sign in sign up
<<
Home , History of cannabis, Medicinal plants, Thandai

Journal of Natural & Ayurvedic MEDWIN PUBLISHERS ISSN: 2578-4986 Committed to Create Value for researchers

Biological, and Medicinal Aspects of Sativa L.: A Review

Joshi RK* Review Article Volume 4 Issue 2 Department of , Government of Uttrakhand, India Received Date: March 31, 2020 Published Date: May 04, 2020 *Corresponding author: Rakesh Kumar Joshi, Department of Education, Government of DOI: 10.23880/jonam-16000239 Uttrakhand, India, Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Aromatic and medicinal have played key roles in the lives of tribal peoples living in the Himalayaby providing products for both food and medicine. These resources, therefore, have become important domains of intervention and are increasingly attracting the attentions of public and private sector policy researchers, policy makers and development program implementers. There has been increased interest in the role of cannabis for treating medical conditions.

Keywords: Cannabis; Marijuana; Antibacterial;

Introduction 1,159 spp. and fungi: 6,900 spp [7]. According to Samant, et al. out of the total vascular plant species, 1,748 species (cannabis, L.) has been emerging are of medicinal uses [8]. In my previously individual and as a resourceful plant that is highly adaptable to the most of combined publications of research and review articles, I European climate and geographical conditions [1]. A modest, have published about essential oil, biological and medicinal non-demanding cultivation accompanied by a sustainability values of various aromatic and medicinal plants [9-21]. The of cannabis-derived products are the main reasons of origin of wild Cannabis is not known with certainty, but the its evident agronomic expansion. Historically, hemp was plant, which appears to have been cultivated in northern frequently grown in 1930s/40s mainly for the production of technical textiles, but despite its versatility, the cultivation throughout the world [23]. Some confusion and controversy of hemp was prohibited in the beginning of the 1950s by regardingChina since the 4000 taxonomy BC [22] isof widelyCannabis distributed does exist and [24]. cultivated Small reason of problematic presence of psychoactive substance C. sativa with two subspecies, sativa and indica, while several hemp varieties. Nowadays, this has been partly abolished othersand Cronquist have recognized (1976) had three proposed different a monotypicspecies, C. genus,sativa, C. andΔ-9- the European Union (THC)permits that the is cultivation produced of by hemp some indica, and C. ruderalis [25-28]. About its taxonomy literature Charak Samhita, a document on therapy written about 300 a monotypic genus, C. sativa with two subspecies, sativa with THC content being less than 0.20% [2]. The andsurvey indica revealed, while that several Small and others Cronquist have [24]recognized had proposed three their indigenous uses [3]. The Indian Himalayan Region different species, C. sativa, C. indica, and C. ruderalis [25- isBC, well reports known on to the have production a great range of 340 of plant herbal diversity. The and 28]. Bur recent, genetic, morphological, and biochemical state of Uttarakhand is a part of north-western Himalaya, investigations have helped to delineate the three species of Cannabis [29,30]. C. sativa maximum species of medicinal plants have been reported fromand stillUttarakhand maintains [4-6]. a dense This vegetationregion alone cover supports (65%). about The C. indica generally has lower levels of Δ9-C. 18,440 plant species (Angiosperm: 8,000 spp., Gymnosperm: indicatetrahydrocannabinol (THC) than cannabidiol (CBD), while 44 spp., Pteridophytes: 600 spp., Bryophytes: 1,736. Lichens: and ß-eudesmol, has less CBDwhile than the THC narrow-leaf [30].Wide-leaf varieties varieties of C.indica of have shown relatively high ratio of guaiol, γ-eudesmol,

Biological, Phytochemical and Medicinal Aspects of Cannabis Sativa L.: A Review Nat Ayurvedic Med 2 Journal of Natural & Ayurvedic Medicine have a relatively high ratio of (E Cannabis dry weight [51] and include mainly D-limonene, ß-myrcene, Indian society, common terms)-ß-farnesene for cannabis [29]. preparations andthe volatileß-pinene, terpinolene profile (fromand 3.1linalool. to 28.3 Sesquiterpenes mg gofflower ininclude India charas has been (), used ganja since (flower), as early and asbhang 2000 (seeds BCE. and In and ß-caryophyllene and a-humulenein particular, occur leaves), with Indian drinks, such as, lassi and bhang also to a large extent in Cannabis (from 0.5 to 10.1 thandai, made from bhang, being one of the most common legal uses. As of 2000, per the the "prevalence of usage" detected in hemp roots, as friedelin and epifriedelanol of was 3.2% [31]. A 2019 study conducted [53]mg of in flower hemp dryfibersas weight ß-amyrin [52]. Triterpenes [54] and havein hemp also beenseed by the All India Institutes ofUNODC Medical Sciences reported that oil as cycloartenol, ß-amyrin, and dammaradienol [55]. about 7.2 million Indians had consumed cannabis within the past , along with , have successfully year [32]. The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment’s been used as chemotaxonomic markers in Cannabis, as “Magnitude of Substance Use in India 2019” survey found they areboth considered as the main physiologically active were current users of cannabis products. According to the that 2.83% of Indians aged 10-75 years (or 31 million people) betweensecondarymetabolites the level of terpenesand [56]. When cannabinoids grown in standardized [57]. This in India was US$0.10 per gram, the lowest of any country in mayconditions, beexplained a significant by the fact andpositive that mono- correlation and sesquiterpenes was found theUNODC’s world World [33]. Bhanga report is mentioned 2016, the in several price Indian of texts cannabis dated are synthesized in the same glandular trichomes in which before 1000 CE. However, there is philological debate among the cannabinoids are produced [58]. This association scholars as to whether this bhanga can be identified with modern bhang or cannabis [34]. The Hindu god Shiva is said to Cannabis, about 20 have chosen cannabis as his favorite food, after having spent one was, however, not confirmed on a larger panelof samples night sleeping under the plant's leaves and when eating of it in the coming fromfl differentavonol subclasses origins [59]. [60]. In Phenolic amides and morning refreshed him. Another legend suggests that when the flavonoids have been identified, mainly belonging to the poison Halahala came out from the Samudramanthan, Shiva andflavone roots and [61,62]. The lignanamides belong to the lignin drank it to protect everyone from it. Later, bhang was used to classlignanamides of compounds have alsoand include been described cannabisin-like in Cannabis compounds fruits cool him down. Shiva Purana suggests offering bhang to Shiva during the summer months. But not all devotees offer bhang to [60]. Similar compounds such as cannabisin D, have been Shiva [35]. Many Ayurvedic texts mention cannabis as vijaya, described(of the types in Cannabis A-, B-, C-, leaves, D-, E-, where F-, and it was G) strongly and grossamide induced while tantric texts mention it as samvid [36]. lignans were recently found in the hydrophilic of Chemical Constituents of Cannabis Species upon the UV-C treatment [63]. Interesting amounts of dominated by syringaresinol and medioresinol, followed byhemp secoisolariciresinol, seeds. The hemp seedlariciresinol, lignan profile and pinoresinolwas shown to[64]. be classes of secondary metabolites, including at least 104 Hemp seeds contain, however, about 20-times less total cannabinoids,Cannabis is 120 a complex herbal (including medicine 61 containing , several

lignans (32 mg of total lignansper 100 g of dry weight) than 52 sesquiterpenoids, and 5 triterpenoids), 26 flavonoids, offlax the seeds, content a well-knownin whole seed source [65]. ofNineteen lignans. stilbenes Interestingly, have and 11 steroids among 545 identified compounds [37-44]. the lignan content of hulled hempseeds represents only 1% anCannabis adjunct has to attractedor substitute a new for wave opiates of interest in the treatmentfor its broad of backbones such as spirans, phenanthrenes and bibenzyls medicinal applications as 1) an , potentially as [60].been They isolated include in Cannabiswithmolecules such characteristic as cannabistilbene structural as well as dihydroresveratrol. Interestingly, bibenzylstilbenes, inchronic the drugpain [45]type andCannabis 2) an appetite stimulant and digestive including the putative 3-O-methylbatatasin, werestrongly aid [46] among others. THCA is the major induced in Cannabis leaves by UV radiations [63]. in the cannabinoidfraction ,of while young CBDA plants predominates and to decline in withfiber-type maturation hemps.CBCA [47]. Terpenes has been form reported the largest to dominategroup of Modern Use in India

Cannabis [48,49]. Terpenes are responsible for the odor and As bhang, Cannabis is still popular in India [66]. It , withmoreCannabis than strains.100 molecules They have identified therefore in is also mixed in thandai, a milkshake-like preparation. Bhang is consumed as prasad of Shiva, and is popular strainsflavor of under the different human domestication [50]. Also Mono- and between Mahashivaratri and (February–March) likely contributed to the selection of Cannabisnarcotic [67]. Among Sikh Nihangs, bhang is popular, especially leaves of Cannabis, with the secretory glandular hairsas place the mainsesquiterpenes production have site. been Monoterpenes detected in dominate flowers, roots,generally and spirit of Khidr within the cannabis plant, and consume bhang during Hola Mohalla [68]. Muslim Indian Sufis

Joshi RK. Biological, Phytochemical and Medicinal Aspects of Cannabis Sativa L.: A Review. Nat Copyright© Joshi RK. Ayurvedic Med 2020, 4(2): 000239. 3 Journal of Natural & Ayurvedic Medicine

[69-70]. Even in Assam, where bhang has been explicitly Literature survey about legality of cannabis revealed banned since 1958, it is consumed by thousands during that criminalizing cannabis in British India were made, the Ambubachi Mela. In 2015, the police did not stop and mooted, in 1838, 1871, and 1877 [77]. Cannabis plant (excluding the seeds and leaves when not accompanied by two people for smoking in public places, under devotees from consuming bhang, although they fined law enforcement agencies seized a total of 182,622 kg of the tops) from which the resin has not been extracted; by ganjathe Cigarettes and 2,489 and kg Other of hashish Tobacco in Products2016 [72]. Act Enforcement [71]. Indian whatever name they may be designated. Commentary on agencies eradicated 1,980 hectares of illicit cannabis the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961: Paragraph cultivation in 2018, lower than the 3,446 hectares eradicated theI, subparagrah tradition of (b) large-scale [78]. Bhang consumption was thus leftof bhang out from during the Holi.definition The treaty of “Cannabis”. also gave This India allowed 25 years India to clamp to carry down on annual report noted that India is among those countries on recreational drugs. Towards the end of this exemption worldwidein 2017. The with International the greatest Narcotics extent Control of illicit Board’s cannabis 2019 period, the Indian government passed the Narcotic Drugs cultivation and production [73]. The Ministry of Social and Psychotropic Substances Act in 1985 [79]. Justice and Empowerment’s Magnitude of Substance Use in Conclusion

India 2019 survey found that 2.83% of Indians aged 10-75 usingyears (orcannabis 31 million “in a people)dependent were pattern”. current Theusers survey of cannabis found widely used as curative agents for variety of ailments. products, with 0.66% of the population considered to be CannabisFrom the ancient time immemorial, plants have been consumed charas or ganja. It also noted that most cannabis Indian society, it is used commonly used as preparations for that 2.02% of the population consumed bhang and 1.21% in India has been used since as early as 2000 BCE. In with Indian drinks, such as, bhang lassi and bhang thandai, Novemberusers were male2015, with Uttarakhand 5% of the legalizedmale population the cultivation consuming of madecharas from(resin), bhang, ganja being(flower), one and of bhangthe most (seeds common and leaves), legal cannabis compared to 0.6% of the female population. In uses. In Uttarakhand legalized the cultivation of cannabis cannabis for industrial purposes [74]. Patanjali Ayurved CEO atBalkrishna its research stated and in development February 2018 facility that hisin Haridwar, company hadfor for industrial purposes. Patanjali Ayurved CEO Balkrishna usebegun in researchingthe company’s the medicinesbenefits of andcannabis other and products its extracts [75]. researchstated in and February development 2018 facility that hisin Haridwar, company for had use begunin the company’sresearching the benefits and ofother cannabis products. and Madhya its extracts Pradesh’s at its November 2019 that the state was considering legalizing the cultivationMadhya Pradesh’s of cannabis Law for Minister, medical P.C. and Sharma industrial stated purposes on 20 that the state was considering legalising the cultivation of cannabisLaw Minister, for medical P.C. Sharma and industrial stated onpurposes. 20 November In Uttakhand 2019 it may be used as a source of raising economy in rural areas [75].was considering Manipur Chief legalizing Minister the N. cultivation Biren Singh of informedcannabis thefor by cultivation in large scale. medicalState Assembly and industrial on 21 purposes February [76]. 2020 that his government References • Legal status of Cannabis worldwide 1. Salentijn EMJ, Zhang Q, Amaducci S, Yang M, Trindade Cannabis sativa L.) L (2015) New developments in fiber hemp ( 2. breeding. Ind Prod 68: 32-41.

establishingEU Regulation rules (2013) for direct No 1307/2013 payments to of farmers the European under supportParliament schemes and of within the Councilthe framework of 17 December of the common 2013

Offagricultural J Eur Union, policy 347/608. and repealing Council Regulation (EC) No 637/2008 and Council Regulation (EC) No 73/2009. 3. sustainable management and biodiversity conservation. Figure 1: Legality of cannabis around the world, blue is Shiva MP (1996) Inventory of resources for legal, pink is illegal but not enforced. 4. New Delhi, Indus Publishing Company.

Prajapati ND, Purohit SS, Sharma AK, Kumar T (2003) A Joshi RK. Biological, Phytochemical and Medicinal Aspects of Cannabis Sativa L.: A Review. Nat Copyright© Joshi RK. Ayurvedic Med 2020, 4(2): 000239. 4 Journal of Natural & Ayurvedic Medicine

handbook of medicinal plants, Jodhpur, Agro bios. Himalaya of Uttrakhand, India. Journal of Medicinal 5. of Selinum tenuifolium Wall.Ex.C.B.Clarke from Western strategies and trade of medicinal plants in Uttaranchal: Singh D, Srivastava RK, Khanduri VP (2005) Marketing 18. Plants Studies 4(5): 08-10. 330-340. Present and future prospects. Indian Forester 131(3): HimalayaJoshi RK (2016) of Uttrakhand, Chemical constituentsIndia. American of leaf Journal essential of 6. oils of Heracleum candicans Wall. Ex DC from Western

Kala CP (2004) Assessment of species rarity. Curr Sci 19. Essential Oils and Natural Products 4(2): 1-4. 7. 86(8): 1058-1059. Biodiversity Status in the Himalaya. Edited by Gujral. Joshi RK (2016) Essential oil composition of Thymus Singh DK, Hajra PK (1977) Floristic Diversity. In: linearis (Benth) from Western Himalaya of Uttrakhand, 20. India. Asian J PharmTech 6(4): 199-201. 8. British Council, New Delhi, India, pp: 23-38. traditional medicinal uses and bioactivities of Tulsi Indian Himalaya: Diversity Distribution Potential Values. Joshi RK, Setzer WN, daSilva JK (2017) Phytoconstituents, Almora:Samant SS,G.B. Dhar Pant U, InstitutePalni LMS of (1988) Himalayan Medicinal Environment Plants of and Development. (Ocimums anctum Linn.): A review. American Journal of 21. Essential Oils and Natural Products 5(1): 18-21. 9. HimalayaJoshi RK of (2018) Uttakhand, Salicylaldihyde India. Vietnam rich Journal leaf of essential Science Joshi RK (2013) Genus Morina: valuable aromatic plant oil composition of Filpendula vestita from Western 10. for herbal drug. VRI Phytomedicine (USA) 1(2): 81-84. 22. and Technology 56(4): 441-445. rd [Edn.], Joshi RK (2013) Artemisia capillaris: Medicinal uses 137-140.and future source for commercial uses from Western Mabberley DJ (2008) Mabberley’s Plant Book, 3 Himalaya of Uttrakhand. Asian J Res Pharm Sci 3(3): 23. Cambridge University Press, UK. 11. oils of Marihuana composition ofgenuine Indian Nigam MK, Handa I, Nigam, Levi L (1965) The essential 169-170.Joshi RK (2015) Chemical composition of Filipenduala 3372-3376. vestita from India. of Natural Compounds 51: Cannabis sativa L. Canadian Journal of Chemistry 43: 12. 24.

Joshi RK (2015) Volatile oils composition of Artemisia Small E, Cronquist A (1976) A practical andnatural 97.japonica Thunb from Western Himalaya of Uttarakhand. 25. taxomony for Cannabis. Taxon 25(4): 405-435. Journal of and 3(5): 96- 13. Schultes RE, Klein WM, Plowman T, Lockwood TE (1974) and medicinal plants with anti-diabetic potential from Cannabis: an example of taxonomic neglect. Harvard India:Joshi RK, A review. Setzer AmericanWN, Valdir Journal F daVeiga of Essential (2015) Aromatic Oils and 26. University, Botanical Museum Leaflets 23: 337-367.

Anderson LC (1974) A study of systematic wood anatomy 14. Natural Products 2(4): 22-28. in Cannabis. Harvard University Botanical Museum Medicinal Plants: A Review of their Ethanopharmacology, 27. Leaflets 24: 29-36. VolatileJoshi RK, SatyalPhytochemistry, P, Setzer WN and(2016) Biological Himalayan Activities: Aromatic species from a controlled garden. Harvard University Medicines. Anderson LC (1980) Leaf variation among Cannabis

15. 28. Botanical Museum Leaflets 28: 61-69. Cordyceps sinensis Economic Botany 28: 304-310. Joshi RK (2016) Phytochemical and medicinal aspect of Emboden WA (1974) Cannabis-a polytypic genus. (Berk.): A review. Journal of Medicinal 29. 16. Plants Studies 4(1): 65-67. phytoconstituents and medicinal importance, future Hillig KW, Mahlberg PG (2004) Achemotaxonomic sourceJoshi RK of (2016)economy Asparagus by cultivation racemosus in Uttrakhand: (Shatawari), A 975.analysis of cannabinoid variation in Cannabis (Cannabaceae). American Journal of Botany 91: 966- 18-21. 30. review. International Journal of 4(4): 17. andHillig Ecology KW 32: (2004) 875-891. A chemotaxonomic analysis of variation in Cannabis. Biochemical Systematics Joshi RK (2016) Volatile oil composition of aerial parts Joshi RK. Biological, Phytochemical and Medicinal Aspects of Cannabis Sativa L.: A Review. Nat Copyright© Joshi RK. Ayurvedic Med 2020, 4(2): 000239. 5 Journal of Natural & Ayurvedic Medicine

31. Board. DIANE Publishing, pp: 90. (2008) Report of the International Narcotics Control 1767-1782.and Biosynthesis of Cannabinoids and Flavonoids in 32. Cannabis sativa L. Plants. Plant and Cell Physiology 49: addiction problem, warns AIIMS study. Business Insider. 48. (2019) After alcohol, India has a rising cannabis sativa: The Plant of the thousand and one molecules. 33. Andre CM, Hausman JF, Guerriero G (2016) Cannabis cheapest in India-Times of India. The Times of India. Infographic (2017) Cannabis-and--based drugs 49. Frontiers in Plant Science. 34. for opiates in the treatment of chronic pain. Journal of psychoactiveLucas P (2012) drugs Cannabis 44: 125-133. as an adjunct to or substitute asRusso Therapeutics. E (2006) Raphael Springer, Mechoulam, pp: 3-5. Cannabis in India: ancient lore and modern medicine (PDF). Cannabinoids 50. 35. review. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria 28: 153-157. Day. Zuardi AW (2006) History of cannabis as a medicine: a Bennett C (2010) Cannabis and the Soma Solution. Trine 51. 36. 43-44. Meijer EPM, de Hammond KM, Micheler M (2009) The Conard C (1997) Hemp for Health. Inner Traditions, pp: Euphyticainheritance 165: of chemical293-311. phenotype in Cannabis sativa 37. L. (III): variation in cannabichromene proportion. of Rejuvenation and Immortality. Lotus Press, pp: 156. 52. David F (2012) Soma in Yoga and : The Power sativa: volatile compounds from pollen and entire male 38. andRothschild female M, plants Bergstrom of two G, variants, Wangberg Northern S (2005) Lights Cannabis and Reaktion Books, pp: 74. Sander LG (2004) : A Global History of Smoking. HawaianIndica. Bot J Linn Soc 147: 387-397. 39. 53. Mikuriya T (1994) Excerpts from the Indian hemp Brenneisen R (2007) Chemistry and analysis of 40. Commission Report. Last Gasp, pp: 38. 43-44. phytocannabinoids and other Cannabis constituents in Conard C (1997) Hemp for Health. Inner Traditions, pp: pp:Marijuana 17-49. and the Cannabinoids Forensic Science and 41. Medicine, ed. M. ElSohly (New York, NY: Humana Press), 54. Turner CE, Elsohly MA, Boeren EG (1980) Constituents 234.of Cannabis sativa L. XVII. A review of the natural BotSmall Rev E (2015)81: 189-294. and classification of Cannabis constituents. Journal of Natural Products 43(2): 169- sativa (marijuana, hemp) in relation to human utilization. 42. 55.

Ross SA (2005) Flavonoid and cannabinoids cannabinoidsFischedic JT, Hazekamp and terpenoids A, Erkelens for chemotaxonomic T, Choi YH, Verpoorte and Biochemicalfrom the pollen Techniques of Cannabis 16: 45-48. sativa L. Phytochemical drugR (2010) standardization Metabolic fingerprinting purposes. ofPhytochemistry Cannabis sativa 71: L., Analysis: An International. Journal of Plant Chemical and 2058-2073. 43. marijuana: the complex mixture of natural cannabinoids. 56. Slatkin DJ, Doorenbos NJ, Harris LS, Masoud AN, Quimby LifeElSohly sciences MA, 78: Slade 539-548. D (2005) Chemical constituents of sativa L. Root J Pharmaceut Sci 60: 1891-1892. 44. MW, et al. (1971) Chemical constituents of Cannabis 57. Press.ElSohly MA, Gul W (2014) Constituents of Cannabis of pitch deposits produced in the of high- Sativa in Handbook of Cannabis 3-22, Oxford University Gutierrez A, ddel Rio JC (2005) Chemical characterization 45. 96: 1445-1450. quality paper pulps from hemp fibers. Bioresour Technol Russo EB, Marcu J (2017) Cannabis : 58. The Usual Suspects and a Few Promising Leads. In 46. Cannabinoid Pharmacology, pp: 67-134. Paz S, Montserrat MA, Fernandez-Arche MA (2014) Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) seed oil: analytical and chemistryPollastro 25: F, Minassi1160-1185. A, Fresu LG (2018) Cannabis phytochemical characterization of the unsaponifiable Phenolics and their Bioactivities. Current medicinal 59. fraction. J Agr Food Chem 62(5): 1105-1110. 47. Elzinga S, Fischedick J, Podkolinski R, Raber JC (2015) Flores-Sanchez IJ, Verpoorte R (2008) PKS Activities Cannabinoids and terpenes as chemotaxonomic markers Joshi RK. Biological, Phytochemical and Medicinal Aspects of Cannabis Sativa L.: A Review. Nat Copyright© Joshi RK. Ayurvedic Med 2020, 4(2): 000239. 6 Journal of Natural & Ayurvedic Medicine

69. and the Iranian Mystical Tradition. Routledge, pp: 30. 60. in cannabis. Nat Prod Chem Res 3(4): 81. Lloyd Ridgeon (2006) Sufi Castigator: Ahmad Kasravi 70. Flores-Sanchez IJ, Verpoorte R (2008) Secondary pp: 28. 61. metabolismRoss SA, ElSohly in Cannabis. MA, PhytochemSultana GNN, Rev 7:Mehmedic 615-639. Z, Knight M (2009) Journey to the End of Islam. Soft Skull, 71. legal in India now has support from one of Narendra Hossain CF, Chandra S (2005) Flavonoid glycosides Modi’sBalachandran ministers. (2017) Quartz. Manu. The push to make marijuana and cannabinoids from the pollen of Cannabis sativa L. 62. Phytochem Anal 16(1): 45-48. 72. Three phenyldihydronaphthalene lignanamides from cannabis in India, its impact on children | India News- Sakakibara I, Ikeya Y, Hayashi K Mitsuhashi H (1992) Times(2010) of INCB India. raises The Times concern of India. over illicit cultivation of 3223. fruits of Cannabis sativa L. Phytochemistry 31: 3219- 73. 63. Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, pp: 17-19. Magnitude of Substance Use in India (2019) (PDF) Marti G, Schnee S, Andrey Y, Simoes-Pires C, Carrupt PA, 74. andet al. Cannabis (2014) species Study of leaf metabolome modifications antioxidantinduced by UV-C assays. radiations Molecules in representative 19: 14004-14021. Vitis, Cissus (2017) Uttarakhand to become first Indian state to by LC-MS based metabolomics and 75. legalize Cannabis cultivation. India times. 64. hope-Patanjali. Quartz. composition, and stereo chemical characterisation of Suneera T (2018) India’s cannabis economy has a new Smeds AI, Eklund PC, William SM (2012) Content, 76. cultivation. Deccan Herald, 21 November 2019. 1998. (2020) Madhya Pradesh Government to legalize cannabis lignans in berries and seeds. Food Chem 134: 1991- 77. 65. cannabis plantation. Hindustan Times. University Press. (2020) Manipur Government considering legalizing LIversen L (2007) The Science of Marijuana. Oxford 78. A Cannabis 66. India. Hola Mohalla: United colours of celebrations. Reader (2008) Global Issues and Local Bhang, thandai market booms (2014) The Times of Treatment and Regulation in . European 67. Experiences: Perspectives on Cannabis Controversies,

68. Mad About Words (2004) Telegraphindia.com. 79. Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction pp: 100. with annual cannabis problem. Kashyap SG (2015) Kamakhya ushers in annual festival, Nahas G, Frick HC (2013) Drug Abuse in the Modern World: A Perspective for the Eighties. pp: 262.

Joshi RK. Biological, Phytochemical and Medicinal Aspects of Cannabis Sativa L.: A Review. Nat Copyright© Joshi RK. Ayurvedic Med 2020, 4(2): 000239.