children attend, and some young women said they think Kurux mothers should use Bangla with their children. Since these attitudes, as a whole, are somewhat positive but not overwhelmingly so, it is important to look at the vitality of the Kurux language in Bangladesh before any recommendations can be made.

4.3.5. Language vitality

In an effort to assess whether Kurux will be used as a mother tongue by future generations of Kurux in Bangladesh, questionnaire subjects were asked one question about the existence of Kurux people who do not speak Kurux well and several questions about children’s speech patterns. One key question subjects were asked was, “What language do children in this village speak first?” Responses to this question, for all subjects combined and also according to age and remoteness of location, are shown in table 8.

Table 8. Summary of responses about children’s first language, according to age and location of the subjects

Response Question Kurux Bangla Kids’ first language: Overall 58% 46% Younger 45% 55% Older 71% 46% Less remote 49% 57% More remote 73% 27%

The first language a young child speaks is generally the language he hears most at home. Among the sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects, 33 (58%) said children in their village speak Kurux first, but 26 subjects (46%) said children speak Bangla first. Whichever language they speak first, it is clear that many Kurux children are exposed to Bangla from an early age.

Looking at the responses according to subjects’ age shows that younger people were more likely to say Kurux children first learn Bangla, and older subjects were much more likely to say Kurux children first learn Kurux. It is possible that younger Kurux adults tend to use Bangla with Kurux children but that the older Kurux adults tend to speak Kurux with Kurux children.

There is also an interesting difference in responses according to the remoteness of subjects’ location. Those subjects from Gabindanagar, Boldipukur/Tajnagar, and Dulhapur/ Rameswarpara are considered for purposes of this survey to live in “less remote” locations, and those subjects from Chandipur and Lohanipara are considered to live in “more remote” 21 locations. According to this distinction, the subjects from the less remote areas were more likely to say Kurux children first learn Bangla, and the subjects from the more remote areas were much more likely to say Kurux children first learn Kurux. Bangla is undoubtedly used less frequently in the more remote areas, so it naturally follows that the children in these areas would tend to learn Kurux first. In the more urban areas, however, Kurux children are exposed to Bangla early on, and, as a result, many apparently learn to speak Bangla first.

These demographic breakdowns indicate that, as the younger generation replaces the older generation, it is likely that more and more Kurux children will speak Bangla as their first language. Also, as villages in Bangladesh become less and less remote due to increasing population and modernization, it is probable that an increasing number of Kurux children in remote locations will speak Bangla as their first language. At present, it seems that even if children do speak Kurux first, this form of Kurux would probably not be pure, but rather mixed with Bangla.

While many Kurux children reportedly speak Bangla as their first language, it could be that they later learn Kurux. The three questions presented in table 9 seek to shed some light on this possibility.

Table 9. Summary of responses to three language vitality questions Question Key: Not speak well = “Do you know of any Kurux person who does not speak Kurux well?” Kids speak well = “Do young people (age 10) in your village speak Kurux well, the way it ought to be spoken?” Others, before school = “Before starting school, do many children in your village speak any language besides [their first language]?”

Response Question Yes No Some can; some can’t Not speak well 58% 42% - Kids speak well 53% 46% 2% Others, before school 84% 16% -

The first question presented in table 9 is an attempt to assess adults’ ability in Kurux and the current strength of the Kurux language in Bangladesh. Thirty-three of the 57 subjects (58%) said they do know Kurux people who do not speak Kurux well, and many of these respondents went on to comment that such people include those who live in cities and/or Sadri-speaking areas, those who take pride in using Bangla, and many children. This alone is a sign that Kurux may not be a very vital language in Bangladesh.

The rest of the language vitality questions are an attempt to assess the future strength of the Kurux language in Bangladesh. Twenty-six subjects (46%) said young people in their village do not speak Kurux well. This is another strong indicator that Kurux, in its pure form, will not be vital in Bangladesh in the future. Rather, it seems that Kurux children are growing up bilingual, and that the Kurux language is becoming mixed. This is further shown in that, after subjects were asked what language children speak first (see table 8), they were asked if the children speak any other language before starting school, and 48 of the subjects (84%) said many Kurux children do speak another language before starting school. It seems clear, then, 22 that even at the age of 5 years old or younger, Kurux children are using two languages in their daily lives.

Those subjects who said many children do speak more than one language before starting school were then asked which language that is. Responses to this question, and responses to three final language vitality questions are presented in table 10.

Table 10. Summary of responses to four questions about children’s speech patterns Question Key: Which one before school = “[If children speak another language before school] which one(s)?” Kids’ best language = “What language do young people (age 10) in your village speak best?” Future language = “In about 30 years, when the children in this village grow up and have children of their own, what language do you think those children will speak?” Kids with each other = “What language do Kurux young people (age 10) speak with each other?” Response Key: NA = not applicable

Response Question Kurux Bangla Sadri NA Which one before school 35% 49% 2% 16% Kids’ best language 42% 65% - - Future language 60% 56% - - Kids with each other 77% 60% - -

Looking at the responses in table 8 and in the first question in table 10 together is most instructive. Overall, 58% of the subjects (33 subjects) said children speak Kurux as their first language (see table 8). This includes two people who said Kurux children speak both Kurux and Bangla as their “first language.” Of these 33 subjects, three then said children speak Kurux, and Kurux only, before starting school. All the others said they speak both Kurux and Bangla before starting school, and one man from Dulhapur said they speak Kurux, Bangla, and Sadri. Similarly, of the 26 subjects (46%; see table 8) who said children speak Bangla as their first language, four then said Kurux children speak Bangla, and Bangla only, before starting school. From these responses it seems that a young Kurux child is just as likely to be monolingual in Bangla as in Kurux. What is much more common, however, is for Kurux children, even at the age of 5 years old or younger, to use both languages in their daily lives.

Given that most Kurux children grow up speaking two languages, it can be insightful to know which language they speak best. As shown in table 10, a majority of subjects (37 subjects; 65%) said Kurux children speak Bangla as their best language. This is a very telling sign that the Kurux language in Bangladesh is not very vital but is, instead, at risk of being lost to Bangla. It is impossible to say how quickly this process may take place, but, when asked what language children in their village will speak in 30 years, 60% of the subjects (34 subjects) said they will speak Kurux. Nearly the same number (32 subjects; 56%) said they will speak Bangla. This includes ten people who said the children will speak both Kurux and Bangla and two insightful people who said the language the children will speak depends on the language their parents speak.

Finally, people were asked which language Kurux children speak with each other. Again, the responses were very mixed as 44 people (77%) said they speak Kurux and 34 people (60%) said they speak Bangla. This includes 21 subjects who said children speak both Kurux and Bangla with each other. For most settings and among most children, this is probably the most accurate picture; that children speak both Kurux and Bangla. Those children who live in more remote areas probably speak less Bangla than those in less remote areas, but the use of Bangla among Kurux children seems fairly widespread. It also seems very common that even when children speak Kurux, they speak a form of Kurux that is mixed with Bangla. This was confirmed by a village leader who said older Kurux speakers use a more pure form of Kurux than do younger speakers. It is also telling that a leader of a somewhat remote Kurux area said children in his village use Bangla with each other and that in 30 to 40 years only Bangla will be used in his village.

All of this language vitality information indicates fairly clearly that the Kurux language in Bangladesh is being threatened by Bangla. Kurux in its pure form will possibly be out of use within one generation, and the Kurux people of Bangladesh will likely speak increasingly more Bangla and increasingly less Kurux. This change will take place more slowly in the more remote areas, but even those areas are not immune to this change. Rather, unless intervention is made, Kurux as a language in Bangladesh will become less and less vital until it has been virtually lost to Bangla.

5. Bilingualism study

Bilingualism refers to the ability of an individual or an entire speech community to handle communication in a language other than the mother tongue. During the Kurux survey, two types of bilingualism data were collected: perceived bilingualism and measured Bangla bilingualism.

5.1. Perceived bilingualism

5.1.1. Procedures and discussion of sample

First, data about subjects’ perceived ability in various languages was collected. This was done through a series of six questions, which were administered orally as part of the sociolinguistic questionnaire. As mentioned in section 4.1, the questions were generally asked in Bangla. If a given subject was not fluent in Bangla, the questions were asked in their mother tongue. The questionnaire is found in appendix B.1 and subject responses are in appendix C.4.

Because these perceived bilingualism questions were part of the sociolinguistic questionnaire, the demographic profile for the 57 subjects is the same as given in section 4.2. Their biographical data is in appendix E.2.

5.1.2. Results

For all six questions regarding perceived bilingualism, data will be presented for all subjects combined. In addition, when responses are notably different according to a particular demographic factor, that will be mentioned.

The most basic question about bilingual ability simply asked subjects what languages they speak. After naming one or more second languages, subjects were also asked the age at which they began to learn each language. They were then asked which language they speak best and which language they speak second-best. A summary of the responses to these questions is in table 11.

Table 11. Summary of responses to questions about what languages people speak Question Key: Languages speak = “What languages are you able to speak?” Average age learned = “At what age did you begin to learn each?” Best language = “What language do you speak best?” 2nd -best language = “What language do you speak second best?” Response Key: NA = not applicable

Response Question Kurux Bangla Sadri Santali English Hindi Other NA Languages speak 100% 100% 63% 14% 7% 5% 4% - Average age learned 2 years 6 years 12 years 14 years 13 years 17 years 22 years - Best language 84% 19% 5% - - - - - 2nd -best language 12% 75% 3% - - - - 9%

Subjects’ responses in table 11 indicate that nearly all Kurux in Bangladesh are able to speak both Kurux and Bangla, for 100% of the sociolinguistic questionnaire subjects responded in this way. The average age at which they started to learn these languages, however, is different. Each respondent said they started to learn Kurux “from birth” or as their first language at the age of just a couple of years old. Most started to learn Bangla a little later, at the average age of six. This is likely a reflection of when many started primary school and/or when they started to interact with children from neighboring Bengali families.

Thus, it seems clear that those Kurux in Bangladesh who are now adults generally learned Kurux first and Bangla second. This is different from the pattern among Kurux children today. As was shown in table 8, nearly half of the questionnaire subjects said Kurux children speak Bangla first. From this data, an initial assumption can be made that there is a major shift in language use underway and that future generations of Kurux will be more and more comfortable with using Bangla and less and less comfortable with using Kurux.

Currently, however, many Kurux adults do apparently still speak Kurux as their best language. Among the 57 questionnaire respondents, 48 (84%) said their best language is Kurux. This could mean that they are most fluent in speaking their mother tongue or that they are simply most comfortable using it. There were also 11 subjects (19%) who said they speak Bangla as their best language. This includes four people who said they speak both Kurux and Bangla equally well and could not say which one they speak better. Among the other seven people who said they speak Bangla, and Bangla only, as their best language, six were under age 35.

Still today, though, those who speak Bangla well still speak Kurux, too. Table 11 shows that each of the seven people (12%) who said their best language is Bangla, then went on to say their second-best language is Kurux. Thus, the shift from Kurux to Bangla started among those who are now young adults, but even those adults who know Bangla well also know Kurux. 25

This shift seems to have picked up pace among today’s Kurux children. Referring back to table 10 of the vitality study, we see that 65% of the questionnaire subjects said children speak Bangla as their best language. This set of data is a strong indication that there is notable language shift taking place among this generation of Kurux children.

Besides Kurux and Bangla, the most common language Kurux people know is Sadri, which 36 subjects (63%) said they are able to speak. This includes six people who said they speak a “little Sadri,” so if these people are excluded from those who know Sadri, the result is that just over half of the subjects know Sadri. They started to learn Sadri at the average age of 12 years old, which is considerably older than when they started to learn Kurux and Bangla. This is an indication that, in general, they are probably not as fluent in Sadri. There were, however, three subjects who said they speak Sadri as their best language; one older woman who said she speaks both Kurux and Sadri as her “best” language and two younger women who said Sadri, and Sadri only, is their best language. Both of these women had lived out of the Kurux area for at least 15 years and said their second-best language is Bangla. This question about second-best language was not applicable for the woman who said she speaks both Kurux and Sadri as her “best” language or for the four people who said they speak both Kurux and Bangla best.

As table 11 shows, several subjects also said they know some Santali, English, and/or Hindi and that they started to learn these, on average, when they were teenagers. Thus, the Kurux of Bangladesh are not only bilingual, but also often multilingual.

After subjects named a second-best language, they were asked if they can always say what they want to say in that language. A summary of their answers to this question and to one final bilingualism question is in table 12.

Table 12. Summary of responses to two bilingualism questions Question Key: Always say in 2 nd ? = “Can you always say what you want to say in your second-best language?” Always say in Sadri? = “[If the person speaks Sadri but not as their best or second-best language] Can you always say what you want to say in Sadri?” Response Key: NA = not applicable

Response Question Yes No NA Always say in 2 nd ? 98% 2% - Always say in Sadri? 32% 23% 46%

The numbers in table 12 show that all but one subject (98%) said they can always say what they want in their second-best language. This does not necessarily mean they are fluent in that second language but rather that they feel they are sufficiently proficient in the domains they use that language for. The one subject who responded that she cannot always say what she wants to say in her second-best language said her second-best language is Bangla. In other words, even those subjects who said Kurux is their second-best language (see table 11) did say they can always say what they want to say in Kurux. This is further evidence that the Kurux do function in a very bilingual world, which is in line with what a village leader said, 26 namely, that all Kurux people in his village speak colloquial Bangla well and with proficiency equal to that of Kurux.

A final bilingualism question asked specifically about people’s perceived ability in Sadri. This special emphasis was placed on Sadri because it is used as a LWC in parts of Rajshahi division, because both the Sadri and the Kurux are of the same ethnicity, and because there is marriage between the Sadri and the Kurux, infrequent though it may be. We wanted to know if Sadri literature could possibly be used well by Kurux speakers in Bangladesh, and this question was designed to give some initial ideas about this possibility.

Those respondents who had previously mentioned Sadri as a language they are able to speak were asked if they can always say what they want to say in Sadri. This question was not applicable to the other 21 people nor was it applicable to those five who had said Sadri is their best or second-best language. Of the remaining 31 subjects, 18 (32% of the total) said they can always say what they want to say in Sadri. The other 13 (23% of the total) said they cannot always say what they want to say in Sadri. (Again, someone who says they can always say what they want to say in a language is not necessarily fluent in that language. This is proven true by the fact that two subjects who said they speak only a little Sadri then went on to say that they can always say what they want in Sadri. Such people possibly have little reason to use Sadri.) At any rate, combining the 18 people who said they can always say what they want in Sadri with the five who said Sadri is their best or second-best language, results in only 40% of the total questionnaire sample. Thus, it seems clear that the Kurux in Bangladesh are not able to make sufficient use of Sadri literature.

All of these responses about people’s perceived bilingual ability demonstrate widespread mother-tongue fluency among Kurux adults, but the responses also indicate that the Kurux live in a multilingual situation, with all respondents’ saying they also speak Bangla and many saying they speak Sadri, Santali, and/or another language or two. Today, most Kurux people still consider their mother tongue to be their best language, but the reported speech patterns of Kurux children and the Bangla ability of young Kurux adults indicate that in just one generation many Kurux adults may speak Bangla as their first and best language.

It is possible, then, that in another generation, most Kurux will be able to use Bangla literature well. The form of Bangla that many subjects may speak, however, could be colloquial, in which there is not much literature. Thus, it was important to test their ability in standard Bangla through a measured bilingualism test.

5.2. Measured Bangla bilingualism

5.2.1. Procedures

People’s production ability in standard Bangla was measured through the use of a Bangla SRT. The idea behind the SRT is basic: participants listen to each of 15 carefully selected sentences one at a time and are asked to repeat exactly what they have heard. Each repeated sentence is then scored according to a four-point scale (0–3), based on the participant’s ability to mimic a given sentence. The results are then expressed as a point total out of 45 possible points. They are also expressed as an equivalent bilingualism proficiency level, or reported proficiency evaluation (RPE) level. Table 13 displays SRT score ranges with the equivalent RPE level for the Bangla SRT (Kim 12). Appendix D.1 gives a detailed description of SRT testing, and appendix D.2 contains the final form of the Bangla SRT. 27

Table 13. Score ranges on the Bangla SRT corresponding to RPE levels

SRT Raw Equivalent Summary description of Score Range RPE level proficiency level 0 – 2 1 Minimal, limited proficiency 3 – 8 1+ Limited, basic proficiency 9 – 14 2 Adequate, basic proficiency 15 – 21 2+ Good, basic proficiency 22 – 27 3 Good, general proficiency 28 – 33 3+ Very good, general proficiency 34 – 39 4 Excellent proficiency 40 – 45 4+ Nearly native speaker proficiency

5.2.2. Discussion of sample

SRT methodology was developed as a means of testing a target community’s level of bilingualism in a national language or in another language of wider communication. During this survey, the target community was Kurux people living in predominantly Kurux villages in Bangladesh, and the national language tested was “the variety of Bangla spoken and published in Dhaka” (Kim 4).

A total of 108 mother tongue Kurux speakers took the Bangla SRT. The subjects were chosen based on age, sex, and education levels so as to get a wide variety of subjects. Among the 108 subjects, 57 were male and 51 were female. Fifty-nine subjects were under 35 years old and were, therefore, categorized as “younger” and 49 subjects were “older.” Furthermore, 46 subjects were educated (defined as having passed class 8 or higher) and 62 subjects were categorized as “uneducated.” Eighty of the subjects said they are Christian, another 22 said they follow the Sonaton religion, four said they are Buddhist, and two said they are Hindu. Finally, the mother tongue of each of the 108 subjects was Kurux, and the mother tongue of each of the subjects’ fathers and mothers was also Kurux, with the exception of two younger men whose mothers’ mother tongue was Sadri. SRT subject biodata is in appendix E.3.

The SRT was administered in three of the same locations that were used for sociolinguistic questionnaire administration: Gabindanagar, Boldipukur/Tajnagar, and Dulhapur/ Rameswarpara.

5.2.3. Results

Among the 108 Kurux speakers who took the 45-point Bangla SRT, the average score was 21, which corresponds to a high RPE level 2+ and has been described as “good, basic proficiency” (Radloff 153). A person who is proficient at this level can generally understand a mother tongue Bangla speaker, especially if the speaker speaks somewhat slowly and repetitively. Also, a person at a RPE level 2+ can often make himself understood but sometimes has difficulty because of mispronunciation, limited vocabulary in many domains, and lack of control of some grammar rules. This is the average ability of the Kurux subjects in standard Bangla.

As is the case with perceived bilingual ability, measured bilingual ability frequently correlates with various demographic factors. Thus, it is important to try to identify segments 28 of the population that are considerably more or less bilingual than this average. Looking at the four categories of education, age, sex, and religion, and dividing each into two subsets gives the information displayed in table 14.

Table 14. Bangla SRT scores according to demographic categories n = sample size SRT = average SRT score RPE = corresponding RPE level s = standard deviation r = range of scores

Education Age Sex Religion Overall Non- Educated Uneducated Younger Older Male Female Christian Christian n = 108 n = 46 n = 62 n = 59 n = 49 n = 57 n = 51 n = 80 n = 28 SRT = 21 SRT = 28 SRT = 16 SRT = 22 SRT = 20 SRT = 20 SRT = 22 SRT = 23 SRT = 15 RPE = 2+ RPE = 3+ RPE = 2+ RPE = 3 RPE = 2+ RPE = 2+ RPE = 3 RPE = 3 RPE = 2+ s = 9.2 s = 6.3 s = 7.3 s = 7.9 s = 10.6 s = 9.0 s = 9.6 s = 8.7 s = 7.5 r = 0-38 r =11-38 r = 0-35 r = 8-37 r = 0-38 r = 0-38 r = 5-38 r = 0-38 r = 2-37

Looking at subjects’ scores according to the demographic factors in table 14 shows that the most dramatic difference within any one demographic category is between the educated and the uneducated. The 46 educated subjects scored an average of 28 points on the Bangla SRT, which is equivalent to a RPE level 3+. The 62 uneducated subjects, however, scored an average of only 16 points, which is an RPE level 2+, a full RPE level lower. Also, there is a difference of 12 points between these two averages, and it can be noted from the range of scores that no educated person scored fewer than 11 points, while among the uneducated subjects, someone scored 0 points. Thus, education seems to be a very important factor in determining how proficient a Kurux speaker is in standard Bangla. In fact, among the 108 SRT subjects, the lowest 13 scores, and 46 of the lowest 49 scores, were of uneducated subjects. This is not surprising, since the medium of education for the Kurux in Bangladesh has been Bangla. As more Kurux speakers become educated in Bangla-medium schools they will become more bilingual in standard Bangla, moving from having only good, basic proficiency to having a very good, general proficiency in Bangla (see table 13).

Unlike with education, there was not much difference in subjects’ average scores based on age. The younger Kurux subjects scored an average of 22 points while the older ones scored an average of 20 points. Among the older subjects, however, there is a very high standard deviation of 10.6, and the range of scores is very wide, ranging from 0 to 38 points. Age in and of itself, then, may not be such an important factor in determining a Kurux person’s ability in standard Bangla. Rather, there are probably other factors at play within the population of older speakers. This is explored in the following data.

Likewise, the sex of a subject does not seem to be such an important factor in determining a Kurux person’s Bangla ability. In a very similar pattern to that in the age category, the 57 men scored an average of 20 points on the Bangla SRT, and the 51 women averaged 22 points. In both of these sub-categories, the standard deviation is high, and the range of scores is quite wide. Although the difference is small, it is intriguing that the Kurux women scored 29 higher on average than the men. This is contrary to what has been observed among other minority language groups in Bangladesh.

Finally, the religion of the subjects appears to make a difference in their average scores. The 80 Christian subjects scored an average of 23 points on the SRT, but the 28 non-Christian (primarily Sonaton) subjects scored an average of only 15 points. With a difference of 8 points between the two averages, this factor seems to be quite telling. It is possible that Christians are exposed to standard Bangla more frequently through literature that they use at church and possibly at home, too. It is also possible that Christians have more educational opportunities because they sometimes live quite close to mission schools.

Given the seeming importance of both education and religion as factors in determining a Kurux person’s Bangla ability, it is important to look at these two factors together. The high standard deviation among the older subjects indicates that there is some other factor at play there, too. Thus, we look at all the possible combinations of the three factors of age, education, and religion. Results are given in table 15.

Table 15. Bangla SRT results according to combinations of demographic categories n = sample size SRT = average SRT score RPE = corresponding RPE level s = standard deviation

Educated Uneducated Younger Older Younger Older n = 22 n = 19 n = 19 n = 20 SRT = 28 SRT = 29 SRT = 20 SRT = 16 Christian RPE = 3+ RPE = 3+ RPE = 2+ RPE = 2+ s = 4.5 s = 7.4 s = 6.7 s = 8.5 n = 5 n = 0 n = 13 n = 10 SRT = 25 SRT = 14 SRT = 10 Non-Christian RPE = 3 RPE = 2 RPE = 2 s = 9.3 s = 3.2 s = 5.6

Not surprisingly, the numbers in table 15 show that educated Christian Kurux speakers tend to be the most proficient in Bangla. On the other hand, uneducated, non-Christian Kurux speakers tend to be the least proficient in Bangla. This indicates that, as the Kurux become more educated, the group as a whole will become more and more fluent in Bangla. This rate of increased fluency in standard Bangla, however, will probably be slow because, according to the CIQ information (see appendix F), even today the number of Kurux children in Bangladesh who study through at least class eight is relatively small.

Again, it is interesting that a person’s religion plays a role in their standard Bangla proficiency. As table 15 shows, only five educated, non-Christian subjects took the Bangla SRT. This is because there were not many available for testing. Within Bangladesh, only a minority of Kurux are non-Christian and, among the non-Christians, the education level is not 30 as high as it is among the Christians. Thus, a total of only five educated, non-Christians took the Bangla SRT, and all of these were younger. These five subjects scored slightly lower than did the younger, educated Christians (25 points vs. 28). Among the uneducated Kurux subjects, however, there is a greater difference according to religion.

Looking first at the younger, uneducated subjects shows that the non-Christians scored six SRT points lower than did the Christians (14 points vs. 20 points). Similarly, among the older, uneducated subjects, the non-Christians scored six SRT points lower than did the Christians (10 points vs. 16 points). Again, it could be that Christians are more exposed to standard Bangla through the literature they use at church. Also, we were told that often Bengali Catholic priests are in charge of church services among the Kurux, and they conduct these services in Bangla, thus giving the Christian Kurux more exposure to Bangla.

Among the uneducated subjects, however, there seems to be at least one more factor at play. Looking more closely at these “uneducated” subjects’ level of education shows that the 23 uneducated non-Christians had attended school for an average of two years. The 39 uneducated Christians, on the other hand, had attended school for an average of nearly four years. At these low levels of education, it is possible that two additional years in Bangla- medium schools have served to give the Christian subjects that much more fluency in Bangla that they scored an average of six points higher than the uneducated non-Christians. If this is, in fact, the main factor behind this difference, it shows once again how important a factor education is in determining a Kurux person’s fluency in standard Bangla.

Finally, looking at the differences in scores between the various subsets of younger and older subjects in table 15 shows an interesting pattern. Among the educated Christian subjects, for example, the younger ones scored an average of one point lower than the older ones (28 points vs. 29 points). Among the uneducated Christian subjects, however, the younger ones scored four points higher than the older subjects (20 points vs. 16 points). The same pattern emerges among the uneducated non-Christians, among whom the younger subjects scored four points higher than the uneducated older ones (14 points vs. 10 points).

This pattern is in line with the findings of section 4.3.5 on language vitality, in which we saw that many young people, especially children, use Bangla in their daily lives. The pattern of younger people’s being more proficient in Bangla is also supported by the findings of section 5.1.2 on perceived bilingualism, in which we saw that a number of younger adults said their best language is Bangla. If this trend continues, and there is no indication that it won’t, the standard Bangla ability of the Kurux population as a whole will improve with time, regardless of education standards. As education standards also increase, the Kurux speakers’ standard Bangla abilities will improve even more quickly.

At present, there are still significant subsets of the Kurux population in Bangladesh which are not very fluent in standard Bangla. The largest subset is probably that of uneducated non- Christians, and among them the older Kurux have the least Bangla ability. If oral and/or written fluency in standard Bangla is a value among the Kurux, then this population should be a focus for non-formal Bangla education, because, for right now, this segment of the population does not speak standard Bangla well enough to be able to use either written or oral Bangla literature adequately. Most other segments of the Kurux population in Bangladesh would probably be able to use standard Bangla literature fairly well, and this ability will improve as more Kurux children attend schools to higher levels and as the younger generation replaces the older generation. These more-fluent segments represent a large 31 majority of the Kurux population in Bangladesh, so we can conclude that a majority of Kurux people in Bangladesh can use either written or oral Bangla literature well.

We can also conclude that literature in Sadri would not serve the Kurux population well because only a small minority of Kurux people in Bangladesh are adequately fluent in Sadri to understand Sadri literature. Finally, we can presume that, if the Kurux people of Bangladesh were to use Kurux literature, many children will have to gain fluency in Kurux before they can understand Kurux literature well. This is because the best language of many children appears to be Bangla.

6. Recommendations

A language-development program can be recommended for a minority language community for a variety of reasons. Especially if a community is not being served well by literature in a second language, there is good reason to recommend that the community seriously consider developing literature and starting literacy classes in their own language. Even if a community is being served well by literature in a second language, if there is motivation and there are resources among community members to develop their own language, that, too, is good reason to recommend language development by and for that language community. Such a program often serves to give children a more positive education experience, and it also strengthens and preserves the language and its community.

The situation of the Kurux in Bangladesh does not fit clearly into either of these situations. Many Kurux do seem to be fairly well served by both oral and written Bangla, but there are still segments of the population who undoubtedly struggle with understanding literature in standard Bangla. If current language-use patterns continue, however, the proportion of Kurux who may not be able to use Bangla literature well will decrease. In fact, current language-use patterns indicate that an increasing number of Kurux children may be able to use Bangla literature better than Kurux literature, even if a good Kurux literacy program were in place. Based solely on these findings, then, a language-development program for the Kurux of Bangladesh is not recommended.

Although many Kurux can make good use of literature in Bangla, most Kurux speakers exhibited a pride in their mother tongue and a willingness to gain literacy skills in their mother tongue. Thus, we would recommend a literacy and literature-development program to preserve and strengthen their language and community.

However, for such a program to succeed, there needs to be commitment of both material and human resources. A proven way to start an effective program is for the community to establish a committee of interested people, including leaders. This committee should think through the various options, the costs, and the benefits of a language program and then communicate what they think to the rest of the community. They should also determine whether there is sufficient support to start such a program and commitment to sustain the program; if not, they should think of ways to generate support and commitment. Finally, if there is satisfactory interest and support, committee members should be in communication with the Kurux in India, seeking to better understand what literature has already been developed on that side of the border. Once such a committee is established, SIL Bangladesh is willing to offer their training and consulting expertise in guiding such a program.

Because of script and possible dialect issues, Kurux literature from India could not be used as is by the Kurux of Bangladesh. It could, however, be a wonderful resource for developing Kurux literature in Bangladesh. If Kurux literature is developed in Bangladesh, we recommend that the variety spoken in the greater Rangpur area be developed, but there should also be people from the Thakurgaon area involved in the development process.

It seems clear that, if Kurux in Bangladesh is to be developed, this is the time to do it. If the program is delayed for a number of years, the Kurux may find that vitality has weakened and motivation has dropped to the point that a Kurux language-development program would be very difficult to sustain.

Bangla translations of section 1.1, section 2, and section 6

1. m~Pbv

1.1. j¶¨ I D‡Ïk¨ GB fvlvZvwË¡K Rwi‡ci D‡Ïk¨ wQj evsjv‡`‡k Kzi“L‡ì fvlv Dbœq‡b Kg©m~Px MÖn‡Yi R‡b¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq Z_¨ msMÖn| hwÌ D‡j−L¨ †h, SIL Bangladesh g‡b K‡i G ai‡bi Kg©m~Px MÖnY Kiv ev bv Kivi e¨vcv‡i Pzovš— wm×vš— †bqvi ¶gZv GKgvÎ Kzi“L m¤cÖ`v‡qiB i‡q‡Q, Gi mv‡_ mv‡_ Avgiv GUvI Rvb‡Z †c‡iwQ †h, KL‡bv KL‡bv G e¨vcv‡i cÖ_g c`‡¶c m¤cÖ`v‡qi evB‡i †_‡KI †bqv m¤¢e Avi Gi myô eë¯’vcbv Ab¨vb¨ AvMÖnx we‡kl‡Ái mn‡hvMxZvq mdjfv‡e KivI m¤¢e| ZvB Avgv‡ì D‡Ïk¨ n‡”Q Kzi“L m¤cÖ`vq Ges Ab¨ †Kvb AvMÖnx cÖwZôvb hviv Askx`vi wn‡m‡e KvR Ki‡Z Pvq Zv‡ì‡K me©‡kl I ¸i“Z¡c~Y© Z_¨ w`‡q mvnvh¨ Kiv| GB D‡Ïk¨ mvg‡b †i‡L Avgiv wb‡gœ ewY©Z j¶¨ ¯’vc‡bi gva¨‡g fvlvZvwË¡K Rwic cwiPvjbv K‡iwQ:

1. ivRkvnx wefv‡Mi wewfbœ AÂ‡j emevmiZ Kzi“L‡ì fvlvi AvÂwjK cÖKvi¸‡jvi g‡a¨ fvlvZvwË¡K cv_©K¨ wbY©q Kiv 2. Kzi“L fvlvfvlx‡ì Zv‡ì wb‡R‡ì fvlv Ges Ab¨vb¨ fvlvi cÖwZ g‡bvfve we‡k−lY Kiv 3. fwel¨‡ZI Kzi“L fvlv eëüZ nevi m¤¢vebv wbiƒcY Kiv 4. Avi Kzi“L fvlvfvlx‡ì evsjv Ges mv`wi fvlv eënvi Kivi ¶gZv hvPvB Kiv

GB me j‡¶¨ †cuŠQvi R‡b¨ ci¯úi m¤úwK©Z wZbwU fv‡M wef³ K‡i evsjv‡`‡ki Kzi“L‡ì g‡a¨ fvlvZvwË¡K Rwic Pvjv‡bv n‡q‡Q: 1) Kzi“L‡ì fvlvi wewfbœ AvÂwjK iƒç‡jvi ch©‡e¶Y, 2) fvlvi cÖwZ g‡bvfve Ges fwel¨‡ZI eëüZ nevi m¤¢vebv hvPvB Ges 3) wØfvwlK-Z‡Ë¡i ch©v‡jvPbv|

2. cÖvß Z‡_¨i mvivsk

2.1. fvlvi AvÂwjK iƒç‡jvi ch©‡e¶Y PviwU Kzi“L MÖvg †_‡K cÖvß kã-ZvwjKv¸‡jvi g‡a¨ Zzjbv Ki‡j 84 †_‡K 93 kZvsk k‡ãi wgj †`Lv hvq| hvi d‡j Avgiv ej‡Z cvwi †h, G fvlvwU evsjv‡`‡ki wewfbœ RvqMvq †gvUvgywU GKB iKg| Avi hLb G¸‡jv GKRb fviZxq Kzi“Lfvlxi KvQ †_‡K †bqv k‡ãi ZvwjKvi mv‡_ Zzjbv Kiv nq ZLb G wgj K‡g 39-41% †b‡g Av‡m| hwÌ GUv mZ¨ †h Kzi“L Ges me©¯^xK…Z evsjv `ywU wfbœ fvlvi cwiev‡ii m`m¨ ZeyI Zv‡ì g‡a¨ †ek wgj †`Lv wM‡q‡Q (20-23%)| hvi A_© n‡”Q, evsjv‡`‡ki Kzi“‡Liv evsjv †_‡K A‡bK kã avi K‡i wb‡q‡Q| Z…Zxq Aby‡”Q‡` G e¨vcv‡i we¯—vwiZ i‡q‡Q Avi k‡ãi ZvwjKvi R‡b¨ we¯—vwiZ i‡q‡Q cwiwkó A-‡Z|

2.2. fvlvi cÖwZ g‡bvfve Ges ¯’vwq‡Z¡i ch©‡e¶Y fvlvi eënvi Ges g‡bvfve welqK cÖ‡kœi DË‡ii gva¨‡g †`Lv hvq Kzi“L‡ì Zv‡ì fvlvi cÖwZ ‡gvUvgywU fvj g‡bvfve i‡q‡Q| eq¯‹iv mvaviYZ Kyi“L fvlvB MÖv‡gi cÖvq me‡¶‡Î eënvi K‡i _v‡K e‡j g‡b nq, wKš‘ A‡bK †Q‡j‡g‡qivB D‡j−L‡hvM¨fv‡e evsjv‡K Zv‡ì cÖ_g Ges me‡P‡q fvj fvlv wn‡m‡e eënvi K‡i _v‡K| Kzi“L †jv‡Kiv mvaviYZ Zv‡ì mš—vb‡ì Kzi“L fvlvq co‡Z I wjL‡Z wkLv‡Z AvMÖnx Ges GKBfv‡e Zviv G AvKv•¶vI e¨³ K‡i _v‡K †h Zv‡ì mš—vb‡ì Rxe‡b ‡hb evsjv GKwU ¸i“Z¡c~Y© f~wgKv cvjb Ki‡Z cv‡i| 34

fvlvi ¯’vwqZ¡ m¤úwK©Z Z‡_¨ †`Lv hvq †h, ‡gvUvgywUfv‡e LuvwU Kzi“L fvlvUv my`~i fwel¨‡Z evsjv‡`‡k ZZUv eëüZ n‡ebv| eis, m¤¢eZ, GK cÖRb¥ c‡i GwUi eënviB n‡e bv| A‡c¶vK…Z `yM©g GjvKvq G cwieZ©YUv ax‡i ax‡i NU‡e, wKš‘ ZeyI †m me GjvKvq G cwieZ©Y †VKv‡Z eë¯’v MÖnY Kiv ìKvi|

2.3. wØfvwl‡Z¡i ch©‡e¶Y Kzi“L †jvK‡ì wb‡R‡ì fvl¨ Abyhvqx GUv cwi¯‹vi †h Zv‡ì mgv‡R †ekxi fvM †jv‡KivB Kzi“L I evsjv `ywU fvlv‡ZB K_v ej‡Z m¶g| Ggb wK cuvP ev Zvi †P‡q Kg eq‡mi Kzi“L †Q‡j‡g‡qiv Zv‡ì ‰`bw›`b Rxe‡b `ywU fvlvB eënvi K‡i _v‡K|

SRT ‡_‡K cÖvß Z_¨ Øviv ‡evSv hvq †h, †Kvb e¨w³i me©¯^xK…Z evsjvi `¶Zv wbi“c‡b Zvi wk¶vMZ †hvM¨ZvB n‡”Q me©cÖavb gvcKvwV| Aci Av‡iKwU ¸i“Z¡c~Y© e¨vcvi n‡”Q ‡Kvb e¨w³ wLªóvb wKbv Dci wbf©ikxj| eZ©gv‡b Kzi“L †jvK‡ì g‡a¨ hviv evsjvq A`¶ i‡q‡Q Zv‡ì me‡P‡q eo Ask n‡”Q Awkw¶Z Ges wLªóvb bq| hwÌ m¤cÖ`v‡qi g‡a¨ G‡ì msL¨v KgB i‡q‡Q| Avi evKx me ‡jv‡Kiv m¤¢eZ me©¯^xK…Z evsjvq †jLv mvwnZ¨ †gvUvgywU fvjfv‡eB eënvi Ki‡Z cv‡i, Ges G eënvi Kivi ¶gZv m¤cÖ`v‡qi †jvK‡ì wk¶vMZ †hvM¨Zv e„w×i mv‡_ mv‡_ evo‡Z _vK‡e|

me‡k‡l, hwÌ Kzi“L †jvK‡ì wKQz Ask Rvwb‡q‡Q †h Zviv mv`wi ej‡Z cv‡i wKš‘ m¤cÖ`v‡qi mK‡ji mv`wi eënvi Kivi ¶gZv mv`wi fvlvq wjwLZ mvwnZ¨ eënv‡ii R‡b¨ h‡_ó bq|

6. mycvwik

GKwU msL¨vjNy fvlvi `‡ji R‡b¨ Zv‡ì fvlv Dbœq‡b Kg©m~Pxi c‡¶ mycvwik Kivi wcQ‡b †ek wKQz KviY _vK‡Z cv‡i| we‡kl fv‡e cÖ‡hvR¨ ‡mB m¤cÖ`v‡qi R‡b¨ hviv wØZxq †Kvb fvlvi Øviv h‡_ó DcK…Z n‡Z cv‡i bv| Avi ZvB H m¤cÖ`v‡qi †jvK‡ì‡K Zv‡ì wb‡R‡ì fvlvq mvwnZ¨ Dbœqb Ges ¯^v¶iZv Kg©m~Px Pvjy Ki‡Z we‡klfv‡e g‡bvwb‡ek‡b civgk© w`‡Z G KviYUvB h‡_ó| Z_vwc, hw` Ggb nq †h †Kvb m¤cÖ`vq wØZxq fvlv eënv‡i †ek DcK…Z n‡”Q ZeyI Zv‡ì g‡a¨ wb‡R‡ì fvlv Dbœq‡b AvMÖn Ges mvg_© Av‡Q Z‡e †mwUI n‡e Zv‡ì R‡b¨, m¤cÖ`v‡qi wb‡R‡ì Øviv fvlv Dbœq‡b Kg©m~Px MÖn‡Yi c‡¶ mycvwik ‡`qvi ‡¶‡Î fvj hyw³| G ai‡bi Kg©m~Px ev”Pv‡ì‡K GKwU BwZevPK wk¶vi AwfÁZv jv‡f mnvqZv K‡i Ges H fvlv I Zvi m¤cÖ`vq‡K `„p Ges myi¶v K‡i|

evsjv‡`‡ki Kzi“L‡ì †¶‡Î D‡j−wLZ Ae¯’v¸‡jvi †KvbwUB cwi¯‹vifv‡e ‡Pv‡L co‡Q bv| A‡bK Kzi“‡LivB g‡b n‡”Q K_¨ Ges wjwLZ evsjvi Øviv h‡_ó DcK…Z n‡”Q, Z_vwc, wbwðZfv‡e GUvI ejv hvq †h m¤cÖ`v‡qi wKQz As‡k †jvK‡ì me©¯^xK…Z evsjvq wjwLZ mvwnZ¨ eënv‡i h‡_ó AcviMZv i‡q‡Q| fvlvi eZ©gvb Ae¯’v Ae¨nZ _vK‡j Kzi“L‡ì g‡a¨ hviv evsjv mvwnZ¨ fvjfv‡e eënvi Ki‡Z cv‡i bv Zv‡ì msL¨v Kg‡e| e¯‘Z, hwÌ G Ae¯’vq Zv‡ì Kv‡Q GKwU fvj Kzi“L ¯^v¶iZv Kg©m~Pxi Dcw¯’wZ _vK‡Zv ZeyI eZ©gvb fvlv eënv‡ii ixwZi w`‡K j¶¨ K‡i g‡b n‡”Q †hb AwaK †_‡K AwaKZi msL¨K Kzi“L †Q‡j †g‡qiv Kzi“L fvlvi mvwn‡Zï †P‡q evsjv mwnZ¨ Av‡iv fvjfv‡e eënv‡i m¶g n‡q DV‡Q| ZvB ïaygvÎ G me Ae¯’vi cwi‡cÖw¶‡Z evsjv‡`‡ki Kyi“L‡ì R‡b¨ †Kvb fvlv Dbœqb Kg©m~Pxi civgk© ‡hŠw³K bq|

AwaKvsk Kzi“L †jv‡Kiv hwÌ evsjvq mvwnZ¨ fvjfv‡e eënvi Ki‡Z cv‡i ZeyI Kzi“L‡ì AwaKvskB Zv‡ì gvZ…fvlvi R‡b¨ Mwe©Z Ges Zviv Zv‡ì wb‡R‡ì fvlvq A¶i Ávb AR©‡Y AvMÖnx| ZvB Avgiv GKwU ¯^¶iZv Ges mwnZ¨ Dbœq‡bi Kg©m~Pxi mycvwik KiwQ hv Zv‡ì fvlv I m¤cÖ`vq‡K myi¶v Ges `„pZv cÖ`vb Ki‡e|

Z‡e †m RvZxq †Kvb Kg©m~Px mdjfv‡e ev¯—evq‡b m¤ú` Ges Rbkw³ Df‡qi cÖ‡qvRb i‡q‡Q| Kvh©Ki Kg©m~Px nv‡Z †bqvi R‡b¨ GKwU cixw¶Z c`‡¶c n‡”Q m¤cÖ`v‡qi †bZv‡ì wb‡q AvMÖnx †jv‡K‡ì Øviv GKwU KwgwU MVb Kiv| G KwgwU wewfbœ myweav, Amyweav, LiP, BZ¨vwì K_v wPš—v K‡i Zv‡ì gZvgZ m¤cÖ`v‡qi Ab¨vb¨ †jvK‡ì Kv‡Q Rvbv‡e| Zv‡ì GUvI w¯’i Ki‡Z n‡e †h, m¤cÖ`v‡qi Kv‡Q G RvZxq Kg©m~Px nv‡Z †bqv Ges Zv Pvwj‡q hvIqvi R‡b¨ h‡_ó mvg_© i‡q‡Q wKbv, hw` Zv bv †_‡K _v‡K Z‡e KwgwU‡K Zv AR©b Ki‡Z Ges G e¨vcv‡i g‡bvwb‡ek Ki‡Z mnvqZv Ki‡Z n‡e| me‡k‡l, hw` †`Lv hvq †h, Zv‡ì Kv‡Q m‡š—vlRbK AvMÖn Ges mvg_© i‡q‡Q Z‡e KwgwUi †jvK‡ì fvi‡Zi Kzi“L‡ì mv‡_ †hvMv‡hvM K‡i Rvb‡Z n‡e †mLv‡b wK ai‡bi mvwnZ¨ AvR ch©š— iwPZ n‡q‡Q| Gfv‡e hLb G RvZxq GKwU KwgwU ¯’vcb Kiv n‡q wM‡q _vK‡e ZLb SIL Bangladesh cÖwk¶Y Ges we‡kl‡Ái gZvgZ `v‡b G RvZxq Kg©m~Px GwM‡q wb‡Z mvnv‡h¨ m‡Pó n‡e|

eY©gvjv Ges m¤¢ve¨ fvlvi AvÂwjK iƒ‡ci cv_©‡Kï Kvi‡Y fvi‡Zi Kzi“L mvwnZ¨ evsjv‡`‡ki Kzi“Liv mivmwi eënvi Ki‡Z cvi‡ebv| Z_vwc GUv evsjv‡`‡k Kzi“L mvwnZ¨ Dbœq‡b GKwU PgrKvi Drm n‡Z cv‡i| evsjv‡`‡k Kzi“L fvlv Dbœq‡b e„nËi iscy‡ii Kzi“L fvlvi AvÂwjK iƒc eënvi Kivi R‡b¨ Avgv‡ì civgk© _vK‡e, Ges G Dbœqb c×wZ‡Z Ask wb‡Z VuvKziMuvI †_‡KI †jvK‡ì Ask MÖn‡bi cÖ‡qvRb i‡q‡Q|

GUv wbwðZ K‡iB ejv hv‡”Q †h, hw` evsjv‡`‡ki Kzi“L fvlvi Dbœqb Kivi ìKvi nq Z‡e Zvi R‡b¨ mgq GLbB| KviY hw` Kg©m~Px K‡qK eQ‡ii R‡b¨ wcwQ‡q ‡`qv nq Z‡e Kzi“L †jvK‡ì g‡a¨ Gi R‡b¨ AvMÖ‡ni NvUwZ †`Lv w`‡Z cv‡i Ges Avi my`~i fwel¨‡Z G fvlvi eënv‡ii m¤¢vebv n«vmI †c‡Z cv‡i hv Kzi“L fvlvq Dbœqb Kg©m~Px Pvjv‡bv KwVb K‡i Zzj‡e|

Appendix A. Wordlists

A.1. Standard procedures for counting lexical similarity

A standard list of 307 vocabulary items was collected from speakers at geographically representative Kurux villages in Bangladesh. These wordlists were compared with each other, with a wordlist from a Kurux village in India, and with a standard Bangla wordlist. These lists are presented in appendix A.3.

In standard procedure for lexical similarity comparison (Blair 26–33), the 307 words are elicited from a person who has grown up in the target locality. The list is then checked with a second speaker (unless the wordlist is elicited from a group of people). Any differences in responses are examined in order to identify (1) incorrect responses due to misunderstanding of the elicitation cue, (2) loan words offered in response to the language of elicitation when indigenous terms are actually still in use, and (3) terms which are simply at different places along the generic-specific lexical scale. Normally, a single term is recorded for each item of the wordlist. However, more than one term is recorded for a single item when synonymous terms are apparently in general use or when more than one specific term occupies the semantic area of a more generic item on the wordlist.

The wordlists are compared to determine the extent to which the vocabulary of each pair of speech forms is similar. No attempt is made to identify genuine cognates based on a network of sound correspondences. Rather, two items are judged to be phonetically similar if at least half of the segments compared are the same (category 1) and, of the remaining segments, at least half are rather similar (category 2). For example, if two items of eight segments in length are compared, these words are judged to be similar if at least four segments are virtually the same and at least two more are rather similar. The criteria applied are as follows:

Category 1 a. Contoid (consonant-like) segments which match exactly. b. Vocoid (vowel-like) segments which match exactly or differ by only one articulatory feature. c. Phonetically similar segments (often found as allophones) which are seen to correspond in at least three pairs of words. Category 2 All other phonetically similar pairs of segments which are not, however, supported by at least three pairs of words. Category 3 a. Pairs of segments which are not phonetically similar. b. A segment which is matched by no segment in the corresponding item.

After pairs of items on two wordlists had been determined to be phonetically similar or not, according to the criteria stated above, the percentage of items judged similar was calculated. The procedure was repeated for each pair of language varieties. The pair-by-pair counting procedure was greatly facilitated by the use of WordSurv ©, a computer program written by SIL for this purpose.

Occasionally, one or more of the standard 307 lexical items were found to be so problematic that consistent elicitation was impossible or evaluation of similarity became anomalous. In those cases, the problematic lexical items were excluded from the lexical similarity counts. 37

The wordlist data are field transcriptions and have not undergone thorough phonological and grammatical analysis.

A.2. Wordlist notes

A few other comments about wordlist procedures are in order for this survey. Where there are no elicitations for a given entry (marked as “not used”), that means that the word was not used because it was judged to be confusing or imprecise to several of the informants and generally difficult to elicit. A “no entry” means that we weren't able to elicit a response from only that particular village(s).

A few notes on the conventions used when comparing words: 1) Non-syllabic vowels were ignored (e.g. #66); 2) nasalization on the vowel was ignored as a feature during comparisons; and 3) elongation of vowels and consonants were also ignored (e.g. #43). These conventions were used in order to not increase dissimilarity in cases where simple differences in transcription styles could have introduced artificial differences.

Each elicitation is preceded by a number. For each gloss, all elicitations which have the same preceding number are considered to be phonetically similar and are grouped together. Following each elicitation is a list of one or more letters/number in brackets. These letters/number represent the wordlist site of that particular elicitation. The codes for these wordlist sites are as follows:

Code: Wordlist site A Dima, West Bengal, India B Gabindanagar, Bangladesh C Boldipukur, Bangladesh D Lohanipara, Bangladesh E Dulhapur, Bangladesh 0 (Bangla) 38

A.3. Wordlists 8 wind 1 tэqэ [ A ] 1 sky 1 taka [ BCDE ] 0 no entry [ B ] 2 bataЀ [ 0 ] 1 mϯrxa [ CDE ] 2 akaЀ [ 0 ] 9 lightning 3 mђ ijэ [ A ] 0 no entry [ A ] [ Ћal [ Bمba 1 [ sun 2 bir֒Ѐ hi [ C 2 [ A ] 2 bir֒Ѐi [ DE ] שگb 1 [ ddut ֒Ѐѐmkano [ 0گi [ BCDE ] 3 bײbi 1 2 ЀuѢdЋo [ 0 ] 10 thunder 3 moon 0 no entry [ A ] [ i [ BCDEשЀando [ BCDE ] 1 mu֒ 1 [ Ѐ hэnd [ A ] 2 mϯց h ցѐѢdЋon [ 0֒ 1 [ d [ 0Ѐa֒ 2 Ѐ hэnd [ A ] 11 sea֒ 2 0 no entry [ ADE ] 4 star 1 Ѐamdar [ C ] 1 binko [ BCDE ] 1 samudar [ B ] [ o [ 0שa [ 0 ] 2 Ѐѐmudשta 2 3 tϯrցэn [ A ] 12 mountain 5 cloud 0 no entry [ A ] [ ϯta [ Bשbadali [ CDE ] 1 pa 1 1 padali [ B ] 1 parta [ CD ] h [ 0E ] ײmϯց [ 0 ] 2 paha 2 [ i [ Aשbђb 3 13 water 6 rain 1 ammϯ [ BCDE ] [ Ѐϯb [ A ] 2 pani [ 0֒ 1 [ Ѐϯp [ B ] 3 эm [ A֒ 1 [ p [ CDEЀϯ֒ 1 Ѐ֒i [ 0 ] 14 riverگbr 2 1 k hэr [ A ] 7 rainbow 1 xar [ BDE ] h 1 d anukbar [ C ] 2 nadi [ C ] 1 d hanukdal [ B ] 2 nodi [ 0 ] [ amd hanu [ DEש 2 2 rѐ֊d hѐnu [ 0 ] 15 soil/ground [ ђdos [ A ] 0 no entry [ Aשndگ 3 [ Ћϯ [ BCDEمxat 1 [ ma֒i [ 0 2 39

16 mud 25 week 1 kada [ 0 ] 1 hэptэ [ A ] 1 kado [ BCDE ] 1 hapta [ BCDE ] 1 k hђd [ A ] 1 Ѐѐpta [ 0 ]

17 dust 26 month 1 d hula [ 0 ] 1 mэ inэ [ A ] 1 d huli [ BCDE ] 1 mahina [ BCDE ] 1 d hur [ A ] 2 maЀ [ 0 ]

18 stone 27 year [ pak hϯna [ B ] 1 ba֒Ѐ har [ BCDE 1 [ pak hna [ CDE ] 1 bѐ֒Ѐ hor [ 0 1 2 pat hor [ 0 ] 2 sэl [ A ] 3 d ho֊ցэ [ A ] 28 day 19 sand 0 no entry [ A ] 1 bali [ 0 ] 1 Ѩl⍧a [ BCD ] 1 balu [ BE ] 1 Ѩl⍧ϯ [ E ] [ n [ 0گЀalkul [ CD ] 2 d֒ 2 [ Ѐ hэlkul [ A֒ 2 29 morning [ i [ BCDEש)gold 1 pai 20 [ i [ AשЀona [ 0BCDE ] 1 p hэi 1 [ Ѐ hutэ [ A ] 2 Ѐѐkal [ 0֒ 2

21 silver 30 noon 0 no entry [ A ] 0 no entry [ A ] 1 rupa [ 0BCDE ] 1 dupahar [ C ] 1 dupar [ BDE ] 22 today 2 dupar [ BDE ] [ n⍧a [ BC ] 2 dupur [ 0گ 1 [ n⍧э [ ADگ 1 n⍧ϯ [ E ] 31 eveningگ 1 2 adЋ [ 0 ] [not used]

23 yesterday 32 night 0 no entry [ A ] 1 mэxэb [ A ] [ o [ BCDE ] 1 maxa [ BCDEשЀϯ֒ 1 2 ցѐtokal / kalke [ 0 ] 2 rat [ 0 ]

24 tomorrow 1 nϯla [ BCDE ] 1 nϯlэ [ A ] 2 aցamikal [ 0 ]

33 paddy rice 41 eggplant 0 no entry [ A ] 1 bϯtэ֊o [ A ] 1 xϯs [ C ] 1 bϯta֊ցo [ C ] 1 xϯЀϯ [ BE ] 1 bϯta֊o [ B ] 1 xϯsϯ [ D ] 2 bai(ցun [ E ] 2 d han [ 0 ] 2 bϯցun [ 0D ]

34 uncooked rice 42 peanut 0 no entry [ A ] 0 no entry [ A ] 1 tihil [ E ] 1 badam [ 0BCDE ] 1 tixil [ BCD ] Ѐal [ 0 ] 43 tree֒ 2 1 mэn [ A ] 35 cooked rice 1 man⍧ϯ [ BCDE ] [ mэndi [ C ] 2 ցa֒Ѐ h [ 0 1 1 mandi [ BDE ] 2 b hat [ 0 ] 44 branch 3 tϯk hil [ A ] 0 no entry [ A ] [ a [ CDEײda 1 [ i [ Bײwheat 1 da 36 [ al [ 0م ցohђm [ A ] 2 1 1 ցohom [ BCDE ] 2 ցѐm [ 0 ] 45 leaf h 1 эtk э / эtxэ [ A ] 37 corn 1 atxa [ BCDE ] 0 no entry [ A ] 2 pata [ 0 ] [ Ћinhor [ DEم 1 Ћinxor [ BC ] 46 thornم 1 [ b hu֒֒a [ 0 ] 1 at֒Ѐϯ [ BD 2 [ at֒Ѐ hϯ [ CE 1 [ potato 2 ka֒a [ 0 38 [ эlu [ A ] 3 э֒Ѐ h [ A 1 1 alu [ 0CD ] 1 alua( [ BE ] 47 root 1 pэdђr [ A ] 39 cauliflower 1 pada [ BCDE ] 1 fulkopi [ 0BCDE ] 2 mul [ 0 ] 1 p⍨ulkopi [ A ] 48 bamboo 40 cabbage 0 no entry [ A ] 1 bad hakopi [ 0BCDE ] 1 baЀ [ 0BCDE ] 1 bђndђkobi [ A ]

49 fruit 57 betelnut [ Ћђ [ A ] 0 no entry [ Aمk hэn 1 [ Ћpa [ BCD ] 1 ցua [ CDمxan 1 2 p hal [ E ] 1 ցuϯ [ E ] [ i [ 0Bשfѐl [ 0 ] 2 Ѐupa 3

50 jackfruit 58 lime for betelnut 0 no entry [ A ] 0 no entry [ A ] [ a [ CD ] 1 ֒Ѐun [ 0ײցa֒ ha 1 [ a [ B ] 1 ֒Ѐun⍧a [ BCDשցa֒ ha 1 [ a [ E ] 1 ֒Ѐun⍧ϯ [ Eײցa֒ h 1 [ a [ CDײցa֒ ha 2 a [ B ] 59 liquorשցa֒ ha 2 [ ka֒ hal [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ AB 2 1 ark hi [ CE ] [ oϯ [ Dשcoconut (ripe) 2 bo 51 0 no entry [ A ] 3 mѐd [ 0 ] [ ikϯl [ 0BCDEשna 1 60 milk 52 banana 1 dud h [ 0A ] 1 kѐla [ 0BCDE ] 1 dud hi [ BCDE ] [ э [ Aשke 1 61 oil 53 mango 1 iЀun [ D ] [ atxa [ BCDE ] 1 iЀu֊ [ CE֒ 1 1 tђtkэ / tђtxэ [ A ] 1 isu֊ [ AB ] 2 am [ 0 ] 2 tϯl [ 0 ]

54 flower 62 meat [ э [ Aשpup [ BCDE ] 1 эhэ 1 [ a [ CDEשp [ A ] 1 ahapu 1 [ a [ Bשful [ 0 ] 1 ahϯ 2 2 ma֊Ѐo [ 0 ] 55 seed 0 no entry [ A ] 63 salt 1 bidЋ [ 0 ] 1 bϯk [ BCDE ] [ bi֒Ѐi [ B ] 1 be ik [ A 1 2 bihini [ CDE ] 2 lѐbon / nun [ 0 ]

56 sugarcane 64 onion [ Ћ [ 0BCDEمno entry [ AE ] 1 pϯa 0 [ Ћ [ AمjэkuЀar [ D ] 1 pi 1 [ i [ CשkuЀa 1 [ i [ Bשkusa 1 2 ak h [ 0 ]

65 garlic 73 snake [ i [ A ] 1 nϯr [ Aשэsђש 1 [ i [ B ] 1 nϯrϯ [ BCDEײasש 1 [ i [ CDE ] 2 Ѐap [ 0ײras 1 2 rѐЀun [ 0 ] 74 crocodile 66 pepper [not used] [ mэr֒Ѐa [ CD 1 i֒Ѐa [ B ] 75 house lizardשma 1 [ mar֒Ѐϯ [ E ] 0 no entry [ A 1 [ ցa [ BD֊گmђr֒Ѐэ i [ A ] 1 tϯt 1 [ kki [ 0CEگk֒گ֒ i֒Ѐa [ B ] 2שma 2 [ Ѐ [ 0֒گשmo 2 76 turtle 67 elephant 0 no entry [ A ] h [ no entry [ A ] 1 ka֒Ѐ ua( [ BD 0 h [ hati [ 0BCDE ] 1 ka֒Ѐ uϯ( [ E 1 2 ϯk⍧a [ CD ] h [ tiger 3 kѐt֒Ѐ op [ 0 68 0 no entry [ A ] a [ BCDE ] 77 frogשlak 1 2 baց h [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ A ] 1 muxa [ CD ] 69 bear 2 bæ֊ [ 0BE ] 0 no entry [ A ] 1 b halu [ CD ] 78 dog 1 b haluk [ 0BE ] 1 эl⍧э [ A ] 1 al⍧a [ BCDE ] 70 deer 2 kukur [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ A ] n [ C ] 79 catگשhэ 1 [ n [ D ] 0 no entry [ Aگשha 1 [ n [ 0BE ] 1 bϯrxa [ BCDEگשho 1 [ al [ 0ײbi 2 71 monkey a [ BCDE ] 80 cowשband 1 1 bђndђr [ A ] 1 эdo [ A ] [ ⍧o [ BCDEمbanor [ 0 ] 1 a 2 [ u [ 0שbђndђr [ A ] 2 ցo 2

72 rabbit 81 buffalo 0 no entry [ A ] 1 manxa [ BCDE ] h 1 k hϯrha [ CDE ] 1 mђ֊k э [ A ] 1 k hϯrxa [ B ] 2 mohiЀ [ 0 ] 2 k hѐrցoЀ [ 0 ]

82 horn (of buffalo) 91 bird [ эk [ A ] 0 no entry [ Aשmэ 1 [ a [ BCDEײa֊ [ BCD ] 1 oשma 1 2 Ѐi֊ [ 0E ] 2 pak hi [ 0 ]

83 tail 92 insect 1 xola [ ABCDE ] 0 no entry [ A ] [ lϯdЋ [ 0 ] 1 po֒Ѐցo [ BCDE 2 2 poka [ 0 ] 84 goat a [ BCDE ] 93 cockroachײϯ 1 [ э [ A ] 0 no entry [ Aשϯ 1 [ Ѐ haցol [ 0 ] 1 umbalo [ BCD֒ 2 [ iЀu֊ po֒Ѐցo [ E 2 85 pig 3 tϯlapoka [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ A ] 1 kiЀi [ BCDE ] 94 bee 2 Ѐukor [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ A ] 1 tini [ BDE ] [ o [ Cײrat 2 b hau 86 [ no entry [ A ] 3 mou(ma֒Ѐ hi [ 0 0 1 oЀցa [ CDE ] 1 osցa [ B ] 95 fly 2 idur [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ A ] [ li [ BCDE֊گt 1 [ chicken (adult female) 2 ma֒Ѐ hi [ 0 87 1 k hϯr [ A ] 1 xϯr [ BCDE ] 96 spider [ a [ BCDEשmurցi [ 0 ] 1 mak 2 [ э [ Aשmђkђ 1 88 egg 2 makorЀa [ 0 ] [ э [ Aשbi [ ABCDE ] 2 mђkђ 1 [ im [ 0م 2 97 ant 89 fish 1 pok [ ABCDE ] [ a [ 0ײЋo [ A ] 2 pipمnگ 1 [ Ћo [ BCDEمin 1 ma֒Ѐ h [ 0 ] 98 mosquito 2 [ i [ Aשb huЀђ 1 [ i [ Bשduck 1 buЀi 90 [ i [ CDEשno entry [ A ] 1 buЀu 0 [ ϯ [ BCDE ] 2 mѐЀa [ 0ײցϯ 1 2 haЀ [ 0 ]

99 head 108 mouth 1 kѨk⍧u [ BCDE ] 1 ցal⍧ϯ [ BC ] 1 kuk h [ A ] 2 bэi [ AD ] 2 mat ha [ 0 ] 2 bai [ E ] 3 muk [ 0 ] 100 face 1 ցal⍧ϯ [ BCE ] 109 tongue 2 bэi [ D ] 1 tэrxэ [ A ] 3 muk h [ 0 ] 1 tatxa [ BCDE ] [ b [ 0گэ [ A ] 2 dЋשЀϯ֒ 4

101 neck 110 tooth 0 no entry [ A ] 1 pэl [ A ] 1 xϯЀϯr [ BCDE ] 1 pal⍧ϯ [ BCDE ] 2 ցѐla [ 0 ] 2 dat [ 0 ]

102 hair 111 elbow [ Ѐut⍧i [ BCDE ] 1 ցirxa [ BC֒ 1 [ Ѐuti [ A ] 2 ցuЀa [ D֒ 1 [ a [ EײЀul [ 0 ] 3 moց֒ 2 4 konui [ 0 ] [ hini [ Aگeye 5 k 103 1 k hэn [ A ] 1 xan [ B ] 112 hand 1 xan⍧ϯ [ CDE ] 0 no entry [ A ] [ Ѐok [ 0 ] 1 xϯtk hϯ [ B֒ 2 1 xetk ha [ CDE ] 104 nose 2 hat [ 0 ] 1 muhi [ BCDE ] 1 mui [ A ] 113 palm 2 nak [ 0 ] 1 xϯtk hatala [ E ] 1 xϯtk hϯtali [ B ] [ oa [ Cשear 2 ta 105 h 1 k ϯbdэ [ A ] 3 tali [ D ] 1 xϯbda [ BCDE ] 4 hatϯr tѐla [ 0 ] 2 kan [ 0 ] 5 tэrhэti [ A ]

106 cheek 114 finger 0 no entry [ A ] 1 э֊ցul [ A ] 1 ցal [ 0 ] 1 a֊ցli [ BCDE ] 1 ցal⍧ϯ [ BCDE ] 2 э֊ցul [ A ] 2 a֊ցur [ 0 ] 107 chin [not used ]

115 fingernail 122 sweat [ ok h [ A ] 0 no entry [ ABשo 1 [ ox [ BCDE ] 1 ϯr֒Ѐϯrna [ Cשo 1 [ nѐk [ 0 ] 1 ϯr֒Ѐna [ D 2 [ a [ Eײցarma 2 116 knee 3 ց ham [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ A ] 1 muka [ BCD ] 123 belly 1 mukϯ [ E ] 1 kul [ ABCDE ] [ ha֒u [ 0 ] 2 pϯ֒ [ 0 2

117 foot 124 heart (organ) 0 no entry [ A ] [not used] 1 ցurxi [ B ] 2 xϯtdϯ [ CDE ] 125 back 3 pѐd [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ A ] 1 mϯd [ BCDE ] h [ bone 2 pi֒ [ 0 118 [ a [ BDײtoց 1 ko֒Ѐ hol [ A ] 126 body 2 [ xo֒Ѐol [ CDE ] 1 dϯha [ BC 2 [ dϯho [ DE 1 [ 0 ] ײha 3 1 ցa / dϯho [ 0 ] [ Ћ [ Aمfat 2 mϯ 119 [ Ѐarbi [ BCD֒ 1 bi [ A ] 127 personשЀђ֒ 1 [ Ѐorbi [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ A֒ 1 2 nϯta [ BE ] 1 al [ BCDE ] 2 lok [ 0 ] 120 skin Ѐapta [ BCDE ] 128 man֒ 1 [ a [ 0 ] 1 mϯt [ BCDEשЀam֒ 1 [ uЀ [ 0שa [ 0 ] 2 puשЀam֒ 2 h [ uk [ Aשi [ A ] 3 kuשЀ hђm֒ 2

121 blood 129 woman 1 xϯs [ E ] 1 muk⍧a [ B ] 1 xϯso [ B ] 1 muk⍧э [ CDE ] [ la [ 0گЀo [ CD ] 2 mohxϯ 1 2 rѐkto [ 0 ] 3 эl⍧i [ A ] 3 lэhu [ A ] 130 father 1 bas [ AB ] 2 ba [ DE ] 3 baba [ 0C ]

131 mother 139 younger sister 1 jo [ ABD ] 0 no entry [ A ] 2 ajo [ C ] 1 maja [ BD ] [ ցri [ CE֊گ ijo [ AE ] 2 2 [ ma [ 0 ] 3 ֒Ѐ ho֒o bon [ 0 3

132 husband 140 friend 1 mϯtas [ BCDE ] 0 no entry [ A ] 1 metэs [ A ] 1 Ѐa֊ցi [ CD ] 2 Ѐami [ 0 ] 1 Ѐa֊xi [ B ] 2 bond hu [ 0E ] 133 wife 1 muk⍧a [ B ] 141 name 1 muk⍧э [ CDE ] 1 nэm [ A ] [ i [ 0 ] 1 nam [ 0שst 2 3 эl⍧i [ A ] 1 namϯ [ BCDE ]

134 son 142 village 1 hatdas [ B ] 1 pad⍧a [ BCDE ] [ am [ 0שxatdas [ C ] 2 ց 1 1 xatdϯЀ [ DE ] 3 lэ in [ A ] [ Ѐ hϯlϯ [ 0֒ 2 3 uk hos [ A ] 143 house [ ђpэ [ Aשϯ 1 135 daughter 1 ϯrpa [ BCDE ] [ i / ց hѐr [ 0ײkukoi( [ ABCDE ] 2 ba 1 2 mϯjϯ [ 0 ] 144 door 136 elder brother 1 bэli [ CDE ] 0 no entry [ A ] 1 bali [ B ] [ o b hai( / dada [ 0 ] 1 bђli [ Aײbѐ 1 1 dada [ BCDE ] 2 dѐrdЋa [ 0 ]

137 elder sister 145 window 0 no entry [ A ] 0 no entry [ A ] [ Ћanla [ BCDEم dai( [ BCDE ] 1 1 [ o bon / didi [ 0 ] 1 dЋanala [ 0ײbѐ 2

138 younger brother 146 roof [ no entry [ A ] 1 ֒ hat [ B 0 [ babu [ BD ] 2 ֒Ѐal [ CDE 1 [ is [ CE ] 3 ֒Ѐ had [ 0שց֊گ 2 [ Ѐ ho֒o b hai( [ 0 ] 4 ֒Ѐ hэin [ A֒ 3

147 wall of house 156 thread 0 no entry [ A ] 1 mϯr [ BCDE ] [ pэ֒Ѐi [ DE ] 2 Ѐuta [ 0 1 2 dϯal [ 0BCE ] 2 sutэ [ A ]

148 pillow 157 broom [ no entry [ A ] 1 ֒Ѐalki [ BCDE 0 [ Ѐ [ 0BCDE ] 1 ֒Ѐ hђlki [ Aگbal 1 [ u [ 0ײdЋ ha 2 149 blanket 0 no entry [ A ] 158 spoon (for eating) 1 duЀa [ C ] 0 no entry [ A ] [ a [ D ] 1 ֒Ѐamo֒Ѐ [ 0BCDEײkam 2 3 kѐmbol [ 0BCE ] 159 knife (to cut meat) 150 ring (on finger) 1 kanto [ BCDE ] 1 mukti [ B ] 1 qanto [ A ] [ i [ 0שmutdi [ CDE ] 2 ֒Ѐ hu 1 2 a֊ti [ 0E ] 2 ђ֊ti [ A ] 160 hammer [ a [ CDEײmuց 1 [ i [ 0Bשclothing 2 hatu 151 [ i [ A ] 3 mэt hul [ AשЀђ֒گk 1 [ i [ BCDEײki֒Ѐ h 1 2 poЀak [ 0 ] 161 axe 1 tђ֊ցђ [ A ] 152 cloth 1 to֊⍧ϯ [ BCD ] [not used] 1 to֊ցϯ [ E ] [ ku֒ har [ 0 2 153 medicine 0 no entry [ A ] 162 bow 1 mandar [ BCDE ] 0 no entry [ A ] 2 oЀud [ 0 ] 1 ցunt ha [ CD ] [ i [ Eש)Ѐiϯ֒ 2 154 paper 3 d hѐnuk [ 0B ] 0 no entry [ A ] 1 kaցodЋ [ 0BCDE ] 163 arrow [not used] 155 needle Ѐu֒Ѐ /Ѐui [ 0BCDE ] 164 spear 1 1 sui [ A ] 0 no entry [ A ] 1 p hala [ BCDE ] 2 bѐrЀa [ 0 ]

165 fire 174 to stand [ Ѐ hi֒Ѐ h [ A ] 0 no entry [ A֒ 1 [ Ћu [ BCDEمЀi֒Ѐ hi [ C ] 1 i֒ 1 [ ano [ 0שЀi֒Ѐ hi [ C ] 2 da֒ 2 [ Ѐi֒Ѐi [ BDE֒ 2 3 aցun [ 0 ] 175 to sit 1 ok [ ABCDE ] 166 ashes 2 bѐЀa [ 0 ] [ nd [ AگЀ֒ 1 Ѐindi [ BCDE ] 176 to lie down֒ 1 [ o [ BCDEײمЀ hai [ 0 ] 1 bϯ֒ 2 2 Ѐoa [ 0 ] [ smoke 3 ֒Ѐut [ A 167 1 du֊ցa [ BCD ] 1 du֊ցu [ E ] 177 to walk 2 d hoa [ 0 ] 1 ϯk [ ABCDE ] [ ֒a [ 0d hu֊ցijэ [ A ] 2 ha 3

168 candle 178 to fly [ iar [ BCDEשno entry [ A ] 1 u 0 [ a [ 0ײmombati [ 0BCDE ] 2 o 1 [ akϯrэ [ Aשo 3 169 boat 0 no entry [ A ] 179 to enter 1 nau( [ CD ] 0 no entry [ A ] 2 lau(kϯ [ E ] 1 kor [ BCDE ] [ hoka [ 0 م nou(ka [ 0B ] 2 2

170 road 180 to kick [ ϯ [ BCDE ] 0 no entry [ Aשdaha 1 [ ϯ [ A ] 1 la֒ h [ BCשdђhe 1 h [ asta [ 0 ] 1 lѐ֒ [ Dש 2 [ lѐ֒ hi [ E 1 [ a [ 0שpath 2 la֒ hi ma 171 [not used] 181 to swim 172 to go 0 no entry [ A ] 1 ցђl [ A ] 1 uց [ BCDE ] [ kal [ BCDE ] 2 Ѐatar ka֒a [ 0 1 2 dЋawa [ 0 ] 182 to see 173 to come 1 ϯr [ ABCDE ] 1 bэr [ A ] 2 dϯk ha [ 0 ] 1 bar [ BCDE ] 2 aЀa [ 0 ]

183 to hear 192 to laugh 1 mϯn [ BCDE ] 0 no entry [ A ] [ n [ A ] 1 alk ho [ CDEگm 1 2 Ѐona [ 0 ] 1 alxo [ B ] 2 haЀa [ 0 ] 184 to wait 0 no entry [ A ] 193 to speak 1 xap [ BCDE ] 1 bo [ BCDE ] [ a [ 0 ] 2 bѐla [ 0שѐpϯkk ha kѐ 2 3 t hei֊ցэ [ A ] 185 to cry 0 no entry [ A ] 194 to tell [Ѐiho [ CD ] [not used֒ 1 [ Ѐixo [ BE֒ 1 2 kada [ 0 ] 195 to know 0 no entry [ A ] 186 to cook 1 ax [ BCDE ] 0 no entry [ A ] 2 dЋana [ 0 ] 1 bit [ BCDE ] a [ 0 ] 196 to forgetשranna kѐ 2 0 no entry [ A ] [ o [ BCDEשto boil (water) 1 mod 187 h 0 no entry [ AB ] 2 b ulϯ dЋawa [ 0 ] 1 bit [ CDE ] a [ 0 ] 197 to sleepשЀidd ho kѐ 2 [ э [ Aשkэnd 1 [ o [ BCDEשto eat 1 xand 188 h 1 on [ ABCDE ] 2 ց umano [ 0 ] 2 k hawa [ 0 ] 198 to dream 189 to drink 0 no entry [ A ] 1 on [ ABCDE ] 1 Ѐapnar [ BCDE ] h 2 pani k hawa [ 0 ] 2 Ѐѐpno dϯk a [ 0 ]

190 to sing 199 to do/make 1 dandi par [ BCDE ] 0 no entry [ A ] 2 ցan ցawa [ 0 ] 1 kam [ BCDE ] [ a [ 0שpэd [ A ] 2 kѐ 3

191 to bite 200 to work [ Ѐab [ BCDE ] 0 no entry [ A֒ 1 [ ano [ 0 ] 1 kamnan [ Bײkam 2 [ mija [ A ] 2 nalaknan [ CDEשэl⍧э pu 3 [ a [ 0שkadЋ kѐ 3

201 to play 210 to sew 0 no entry [ A ] 0 no entry [ A ] [ Ћo [ BCDEمbϯ֒Ѐ [ BCDE ] 1 ot 1 [ a [ 0שk hϯla [ 0 ] 2 Ѐϯlai( kѐ 2

202 to dance 211 to wash (face/hand) 0 no entry [ A ] 0 no entry [ A ] [ bϯ֒Ѐ [ BDE ] 1 nor [ BCDE 1 2 nal [ CDE ] 2 d hoa [ 0 ] [ na֒Ѐa [ 0 3 212 to take bath 203 to throw 0 no entry [ A ] 0 no entry [ AB ] 1 ϯm [ BCDE ] [ a [ 0שlϯbdo [ CDE ] 2 ցosol kѐ 1 [ a [ 0שЀ ho֒ 2 213 to cut something 204 to lift 0 no entry [ A ] 0 no entry [ AB ] 1 k hand [ BCDE ] [ Ѐod [ CDE ] 2 ka֒a [ 0֒ 1 2 tola [ 0 ] 214 to burn 205 to push 1 oldo [ BCDE ] [ ano [ 0ײno entry [ A ] 2 po 0 1 tuk [ BCDE ] 3 qэ֊k holэli [ A ] 2 d hakka dϯwa [ 0 ] 215 to buy 206 to pull 0 no entry [ A ] 0 no entry [ A ] 1 xϯnd [ BCDE ] [ an [ BCDE ] 2 kena [ 0֒ 1 [ ana [ 0֒ 1 216 to sell 207 to tie 0 no entry [ A ] 0 no entry [ A ] 1 bis [ BC ] 1 hϯ [ BCDE ] 1 biЀ [ DE ] [ a [ 0שi kѐשd ha [ 0 ] 2 bikba 2

208 to wipe 217 to steal 0 no entry [ A ] 0 no entry [ A ] [ Ѐi֒Ѐo [ BCDE ] 1 xar [ B֒ 1 [ mo֒Ѐ ha [ 0 ] 2 har [ CDE 2 [ a [ 0שi kѐשЀu֒ 3 209 to weave (on loom) 0 no entry [ AE ] 1 ϯs [ BCD ] 2 tatϯ bona [ 0 ]

218 to lie, fib 226 two 0 no entry [ AB ] 1 du [ A ] 1 dЋut kat ha bo [ CD ] 1 dui( [ 0BCDE ] [ t ha bo [ Eگm 2 tt ha bѐla [ 0 ] 227 threeگm 2 [ n [ 0ABCDEگt 1 219 to take 0 no entry [ A ] 228 four [ xo [ B ] 1 ֒Ѐэr [ A 1 [ ho [ CDE ] 1 ֒Ѐar [ 0BCDE 2 3 nϯa [ 0 ] 229 five [ to give 1 pэْ֒Ѐ [ A 220 [ Ѐi [ ABCDE ] 1 pa֒Ѐ [ 0BCDE֒ 1 2 dϯa [ 0 ] 230 six h [ to kill 1 ֒Ѐ ѐi( [ 0BCDE 221 h u [ no entry [ A ] 1 ֒Ѐ o [ A 0 1 pit [ BCDE ] a fϯla [ 0 ] 231 sevenשma 2 1 Ѐat [ 0BCDE ] 222 to die 1 sat [ A ] 1 k hϯ [ BCDE ] a dЋawa [ 0 ] 232 eightשma 2 [ ђs [ A ] 1 a֒ [ 0BCDEשگЀђsk֒گk 3 h [ э֒ [ A 2 223 to love 0 no entry [ AE ] 233 nine u [ ϯlaց [ B ] 1 nэ [ Aשko 1 2 dularnan [ C ] 1 nѐi( [ 0BCDE ] 3 b halobaЀa [ 0D ] 234 ten 224 to hate 1 dэs [ A ] 0 no entry [ ABE ] 1 dѐЀ [ 0BCDE ] 1 xar [ CD ] a [ 0 ] 235 elevenשina kѐשց h 2 [ o [ 0BCDEשæցa 1 [ э [ Aשone 1 ցэ 225 1 ѐntэ [ A ] 1 ond [ CE ] 236 twelve [ э [ Aשot han [ D ] 1 bэ 2 [ o [ 0BCDEײek [ 0B ] 1 ba 3

237 twenty 246 long [ ցha [ BCDEگbis [ A ] 1 d 1 1 biЀ [ 0BCDE ] 2 lђmti [ A ] 2 lѐmba [ 0 ] 238 hundred 1 Ѐѐ [ 0BCDE ] 247 short (length) 2 sэ u [ A ] [not used]

239 thousand 248 heavy h 0 no entry [ A ] 1 ot ⍧a [ BCDE ] h [ i [ 0שhadЋar [ 0BCDE ] 2 b a 1 [ [ AЋђمo 3 240 few [not used] 249 light (not heavy) 1 nϯb⍧a [ BCDE ] 241 some 2 halka [ 0 ] [ Ћђnmђlђ [ Aمno entry [ A ] 3 o 0 [ ϯ [ BCDשt ho 1 i [ E ] 250 fatשt hu 1 [ Ѐ hu [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ A֒گk 2 [ mo֒a [ 0BCDE 1 242 many 1 dϯr [ BCDE ] 251 thin 2 ѐnϯk [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ A ] [ ua [ Dשbђցe [ A ] 1 Ѐa 3 [ uϯ [ EשЀa 1 [ uha [ BCשall 1 sa 243 [ horma [ E ] 2 ֒Ѐikon [ 0 1 1 hurmi [ BCD ] 2 Ѐѐb [ 0 ] 252 wide, broad [ Ћђmэ [ A ] 0 no entry [ Aم 3 [ Ѐakar [ BCD֒ 1 [ big 2 ֒Ѐϯpta [ E 244 [ a [ 0ײkoha [ BCDE ] 3 ֒Ѐѐ 1 [ o [ 0ײbѐ 2 3 ցђ ilэ [ A ] 253 narrow 0 no entry [ A ] [ uhϯ [ Eשsmall 1 Ѐa 245 [ uha [ BCDשЀan⍧i [ DE ] 1 sa 1 [ u [ 0שsan⍧i [ B ] 2 Ѐѐ 1 [ Ѐuk⍧э [ A֒ 1 Ѐ hotϯ [ CD ] 254 deep֒ 2 [ Ѐ hoto [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ A֒ 2 [ ⍧i [ BCDEمЀuk⍧э [ A ] 1 ցa֒ 2 2 ցob hir [ 0 ]

255 shallow 262 bitter 0 no entry [ AC ] 0 no entry [ A ] [ ϯ [ B ] 1 xalxa [ BCDשt ho 1 [ p⍧a [ D ] 2 tita [ 0گd 2 [ p⍧ϯ [ E ] 2 titϯm [ Eگd 2 3 ѐցob hir [ 0 ] 263 spicy, hot 256 full (cup) 0 no entry [ A ] 0 no entry [ A ] 1 xalxa [ BCDE ] [ nd [ BCDE ] 2 dЋ hal [ 0گn 1 2 purno [ 0 ] 264 ripe 257 empty (cup) 0 no entry [ A ] [ Ћka [ BCDEمno entry [ A ] 1 pan 0 1 nidi [ B ] 1 paka [ 0 ] 2 xai(ka [ C ] (a malla [ E ] 265 rotten (fruitשϯnd 3 [ aha malla [ D ] 0 no entry [ Aשϯnd 3 4 k hali [ 0 ] 1 kitka [ BC ] 1 kit⍧ia( [ D ] 258 hungry 1 kit⍧iϯ( [ E ] [ э [ A ] 2 pѐ֒Ѐa [ 0שk hi 1 [ a [ BCDײki 1 ϯ [ E ] 266 fastײki 1 2 k hidϯ laցa [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ A ] [ Ћaldi [ BCDEم 1 [ i [ 0ײataײthirsty 2 ta 259 1 o֊kэ [ A ] 1 onka [ BCDE ] 267 slow 2 pipaЀa pawa [ 0 ] 0 no entry [ A ] [ ϯ [ 0Dשϯ d hiשd hi 1 [ ϯ [ Cשsweet 1 di 260 [ ϯm [ BEשno entry [ A ] 1 di 0 1 ϯmba [ BCDE ] miЀ֒i [ 0 ] 268 same 2 1 ontam [ BCD ] 261 sour 1 ontanum [ E ] 0 no entry [ A ] 2 ϯki [ 0 ] 1 tiЀa [ BD ] 3 sэmэn [ A ] 1 tisa [ C ] 1 tisϯ [ E ] 269 different [ i [ Bשѐk [ 0 ] 1 mamis֒ 2 [ Ћuda [ CDEم 2 3 b hinno [ 0 ] [ Ѐђ [ A֒گց 4

270 dry 278 broken 1 xaϯ(ka [ B ] 1 hotϯrka [ B ] 1 xai(ka [ CD ] 1 hotorka [ CD ] [ a [ Eשxai(kϯ [ E ] 2 ϯsϯ 1 [ a [ AשЀukna [ 0 ] 2 ϯs 2 3 suk hэl [ A ] 3 b ha֊֊a [ 0 ]

271 wet 279 above [ i(nja [ BCDEЀaϯ(ka [ B ] 1 mэ֒ 1 [ ْjэ [ AЀai(ka [ CD ] 1 mђ֒ 1 [ e [ 0שЀai(kϯ [ E ] 2 upo֒ 1 [ Ћal [ Aمْگb h 2 2 b hidЋa [ 0 ] 280 below 1 kija [ BCD ] 272 hot (weather) 1 kijэ [ A ] [ ђm [ A ] 1 kijϯ [ Eשցэ 1 [ am [ BCDE ] 2 ni֒Ѐϯ [ 0שցa 1 [ om [ 0שցѐ 1 281 far [ cold (weather) 1 ցϯ֒Ѐэ [ A 273 [ kirna [ BCDE ] 1 ցϯt֒Ѐ ha [ BCDE 1 [ ϯ [ 0שkenэm [ A ] 2 du 1 [ a [ 0مhan ֒ 2 282 near 274 good 1 hϯd⍧ϯ [ BCDE ] [ ϯ [ BCD ] 1 hidi [ Aשko 1 [ ϯm [ A ] 2 ka֒Ѐ hϯ [ 0שko 1 2 b halo [ 0DE ] 283 right [ i [ BDEײbad 1 ma 275 0 no entry [ AD ] 2 tina [ CD ] [ an [ 0م ϯ maldaց [ B ] 3שko 1 [ ϯ [ C ] 4 delэ [ Aשmal ko 2 [ ap [ 0Eשk ha 3 284 left 276 new 1 lϯ֊a [ BDE ] 1 puna [ BCDE ] 2 dϯb⍧a [ CD ] 1 punэ [ A ] 3 bam [ 0 ] 2 notun [ 0 ] 4 bэ ijэ [ A ]

277 old 285 black [ o [ Aשpat֒Ѐa [ BCDE ] 1 mok hэ 1 [ o [ BCDEשp hђ֒Ѐ hэ [ A ] 1 moxa 2 [ ano [ 0 ] 2 kalo [ 0שpu 3

286 white 295 this thing [ u [ BCDE ] 1 id [ ABCDEשpand 1 [ Ѐada [ 0 ] 2 e֒a [ 0 2 2 sэdэ [ A ] 296 that thing 287 red 1 ad [ ABCDE ] [ lal [ 0ABCDE ] 2 o֒a [ 0 1

288 green 297 these things [ a [ BCײno entry [ A ] 1 ib 0 [ э [ DײЀobudЋ [ 0 ] 1 ib 1 [ ϯ [ Eײiar [ BCDE ] 1 ibשha 2 2 ϯցulo [ 0 ] [ э [ Aשyellow 3 ond 289 0 no entry [ A ] 1 balka [ BCDE ] 298 those things [ a [ BCDEײholud [ 0 ] 1 ab 2 2 oցulo [ 0 ] [ э [ Aשwhen (near future) 3 udϯnd 290 1 ϯkabaki [ BCDE ] 2 kѐk hon [ 0 ] 299 1s 2 эkun [ A ] 1 ϯn [ ABCDE ] 2 ami [ 0 ] 291 where 1 ϯksэn [ A ] 300 2s (familiar) 1 ϯksan [ BC ] 1 nin [ ABCDE ] 1 ϯЀan [ DE ] 2 tumi [ 0 ] 2 kot hai( [ 0 ] 301 2s (honorific) 292 who [not used] 1 nϯ [ BCDE ] 2 kϯ [ 0 ] 302 3s (generic/male) 3 is [ A ] 1 эs [ A ] 1 as [ BCDE ] 293 what 2 Ѐϯ [ 0 ] [ a [ BCDEשϯnd 1 2 ki [ 0 ] 303 3s (female) 3 nekэ i [ A ] 1 ad [ BCDE ] 2 Ѐϯ [ 0 ] 294 how many 3 эs [ A ] 0 no entry [ A ] e֒a [ BCD ] 304 1p 1 [ i [ E ] 1 ϯn [ Aשkai(֒a 2 [ kѐi(֒a [ 0 ] 2 em / nam [ BCDE 3 [ a [ 0שam 3

305 2p (familiar) [ n [ Aگn 1

1 nim [ BCDE ] [ a [ 0שtom 2

306 2p (honorific)

[not used]

307 3p 1 эs [ A ] 2 ar [ BCDE ] [ a [ 0שta 3

Appendix B. Questionnaires

B.1. Sociolinguistic questionnaire

1. In each of the following places and activities, what language do you use most of the time? 1. wb‡P D‡j−wLZ wewfbœ ¯’vb Ges KvR-K‡g©, †ekxifvM mg‡q Avcwb †Kvb fvlvwU eënvi K‡ib? 1a. At home 1K. evox‡Z 1b. With your Kurux friends 1L. Avcbvi KziƒL eÜz‡ì mv‡_ 1c. At church/temple 1M. MxR©vq/Dcvmbvj‡q 1d. With Sadri speakers 1N. mvw`ª †jvK‡ì mv‡_ 1e. With shopkeepers in the market 1O. evRvi/nv‡U wM‡q †`vKvb`v‡ii mv‡_

2. In a typical week, which language do you use most? 2. mvaviYZ GKwU mß‡n Avcwb †Kvb fvlvwU †ekx e¨envi K‡ib?

3a. What languages are you able to speak? 3K. †Kvb †Kvb fvlvq Avcwb K_v ej‡Z cv‡ib?

3b. At what age did you begin to learn each? 3L. KZ eQi eq‡m Avcwb GB fvlv¸‡jv wkL‡Z ïi“ K‡iwQ‡jb?

4. What language do you speak best? 4. †Kvb fvlvwU Avcwb me‡P‡q fv‡jvfv‡e ej‡Z cv‡ib?

5. What language do you speak second best? 5. †Kvb fvlvwU Avcwb wØZxq fv‡jvfv‡e ej‡Z cv‡ib?

6. Can you always say what you want to say in your second-best language? 6. Avcwb wØZxq †h fvlvwU fv‡jvfv‡e ej‡Z cv‡ib, †m fvlv‡Z wK memgq hv ej‡Z Pvb Zv ej‡Z cv‡ib?

7. [If the person speaks Sadri but not as his best or second-best language] Can you always say what you want to say in Sadri? 7. [hw` wZwb mvw`ª ej‡Z cv‡ib wKš‘ Zvi me‡P‡q fvj ev wØZxq fvjfv‡e ej‡Z cvivi fvlv wn‡m‡e bq] Avcwb wK mvw`ª fvlvq memgq hv ej‡Z Pvb Zv ej‡Z cv‡ib?

8a. Are there any Kurux people who speak differently than you? 8K. KyiƒL ‡jvK‡`i g‡a¨ †Kvb ‡jv‡Kiv wK Avcbvi †_‡K wfbœfv‡e K_v e‡j?

8b. If yes, where do these people live? 8L. hw` nu¨v, Zviv †Kv_vq _v‡K?

8c. When you speak with someone from there, how much do you understand? (little, half, most, all) 8M. hLb Avcwb †m RvqMvi †jvK‡`i mv‡_ Avjvc K‡ib, KZUyKz eyS‡Z cv‡ib? (Aí, A‡a©K, †ekxifvM, me)

8d. What do these people call their language? 8N. Zviv Zv‡`i fvlv‡K wK bv‡g Rv‡b/cwiPq †`q?

9. Do you know of any Kurux person who does not speak Kurux well? 9. Avcwb wK Ggb †Kvb KziƒL ‡jvK‡K Rv‡bb whwb KziƒL fvlvq fvjfv‡e K_v ej‡Z cv‡ib bv?

10. What language do the children in this village speak first? 10. GB MÖv‡gi wkïiv me©cÖ_g †Kvb fvlvq e‡j?

11a. Before starting school, do many children in your village speak any language besides [answer 10]? 11K. Avcbvi MÖv‡gi A‡bK †Q‡j-‡g‡qivB wK ¯‹y‡j hvIqvi Av‡M †_‡K [10 bs cÖ‡kœi DËi] fvlv Qvov Ab¨ fvlvq K_v ej‡Z cv‡i?

11b. If yes, which one(s)? 11L. hw` nu¨v, Zvn‡j †Kvb fvlvwU?

12. What language do young people (age 10) in your village speak best? 12. Avcbvi MÖv‡gi `k eQi eqmx †Q‡j‡g‡qiv †Kvb fvlvwU me‡P‡q fvjfv‡e ej‡Z cv‡i?

13. Do young people (age 10) in your village speak Kurux well, the way it ought to be spoken? 13. Avcbvi MÖv‡gi `k eQi eqmx †Q‡j‡g‡qiv †hgb K‡i ejv DwPZ †Zgb K‡i wK Avcbvi KziƒL fvlvq fvjfv‡e ej‡Z cv‡i?

14. What language do Kurux young people (age 10) speak with each other? 14. `k eQi eqmx KziƒL †Q‡j‡g‡qiv GKRb Ab¨ R‡bi mv‡_ †Kvb fvlvq K_v e‡j?

15. In about 30 years, when the children in this village grow up and have children of their own, what language do you think those children will speak? 15. AvR †_‡K cÖvq wÎk eQi c‡i, hLb GB MÖv‡gi wkïiv eo n‡q gv-evev n‡e, ZLb Zv‡`i †Q‡j‡g‡qiv †Kvb fvlvq K_v ej‡e Avcwb g‡b K‡ib?

16. What language do you think a mother in your language group should speak with her children? 16. Avcbvi fvlvfvlx gv‡qiv Zv‡`i wkï‡`i mv‡_ †Kvb fvlvq K_v ejv DwPr e‡j Avcwb g‡b K‡ib?

17. What language should be used as the medium of education in primary school? 17. wk¶vi gva¨g wn‡m‡e cªv_wgK ¯‹z‡j †Kvb fvlvwU e¨envi Kiv DwPZ e‡j Avcwb g‡b K‡ib?

18. What language should be used at church/temple? 18. MxR©vq/ Dcvmbvj‡q ‡Kvb fvlvwU e¨envi Kiv DwPZ e‡j Avcwb g‡b K‡ib?

19a. Are you able to read and write letters and notices in any language? 19K. Avcwb wK ‡Kvb fvlvq wPwV Ges †bvwUk co‡Z I wjL‡Z cv‡ib?

19b. If yes, in which language(s)? 19L. hw` nu¨v, Zvn‡j †Kvb fvlv‡Z?

19c. If yes, which script(s) do you use for each language? 19M. hw` nu¨v, Zvn‡j †Kvb eY©gvjv w`‡q †Kvb fvlvq wj‡L _v‡Kb?

20a. Do you think Kurux should be written? 20K. Avcbvi g‡Z, KyiƒL fvlvq wK †jLv DwPZ?

20b. If yes, what script should be used to write Kurux? 20L. hw` nu¨v, KyiƒL fvlvq wjL‡Z †Kvb eY©gvjv e¨envi Kiv DwPZ e‡j Avcwb g‡b K‡ib?

21a. If your community leaders set up a class to teach young children first how to read and write Kurux and then how to read and write Bangla, would you send your children? 21K. hw` Avcbvi MÖv‡gi †bZ„¯’vbxq e¨w³iv †QvU †Q‡j-‡g‡q‡ì R‡b¨ GKUv K¬vm Pvjy K‡ib hv‡Z cÖ_‡g KziƒL fvlvq co‡Z I wjL‡Z wkLv‡bv n‡e Ges c‡i Zv‡ì‡K evsjvq co‡Z I wjL‡Z wkLv‡bv n‡e, Zvn‡j wK Avcwb Avcbvi wkï‡ì †mLv‡b cvVv‡eb?

21b. Why or why not? 21L. †Kb cvVv‡eb ev †Kb cvVv‡eb bv?

21c. What would you be willing to give the teacher each month for such a class (e.g., a certain amount of rice or money)? 21M. Avcvwb G ai‡bi K¬v‡mi wk¶‡Ki R‡b¨ cÖ‡Z¨K gv‡m wK w`‡Z cvi‡eb e‡j g‡b K‡ib (†hgb, wKQz cwigvb Pvj ev UvKv)?

B.2. Subject biodata questionnaire

Number of interview: mv¶v rKv‡ii µwgK bs: Date of interview: mv¶vrKv‡ii ZvwiL: Location of interview: mv¶vrKv‡ii ¯’vb:

1. What is your name? 1. Avcbvi bvg wK?

2. How old are you? 2. Avcbvi eqm KZ?

3. Sex of interviewee: 3. DËi`vZvi wj½ cwiPq:

5. What is your occupation? 5. Avcbvi ‡ckv wK?

6. What is the name of the village you are now living in? 6. Avcwb †h MÖv‡g evm K‡ib Zvi bvg wK?

7. What do you call your mother tongue? 7. Avcbvi gvZ…fvlvi bvg wK?

8a. What is your mother’s mother tongue? 8K. Avcbvi gv‡qi gvZ…fvlv wK?

8b. What is your father’s mother tongue? 8L. Avcbvi evevi gvZ…fvlv wK?

9. Where else have you lived and for how long? 9. Gi Av‡M Avcwb Ab¨ †Kv_vq emevm K‡i‡Qb? KZw`‡bi Rb¨?

B.3. Community information questionnaire

Name of village: MÖv‡gi bvg:

Transportation to village: hvZvqv‡Zi gva¨g:

1. What is the location of your village by thana and district? 1. Avcbvi MÖvgwU †Kvb _vbvq I †Kvb †Rjvq Aew¯’Z?

2. How many people and families live in this village? 2. GB MÖv‡g KZRb Kzi“L I KZwU Kyi“L cwievi emevm K‡i?

4. Which languages are spoken as mother tongues in your village? 4. gvZ„fvlv wn‡m‡e †Kvb †Kvb fvlv Avcbvi MÖv‡gi †jvKRb e¨envi K‡i?

5. What jobs do people in your village typically do? 5. Avcbvi MÖv‡gi †jvKRb mvaviYZ †Kvb ai‡Yi KvR K‡i?

6. Where is the nearest post office? 6. me‡P‡q Kv‡Qi †cv÷ AwdmwU ‡Kv_vq Aew¯’Z?

7a. Can you make TNT calls in your village? 7K. Avcbvi MÖvg †_‡K Avcwb wK wUGbwU †dvb Ki‡Z cv‡ib?

7b. Can you make mobile calls in your village? 7L. Avcbvi MÖvg †_‡K Avcwb wK †gvevB‡j †dvb Ki‡Z cv‡ib?

7c. If not, where is the nearest place you can make phone calls? 7M. hw` bv cv‡ib, me‡P‡q Kv‡Qi †Kvb RvqMv †_‡K Avcwb †dvb Ki‡Z cv‡ib?

8a. Where is the nearest hospital? 8K. me‡P‡q Kv‡Qi nvmcvZvjwU ‡Kv_vq?

8b. Where is the nearest clinic? 8L. me‡P‡q Kv‡Qi wK¬wbKwU (ev wPwKrmv †K›`ª) †Kv_vq?

9a. Are there government schools in your village? 9K. Avcbvi Mªv‡g wK miKvix ¯‹zj Av‡Q?

9b. If yes, what kinds? 9L. hw` _v‡K, wK wK ai‡Yi?

10a. Are there any other types of schools or non-formal educational institutions in your village? 10K. Avcbvi MÖv‡g wK Ab¨ ‡Kvb ai‡Yi ¯‹zj A_ev DcvbyôvwbK wk¶v cÖwZôvb Av‡Q?

10b. If yes, what kinds? 10L. hw` _v‡K, wK wK ai‡Yi?

11. How many Kurux children in your village go to school? (all, most, half, few) 11. Avcbvi MÖv‡g KZ msL¨K KziƒL wkïiv ¯‹z‡j hvq? (mevB, †ekxifvM, A‡a©K, Aí)

12. How many Kurux girls in your village go to school? (all, most, half, few) 12. Avcbvi MÖv‡g KZ msL¨K KziƒL †g‡qiv ¯‹z‡j hvq? (mevB, †ekxifvM, A‡a©K, Aí)

13. At which standard do most Kurux children in your village stop going to school? 13. Avcbvi MÖv‡g †Kvb †kªYx ch©š— ‡jLvcov †k‡l †ekxifvM KziƒL wkïiv ¯‹z‡j hvIqv eÜ K‡i †`q?

14. What are the main reasons Kurux children in your village stop going to school? 14. wK wK cÖavb Kvi‡Y Avcbvi MÖv‡gi KziƒL †Q‡j-‡g‡qiv ¯‹z‡j hvIqv eÜ K‡i _v‡K?

15. In your village, how many Kurux students who begin school end up finishing 5 th standard? (all, most, half, few) 15. Avcbvi MÖv‡g KziƒL QvÎ-QvÎx‡`i g‡a¨ hviv ¯‹zj ïi“ K‡i Zv‡`i g‡a¨ KZRb cÂg †kªYx †kl K‡i? (mevB, †ekxifvM, A‡a©K, Aí)

16. In your village, how many Kurux students who begin school end up finishing 10 th standard? (all, most, half, few) 16. Avcbvi MÖv‡g KziƒL QvÎ-QvÎx‡`i g‡a¨ hviv ¯‹zj ïi“ K‡i Zv‡`i g‡a¨ KZRb `kg †kªYx †kl K‡i? (mevB, †ekxifvM, A‡a©K, Aí)

17. How many Kurux in your village have completed BA or higher? 17. Avcbvi MÖv‡g KZRb KziƒL †jvK we.G. A_ev Zvi †P‡q D”PZi wWMÖx jvf K‡i‡Q?

18. Do you have electricity in your village? 18. Avcbvi MÖv‡g wK we`y¨r Av‡Q?

19. What is your water source? 19. Avcbvi MÖv‡g cvwbi Drm wK?

20a. Do Kurux people in your village listen to radio programs? 20K. Avcbvi MÖv‡gi KziƒL †jv‡Kiv wK †iwWI †kv‡bb?

20b. If yes, in what language(s)? 20L. hw` nu¨v, Zvn‡j †Kvb †Kvb fvlvq?

20c. About how many Kurux households in this village have a radio? 20M. GB MÖv‡gi KqwU KziƒL cwiev‡ii Kv‡Q †iwWI Av‡Q?

21a. Do Kurux people in your village watch TV programs? 21K. Avcbvi MÖv‡gi KziƒL †jv‡Kiv wK wUwf †`‡Lb?

20b. If yes, in what language(s)? 20L. hw` nu¨v, Zvn‡j †Kvb †Kvb fvlvq?

20c. About how many Kurux households in this village have a TV? 20M. GB MÖv‡gi KqwU KziƒL cwiev‡ii Kv‡Q wUwf Av‡Q?

Appendix C. Sociolinguistic questionnaire responses

The following tables display subjects’ responses to the sociolinguistic questionnaire. The questionnaire itself is in appendix B.1, and the question numbers there correspond with the numbers given at the top of each table in this appendix. Subject biodata is given in appendix E.2, and the subject numbers given in the biodata correspond to those in this appendix.

The following abbreviations are used in these tables:

Languages and people groups: Other: B = Bangla and Bengalis DK = does not know E = English lg = language G = Gujarati MT = mother tongue H = Hindi N = no K = Kurux NA = not applicable N = Nepali R = Roman script S = Sadri w/ = with Sn = Santali Y = yes

C.1. Language use responses

19a. 1b. Lg 1c. Lg at 1d. Lg 1e. Lg w/ 2. Lg Able to 19b. 19c. Subj. 1a. Lg w/ K church/ w/ shop- use read Which Which No. at home friends temple Sadri keepers most and lg? script? write? G1 K K and B K S B K Y B B G2 K K B K B B Y B and K B G3 K K K S B K Y B and K B G4 K K B B B B Y B B G5 K K K S B K Y B B G6 K K B NA B K N NA NA G7 K K B S B K N NA NA G8 B K B S B S N NA NA G9 K K K B B K Y B B G10 K K K B B B N NA NA G11 K K K B B K N NA NA G12 K and S K and S B S B S Y B and K B C1 K K K and B B B K Y B B C2 K K K B B K Y B and K B C3 K K K K B B Y B B C4 K K K B B B Y B B C5 K K K S B B Y B B C6 K K K B B K N NA NA B and B:B, C7 K K B K B K and B Y little Sn Sn:R C8 K K K K B B N NA NA C9 K K K S B B Y B and E B:B, E:R C10 K and B K K S B K N NA NA C11 K K K B B B Y B B B1 K K K S B K N NA NA

C.1. Language use responses (continued) 19a. 1b. Lg 1c. Lg at 1d. Lg 1e. Lg 2. Lg Able to 19b. 19c. Subj. 1a. Lg w/ K church/ w/ w/ shop- use read Which Which No. at home friends temple Sadri keepers most and lg? script? write? B2 K K B B B K Y B B B3 K K K S B K N NA NA B4 K K K and B B and S B K Y B and K B B5 k k k S B K Y B B B6 K K K and B B B K Y B and K B B7 K K B S B B N NA NA B8 K K K S B B Y B B B9 K K K B B K Y B B B10 K and B K K B B K Y B B B11 K K K K B K Y B B B12 K K K B B B Y B B L1 K K B K B K Y B B L2 K K K S B K Y B and K B L3 K and B K B S B K Y B and K B L4 K K K S B K Y B B L5 K K B S B K N NA NA L6 K K B S B K Y B and E B:B, E:R L7 K K K S and B B K Y B B L8 K K K S B K N NA NA L9 K K K B B B Y B and K B L10 K K B B B K Y B B L11 K K B B B K N NA NA D1 K K and B K and S S B B Y B B D2 K K K S B K N NA NA D3 B K B B B B Y B B D4 K K K S B K N NA NA D5 K K K S B K N NA NA D6 K K K B B K N NA NA D7 K K and B K B B B Y B and K B D8 K K K B B K N NA NA D9 K K K B B K N NA NA D10 K K K K B K N NA NA D11 K K B S B K N NA NA

C.2. Language attitudes responses

C.2.1. Regarding language use

16. Mother 20a. K Subj. 17. Lg should use in 18. Lg should use at 20b. If yes, in should speak w/ should be No. primary school church/temple which script? kids written? G1 K B K and B Y R G2 K B K Y B G3 K K K Y B G4 K K K and B Y R G5 K B K Y B

C.2.1. Regarding language use (continued) 16. Mother 20a. K Subj. 17. Lg should use in 18. Lg should use at 20b. If yes, in should speak w/ should be No. primary school church/temple which script? kids written? G6 DK DK K DK NA G7 K B K and B Y DK G8 K B B N NA G9 K K and B K Y R G10 K K K Y B G11 K B K Y B G12 K B K Y B C1 K B B Y B C2 K K K Y B C3 K B K Y B C4 B B B Y B C5 K K K Y R C6 K B K Y DK C7 K K K Y R C8 K B K N NA C9 B B K N NA C10 K B K Y DK C11 K K K Y DK B1 K B B Y B B2 K B K Y B B3 K B K Y B B4 K K K Y B B5 K B K Y B B6 K B K Y B B7 K B B Y DK B8 K B K Y B B9 K B B Y B B10 K B K Y B B11 K B K Y B B12 K B B Y B L1 K K K Y Devnagri L2 K B K Y B L3 K B K Y B L4 K B K Y B L5 K B B Y DK L6 K B K Y B L7 K B K N NA L8 K and B B K DK NA L9 K B K Y R L10 K B B Y B L11 K B B Y B D1 K B K Y B D2 K B K Y B D3 K B K Y B D4 K K K Y DK D5 K B K Y B D6 K B K Y DK D7 K K and B K Y B

C.2.2. Towards language classes

21a. Send 21c. Give Subj. kids to 21b. Why? to No. literacy teacher class? G1 Y It would be good for them taka G2 Y To learn and to practice their own lg taka G3 Y For education rice G4 Y To preserve MT taka G5 Y To learn their own lg taka G6 Y It would be convenient nothing G7 Y To learn taka G8 Y To learn taka G9 Y To learn MT taka G10 Y The n they can learn and understand our lg taka G11 Y To learn both MT and Bangla taka G12 Y To learn both MT and Bangla taka C1 Y To learn MT taka C2 Y So they don't forget their MT taka C3 Y To learn MT well taka C4 Y To learn MT taka C5 Y To learn MT taka C6 Y To get good education taka C7 Y To learn both MT and Bangla; then MT won't be lost DK C8 N K can't be written NA C9 Y Because many children have trouble with B when they start school Tk.50/mo. C10 Y To understand K better DK C11 Y To know K better Tk.10 B1 Y To learn their MT taka B2 Y So they can speak their MT well taka B3 Y They should definitely learn their MT taka B4 Y To learn their MT well from the start of their education taka B5 Y To learn their MT taka B6 Y To learn their MT well taka B7 Y To learn their MT taka B8 Y To learn their MT taka B9 Y To learn their MT well taka B10 Y To learn their MT taka B11 Y To learn their MT taka B12 Y To learn both lgs taka

C.2.2. Responses toward language classes (continued) 21a. Send 21c. Give Subj. kids to 21b. Why? to No. literacy teacher class? L1 Y To preserve our MT taka L2 Y To learn their MT well taka L3 Y To learn their MT taka L4 Y To learn taka L5 Y To learn both lgs taka L6 Y To give more importance to their MT DK L7 Y To learn their MT better rice L8 Y Because it's our lg rice teacher L9 Y To learn their own lg well should get Tk.100/day L10 Y To learn their own lg taka L11 Y To learn K Tk.50/mo. D1 Y So K will be developed Tk.20 D2 Y They should learn our MT, and they need education to preserve it Tk.20 They don't need to learn through MT because they're learning D3 N NA through B D4 Y To learn K well taka D5 Y To become more intelligent taka as able D6 Y They need education Tk.50 D7 Y To be able to start their education with their MT Tk.20 D8 Y To learn their MT Tk.50/mo. D9 Y To learn their MT Tk.50/mo. D10 Y DK nothing D11 Y To understand better nothing

C.3. Language vitality responses

9. Any 11a. 14. Kids 10. 13. Kids Subj. can't Other 11b. 12. Kids’ use w/ 15. Lg in Kids’ speak K No. speak K before Which? best lg each 30 years first lg well? well? school? other G1 Y K Y B K Y K K and B G2 Y K Y B B N K and B K and B G3 Y K N NA K N K K and B G4 Y B Y K B N B B G5 N B Y K B N K B G6 Y K and B N NA B N B B G7 Y B Y K B Y K K some can; G8 Y B N NA B K and B K some can't G9 N K Y B B N K B G10 N B Y K K N K K G11 Y B Y K B N K and B K and B G12 Y K Y B B Y K and B B C1 N K Y B K Y K and B K

C.3. Language vitality responses (continued) 9. Any 11a. 14. Kids 10. 13. Kids Subj. can't Other 11b. 12. Kids’ use w/ 15. Lg in Kids’ speak K No. speak K before Which? best lg each 30 years first lg well? well? school? other C2 Y K Y B K Y K and B K C3 N K Y B B Y K and B K C4 Y K Y B B N K and B B C5 Y K Y B B Y K B C6 Y K Y B B Y K B C7 Y B Y K B N K B C8 Y B Y some K B and K N B B C9 N B Y K B Y K and B B C10 N K Y B B and K Y K K and B C11 N K Y B K N K and B K B1 N K Y B B Y K K B2 Y B Y K B Y B B B3 N K Y B B N B B B4 N B Y K B N K K B5 N K N NA K Y K K B6 N B Y K K Y K and B K B7 Y B Y K B N B B B8 N K Y B B Y B K B9 Y B Y K B N B B depends B10 Y B Y K B N K and B on parents B11 N K Y B B N K and B K B12 Y B Y K B N K and B B L1 Y K Y B K Y K and B B L2 N K Y B K Y K K L3 N B N NA B N B K L4 Y K Y B K Y K K and B L5 Y K Y B B N K and B B mostly K; L6 Y B Y little K K Y K depends on parents L7 Y B Y K K Y K K L8 Y K Y B B and K Y K and B K L9 Y K Y B B and K Y K and B K L10 N K Y B B N K and B K L11 Y K Y B K Y K K D1 Y B Y K B N B K and B D2 Y K Y B K Y K K D3 N B Y K K Y K K D4 Y K Y B and S K Y K K and B D5 N K N NA K Y K K and B D6 Y K Y B K Y K and B K D7 N K Y B K N K B D8 N B Y K B N B K and B D9 N B N NA B N B B D10 Y B and K N NA B Y K and B B D11 N B N NA B Y B B

C.4. Bilingualism responses

7. Can 4. Lg 5. Lg 6. Can always always Subj. 3a and b. Lg speak and age started to learn speak speak say in 2 nd - say in No. best 2nd best best? Sadri?

G1 K:2, B:10, S:11, H:21 K and B NA Y Y G2 K:2, B:7, S:9, H:16, Sn:16 K B Y N G3 K:2, B:5, S:30 K B Y N G4 K:2, B:7 K B Y NA G5 K:2, B:4, S:3, Sn:15 K S Y NA G6 K:2, B:7, S:18 K and B NA Y N G7 K:2, B:10, S:10 K B Y Y G8 K:2, B:6, S:6 S B Y NA G9 K:2, B:7, E:11 K B Y NA G10 K:2, B:6 B K Y NA G11 K:2, B:6, S:25 K B Y N G12 K:2, B:5, S:3, Sn:6 S B Y NA C1 K:2, B:10 K B Y NA C2 K:2, B:4 K B Y NA C3 K:2, B:4 K B Y NA C4 K:2, B:7, S:16 B K Y N C5 K:2, B:6, S:11 K B Y Y C6 K:2, B:2 K B Y NA C7 K:2, B:2, S:10, Sn:12 K B Y N C8 K:2, B:6, S:20 K B Y Y C9 K:2, B:3, S:2 B K Y N C10 K:2, B:2, S:7 K B Y Y C11 K:2, B:4 K and B NA Y NA B1 K:2, B:6, S:10 K S Y NA B2 K:2, B:8, E:10 K B Y NA B3 K:2, B:10, S:10 K B Y Y B4 K:2, B:7, S:20, Sn:22 K B Y N B5 K:2, B:5, S:15 K B Y Y B6 K:2, B:4 K B Y NA B7 K:2, B:7, S:12 K B Y Y B8 K:2, B:5, S:20, H:14, G:22, N:22 K B Y Y B9 K:2, B:5 B K Y NA B10 K:2, B:5 K B Y NA B11 K:2, B:5, S:22 K B Y N B12 K:2, B:6 K B Y NA L1 K:2, B:11, E:18, Sn:6 K B Y NA L2 K:2, B:5, S:8 K B Y Y L3 K:2, B:2, S:18, E:14 K B Y Y L4 K:2, B:6, S:9, Sn:30 K B Y Y L5 K:2, B:5, S:2 K and S NA Y NA L6 K:2, B:5, S:10 K B Y Y L7 K:2, B:7, S:DK K B N N L8 K:2, B:6, S:6 K B Y Y L9 K:2, B:6, S:17 K and B NA Y N L10 K:2, B:4 K B Y NA L11 K:2, B:7 K B Y NA

C.4. Bilingualism responses (continued) 5. Lg 7. Can 4. Lg 6. Can always Subj. speak always 3a and b. Lg speak and age started to learn speak say in 2 nd - No. 2nd say in best best? best Sadri? D1 K:2, B:7, S:24, Sn:7 B K Y Y D2 K:2, B:6, S:11 K B Y Y D3 K:2, B:5 B K Y NA D4 K:2, B:9, S:9 K B Y Y D5 K:2, B:9, S:21 K B Y Y D6 K:2, B:7 B K Y NA D7 K:2, B:4, S:13 K B Y N D8 K:2, B:4 K B Y NA D9 K:2, B:4 K B Y NA D10 K:2, B:2 K B Y NA D11 K:2, B:6, S:6 K B Y N

C.5. Language variation responses

Subj. 8a. Any speak 8c. How much 8d. Their 8b. Where? No. differently? understand? lg name G1 N NA NA NA G2 N NA NA NA G3 N NA NA NA G4 N NA NA NA G5 N NA NA NA G6 N NA NA NA G7 N NA NA NA G8 N NA NA NA G9 N NA NA NA G10 N NA NA NA G11 N NA NA NA G12 N NA NA NA C1 N NA NA NA C2 N NA NA NA C3 N NA NA NA C4 N NA NA NA C5 Y Rangpur all K C6 Y Rangpur all K C7 Y Goriya (10 km away) all S C8 Y Rangpur all K C9 N NA NA NA C10 N NA NA NA C11 Y Panchbibi all S B1 N NA NA NA B2 N NA NA NA B3 N NA NA NA B4 N NA NA NA B5 N NA NA NA B6 N NA NA NA B7 N NA NA NA

C.5. Language variation responses (continued) Subj. 8a. Any speak 8c. How much 8d. Their 8b. Where? No. differently? understand? lg name B8 N NA NA NA B9 N NA NA NA B10 N NA NA NA B11 N NA NA NA B12 N NA NA NA L1 Y India all K L2 N NA NA NA L3 N NA NA NA L4 N NA NA NA L5 N NA NA NA L6 N NA NA NA L7 N NA NA NA L8 N NA NA NA L9 N NA NA NA L10 Y Anantarampur all K L11 N NA NA NA D1 N NA NA NA D2 N NA NA NA D3 N NA NA NA D4 N NA NA NA D5 N NA NA NA D6 N NA NA NA D7 N NA NA NA D8 Y Dinajpur, Nawpakar, Kristopur all S D9 Y Binadpur, Rashanpur all S D10 N NA NA NA D11 N NA NA NA

Appendix D. Bangla Sentence Repetition Test

D.1. Standard Sentence Repetition Test procedures 1

A Sentence Repetition Test (SRT) is based on the premise that people's ability to repeat sentences in a second language is limited by the level of their mastery of the morphology and syntax of that second language. The greater proficiency they have in that language, the better able they are to repeat sentences of increasing length and complexity. A SRT is developed separately for each language to be tested. Detailed procedures for developing and calibrating a SRT are presented in Radloff (1991). 2 The sentences selected are calibrated against an evaluative instrument called the Reported Proficiency Evaluation (RPE), where mother tongue raters are provided with a detailed framework of proficiency descriptions against which to evaluate the proficiency of their second-language speaking acquaintances. 3 The half-levels of the RPE describe increasing levels of proficiency in a second language, as elaborated in table D.1.

Table D.1. Descriptions of RPE proficiency levels RPE proficiency level Brief description 0+ Very minimal proficiency 1 Minimal, limited proficiency 1+ Limited, basic proficiency 2 Adequate, basic proficiency 2+ Good, basic proficiency 3 Good, general proficiency 3+ Very good, general proficiency 4 Excellent proficiency 4+ Approaching native speaker proficiency

A SRT provides a rapid assessment of a person's second language proficiency, suited to the purposes of a bilingualism survey. It is often the goal of a bilingualism survey to obtain a profile of the second language proficiencies in the community under investigation, that is, a picture of what percentage of the population can be projected to be at each of the different levels of proficiency. In order to do this, a large and representative sample of the population must be tested. This speaks to the need for an assessment instrument that is quick and easy to administer.

The short administration time, however, is offset by careful attention to the development and calibration of a SRT. The SRT provides a general assessment; thus, the researcher must be able to place full confidence in the results through strict attention to the quality of each developmental step. A complete step-by-step methodology for developing and calibrating a SRT is given in Radloff (1991). 3

1 The description of procedures for SRT is quoted from appendix A of O'Leary (ed. 1992); it was authored by Carla F. Radloff. It is used by permission of the author. 2 Radloff, Carla F. 1991. Sentence repetition testing for studies of community bilingualism . Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and The University of Texas at Arlington. 3 RPE levels as assigned by mother tongue raters show an internal consistency, but have not yet been correlated with any other, more widely recognized, scale of second language proficiency. The rationale and methodology for the RPE is also included in Radloff (1991).

The development and calibration of a SRT proceeds through several steps: A preliminary form of the test is developed through the assistance of mother-tongue speakers of the test language. A large group of second-language speakers of the test language have their proficiency assessed through a second, more descriptive proficiency standard instrument, in this case, the RPE. These people are then administered the preliminary form of the test. Based on their performances, fifteen sentences are selected, which prove to be the most discriminating of performance and also represent increasing complexity and length. These fifteen sentences are calibrated against the proficiency assessments from the RPE. This fifteen-sentence final form of the test is used in the bilingualism survey, and the resulting test scores are interpreted in terms of equivalent RPE proficiency levels.

The ranges of Bangla SRT scores corresponding to RPE levels are presented in table D.2. 4

Table D.2. Bangla SRT scores and predicted RPE levels Bangla SRT Score Predicted RPE Level 0 – 2 1 3 – 8 1+ 9 – 14 2 15 – 21 2+ 22 – 27 3 28 – 33 3+ 34 – 39 4 40 – 45 4+

D.2. Bangla SRT

In the following transcription of the Bangla SRT, these line codes are used: Code Meaning \# Sentence number \b Bangla sentence \p Phonetic transcription \ց Word-by-word English gloss of transcribed text \f Free (natural) English translation of the text

\P1 \b AvR‡K Zvi Rb¥w`b | Ћѐnmodinم שЋke taمp a\ \ց today 3s-poss birthday \f Today is his birthday.

\P2 \b Avgvi evev gvQ a‡i | eשoܒbaba ma֒Ѐ d שp ama\ \ց 1s-poss father fish catches \f My father catches fish.

4 Kim, Amy. 2003. A report on the development of the Bangla Sentence Repetition Test . Unpublished manuscript.

\P3 \b ‡mLv‡b Zviv mvivw`b KvR K‡i | eשЋ koمadin kaשђ Ѐaשane taܒp Ѐek\ \ց there-in 3p all-day work do \f They work there all day long.

\P4 \b wKš —y AvMvgx Kvj GUv Avgvi jvM‡e | laցbe שp kintu aցami kal e֒a ama\ \ց but coming day this 1s -poss will -need \f But tomorrow I will need this.

\P5 \b Kv‡Vi wg¯¿x GKUv bZyb Rvbvjv evbv‡”Q | eܒЋanala bana֒Ѐم i æk֒ђ notunשstگm שϯܒp ka֒\ \ց wood-poss craftsman one new window is-building \f The wood craftsman is making a new window.

\1 \b ‡`vKv‡b wewfbœ ai‡bi wgwó cvIqv hvq | Ћajم miЀ֒i paowa שoneשѐܒin⍧o dܒp dokane bib\ \ց store-at various type-poss sweet getting goes \f Various types of sweets can be found in stores.

\2 \b Zviv wekªv‡gi ‡Zgb my‡hvM cvq bv | Ћoց paj naمtæmon Ѐu שameשђ bisשp ta\ \ց 3p rest-poss such opportunity get not \f They don’t get much opportunity to rest.

\3 \b AvR weKv‡j Zv‡K dj wKb‡Z n‡e | Ћ bikale take џѐl kinte hѐbeمp a\ \ց today afternoon-in 3s-to fruit to-buy will-have-to \f He has to buy fruit this afternoon.

\4 \b Avwg Avgvi †ev‡bi KvQ †_‡K Dcnvi †c‡qwQ | iܒpeje֒Ѐ שeke upohaܒt ܒkats שbone שp ami ama\ \ց 1s 1s -poss sister -poss nearness from gift have -received \f I received a gift from my sister.

\5 \b evox‡Z †Kvb †jvK Av‡Q e‡j g‡b nq bv | e bole mone hѐj naܒite kono lok a֒Ѐײp ba\ \g home-in any person is says mind-in becomes not \f It doesn’t seem as if there’s anyone home.

\6 \b ‡h ch©š — e„wó bv _v‡g †m ch©š — Avgiv GLv‡b _vKe | akboܒane tܒa ekשЋonto amمשame Ѐe poܒiЀ֒i na tשЋonto bمשЋe poم p\ \ց when until rain not stops then until 1p here-at will-stay \f We will stay here until the rain stops.

\7 \b GKUy Av‡M evRvi †_‡K GKUv Bwjk gvQ wK‡b G‡bwQ | iܒkine ene֒Ѐ ܒeke æk֒a iliЀ ma֒Ѐܒt שЋaمp ek֒u aցe ba\ \ց a-little ago market from one hilsa fish having-bought have-brought \f Having bought a hilsa fish at the market a little while ago, I brought it.

\8 \b ‡m Rvb‡Zv evb‡iiv Lye AbyKiY wcÖq nq | ijo hѐjשon pשub onukѐܒa kשeשЋanto banoم p Ѐe\ \ց 3s did -know monkeys very imitation favorite becomes \f He knew monkeys really like to imitate.

\9 \b 1 hw` Avcwb gvbyl‡K fvj bv ev‡mb gvbylI Avcbv‡K fvj aloܒalo na baЀen manuЀo apnake bܒЋodi apni manuЀke bم p 1\ \ց 1 if 2s people-to well not deem people-also 2s-to well

\b 2 evm‡e bv | \p 2 baЀbe nѩ \ց 2 will -deem not \f If you don’t treat people well, they won’t treat you well either.

\10 \b Ges Rxe‡b memgq wKQy wbqg ‡g‡b Pj‡Z n‡e | u nijom mene ֒Ѐolte hѐbeܒЋibone ЀѐbЀѐmoj ki֒Ѐم ֊p ebo\ \ց and life-in all-time some rules having-followed to-move will-have-to \f And in life at all times one must follow some rules.

\11 \b1 myZivs b`x Avgv‡`i A‡bK DcKvi K‡i Ges gv‡S -gv‡S eܒЋمe-maܒЋمe ebo֊ maשko שѐnek upoka שa֊ nodi amadϯשp 1 Ѐuto\ \g1 therefore river 1p-to much benevolence do and sometimes

\b 2 AcK viI K‡i | eשo koשp 2 ѐpoka\ \ց 2 harm-also do \f Therefore, rivers benefit us a lot and sometimes also harm us.

\12 \b 1 cUj bv‡gi †Kvb meRx evRv‡i cvIqv hvq Zv Av‡M Ћaj ta aցeم e paowaשЋaمЋi baمkono sob שp 1 pѐ֒ol namϯ\ \ց 1 patol name-poss any vegetable market-in getting goes that before

\b 2 Avwg RvbZvg bv | Ћantam naم p 2 ami\ \ց 2 1s did-know not \f I didn’t know before that there is such a vegetable as “patol” available in the market.

\13 \b 1 b`x Avgv‡`i Rb¨ LzeB cÖ‡qvRbxq Kvi Y b`x c‡_ eܒon nodi pѐtשЋonijo kaمѐjoשubi pܒЋon⍧o kم שp 1 nodi amadϯ\ \ց 1 river 1p-poss for very-emph important because river route-on

\b 2 Avgiv e¨emv Ki‡Z cvwi | iשte paשa bæbЀa koשp 2 am\ \ց 2 1p business to-do are-able \f Rivers are very important for us because we are able to do business along river routes.

\14 \b ZeyI gv‡S -gv‡S we‡kl mg‡q Zviv wKQy Avb›` -dzwZ© K‡i | eשti koשu anondo-џuܒђ ki֒Ѐשe biЀeЀ Ѐѐmoje taܒЋمe-maܒЋمp tobuo ma\ \ց nevertheless sometimes special time-in 3p some joy-delight do \f Nevertheless, sometimes on special occasions they have some fun.

\15 \b 1 b`xi cvwb Mfxi nIqvq A‡bK Lyu‡RI Ћeoم&uܒhѐwaj ѐnek k שiܒpani ցob שp 1 nodi\ \ց 1 river -poss water deep happening -because much having -searched -alt hough

\b 2 †m Zvi KzVviUv †cj bv| a pelo nѩ֒שaܒku֒ שp 2 Ѐe ta\ \ց 2 3s 3s-poss axe did-find not \f Although he searched a lot, he didn’t find his axe because the river was deep.

D.3. SRT scores

The tables in this section display the SRT scores for all 108 SRT subjects. The subject numbers in the far-left column correspond with the subject numbers given with the biodata in appendix E.3. For each of the 20 sentences (five practice sentences and 15 test sentences), each subject’s score is given. This is based on a four-point scale (0–3) for each sentence. The total score at the far right is a summation of the subject’s scores for only the 15 test sentences.

Subj. Bangla SRT sentence number Total No. Score P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Gn1 3 3 3 0 0 2 1 2 0 2 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 Gn2 3 1 2 0 2 2 1 0 2 2 1 1 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 12 Gn3 3 3 3 0 2 2 1 3 1 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 Gn4 3 3 3 1 3 3 2 3 2 2 3 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 Gn5 3 3 1 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 Gn6 3 3 3 2 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 23 Gn7 3 3 3 2 2 3 2 1 3 3 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 17 Gn8 3 3 3 2 2 3 2 1 1 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 Gn9 3 3 3 1 2 2 1 2 1 3 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 12 Gn10 3 3 3 1 3 3 2 3 3 3 2 1 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 22 Gn11 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 0 3 0 0 0 0 28 Gn12 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 0 3 1 2 1 2 2 33 Gn13 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 0 0 28 Gn14 3 3 3 1 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 0 1 1 0 0 29 Gn15 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 3 2 2 1 2 2 0 0 1 0 0 24 Gn16 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 2 1 1 38 Gn17 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 0 0 3 1 1 0 0 0 25 Gn18 3 3 3 1 2 2 0 3 1 2 2 2 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 15 Gn19 3 3 3 0 0 3 3 2 3 2 3 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 19 Gn20 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 3 3 3 3 2 2 0 0 0 0 28 Gn21 3 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 3 1 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 22 Gn22 3 3 3 2 2 3 2 3 0 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 Gn23 3 3 2 1 0 2 1 2 0 2 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 Gn24 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 2 1 1 0 2 0 28 Gn25 3 3 1 1 1 3 2 3 2 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 14 Gn26 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 0 1 0 2 28 Gn27 1 1 3 1 2 3 1 2 2 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 14 Gn28 0 3 1 0 3 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 Gn29 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 1 3 0 2 0 35 Gn30 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 0 2 0 0 0 30 Gn31 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 2 2 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 22 Gn32 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 31 Gn33 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 2 1 2 1 0 1 1 0 0 22 Gn34 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 0 31 Gn35 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 0 2 3 2 1 2 0 0 30 Gn36 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 3 3 2 1 1 0 33 Gn37 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 1 1 0 0 31

D.3. SRT scores (continued)

Subj. Bangla SRT sentence number Total No. Score P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Gn38 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 1 3 0 38 Gn39 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 1 1 2 0 35 Gn4 0 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 1 0 0 0 32 Gn41 3 3 3 1 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 21 Bp1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 3 1 2 0 1 0 31 Bp2 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 21 Bp3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 0 3 1 1 0 1 0 26 Bp4 0 3 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 Bp5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 1 3 0 35 Bp6 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 0 0 33 Bp7 0 3 2 1 3 3 2 3 2 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 Bp8 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 0 0 27 Bp9 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 0 1 0 33 Bp10 3 3 3 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 2 1 3 0 2 0 0 30 Bp11 3 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Bp12 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 1 2 3 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 Bp13 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 2 2 3 1 3 3 1 1 2 0 32 Bp14 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 23 Bp15 3 3 3 1 1 2 2 3 1 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 Bp16 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 0 1 0 32 Bp17 3 3 3 1 2 3 3 3 2 0 1 1 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 16 Bp18 3 3 3 0 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 1 3 1 1 1 0 1 0 26 Bp19 3 3 3 2 1 3 2 3 2 2 1 3 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 19 Bp20 3 3 3 2 2 3 1 3 3 3 2 3 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 21 Bp21 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 3 1 2 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 12 Bp22 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 0 3 1 2 2 1 0 0 30 Bp23 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 0 2 2 3 0 1 3 1 0 0 0 0 21 Bp24 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 0 1 0 25 Bp25 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 0 3 1 0 0 0 1 0 25 Bp26 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 22 Bp27 2 3 3 1 0 2 2 2 3 1 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 Bp28 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 2 2 2 0 2 1 2 0 0 0 25 Bp29 3 3 2 0 2 3 3 2 3 3 1 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 19 Bp30 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 1 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 21 Bp31 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 2 2 2 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 24 Bp32 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 2 1 0 0 34 Bp33 0 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 0 0 36 Bp34 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 1 2 1 1 0 33 Bp35 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 3 2 0 1 0 0 0 27 Bp36 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 1 0 1 0 34 Bp37 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 0 3 1 1 1 0 0 0 26 Bp38 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 21 Bp39 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 2 3 3 0 1 0 33 Bp40 2 3 3 0 2 3 2 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8

D.3. SRT scores (continued) Subj. Bangla SRT sentence number Total No. P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Score Bp41 3 3 3 2 1 3 2 2 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 Dp1 3 3 3 1 2 3 2 3 2 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 Dp2 0 3 3 3 2 3 2 0 2 3 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 Dp3 3 3 3 3 0 2 2 3 2 2 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 14 Dp4 0 3 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Dp5 2 3 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 Dp6 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 2 0 37 Dp7 2 3 1 1 0 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 Dp8 0 3 2 1 2 3 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 11 Dp9 2 3 2 0 2 2 0 3 0 3 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 10 Dp10 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 0 2 2 1 2 1 1 0 0 26 Dp11 3 3 3 1 2 2 1 3 3 2 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 15 Dp12 3 3 1 1 2 1 2 3 2 3 2 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 17 Dp13 3 3 3 2 1 3 2 3 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 Dp14 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 2 25 Dp15 3 3 3 2 0 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 3 2 0 0 0 0 28 Dp16 2 3 3 1 0 2 1 2 1 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 Dp17 0 3 3 1 1 2 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 Dp18 3 3 3 3 0 3 2 1 2 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 Dp19 3 2 3 1 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 Dp20 1 3 3 1 3 2 2 3 0 3 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 Dp21 2 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 18 Dp22 2 3 2 2 0 3 2 3 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 Dp23 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 Dp24 0 3 1 0 0 3 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 Dp25 1 3 3 0 0 3 1 0 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 Dp26 2 3 2 1 1 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7

Appendix E. Subject biodata

The following abbreviations are used in the subject biodata tables below:

Column headings: Languages: Subj. No. = subject number K = Kurux Educ = education S = Sadri MT = mother tongue M’s MT = mother’s mother tongue Religions: F’s MT = father’s mother tongue B = Buddist Rel = religion C = Christian H = Hindu Education: S = Sonaton 10 = completed class 10 but did not pass T = Traditional SSC exam BA = Bachelor’s degree Other: HSC = Higher Secondary Certificate ND = no data SSC = Secondary School Certificate Note: Dates are given as MM/DD/YY

E.1. Wordlist and CIQ informant biodata

Other C A S R W M’s F’s residences I Date Location g e Educ Job MT e L MT MT and length Q e x l (in years) X X 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 51 M 3 farming K K K none C X 07/26/05 Chandipur 40 M 5 farming K K K none T X 07/27/05 Boldipukur 73 M SSC retired K K K Khalsah:23 C X 07/28/05 Lohanipara 70 M 0 farming K K K none C X 07/28/05 Lohanipara 50 M SSC farming K K K Dinajpur:2 C X X 07/29/05 Dulhapur 40 M 3 farming K K K none S

E.2. Sociolinguistic questionnaire subject biodata

Other A S R Subj. M’s F’s residences Date Location g e Educ Job MT e No. MT MT and length e x l (in years) G1 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 42 M 4 construction K K K none H G2 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 27 M SSC service K K K none C Rajarampur: G3 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 36 F 8 housework K K K 12; C Domar:6 G4 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 30 M 8 service K K K none C Maloncha, G5 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 24 F 10 housework K K K H Hili:20 Lohanipara, G6 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 49 F 0 housework K K K C Rangpur:15 Khalsah G7 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 45 F 0 farming K K K Mission, C Rangpur:18

E.2. Sociolinguistic questionnaire subject biodata (continued) Other A S R Subj. M’s F’s residences Date Location g e Educ Job MT e No. MT MT and length e x l (in years) Matasagar, G8 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 25 F 2 farming K K K S Dinajpur:15 Dinajpur:3; G9 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 49 M 9 farming K K K C Boldipukur:1 G10 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 37 M 3 driving K K K Madarganj:6 C G11 07/26/05 Gabindanagar 26 M 0 day labor K K K Munsiganj:6 C Tinpara, G12 07/26/05 Gabindanagar 24 F 10 housework K K S C Birol:20 C1 07/26/05 Chandipur 35 M 7 farming K K K none S C2 07/26/05 Chandipur 23 M SSC farming K K K none H C3 07/26/05 Chandipur 40 M 7 farming K K K Jaganatpur:15 C Munsipara:2; C4 07/26/05 Chandipur 18 M 4 day labor K K K S Thakurgaon:1 rickshaw C5 07/26/05 Chandipur 38 M 8 K K K none S driving Banglabanda, C6 07/26/05 Chandipur 22 F 0 housework K K K S Rangpur:17 C7 07/26/05 Chandipur 21 F 10 teaching K K K Dinajpur:18 S Rajarampur, C8 07/26/05 Chandipur 70 F 0 housework K K K S Dinajpur:16 Debiganj:8; C9 07/26/05 Chandipur 20 F 10 teaching K K K S Parbotipur:9 Gabinda- C10 07/26/05 Chandipur 37 F 1 farming K K K S nagar:18 C11 07/26/05 Chandipur 20 M HSC farming K K K none S B1 07/27/05 Tajnagar 90 M 4 retired K K K none C B2 07/27/05 Tajnagar 20 M 10 studying K K K none C B3 07/27/05 Tajnagar 40 F 0 day labor K K K Thakurbari:15 C B4 07/27/05 Tajnagar 25 M SSC studying K K K Dinajpur:9 C B5 07/27/05 Tajnagar 20 F 10 farming K K K none C B6 07/27/05 Tajnagar 21 F 10 housework K K K none C Thakurbari:2; B7 07/27/05 Tajnagar 70 F 0 housework K K K Assam, C India:1 Jolpaiguri:5; B8 07/27/05 Tajnagar 35 M 10 farming K K K Delhi:2; C Arunachal:3 B9 07/27/05 Boldipukur 26 M 3 day labor K K K Thakurgaon:1 C Savar:1; B10 07/27/05 Boldipukur 35 F 10 housework K K K Dhaka:5; C Lohanipara:20 B11 07/27/05 Boldipukur 25 F 7 day labor K K K none C B12 07/27/05 Boldipukur 35 M 6 farming K K K Chittagong:2 C Dinajpur:4; L1 07/28/05 Lohanipara 50 M SSC farming K K K C Rangpur:2 L2 07/28/05 Lohanipara 36 F 8 housework K K K Boldipukur:15 C L3 07/28/05 Lohanipara 46 F SSC housework K K K Dinajpur:8; C Boldipukur:20 L4 07/28/05 Lohanipara 74 M 4 farming K K K none C

E.2. Sociolinguistic questionnaire subject biodata (continued) Other A S R Subj. M’s F’s residences Date Location g e Educ Job MT e No. MT MT and length e x l (in years) Shotipur, L5 07/28/05 Lohanipara 40 F 0 farming K K S C Pirganj:14 L6 07/28/05 Lohanipara 27 M HSC unemployed K K K Panch bibi:9 C L7 07/28/05 Lohanipara 22 M 9 farming K K K none C Nilpi L8 07/28/05 Lohanipara 23 F 1 farming K K K C (2 km):18 L9 07/28/05 Lohanipara 19 F HSC studying K K K Dinajpur:2 C Dhaka:2; L10 07/28/05 Lohanipara 25 M 6 farming K K K Gowal- C bathan:1 L11 07/28/05 Lohanipara 55 M 0 farming K K K none C D1 07/29/05 Dulhapur 30 M HSC unemployed K K K Dinajpur:8, C Thakurgaon:19 D2 07/29/05 Dulhapur 45 M 0 farming K K K Dhaka:1 S D3 07/29/05 Dulhapur 30 F 4 farming K K K Shotipur:15 S D4 07/29/05 Dulhapur 52 M 0 farming K K K Kashipur:10 S D5 07/29/05 Dulhapur 50 M 0 farming K K K none S rickshaw D6 07/29/05 Dulhapur 30 M 0 K K K Kashipur:2 S driving D7 07/29/05 Dulhapur 20 M 8 farming K K K none S D8 07/29/05 Rameswarpara 40 F 0 farming K K K Balarhat:DK S D9 07/29/05 Rameswarpara 30 F 0 day labor K K K none S D10 07/29/05 Rameswarpara 50 F 0 day labor K K K Pirganj:14 S D11 07/29/05 Rameswarpara 34 F 1 day labor K K K Amonpur:4 S

E.3. SRT subject biodata

Other A S R Subj. M’s F’s residences Date Location g e Educ Job MT e No. MT MT and length e x l (in years) Gn1 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 45 M 2 service K K K none C Gn2 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 42 M 4 builder K K K none H Gn3 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 18 M 3 service K K K none C Dhaka:1; Gn4 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 35 M 5 farming K K K C Chittagong:2 Gn5 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 40 M 0 mechanic K K K Dhaka:2 C Gn6 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 39 M 3 driving K K K none S Gn7 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 28 M 3 driving K K K none C Gn8 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 18 M 7 study K K K none C Gn9 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 30 M 0 farming K K K none C Gn10 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 28 M 7 service K K K none C Gn11 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 29 M 8 unemployed K K K Dhaka:3 C Gn12 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 16 M 10 studying K K K none C Gn13 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 16 M 9 studying K K K none C Rangpur:1; Gn14 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 26 M HSC farming K K K C Dinajpur:6

E. 3. SRT subject biodata (continued) Other A S R Subj. M’s F’s residences Date Location g e Educ Job MT e No. MT MT and length e x l (in years) stays Madarganj, Gn15 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 26 M SSC K K K C home Thakurgaon:22 Gn16 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 48 M SSC farming K K K none C Gn17 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 60 M HSC teaching K K K Rangpur:1 C Gn18 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 38 M 8 farming K K K Dhaka:3 C Gn19 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 41 M 6 farming K K K Rangpur:1 C Gn20 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 40 M SSC mechanic K K K Dinajpur:1 C Gn21 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 46 M 8 mechanic K K K Dinajpur:1 C Gn22 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 54 F 0 housework K K K none C Gn23 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 60 F 0 farming K K K Dinajpur:15 C Madarganj, Gn24 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 20 F 9 farming K K K C Thakurgaon:17 Gn25 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 36 F 7 housework K K K none C Gn26 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 19 F 9 housework K K K Boldipukur:18 C Gn27 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 30 F 3 farming K K K Dinajpur:17 S Gn28 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 53 F 1 farming K K K none C Ghaura, Gn29 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 47 F 7 housework K K K C Dinajpur:18 Gn30 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 24 F SSC housework K K K none C Gn31 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 24 F 7 farming K K K none C tailor Gn32 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 18 F 6 K K K none C training Gn33 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 30 F 5 farming K K K Boldipukur:18 C Gn34 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 15 F 9 study K K K none C Gn35 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 16 F 7 study K K K none C Gn36 07/25/05 Gabindanagar 17 F 8 tailoring K K K Boldipukur:13 C Nohalipara:3; family Gn37 07/26/05 Gabindanagar 45 F 10 K K K Rajbari, C planning Dinajpur:6 Gn38 07/26/05 Gabindanagar 48 F SSC tailoring K K K Dinajpur:6 C Gn39 07/26/05 Gabindanagar 37 F SSC housework K K K Boldipukur:22 C Dinajpur:3; Gn40 07/26/05 Gabindanagar 35 F SSC housework K K K Kuwait:7; C Boldipukur:17 Rajbari, Gn41 07/26/05 Gabindanagar 38 F 8 farming K K K C Dinajpur:1 8 Bp1 07/27/05 Boldipukur 21 M 10 farming K K K none C Bp2 07/27/05 Boldipukur 25 M HSC housework K K K Dinajpur:8 C Bp3 07/27/05 Boldipukur 25 M 12 farming K K K Dinajpur:9 C Bp4 07/27/05 Boldipukur 80 M 6 retired K K K none C Bp5 07/27/05 Boldipukur 38 M 9 farming K K K none C Dinajpur:2; Bp6 07/27/05 Boldipukur 19 M 10 farming K K K C Dhaka:3 Bp7 07/27/05 Boldipukur 35 M 5 farming K K K none C Bp8 07/27/05 Boldipukur 47 M 7 farming K K K India:2 C Bp9 07/27/05 Boldipukur 38 M SSC farming K K K none C Bp10 07/27/05 Boldipukur 45 M BA farming K K K Dinajpur:5 C Bp11 07/27/05 Boldipukur 85 M 0 retired K K K none C Bp12 07/27/05 Boldipukur 35 M 10 farming K K K India:15 C

E.3. SRT subject biodata (continued) Other A S R Subj. M’s F’s residences Date Location g e Educ Job MT e No. MT and length e x MT l (in years) Bp13 07/27/05 Boldipukur 24 M 9 farming K K K none C stays Bp14 07/27/05 Boldipukur 24 M 10 K K K none C home Bp15 07/27/05 Boldipukur 45 M 0 farming K K K India:1.5 C Bp16 07/27/05 Boldipukur 35 M 10 farming K K K none C Bp17 07/27/05 Boldipukur 18 M 4 day labor K K K Mariampur:1 C Bp18 07/27/05 Boldipukur 25 M 5 day labor K K K none C Bp19 07/27/05 Boldipukur 30 M 1 builder K K K none C Bp20 07/27/05 Boldipukur 26 M 3 farming K K K Thakurgaon:1 C Dhaka:3, rickshaw Bp21 07/27/05 Boldipukur 34 M 0 K K K Nagori, C driving Kaliganj:1 Chalapara, Bp22 07/27/05 Boldipukur 40 F 6 housework K K K C Bogra:19 Bp23 07/27/05 Boldipukur 45 F 9 farming K K K Mithapukur:22 C Bp24 07/27/05 Boldipukur 15 F 7 studying K K K none C Bp25 07/27/05 Boldipukur 50 F 0 farming K K K none C Bp26 07/27/05 Boldipukur 24 F 10 housework K K K none C Bp27 07/27/05 Boldipukur 40 F 5 housework K K K none C Bp28 07/27/05 Boldipukur 30 F SSC farming K K K Girai, C Mithapukur:18 Gabinda- Bp29 07/27/05 Boldipukur 45 F 4 farming K K K C nagar:20 Ghaura, Bp30 07/27/05 Boldipukur 23 F 10 farming K K K C Dinajpur:22 Dinajpur: 3; Bp31 07/27/05 Boldipukur 30 F HSC housework K K K C Thakurbari:11 Bp32 07/27/05 Boldipukur 16 F 10 study K K K none C Chalapara, Bp33 07/27/05 Boldipukur 33 F SSC housework K K K C Bogra:18 Bp34 07/27/05 Boldipukur 35 F SSC housework K K K Nohalipara:ND C Bp35 07/27/05 Boldipukur 30 F 7 farming K K K Binotpur:20 C Bp36 07/27/05 Boldipukur 40 F 8 nursing K K K none C Bp37 07/27/05 Boldipukur 25 F 5 farming K K K Thakurbari:17 C Joypur:18; Bp38 07/27/05 Boldipukur 23 F 7 farming K K K C Mariampur:2 Shonapar, Bogra:25; Bp39 07/27/05 Boldipukur 35 F HSC teaching K K K C Ruiya, Thakurgaon:1 Bp40 07/27/05 Boldipukur 30 F 0 farming K K K none C Thakibari Bp41 07/27/05 Boldipukur 40 F 0 farming K K K C (nearby):25 Dp1 07/29/05 Dulhapur 40 M 3 farming K K K India:6 S Dp2 07/29/05 Dulhapur 14 M 5 farming K K K none B Dp3 07/29/05 Dulhapur 30 M 0 farming K K K none S Dp4 07/29/05 Dulhapur 74 M 0 farming K K K none S Dp5 07/29/05 Dulhapur 50 M 3 farming K K K none S Dp6 07/29/05 Dulhapur 20 M 8 farming K S K none S

E.3. SRT subject biodata (continued) Other A S R Subj. M’s F’s residences Date Location g e Educ Job MT e No. MT and length e x MT l (in years) Dp7 07/29/05 Dulhapur 60 M 0 retired K K K none S van Dp8 07/29/05 Dulhapur 30 M 0 K K K none B driving Dp9 07/29/05 Dulhapur 80 M 0 farming K K K none S studying, Dp10 07/29/05 Dulhapur 16 M 9 K S K none S farming Dp11 07/29/05 Dulhapur 13 M 5 studying K K K none S Dp12 07/29/05 Dulhapur 20 M 5 farming K K K Thakurgaon:4 B Dp13 07/29/05 Dulhapur 18 M 9 farming K K K none S Dp14 07/29/05 Dulhapur 16 M 8 studying K K K none S studying, Dp15 07/29/05 Dulhapur 16 M 9 K K K none H housework Dp16 07/29/05 Dulhapur 28 F 0 farming K K K none S Girai, Dp17 07/29/05 Dulhapur 60 F 0 farming K K K C Mithapukur:18 Shotipur (5 Dp18 07/29/05 Dulhapur 30 F 5 farming K K K S km away):15 Dp19 07/29/05 Dulhapur 16 F 3 farming K K K none S Modipur, Dp20 07/29/05 Dulhapur 30 F 0 farming K K K B Komorganj:18 Dp21 07/29/05 Dulhapur 13 F 5 studying K K K none S Bointehat, Dp22 07/29/05 Dulhapur 70 F 0 farming K K K S Mithapukur:16 Dp23 07/29/05 Dulhapur 25 F 2 farming K K K none S Dp24 07/29/05 Dulhapur 40 F 0 farming K K K Balarhat:ND S Dp25 07/29/05 Dulhapur 30 F 0 farming K K K none S Tukria, Dp26 07/29/05 Dulhapur 50 F 0 farming K K K S Pirganj:14

Appendix F. Kurux community information

F.1. Gabindanagar Date: 25 July 2005 Transportation to village: Take a bus to Thakurgaon. Then take a rickshaw west about 3–4 km to the Catholic mission. The area around the mission is Gabindanagar. 1a. Thana: Thakurgaon 1b. District: Thakurgaon 2. Population: 167 families, about 1,000 people 3. Religions: Christian (75%), Sonaton (25%) 4. Mother tongues: Kurux, Bangla 5. Work: farming, manual labor, service 6. Nearest post office: Thakurgaon 7a. TNT: no 7b. Mobile: yes 7c. Nearest phone: NA 8a. Nearest hospital: Thakurgaon 8b. Nearest clinic: Thakurgaon 9a. Government school: yes 9b. What kinds: primary, secondary, post-secondary 10a. Non-government education: yes 10b. What kinds: BRAC (class 1–5), RDRS (pre-primary) 11. Children who attend school: all 12. Girls who attend school: all 13. Most students complete: class 5 14. Reason for stopping: poverty 15. Children who finish 5 th : all 16. Children who finish 10 th : few 17. Number who have completed BA: 4 18. Electricity: yes 19. Water source: tube well 20a. Radio: yes 20b. Language: Bangla 20c. In how many households: 50% 21a. Television: yes 21b. Languages: Bangla, Hindi 21c. In how many households: about 20

F.2. Chandipur Date: 26 July 2005 Transportation to village: From Thakurgaon, take rickshaw/bus east about 5–6 km to Khalitola. Chandipur is close to Khalitola, reachable by rickshaw or on foot. 1a. Thana: Thakurgaon 1b. District: Thakurgaon 2. Population: 30 families, 170 people 3. Religion: Sonaton 4. Mother tongues: Kurux, Bangla 5. Work: farming, manual labor, service 6. Nearest post office: Dulotpur 7a. TNT: no

7b. Mobile: yes 7c. Nearest phone: NA 8a. Nearest hospital: Thakurgaon 8b. Nearest clinic: Thakurgaon 9a. Government school: yes 9b. What kinds: primary 10a. Non-government education: yes 10b. What kinds: BRAC (class 1–3) 11. Children who attend school: all 12. Girls who attend school: all 13. Most students complete: class 6–7 14. Reason for stopping: poverty 15. Children who finish 5 th : all 16. Children who finish 10 th : few 17. Number who have completed BA: 0 18. Electricity: yes 19. Water source: tube well 20a. Radio: yes 20b. Languages: Bangla, Hindi 20c. In how many households: 3–4 21a. Television: yes 21b. Languages: Bangla, Hindi 21c. In how many households: 4

F.3. Lohanipara Date: 28 July 2005 Transportation to village: From Rangpur, take a bus west to Bodorganj (24 km); it’s on the way to Parbotipur. Then take a rickshaw south to Lohanipara (10 km). 1a. Thana: Bodorganj 1b. District: Rangpur 2. Population: 500 families, 1,500–2,000 people (including some Santals) 3. Religion: Christian 4. Mother tongue: Kurux 5. Work: farming, manual labor, service 6. Nearest post office: Lohanipara 7a. TNT: no 7b. Mobile: yes 7c. Nearest phone: NA 8a. Nearest hospital: Bodorganj 8b. Nearest clinic: Lohanipara 9a. Government school: yes 9b. What kinds: primary, secondary 10a. Non-government education: yes 10b. What kinds: BRAC (class 1–3), Seventh Day Adventist (class 1–3) 11. Children who attend school: most 12. Girls who attend school: most 13. Most students complete: class 5 14. Reason for stopping: poverty 15. Children who finish 5 th : most 16. Children who finish 10 th : few

17. Number who have completed BA: 5 18. Electricity: yes 19. Water source: tube well 20a. Radio: yes 20b. Language: Bangla 20c. In how many households: 5–6 21a. Television: yes 21b. Language: Bangla 21c. In how many households: 4–5

F.4. Dulhapur Date: 29 July 2005 Transportation to village: From Rangpur, take a bus south to Sothibari (Bogra route). Dulhapur is 1–2 km north of the Sothibari stop, on the eastern side of the road. To get to Rameswarpara (also known as Sokhipara), go 1 km south from Sothibari and 2–3 km east. 1a. Thana: Mithapukur 1b. District: Rangpur 2. Population: 100 families, 700–800 people 3. Religions: Sonaton (majority), Christian 4. Mother tongues: Kurux, Sadri 5. Work: manual labor 6. Nearest post office: Sothibari 7a. TNT: no 7b. Mobile: yes 7c. Nearest phone: NA 8a. Nearest hospital: Mithapukur 8b. Nearest clinic: Sothibari 9a. Government school: yes 9b. What kinds: primary, secondary 10a. Non-government education: yes 10b. What kinds: BRAC (class 1–5) 11. Children who attend school: 70% 12. Girls who attend school: 70% 13. Most students complete: class 5 14. Reason for stopping: poverty 15. Children who finish 5 th : most 16. Children who finish 10 th : few 17. Number who have completed BA: 3–4 18. Electricity: no 19. Water source: tube well 20a. Radio: yes 20b. Language: Bangla 20c. In how many households: 3–4 21a. Television: yes 21b. Language: Bangla 21c. In how many households: 2

References

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