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Protection^ of \, RAIL SHIPMENTS of \ FRUITS and A VEGETABLES

^^^^.^ . AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO 195 "^ MARKET QUALITY RESEARCH DIVISION AGRICULTURAL MARKETING SERVICE US. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Protection of RAIL SHIPMENTS of FRUITS and VEGETABLES

By W. H. Redit and A. A. Hamer

July 1961

Agriculture Handbook No. 195 Market Quality Research Division Agricultural Marketing Service U. S. Department of Agriculture

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Growth Tlifougii Agricultural Progress

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington 2.5, D. C. — Price 55 cents PREFACE The purpose of this handbook is to help USDA Field Offices shippers of fresh fruits and vegetables to select the most desirable rail protective services avail- For further information relative to specific able, based on commodity characteristics, crops in the various growing areas, or market seasonal needs, geographical location, and cost. diseases or other disorders, readers may con- Preparation of the handbook has been re- tact the appropi-iate Agricultural Marketing quested by the Transportation Research Ad- Service office listed below : visory Committee to the Department of California: U.S. Horticultural Field Labora- Agriculture as well as by railroads, carlines, tory (AMS), 2021 South Peach Avenue, Fresno shippers, receivers, and various freight loss and 2; U.S. Horticultural Field Laboratory (AMS), damage prevention agencies. P.O. Box 700, Pomona. Much information on the desired commodity Florida: U.S. Horticultural Field Labora- environment during transit and the way it can tory (AMS), 2120 Camden Road, Orlando; be achieved by proper use of equipment and U.S. Horticultural Sub-Field Laboratory, 13601 protective services has been developed by the Cutler Road, Miami 56. Department of Agriculture in transportation Illinois: U.S. Market Pathology Laboratory studies over the past 50 years. Tliis informa- (AMS), 536 South Clark Street, Chicago. tion has been made available to the industry in Maine: Maine Potato Research Center numerous Government and scientific publica- (AMS), Box 532, Presque Isle. tions, many of which are now out of print. Compilation of these data into a handbook Minnesota: Red River Valley Potato Re- makes these findings available to all who handle search Center (AMS), P.O. Box 113, East perishable agricultural products. Grand Forks. North Carolina : U.S. Horticultural Field Most of the recommendations contained in Laboratory (AMS), Kilgore Hall, N.C. Agri- this handbook are based on tlie results of trans- cultural Experiment Station, Raleigh. portation studies conducted by the Department. However, a number of commercially important New York: U.S. Market PathologA- Labora- crops and producing areas were not included in tory (AMS), 611 Washington Street, New the observations. For these crops and areas, York. several commercially used protective services Texas : U.S. Horticultural Field Laboratory have been considered and tentative recommen- (AMS), P.O. Box 1425, Harlingen. dations made. All of the recommendations in Washington: U.S. Horticultural Field Labo- this handbook are based on provisions of the ratory (AMS), P.O. Box 99. Wenatchee. Perishable Protective Tarings published by the National Perishable Freight Committee and the REA Express. Because containers and loading Acknowledgments methods appear to be amply covered in the vari- In the preparation of this handbook, many of ous Freight Container Tariff's, no reference to the data were supplied by members of the Mar- them is made in the handbook except where ket Quality Research Division. they definitely influence the efi'ectiveness of the Appreciation is expressed for the assistance protective service prescribed. given by Fruit Growers Express Company, This first edition of the handbook is tenta- Western Fruit Express Company, and Burling- tive. Necessary revisions will be made as addi- ton Refrigerator Express Company; Edd tional information is developed. Possibly the Moore, Idaho Grower Shippers' Association, present scope of coverage and presentation is Inc. ; A. L. Hoist, Pacific Fruit Express ; W. T. inadequate ; therefore, suggestions for improve- Jamison, Chairman, National Perishable ment are invited. Some of the factors that may Freight Committee ; and many others. alter presently recommended protective serv- Acknowledgment is given for the use of some ices include new types and sizes of containers, of the figures as follows: Fruit Growers Ex- heavier loading, faster train schedules, im- press Company for figure 5; National Freight proved rail equipment, wider use of precooling, Container Bureau, Association of American and the adoption of new and more effective Railroads for figures 10, 11, 12, 13 and 27; and fungicidal treatments. Preco Inc. for figures 2, 4, 6, and 8. ■

CONTENTS

Page Page Introduction X Pineapples 34 Rail transit equipment 1 Plums (including fresh prunes) __ 35 Tlie refrigerator car 1 Strawberries 35 ^Mechanical refrigerator cars 5 Fresh vegetables : Thermostatically controlled fan cars_- 7 Asparagus 36 Car heaters 7 Beans (snap) 37 Icing and precooling facilities 9 "PiggA'back" service 10 Beets (bunched) 37 Broccoli 37 Containers and loading 10 Cabbage 37 Carrots 37 Protective services available: Cauliflower 38 General definition of Perishable Pro- Celery 38 tective Service rules 13 Corn (sweet) 38 Perishable Protective Tariff 18: Cucumbers 39 Refrigeration service 13 Endive and escarole 39 "\'entilation service 17 Lettuce 39 Protective service against cold Melons : - (heater service) 17 Cantaloups 40 Explanation of heating sei-vice Honeydew 40 terms 19 Onions (dry) 41 REA Express Perishable Protective Tariff 27 19 Peas (green) 41 Peppers (sweet) 41 Factors affecting postharvest life of Potatoes 41 fresh fruits and vegetables 20 Radishes 43 Temperature 20 Spinach 44 Moisture 20 Sweetpotatoes 44 Diseases 21 Tomatoes (mature-green) 45 Mechanical damage 22 Tomatoes (pink) 46 Commodity requirements 22 Frozen fruits and vegetables 46 Fresh fruits : Methods of controlling transit environ- Apples 23 ment 47 Apricots 25 Refrigeration principles : Avocados 26 Definition 47 Bananas (green) 26 Cherries (sweet) 27 Sources of refrigeration 47 The heat load 43 Citrus : Heat transfer 49 Grapefruit 27 Sample refrigeration load calcula- Lemons 27 tions 49 Limes 28 Oranges 29 Precooling methods 51 Tangerines 30 Transit refrigeration 57 Cranberries 30 Ventilation 5g Dates 31 Protective service against cold 59 Figs (fresh) 31 Operating car fans at destination ___ 62 Grapes (Vinifera) 31 Peaches (and nectarines) 32 Recommended protective services 62 Pears 33 Literature cited jQg

Protection of Rail Shipments of Fruits and Vegetables By W. H. REDIT, mechanical engineer, and A. A. HAMER, engineering aid, Market Quality Research Division, Agricultural Marketing Service

INTRODUCTION

Preserving the harvest-fresli quality of per- A number of factors influence the selection ishable agricultural commodities is of great of the right protective service as perishable importance in this era of ever-increasing costs commodities move from farm to market. These of production, distribution, and marketing. To include kind and variety of crop, condition of hold present markets and to develop new out- the product, packaging, precooling, length of lets, only high-quality commodities can compete storage before shipment, loading methods, for the consumer's dollar. Losses from deteri- weather, distance to market, train schedules, oration during distribution must be kept to a and type of rail equipment used. minimum. Rail transportation is a vital link Many different kinds of refrigeration, heat- in the chain of distribution. Time in transit ing, and ventilating services are available. may represent the largest portion of the post- Generally, the shipper or the receiver has the harvest life of some of the more perishable responsibility for selecting the protective serv- commodities such as cherries, strawberries, ice for his commodity in transit. To assist in broccoli, and spinach, so that environment dur- this selection, the sections that follow present ing this period will largely determine the sal- briefly the transit environmental requirements ability of the produce when it reaches the for most of the commercially shipped horticul- consumer. tural commodities and ways to meet these The part that rail transportation has played requirements through proper selection of equip- in the development of our present-day agricul- ment and available services. Recommended ture is well kno-\\ni. The Department of Agri- protective services for specific commodities are culture has conducted research for many years given in tables 7, 8, and 9, pages 64-102. on the transit requirements of perishable com- The recommendations in this handbook modities. In addition much effort has been should not be considered absolute or final. devoted to developing and testing the per- formance of improved types of railroad refrig- They indicate a range of conditions in which erator cars. This has been done in cooperation these commodities may be satisfactorily and with railroads, carlines, shippers, receivers. economically shipped after consideration of the State experiment stations, equipment builders, variable factors mentioned above. As the pri- and others in the industry. As a result, greatly mary objective has been to consolidate all such improved transit conditions for fruits and veg- information into a practical guidebook, it has etables as well as considerable savings to the been necessary to omit many details. However, shippers have been made possible by the more detailed information is available else- development of more economical protective where in bulletins, reports, and reprints, many services. of which are listed in the Literature Cited.

RAIL TRANSIT EQUIPMENT

A description of the modern refrigerator car, The Refrigerator Car some background on its development, and a brief outline of the facilities and methods for History.—The introduction and development servicing it may help users of this handbook. of the rail refrigerator car during the mid- Mr. Hamer retired in 1960. 1800's sparked the rapid expansion of agricul- AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 1.—An early refrigerator car.

tural production in Florida, California, the further research by the Department and the Pacific Northwest, and other specialized pro- refrigerator car owners was done on modified ducing areas. With the means available to icing services, half-stage icing, various kinds move fresh produce safely to markets many of insulation, and air circulating fans. In miles away, growers concentrated on large- 1938, the first car fans were installed. At scale production of crops best suited to soil about the same time, different types of car and growing conditions of those areas. heaters were developed by some of the carlines The first refrigerator cars were little more and tested in cooperation with the Department. than boxcars with ice placed in them to ship In 1944, the Refrigerator Car Committee of berries or meat a few miles to market (fig. 1). the United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Associa- Cars were gradually developed with special ice tion was formed to foster improvements in the compartments, greater ice capacity, and some refrigerator car for the postwar rebuilding insulation. By 1890 carloads of oranges, apri- period. In cooperation with this committee, cots, cherries, and strawberries were being the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the rail- shipped from California to eastern markets in I'oads, and some of the refrigerator carlines refrigerator cars operated by the railroads and conducted an extensive research and testing private carlines. In 1905, the U.S. Department program culminating in certain recommenda- of Agriculture began studies of commodity tions for the refrigerator car as we know it temperatures in transit and of car modifica- today. These included easy-riding trucks, steel tions to improve both service and equipment. framing, improved draft gears, half-stage ice As a result of these early studies, basic im- racks, thicker and improved insulation, and provements were developed in car design which forced air circulation. Thermostatically con- were adopted and put into effect by the Rail- trolled alcohol (LF) heaters were also devel- road Administration in 1918. These included oped and tested during this period. They are the use of basket-type bunkers, ñoor racks, and standard equipment on many lines today. The increased insulation. During the next 20 years. development of the mechanically refrigerated PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 3

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m tí 4 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE car was delayed by the war, but in 1919 the 84, National Perishable Freight Committee Cir- first car was placed in service to provide better cular 20-D (51), including cars moving under protection for frozen foods in transit than was heater service and cars shipped with top ice. possible with ice and salt. Since that time Because of the importance of car fans, the ship- many improvements have been made, including per should be certain they are in proper oper- so-called "all purpose" mechanical cars suitable ating condition before loading a car, and the for carrying both fresh and frozen produce. railroads should provide careful maintenance Today there are about 5,500 mechanical cars and inspection to insure they are in good order. in service with more under construction. The hinged ice-bunker hatch covers and Today's refrigerator car. — Approximately plugs may be opened to a number of positions 95,000 RS or general-service refrigerator cars to provide ventilation in the car and thus take are now in operation, nearly all being of the advantage of low-temperature outside air to end-bunker type. Figure 2 is a diagram of the cool the load during certain seasons. The modern ice-bunker car showing its component special tarifli rules under which the ventilating parts and how it is used under various protec- devices are manipulated are discussed in the tive services (86)} Most of these cars now in section on Protective Services Available. service are approximately 40 feet in outside All refrigerator cars built in the past 4 or 5 length but there are some 50-foot cars that are years are equipped with sliding doors, mostly heavily insulated and used in special services. 6 feet wide, permitting the use of mechanical Ice bunker capacity varies from about 9,000 loading devices such as forklift trucks. Other pounds per car (both bunkers) to 12,000 improvements include high-speed trucks with pounds. Alost cars now are equipped so that more resilient springs and snubber devices to the ice grates can be raised to the halfway promote smooth riding, better shock-absorbing mark for upper-half-stage icing. Floor racks draft gears to reduce coupling and slack action are provided for air circulation under the load impacts, roller-bearing equipped axles, and and are hinged in sections to permit lifting for steel wheels. cleaning of car floor. ]Many cars also have ver- The standard car now has 4 to 6 inches of tical wall flues to permit air circulation around insulation in floor, walls, and ceiling to provide the load, regardless of the type of load or con- better protection and reduce refrigeration re- tainer. Flues are particularly valuable in pre- quirements. Some cars used in special service, venting freezing damage in cold weather to such as for frozen foods, have up to 9 inches of lading placed tightly against the cold car walls, insulation. as heated air provided within the car moves Refrigerator cars specially assigned to pas- down the flue opening and warms the inner senger train service are available for rapid wall lining. During hot weather, when the transit of such crops as strawberries, cherries, car is under refrigeration, air within the flues and cut flowers. These express cars are usually intercepts outside heat before it can affect the somewhat over 50 feet long but have the same commodity temperature. type of ice bunkers, floor racks, air circulating Two types of air circulating fans are now fans, and ventilating devices as the regular installed in over 70,000 RS cars ; the mechani- freight refrigerator cars. cal or floor fan and the electric or overhead fan. A number of cars, mostly owned and oper- Both types are illustrated in the diagram of ated by the Canadian railroads but also avail- figure 2. The adoption of car fans to provide able in some parts of the United States, are forced air circulation is considered to be one of equipped with overhead ice bunkers. The cars the most outstanding improvements in refriger- have proved satisfactory under certain condi- ator cars in many years. With the use of the tions. With the ice bunkers overhead, the cooled fans, more uniform temperatures are obtained, air moves by convection currents down the thereby eliminating excessively high tempera- sidewall flues for the entire length of the car, tures in top layers and chilling or freezing resulting in fairly uniform load temperatures. damage in bottom layers, as shown in figure 3. Forced air circulating fans are therefore un- Operating the car fans with auxiliary motors necessary in this type of car. However, efl:ec- (electric or internal combustion) (fig. 4) tive precooling of a warm load can only be provides rapid cooling or precooling at loading accomplished with the use of mobile or track- point and reduces the temperature spread when side mechanical units ; hence such cars are used the car is held at terminal markets. Fans mainly for frozen foods in the United States. should be placed in the "ON" position (fig. They are equipped with underslung heaters for 2) regardless of the protective service used or protection against freezing during the winter the commodity shipped, as provided for in Rule months. ' Italic numbers in parentheses refer to items in the In recent years, a large number of bunker- Literature Cited, p. 103. less refrigerator cars (RB type) with a mini- PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

REFRIGERATION OF ORANGES IN TRANSIT AVERAGE TOP AND BOTTOM LAYER FRUIT TEMPERATURES NON-FAN CAR "A" VERSUS FAN GAR"D" CALIFORNIA TO NEW YORK - STANDARD REFRIGERATION

DAYS

CTOT, O T- i- ^ , . '^'"^'S Neg. 8151-60(10) iiGURE ¿.—Lse of car fans provides more uniform temperatures and faster cooling in transit of shipments of warm oranges.

mum of 3 to 31/2 inches of insulation have been in one end of the car or through openings in a placed in service. Most of these cars are not ceiling duct ; the air then passes down through equipped with ventilating devices. They are the load and flues at the sides and ends of the designed primarily for shipments of beverages car and returns to the unit via the space under and canned goods which require no refrigera- the floor racks. This design is best adapted to tion in transit. precoohng because most of the cold air can move through the load and thus pick up the Mechanical Refrigerator Cars field heat of the commodity. In the complete envelope design, the cooled While most of the available mechanical cars air IS discharged into a ceiling duct and is cir- are being used in frozen food service, the ma- culated completely around the load by passing jority are designed to also handle fresh produce downward through side and end wall ducts and within a range of 32° to 70°F. Many high- back to the refrigerating unit via a floor duct. temperature test loads have been shipped with The cooling air completely envelops the load but satisfactory results, especially commodities re- none enters the load space. This system is best quiring temperatures near 32° such as lettuce, adapted for frozen foods. celery, and asparagus, or commodities that re- quire minimum temperature variations in The semienvelope design is similar to the transit. complete envelope type except that conventional open-type floor racks are used instead of the These cars are characterized by the type of enclosed floor duct, so some of the circulating air circulation provided within the loading cooled air enters the loading space (fig. 5). In space. The three principal types are open, com- a modification of this system, part of the cooled plete envelope, and semienvelope designs. air is directed into the loading space through In the open design all of the cooled air is dampered openings or a series of openings in discharged directly over the load from a grill the ceiling duct. This design provides for faster AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 4.—Precooling niotur which operates car fans. cooling of a warm load although it is less effec- Power for the refrigerating units and fans tive than the open design. For commodities is generally supplied by diesel-electric units, al- with a high heat of respiration, more uniform though some cars employ a direct-connected temperatures can be maintained when some air gasoline or diesel engine. Plug-in standby oper- is moved through the load. With one other de- ation from local sources of electricity may be sign used in some cars the air circulation is reversed by having the cooled air discharged substituted for the diesel-electric operation dur- under the "floor racks or through a floor duct, ing loading or holdover periods at terminals moving upward through the wall flues or load, when the noise and exhaust fumes from the and returning through the ceiling duct. engine are objectionable.

gMÄ FIGURE 5.—Mechanical refrigerator car (semienvelope type) showing location of refrigeration equipment and movement of air. PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Automatic temperature control is provided in pi'essor is sent into the cooling coils. The these cars. Under the provisions of Rule 710 change from cooling to heating is done auto- (nonfrozen commodities) of the Perishable matically by the thermostatic controls. Protective Tariff the shipper is required to specify the transit temperature desired. The Thermostatically Controlled Fan Cars railroad representative will then set the car thermostat to provide this temperature. Be- Two types of fan cars equipped with a small cause of the inherent temperature differential diesel-electric unit to provide current for con- in different makes of thermostats and the tinuous operation of car fans whether the car is necessity for defrosting equipment, some allow- moving or standing are now under test. In one ance is made for such variations when setting type, operation of two corner fans in each end the thermostat. Table 4 on page 25 contains of the car is controlled by a thermostat. These suggested temperatures to be specified by ship- fans circulate the air from the ice bunkers per for certain fresh fruits and vegetables through the load space. A center fan in each shipped in mechanical cars. These tempera- end of the car operates continuously through tures allow for possible thermostat variations a duct which bypasses the ice Ininker area en- mentioned above. tirely, thereby eliminating any intake of cold Precooling of warm loads in a mechanical air from the ice and circulating only the air car of the open design or of the modified semi- that is already within the loading space. Thus, envelope design (with openings in ceiling duct) when the air temperature within the car is slower than with the best precooling methods reaches the thermostat setting, the corner cool- in iced cars as previously described. The ing fans are shut off, but a uniform tempera- reasons are a slower velocity and lesser volume ture is maintained by tlie continued operation of air moving through the load and the capacity of the bypass fans. To prevent cold air from limits of the refrigerating unit. It is generally the bunkers from flowing out under the floor considered uneconomical to provide the refrig- racks and unduly cooling the bottom of the load erating capacity required to quickly remove the when the cooling fans are oft", thermostat action field heat involved in a good precooling job as closes dampers over the corner fan openings. much of this capacity is not required thei'eafter In the other type of car there are no bypass to maintain temperatures in transit. However, fans. The three fans in each end operate con- some mechanical cars, in which the refrigera- tinuously but their speed is reduced when the tion capacity is around 50 percent greater than thermostat is satisfied. In this way some air the average, are equipped to provide rapid pre- circulation is maintained in the loading space cooling. but further cooling is greatly retarded. While cooling in mechanical cars may be Besides providing uniform, thermostatically slower, it is uninterrupted from the time the controlled temperatures, full advantage may be car doors are closed after loading. The cars do taken in these cars of the savings afforded by not need to be held at loading point for pre- the use of the various modified refrigeration or cooling. Earlier pickup and reduced transit ventilation services (7). Also, better tempera- time are therefore possible. Mechanical cars tures under heater services can be expected. are well suited for commodities that are loaded For heater service, thermostatically controlled at or near the desired transit temperatures alcohol heaters are used and all car fans are after room precooling, hydrocooling, vacuum kept operating continuously. Temperature con- cooling, or loading out of cold storage. Charges trol is thus obtained by means of the heater for transit protective service in these cars for thermostats. fresh produce or other nonfrozen commodities (above 32°F.) are approximately the same as Car Heaters for Standard Refrigeration Service.- On frozen food shipments the charges are about 50 per- Protection against cold is provided by port- cent greater than for Standard Refrigeration able heaters placed in the empty ice bunkers. Service on fresh vegetables. The standard charcoal heater is rapidly being Mechanical cars equipped to handle the full replaced by the thermostatically controlled al- range of both fresh and frozen commodities are cohol hoatei- shown in figure 6. Temperature designed to provide heat for cold-weather pro- control in the car using charcoal heaters is pro- tection as well as refrigeration. The heat is vided by lighting one or more heaters, depend- supplied by means of electric heating elements ing on predicted or prevailing outside air tem- or bj' reverse-cj'cle operation of the refriger- peratures. This method does not take into ating unit in which the hot gas from the com- account the conditions that actually exist inside the car, resulting many times in unsatisfactory ■ See sect ion on Protective Services Available. control. Since the development of the thermos- AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE It

FIGURE 6.—Thermostatically controlled alcohol heater installed on ice grates in car bunker.

N-IOISO FIGURE 7.—Underslung charcoal heater. PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 9 tatically controlled alcohol heater, it is possible Canadian railroads. Control is provided by to provide protection based on air and com- means of hand-operated dampers that can be modity temperatures inside the car, greatly re- reached from the ground. Another type of ducing both overheating and freezing damage. underslung charcoal heater used in this country The heater pilots are usually lit when the heat- in overhead bunker cars has ducts built into the ers are installed in the car. With the heater car floor through which heated air is delivered thermostat set for the desired temperature, no to the loading space, through louvers at the further attention is normally required except to ends of the car. refuel the heaters. Operation of car fans under heater service is essential to obtain most effec- tive use of both types of heaters. Icing andjPrecooIing Facilities Some refrigerator cars and special-purpose Icing facilities are provided at strategic load- insulated boxcars are equipped with under- ing points and major rail division points. These slung charcoal heaters (fig. 7) which are are so located that cars may be re-iced in mounted underneath the car near one of the transit about once every 24 hours. Many of doors. In one type, a copper coil surrounding these icing stations are equipped with mechani- the firebox contains ethylene glycol which, cal icers (fig. 8) to speed up the process. Some when heated, circulates by gravity through a of these stations are also equipped with ma- pipe coil laid on the car floor under the floor chines for retop icing, both at point of origin racks. This applies heat to the bottom of the and in transit. load where it is most desired and provides for Some railroads have facilities for precooling uniform load temperatures without the need cars by means of trackside mechanical pre- for car fans. These heaters are extensively coolers or by utilizing the cold air from ice- used in overhead bunker cars and others of the storage plants.

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FIGURE 8.—Icing refrigerator car with mechanical icer. 10 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

"Piggyback" Service Because of the difficulties of re-icing in transit, ice-bunkered vehicles have not been widely "Piggyback" service ov trailer-on-flatcar used for the service. While these mechanically operation is being widely employed in tlie refrigerated units are thermostatically con- movement of dry freight or merchandise by trolled, merely setting the thermostat is not many rail and trucking interests. It has had enough to insure desired transit temperature. limited acceptance tlius far for transporting Limited tests with Texas fruits and vegetables fresh fruits and vegetables although consider- by the Market Quality Research Division have able interest is developing. In one type of shown that, in heavy solid loads and with in- operation, regular over-the-road trailers are sufficient or no provision for air circulation driven onto special railroad flatcars and locked around the load, cooling is unsatisfactory and in position. In another operation special uniform temperatures cannot be obtained. It trailer bodies or containers are removed from is, therefore, important that both shippers and the trailer chassis or special running gear and receivers realize that the same principles of air placed on the special rail flatcars. These spe- movement and temperature distribution apply cial bodies or containers are similar in design to mechanically refrigerated trailers in Piggy- to regular trailer bodies except for the fasten- back service as to over-the-road truck trailers ing devices required. or railroad refrigerator cars. Warm commodi- Currently, mechanically refrigerated trailers ties should not be loaded into these vehicles and containers are generally being used in Pig- without regard to the basic principles of good gyback service for perishable commodities. rail car or truck van loading (58).

CONTAINERS AND LOADING The selection and use of proper containers Many commodities require liners or pads to and the correct loading of these in the car are prevent injury or bruising from contact with important factors in the distribution of fresh the container (fig. 9). Film liners are now fruits and vegetables. Containers must protect used with some items such as cherries and the commodity, permit such heat exchange as pears to modify the concentrations of oxygen necessary, and serve as an appropriate mer- and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and pro- chandising unit with sufficient strength to with- vide a high relative humidity (27, 44). Ba- stand normal handling. To avoid confusion nanas are shipped with a polyethylene sleeve and excessive cost, size and design should be or shroud over each stem to minimize scarring standardized as much as possible. The material, from contact with car walls or with adjacent dimensions, and construction of containers fruit in transit. shipped by rail and the manner in which they The use of fiberboard or corrugated cartons may be loaded are governed by tariffs author- has increased tremendously in the past few ized by the Association of American Railroads years, with many commodities being packed in (AAR) through its Freight Loading and Con- them almost exclusively (28). The principal tainer Bureau in the various freight container factor in this rapid conversion from wooden tariffs (52-54, 131). Despite these rules, heavy containers has been the lower cost of cartons. transit losses occur through careless packing, With the growing trend to prepackage fruits handling, loading and unloading, improper load and vegetables at production areas, fiberboard pattern, and rough handling of cars. cartons will probably continue to be popular Containers.—The size, shape, and construc- master containers for shipping the consumer tion of containers are important for the pro- packages. Until recently, it has not been prac- tection of a given commodity (16). The tical to hydrocool or top ice cartons because of containers should hold the desired quantity the damage to the fiberboard by wetting. Sev- without causing pressure bruises or crushing eral manufacturers are now developing mois- from too tight a pack, or friction and abrasion ture-resistant corrugated materials that will injuries from a loose pack. If necessary the permit these containers with proper vent holes containers should be shaped to hold the coni- to be exposed to hydrocooling water without modity properly; for example, the pyramid- weakening the containers. Some may l)e used shaped asparagus crate. They must be strong with package ice and then top iced. enough to withstand weight of the upper layers Loading.—A considerable amount of research of containers in a load, especially now with in- by the railroads has been devoted to the proper creased use of heavier loading. If cooling is loading of containers to minimize loss and dam- required after packing, containers must have age in transit. The results may be found in sufficient vent openings properly placed for the various Freight Container Tariffs. Under rapid removal of heat. these rules, only authorized containers and ^s " PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 11 In a good load, containers must be placed so as to take advantage of their maximum strength and permit adequate stripping or use of spacers to hold the load in alinement (fig. 11). Necessary channels should also be main- tained (1I^2). Any slack in the load should be removed by the "squeeze" method when re- quired, and appropriate braces used to prevent load shifting in transit (figs. 12 and 13). Re- gardless of methods used, close supervision of each operation is necessary to provide a load that will retain alinement. Kicking and drop- ping packages and walking on the load can result in much more damage to the commodity than normally occurs in a well-loaded car in transit. Commodities shipped in bags should be pro- tected by padding material on the floor racks. Breakage of baskets in transit is minimized by the use of the alternately inverted load (127). Sidewall flues or wall racks in cars are an excel- lent means of providing air circulation around a load but sometimes divert air which should be moving through the load. When loading any precooled commodity in hot weather, a door shield or tunnel should be used to prevent warming of the product and loss of refriger- BN-10151 ation in a pre-iced car (fig. 19, page 43). Such FIGURE 9.—Apples showing- typical flattened bruises protection is also required in very cold weather produced by contact of box with car floor racks. Such to prevent freezing damage {22). To minimize injury can be largely prevented by use of appropriate cushion liners and careful handling of boxes. freezing damage in a car with no sidewall flues, containers (or bags) should be loaded com- pactly and away from contact with the car methods of loading, proved by many tests and walls, as shown in figure 20, on page 44. Such by actual use, may be used in loading perish- clearance is particularly desirable in the bottom ables in refrigerator cars (fig. 10). However, layers (figure 21, on page 45). Full advantage new containers and loading methods may be should be taken of the assistance provided by tested by obtaining special permits from the field representatives of the AAR Freight Load- railroads that handle the test shipment. ing and Container Bureau and the Freight Loss

4th LAYER 3rd •• 2nd M Itt ••

FiGUKE 1Û.—Side view of load in a refrigerator car showing arrangement of containers in rows, layers and stacks. 12 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

GUIDE ROW

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LENGTHWISE ARRAMGEMENT 1—ü OF CONTAINERS IN A CAR THROUGH LOAD 1 IP L= DIVIDED LOAD

FIGURE 12.—The two general types of loads for re- frigerator cars using a guide row to determine the number of stacks which can be loaded and amount of lengthwise space remaining to be taken up with a filler.

resultant increase in weight on bottom layers. This can result in crushing of weak containers and increased physical damage in bagged loads. Greater volume in the load may also mean changes in air circulation patterns and in- creases in the refrigeration required, especially in nonprecooled loads. Heavier loads, therefore,

— riGMT LOAO-C (R IS TIGHTLY FILLED BY CONTAINERS AND A SPACE FILLER -^LENGTH OF LOi LENGTHWISE SPACE:^ D

=J ^ LENGTH OF LOAD FIGURE 11.—Methods of placing containers in a refrigerator car. LENGTHWISE SPACE TIGHT LOAD and Damage Prevention Section. These organ- izations exist solely to reduce transit damage. Heavier loading of many commodities in LENGTHWISE SLACK specified areas of the country has been stimu- ( ^ :AUSING A LOOSE LOAD [] lated by new incentive freight rates for larger fl than minimum loads and by per-car rates. This H is resulting in lower per-package freight and = 11 refrigeration costs to the shipper and better LENGTHWISE SLACK utilization of rail equipment for the carriers LOOSE LOAD (U). On the other hand, heavier loading FIGURE 13.—Tight loads are necessary to minimize con- usually means higher stacking in the car with tainer damage in transit. PROTECTION OF KAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 13 mean a reappraisal of protective services, es- pound loads of potatoes in 100-pound burlap pecially in hot weather. To achieve the same bags or in consumer-size paper bags, bruising temperature reduction during car precooling, it in the bottom layers has increased only slightly. will be necessary to improve precooling effi- In some instances, customary refrigeration ciency or increase precooling time. It is im- services for normal, lightweight shipments portant not to block the top bulkhead openings have appeared to be adequate for heavier loads, when a high load is used, as impaired air cir- mainly with precooled commodities. However, culation may dangerously reduce the cooling for heavier loads of commodities loaded at high rate. Fan cars must be used with heavier loads, temperatures in hot weather, the maximum particularly in very hot or very cold weather. protection service recommended for ordinary Limited information received on commodities sized loads should be selected. For Texas from areas in which heaver loading has been tomatoes, the protective services needed for used indicates that breakage has not been heavier loads and different types of containers seriously increased thus far. Even in 50,000- are included in table 9.

PROTECTIVE SERVICES AVAILABLE General Definition of Perishable Pro- fied Carriers' Protective Service and Voluntary tective Service Rules Heater Service, but neither of these apply to the various classes of protective service out- The various rail protective services appear- lined in the handbook. ing in this handbook and the designated rule Heating is also possible in mechanical re- numbers are based in general on information frigerator cars. It is accomplished by thermo- provided in Perishable Protective Tariffs and statically controlled reverse-cycle refrigeration supplements thereof. These tariffs are No. 18 or by heating elements contained in the me- issued by the National Perishable Freight Com- chanical unit. This type of service comes under mittee (55) and No. 27 prepared by the REA Rule 700 (Mechanical Protective Service), Express. Many other kinds of protective serv- which is not defined herein. Following is a gen- ices provided in the tariffs do not particularly eral explanation of the tai-iff rules shown. apply to the services recommended in the hand- book and they arc therefore omitted. The tariffs also include charges assessed for the Perishable Protective Tariff 18 various protective services offered, based on Refrigeration service origin and destination of the shipment, but such charges are not within the scope of this hand- Rule 200, "Application."—Only sections (K) book. and (L) of this rule are referred to in the The rules included in the handbook apply to handbook. They provide for different com- carlot shipments of fresh fruits and vegetables pulsory refrigeration services during certain having both origin and destination within the periods on potatoes (other than sweetpotatoes United States. They also cover certain agri- or yams) from Idaho Groups B and C, Oregon cultural commodities originating in Canada, Group B, and Washington. Cuba, or the Republic of Mexico, but only from Rule 201, "Standard Refrigeration Service." the first point in the United States through —Involves pre-icing or initial icing of car which such shipments pass, to points in the bunkers and re-icing to capacity at all regular United States. icing stations in transit. On vegetables moving A further discussion on the use of the protec- under half-stage Standard Refrigeration Serv- tive services is included in the section headed ice without ice on top of the load, the shipper "Methods of Controlling Transit Environment." may instruct on the bill of lading that if the There are three general types of protective car is held at stop, hold, or reconsigning point, service : Refrigeration, ventilation, and heating or while at destination, it should be re-iced to service. capacity daily, regardless of the amount of ice Refrigeration is by three general methods : in the bunkers. However, the car will not be bunker icing, body icing, and mechanical. re-iced at destination if the consignee, after Ventilation is also of three general types: accepting the shipment, instructs the carrier, Standard, Special, and Combination. "Do not re-ice." Cars may be loaded dry and Heating service for other than mechanical iced thereafter, depending on available icing cars comes under four general categories : Car- facilities and kind of commodity. riers' Protective Service, Shippers' Protective Ride 202, "Furnishing of salt'."—Certain per- Service, Shippers' Specified Service, and Special centages or quantities of salt are added to the Heater Protective Service. There are also Modi- ice to produce lower air and commodity tern- 14 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE peratures in car. The salt may be supplied at the rule if the shipment is re-iced after venti- pre-icing, initial icing, replenishing, or one or lators are opened. Also, if, upon instructions, more re-icings, in transit, also during precool- the vents are opened at any time after the car ing operations as ordered by tlie shipper. When has left the loading station and the car is later a certain percentage of salt is specified, this re-iced, it will be transported under Standard means the ratio of salt to quantity of ice sup- Refrigeration Service from point of first re- plied. icing after opening of the vents, with ensuing Rule 237, "Cooling cats at origin."—Pertains charges as in paragraph J of the rule. to shipments of cucumbers, pineapples, potatoes Rule 2.Í0, "Handling shipments billed. Ini- (other than sweetpotatoes or yams), and toma- tially iced; do not reice."—Involves shipments toes, from certain States in the Eastern, South- initially iced by carrier or shipper before or ern and Southwestern tei-ritories as shown in after loading with no re-icing in transit. Also the tariff. The rule, however, does not apply applies to shipments pre-iced by the carrier and to potato shipments originating at stations on replenished by the .shipper, with no re-icing in certain Southwestern railroads specified in the transit. When a shipment is forwarded in an rule. The rule is applicable to shipments that uniced refrigerator car, the carrier will, upon are initially iced by the carrier or shipper with reasonable advance written notice, initially ice not more than 5,000 pounds before completion the bunkers at a regular icing station in of loading, and are then transported from the transit. If the car cannot be iced at the desig- loading station to destination under Standard nated station, the change in service will be Ventilation. The shipper must show on the bill made at the first available regular icing station. of lading that car was so cooled at origin, state If a car originally billed "do not re-ice" under the amount of ice that was supplied, and indi- this rule, upon subsequent instructions, has the cate that the shipment is to be handled in bunkers re-iced before arrival in destination transit under Standard Ventilation. When a terminal train yard, it shall be handled under shipment orginally transported under the pro- Standard Refrigeration Service from point of visions of this rule has the service changed to re-icing to destination, except where other re- icing in traiisit, the additional charge will be frigeration services are provided as referred on the basis indicated in the rule. This rule to in exceptions 2 and 3 of the rule. also applies to shipments of potatoes (other If ventilation is desired in conjunction with than sweetpotatoes or yams) originating on refrigeration service provided by this rule, the one railroad in ]\Iaine, when the railroad ab- shipper must specify the class of ventilation sorbs the cost of initial icing not to exceed service. Such ventilation shall not require the 5,000 pounds. removal of ice from the car bunkers, nor nullify Rule 239, "Citrus fridts from Arizona and the charges provided in this rule. California preiced and replenished by carrier." On shipments of potatoes (other than sweet- —Applies to icing operations and certain other potatoes or yams) originating at stations in refrigeration and ventilation services which the Idaho Groups B and C, Oregon Group B, and shipper may desire in connection with this rule. Washington, during certain periods, the com- The shipper must specify on the bill of lading pulsory refrigeration provisions of paragraphs whether or not the car is to be re-iced follow- K and L of Rule 200 will apply. ing replenishing of the ice bunkers by the car- Rule 242, "Top or body icing service, West- rier. If one to three re-icings in transit are ern Territory."—Applies to shipments of ordered, the shipper must specify on the bill of fruits, berries, melons, and vegetables origi- lading at what regular icing stations the serv- nating in States (or at certain stations) speci- ice is to be furnished. The tarifi" provides fied in the tariff. Although the rule caption stated charges from origin to destination. If, includes reference to fruits and berries, top upon subsequent instructions, the shipment is icing does not seem to be practicable for these re-iced more than three times before arrival two commodities and apparently is not being in destination terminal train yard, the ship- used. The service consists of the placing of ment will be placed under Standard Refrigera- specified amounts of ice in the bedy of car by tion Service at point of fourth re-icing. The the shipper (exclusive of ice in the'packages), overall charge, including this change in service, usually on top of the load. This rule also ap- will be on the basis indicated in paragraph G plies where block ice is placed on ñoor racks, in of the rule. the centerline channel of the load. The shipper Upon written instructions, ventilation in con- must specify on the bill of lading the net quan- junction with this rule will also be furnished tity of ice used in top or body icing. If initial on basis of the charge applicable from origin top ice is to be supplied in transit at certain to destination, as provided in paragraph D, but stations authorized by the rule, the shipper without nullifying the charges provided for in must instruct the carrier as to the amount. If PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VP]GETABLES 15 ■ the amount of top ice supplied to the car ex- tially iced and is later re-iced, the shipment will ceeds certain permissible maximum amounts be transported under Standard Refrigeration specified in the rule, the excess ice will be Service from point of first re-icing after open- transported at the freight rate applicable to the ing of the vents. The overall charge including lo\vest rated commodity in the car. this change in service will be defined in para- The shippei' is permitted to supply 5,000 graph I of the rule. pounds or less of top ice for precooling melons Rule 2k6, "Cooling in car by shipper."—Per- from all origins, or vegetable shipments origi- tains to precooling of shipments by the shipper nating in Arizona, California, and Texas. The in iced or uniced cars within the States speci- ice must be either entirely consumed during fied in the rule, by mechanically operated fans precooling or removed from the body of the or other device during or after loading. The car before transit movement. Whichever of precooling charges specified in the rule are not these disposals of top ice occur must be shown applicable when the lading is precooled by on the bill of lading by the shipper. vacuum cooling or hydrocooling, when the If any ventilation service is desired in con- method of precooling does not utilize the ice in nection with top-iced shipments, the shipper car bunkers, when the car is initially iced by must specify the class of ventilation on bill of the shipper, or when shipper elects to re-ice the lading. bunkers at his own expense after precooling. Rule 2i3, "Top or body icing service, Eastern Shipments may be cooled in the car by the and Southern Territories."—This rule applies shipper during transit movement, under the only to vegetables and preserved berries, in the conditions outlined in paragraphs A, E, and F, Eastern and Southern territories. Top-icing part 2, of the rule subject to additional charge methods, also data or instructions to be fur- for ice consumed in cooling. The shipper must nished by the shipper, correspond in general to show on the bill of lading certain details of provisions in Rule 242. precooling in car at loading point, advice if the Rule 2Jt5, "Citrus fruits, precooled, origi- lading was vacuum cooled or hydrocooled, and nating in Arizona and California."—Applies to instructions if shipment is to be cooled in car citrus shipments originating in Califoi-nia and at some station in transit. Cooling of lading in precooled by the carrier at stations where the car at destination by the consignee is per- carrier's precooling plant is located. This in- missible on private siding or public delivery volves cars pre-iced, precooled, and replenished track where facilities are available, with use of by the carrier; cars precooled by carrier and portable or car fans operated at the consignee's afterwards initially iced by carrier ; and uniced expense. cars precooled by the carrier and, upon request Rule 2Jt7, "Fruits, berries, vegetables, melons of shipper, forwarded without ice through to and other perishable freight, reiced in transit." destination under instructions "Do not ice." —^Applies to shipments from the States and The rule also covers citrus shipments origi- Canadian provinces designated in the rule, nating in Arizona and California and precooled which includes all Western States and four by the shipper in a regularly established cool- Eastern States. The shipments affected are ing plant and loaded into a car pi-e-iced by the those which are originally billed to re-ice a shipper at the station where the cooling plant specific number of times in transit. The shipper is located. must show on the bill of lading the number of Whichever icing and precooling procedure is times the car is to be re-iced, and at what selected must be specified by the shipper on the regular icing stations. Stated charges apply bill of lading. Pre-iced or initially iced cars from origin to destination. If a shipment is may be re-iced in transit once, twice, or three originally billed to re-ice once in transit under times, subject to stated charges from origin part 1 of the rule, or to re-ice twice in transit to destination. The shipper must also show under part 2, or to re-ice three times in transit whether or not the car is to be re-iced in under part 3, but upon subsequent instructions transit, and the stations at which re-icing is to is re-iced oftener than originally indicated be- be done. If a car, upon instructions, is re-iced fore arrival at destination terminal train yard, more than three times before arrival at destina- it will be placed under Standard Refrigeration tion terminal train yard, the shipment will be Service from point where the first additional transported under Standard Refrigeration re-icing occurred. The overall charge including Service from point of fourth re-icing, except as the change in service will be as in paragraphs provided under paragraph I of the rule. The B of part 1, F of part 2, and E of part 3 of the overall charge including this change in service rule. will be as indicated in paragraph H of the rule. If, upon instructions, the vents of the car are If, upon written instructions, the car is moved opened at any time after initial icing and the with vents open at any time after being ini- car is later re-iced, Standard Refrigeration 16 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Service will apply from point of first re-icing ventilation, however, shall not be construed as after opening of the vents (certain exceptions requiring removal of ice from car bunkers. are made). Charges in this connection will be Ride 252, "Citrus fruit and vegetables from as indicated in paragraphs G of part 1, K of Florida Groxip "B", initially iced by the shipper part 2, and J of part 3. and reiced once in transit by the carrier."— On shipments of potatoes (other than sweet- Pertains to shipments from Florida, pre-iced or potatoes or yams) originating at stations in initially iced by the shipper, and re-iced only Idaho Groups B and C, Oregon Group B, and once in transit. This rule also applies to ship- Washington, during certain periods, the com- ments which originally moved under Rule 240 pulsory provisions of paragraphs K and L of ("initially iced, do not re-ice"), but the service Rule 200 will apply. was changed en route to re-ice once in transit _ Rule 2-ÍS, "Retop icing by carriers."—Con- on instructions from shipper. Stated charges sists of retop icing in transit by the carrier, at apply from origin to destination. stations designated by the carriers as retop- If ventilation is desired in conjunction with icing stations, of shipments of vegetables that the refrigeration service covered by this rule, were originally top iced by the shipper. Also the shipper must specify the class of ventilation applies to shipments of melons retop iced by service on the bill of lading. If one or more the carrier at final destinations designated by vents of the car are open at any time between the carrier, if so ordered by the consignee. The initial icing and re-icing, an additional charge shipper must show on the bill of lading the will be assessed the shipper. amount of top ice that was supplied to the car Rule 25U, "Fruits, berries, vegetables and at origin, and also specify at what icing station melons preiced and replenished by carrier."— the car is to be retop iced, and with what Pertains to shipments from the Western terri- amount of ice. A charge per ton is assessed for tory, Louisiana, and some ]\Iiddlewest areas ice supplied. (except citrus from Arizona and California) Rule 251, "Citrus fruits, deciduous fruits, which are pre-iced and replenished by the pineapples, vegetables and frozen berries, also carrier. Shipments may be forwarded without canned goods (not frozen) from Florida Group re-icing or with one re-icing in transit, or from "B" reiced once in transit."—Applies to pre- certain origins on specified commodities with cooled or nonprecooled shipments originating at two or three re-icings in transit. Stated charges stations in Florida (Origin Group B) which apply from origin to destination. are initially iced by carrier before or after The shipper must specify on the bill of lading loading and re-iced only once in transit. Stated what re-icing, if any, is to follow replenishing charges apply from origin to destination. How- of ice bunkers, and at what regular icing sta- ever, if the shipper changes the instructions tions. Any additional re-icing or icing service and the car bunkers are re-iced more than once in transit besides that provided for in para- before arrival in destination terminal train graphs Cl, C2, C3, and C4 (or in addition to yard, the shipment will be transported under that originally ordered on the bill of lading), Standard Refrigeration Service from point of before arrival at destination terminal train second re-icing. The rule further provides that yard, will result in change to Standard Re- the carrier will accept "change in service" in- frigeration Service from point where the addi- structions to re-ice once in transit a shipment tional re-icing occurred. The overall charge, that was initially iced by the carrier or shipper including the change in service, shall be as and originally forwarded under instructions to defined in paragraph G of the rule. If, upon "initially ice, do not re-ice" (Rule 240). written instructions, the vents are opened after When either a precooled or a nonprecooled car has departed from the loading station and shipment is forwarded with bunkers dry or the car is later re-iced, it will be transported without ice, the carrier will, upon reasonable under Standard Refrigeration Service from advance notice, place the shipment under re- point of first re-icing after opening of the frigeration in transit to the extent of initial vents, on the basis of charges indicated in para- icing and one re-icing, at regular icing stations graph J of the rule. designated by the shipper. The shipper must On shipments of potatoes (other than sweet- show on the bill of lading whether or not the potatoes or yams) originating at stations in shipment was precooled at point of origin, and Idaho Groups B and C, Oregon Group B and indicate at what regular icing station (or sta- Washington during certain periods, the com- tions) the car is to be initially iced or re-iced. pulsory provisions of paragraphs K and L of If ventilation is desired in conjunction with Rule 200 will apply. refrigeration service, the class of ventilation Rule 255, "Half-stage refrigeration service." and when or where it should be performed —This means using only the upper portion of must also be specified by the shipper. Such the car bunkers for icing. In cars equipped for PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 17 ■^■"this service, the ice grates are raised to a point is not a regular inspection station, the vents ^B approximately midway between the top and will be adjusted at the first regular inspection ^B bottom of the bunkers. The service will be sup- point beyond. The shipper must specify on the ^m plied by the carrier only when refrigerator cars bill of lading the class of ventilation desired. ^B equipped for half-stage icing are available at ^m origin. When a shipper desires a car of this Protective service against cold (heater service) ^Ê type, he must so specify when the car is ordered. It is also necessary for him to indicate Ride 510, "Shippers' Protective Service."— on the bill of lading "Half-Stage Refrigeration Protection against frost, freezing, or artificial Service." The service does not apply to ship- overheating will be provided by the proper use ments originating on some railroads and in of heaters furnished, initially fueled at origin, certain areas of the South (such as mentioned and installed by the shipper. The heaters will in subparagraph 2 of paragraph A of Rule 258) be subsequently serviced by the carrier as the when the car is initially iced by the shipper. shipper directs. (The service, however, will If a shipment is loaded in an uniced half-stage- not be performed on a few eastern railroads equipped car the carrier will, upon instructions, listed under part 2 of the rule.) The heaters place the shipment under half-stage refrigera- must be of suitable design as to safety, in tion service at a regular icing station in transit. proper operating condition, and securely fast- This, however, applies only when the point of ened to the bunker or bunkers. There must be origin and the specified regular icing station no hay, straw, or other combustible material in are both located in the States or at the stations the bunkers. Shipments will be transported shown in the tariff under paragraph A, note 1, under this rule solely at the owner's risk of damage by heat or cold not the result of of this rule. carriers' negligence. On shipments of potatoes (other than sweet- potatoes or yams) originating at stations in Parts 1 and 3 of the rule cover commodities Idaho Groups B and C, Oregon Group B and such as liquids, preserves, and canned goods, on Washington, during certain periods, the com- which the service is available from October 15 pulsorv provisions of paragraphs K and L of to April 15 inclusive. Part 2 of the rule applies Rule 200 will apply. from November 16 to March 31, inclusive, on shipments of fresh vegetables originating in the New England States and moving to destina- Ventilation service tions in Heater Territory, part 2; stations in Rule SS5, "Shippers' instructions and %vay- Illinois on certain railroads; also stations out- bill notations."—Part of this rule provides in- side of Heater Territory in the Southeast, as structions for ventilation service for refrigera- indicated in the tariff. tor cars. This is the manipulation of venti- If LF heaters (thermostatically controlled lating devices (hatch covers and plugs) of car alcohol heaters) are used, the shipper must bunkers to permit or prevent passage of the light the pilot of the heater or heaters when outside air to car interior. The rule is divided they are installed. The shipper or his agent into three parts : Part 1, Standard Ventilation ; will also light charcoal and underslung heaters part 2, Special Ventilation; and part 3, Com- before the loaded car is tendered to the origi- bination Ventilation (combination of parts 1 nating carrier, if the outside temperature is at and 2). Standard Ventilation is the manipula- or below the minimum specified by the shipper. tion of vents at certain temperatures as pre- The shipper must show on the bill of lading the scribed in the rule. Special Ventilation is the heater numbers, also when or at what tempera- manipulation of vents at temperatures or sta- tures portable charcoal and underslung heaters tions specified by the shipper, and Combination are to be lighted and extinguished; also the Ventilation is the use of both Standard and temperature at which each LF heater thermo- Special Ventilation, each on a portion of the stat is set. In the absence of shippers' instruc- route. The carrier will also accept instructions tions, the heaters will not be serviced. The rule to keep the vents closed throughout entire han- further provides that the vents of refrigerator dhng of the shipment. cars will be kept closed from origin to destina- These classes of ventilation service vary with tion. the kind of commodity, the geographical loca- Rale 5H, "Shippers' Specified Service."— tion of shipping point, and the time of year. Protection against frost, freezing, or artificial Cars moving under any class of ventilation overheating will, upon reasonable advance no- service will not have vents adjusted between tice, be supplied by proper use of heaters fur- regularly assigned inspection points, except nished, installed, and serviced bv the carriers when trains are delayed, when attention will be as directed by the shipper, within the territory given as soon as practicable. When the shijjper described in paragraph L, part 1, of the rule. requests adjustment of vents at a place which The rule further provides that the carrier wili 18 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE furnish heater or heaters for preheating of Rule 519, "Shippers' Specified Service on cars, or for heating while cars are in process pineapples (see rule 105) or tomatoes. —Ap- of loading. On shipments destined to points plies only while shipments are being held. Pro- beyond territory covered by paragraph L, lieat- tection against frost, freezing, or artificial er service will, upon specific request of the overheating will be supplied by proper use ot shipper, be continued to stations in certain heater or heaters furnished, installed, and serv- Southern States as mentioned in paragraph M iced by the carriers as directed by the shipper, of the rule. On shipments arriving at Florence, in shipments of pineapples or tomatoes held at S.C, the heater or heaters will be removed by stations within Heater Territory, part 1. The the carrier, unless otherwise instructed. rule also applies to tomato shipments held at The rule applies in general to portable or stations outside of Heater Territory, part 1, underslung charcoal heaters but part 3 of the west of the Mississippi River. rule also provides for the use of LF heaters The shipper must instruct the carrier as to (subject to the provisions of part 1) in ship- when the heater or heaters are to be installed, ments of tomatoes originating in Arizona, Cali- lighted, extinguished, and removed. The ship- fornia, Texas, and Mexico. The shipper must per must also designate the temperature setting specify the number of heaters required and the desired for the thermostat on LF heaters. The outside temperatures at which each charcoal service is subject to a charge per heater day. heater is to be lighted and extinguished, also The shipper must also specify the class of the temperature at which heater thermostat ventilation service required, otherwise the should be set on LF heaters. The shipper must vents will be kept closed. also designate the class of ventilation desired The service is available between January 1 in conjunction with such heater service; other- and December 31 inclusive. It is furnished wise the vents will be manipulated on basis of solely at the owner's risk of loss or damage Standard Ventilation, except that commodities from heat or cold not the result of negligence listed in paragraph B of Rule 320 will be trans- of carrier. ported with vents closed. Service under this Ride 520, "Shippers' Specified Service with rule is available from September 1 to May 31 LF heaters."—Protection against frost, freez- inclusive. ing, or artificial overheating in shipments of Rule 515, '-Carriers' Protective Service."— tomatoes or pineapples from Florida will be Requires that the carriers will protect the ship- supplied by use of LF heater or heaters fur- ment within Heater Territory, against frost, nished, installed, and serviced by the carriers, freezing, or artificial overheating, furnishing as directed by the shipper. When available, the artificial heat or such other protective service heaters will be furnished at certain stations in as may be necessary. This service is available the South, also at Potomac Yard, Va., and throughout the heater season, from October 15 Jersey City, N.J. If LF heaters are not avail- to April 15 inclusive, and is subject to stated able at the station specified by the shipper, they charges per car for the movement within will be furnished at the next station en route Heater Territory. It is compulsory within where such heaters are obtainable. If a ship- Heater Territory on shipments of potatoes ment moves via more than one carrier, the (other than sweetpotatoes and yams) origi- carrier supplying the LF heater or heaters is nating in Heater Territory, part 1, from No- not obliged to permit them to move beyond its vember 16 to, but not including, March 1. own line. Servicing of the heaters will be avail- Portable charcoal, underslung, or LF heaters able on certain railroads within a number of may be used. If the shipper desires car vents States in Heater Territory, parts 1 and 2, and to be kept closed in transit, he must so specify within a few specified areas in the South. If on the bill of lading. the shipment moves beyond these specified ter- In the absence of instructions as to class of ritories, it will be handled under Standard service beyond Heater Territory, the shipment Ventilation, unless the shipper files specific in- will be transported under Standard \'entilation, structions to the contrary. except commodities covered by paragraph B of The shipper must specify the number of Rule 320. Carriers' Protective Service will be heaters required, and the temperature at which furnished in the Provinces of Ontario and the thermostat of each is to be set. The carriers Quebec on shipments wliich are moving under will, upon instructions, remove the heater or this class of service from points in the United heaters while the car is being held at an inter- States, when destined to points in the United mediate point or at destination. If ventilation States via routes through Canada. Paragraph is desired in conjunction with such heater serv- F of the rule provides exceptions on certain ice, the shipper must specify the temperatures commodities and areas on certain railroads at which the car vents are to be opened and where this service does not apply. closed; otherwise the vents will be manipulated PROTECTION ÜF KAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 19 I at the same temperature as specified for heater within or outside the Heater Territory in the thermostat setting. The service is available United States and destined for Canada or mov- from September 1 to May 31 inclusive, and is ing through Canada to destinations in the subject to a charge per heater day. United States (15). Standard Heating pro- Rule 5S0, "Special Heater Protective Serv- vides for use of two portable heaters, one ice."—Protection against frost, freezing, or placed in each bunker of the car, to be lighted artificial overheating on perishable freight will or extinguished at temperatures shown for be supplied by the use of LF heater or heaters various perishable commodities in the tariff. furnished, installed and serviced by the car- Should the shipper not desire to forward the riers as directed by the shipper. The service car under the regulations of Standard Heating, applies to shipments originating in Special he may specify outside temperatures at which Heater Protective Service Territory or on the he requires the heater or heaters to be lighted railroads specified in the rule. The service will or extinguished. The shipper must specify the be provided from origin or from first terminal number of heaters required, also what manipu- train yard where LF heaters are available, to lation of car vents is desired. final destination vithin or to point of exit from The term "LF heaters," used in Perishable Special Heater Protective Service Territory, Protective Tarin" 18 and mentioned in the fore- subject to stated changes per car. However, going definitions of heater service rules, means the rule provides that, on certain railroads in thermostatically conti-olled liquid fuel (alcohol) the Northwest, shipments which originate at heaters. stations where LF heaters are not available Official Heater Territory, parts 1 and 2, also will have the service under this rule performed with charcoal heaters from origin to first reg- Shippers' Specified Service Territory as re- ular heater inspection station. LF heaters will ferred to in Perishable Protective Tariff 18 and be substituted at that station. in the heater service rules defined above, are shown in the maps in figures 32 and 33 on Upon reasonable advance notice, the carrier pages 60 and 61. will sulîstitute the heater service covered by this rule (within Special Heater Protective Service Territory) for refrigeration service, REA Express Perishable Protective ventilation service, or one of the other classes Tariff 27 of heater service referred to in paragraph B-1 of the rule. The shipper must designate where Rule 1, "Regulations governing refrigera- in transit the change in service is to be made. tioji."—Has reference to tariff charges for The bill of lading must .show at what tem- refrigeration and the importance of clearly perature the thermostat of LF heaters should showing all icing instructions on the waybills. be set. If ventilation is desired in conjunction Rule 4. "S«/f."—Pertains to use of salt and with heater service, the shipper must also spe- charges therefor, when supplied to car bunkers cify on the bill of lading that the vents either at point of origin or in transit. The shipper be kept closed to destination, or adjusted at the must specify what percentage of salt is desired, outside temperatui-es he designates. In the and when or at what icing station it is to be absence of instructions from the shipper as to supplied by the REA Express. how the vents are to be manipulated, they will Ride 5, "Precooling service."—Applies to car- be adjusted at the same temperature specified lot shipments placed in pre-iced cars at point for setting of the heater thermostat. When of origin and precooled by the shipper with the the shipment moves beyond the territory cov- use of precooling apparatus during or after ered by this rule, it will be handled under loading. This rule further provides that ship- Standard Ventilation unless the shipper files ments, subject to delay, may be cooled in the specific instructions to the contrary. However, car by the shipper at a point in transit in direc- the rule does specifically provide that shipments tion of movement to destination, but not ¡Deyond of avocados or limes and commodities listed in first regular re-icing station. If the shipper paragraph B of Rule 320 in the tarifi" will be elects to re-ice the bunkers to full capacity- after handled with the vents closed, unless the ship- precooling apparatus has been removed from per instructs to the contrary. Service under the car, no precooling charge will be assessed. this rule is available from September 15 to There also will be no charge for precooling May 15 inclusive. service if the method or device used for precool- ing does not utilize the car bunkers or the ice Explanation of heating service terms contained therein. "Standard Heating in Canada" applies only This rule also provides for the top icing at on the Canadian Pacific Railway and Canadian point of origin of melon shipments fi-om Ari- National Railways to shipments orginating zona and California, with not more than 5,000 20 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE pounds of ice, provided all of the ice is con- forwarded in dry cars (no ice in the bunkers) sumed during cooling or is removed from the but initially iced somewhere en route. In each car body before release of the car. of the above instances, the shipper must specify Rule 15, "Modified refrigeration service."— a regular icing station at which the one re-icing This rule, under separate paragraphs, provides or initial icing in transit is to be performed. for different icing services or combinations This rule also covers shipments which are re- thereof. Included are initial icing by the REA iced more than once in transit, or are re-iced in Express or sliipper with no re-icing or only one transit after having been originally forwarded re-icing in transit, and shipments originally under instructions not to re-ice.

FACTORS AFFECTING POSTHARVEST LIFE OF FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLES Fruits and vegetables are living organs, for each 10-degree rise in temperature. Highly even though separated from the plant. The perishable products such as spinach and straw- intent during marketing is to maintain fresh- berries must be moved quickly and maintained ness and other characteristics of quality (79). at low temperatures all the way to the con- Deterioration in fresh produce is caused chiefly sumer {6i). by aging, decay, functional disorders, moisture In contrast to leafy vegetables such as spin- loss, mechanical injury, physical injury, and to ach, many fruits, roots, and tubers with low a lesser extent insect and chemical injuries. respiration rates are relatively long lived. As Quality is maintained by careful control of an example, the apple has a low respiration these deteriorative influences. rate. It produces only about 900 B.t.u. per ton Because fruits and vegetables are alive, they per day at 32°, which is about one fifth of that breathe or take in oxygen and give off carbon for spinach at the same temperature. Under dioxide. In this process, known as respiration, proper refrigeration it has a long storage life fruits and vegetables give off heat which is (up to 9 months at 31°-32°). commonly measured in B.t.u. (British thermal While low temperatures (32° to 40° F.) are units) (SO). The heat given off through respi- desirable for many crops, some commodities ration is known as vital heat. It varies with such as tomatoes, bananas, and lemons are in- different fruits and vegetables as shown in table jured by low temperatures. Chilling injury to 1. There is a direct relationship between the tomatoes results in their failure to ripen prop- rate of respiration and the perishability of a erly, with consequent poor flavor and appear- commodity; therefore, vital heat production ance, also extensive decay (75, 76). Bananas may be taken as a measure of perishability. which have been chilled fail to ripen properly Heat of respiration has a definite effect on re- and become discolored (.?). Chilling of lemons frigeration requirements during transit. This causes various types of rind breakdown or will be discussed in a later section on methods internal browning {110). It is, therefore, of controlling transit environment. . -,, imperative that such commodities be held at moderate temperatures. A safe or desirable Temperature range of transit temperatures for most of the important horicultural crops is given in table 3 As life processes are essentially chemical on page 24, in the section headed "Commodity reactions, their rate is affected by temperature. Requirements." A more detailed discussion of Therefore, high commodity temperatures ac- other special requirements for these crops is celerate the rate of respiration of fruits and contained in the same section. vegetables, resulting in more rapid ripening and aging. Refrigeration is used to slow the life processes of the fresh commodity as much Moisture as possible without interfering with its normal The quality of fruits and vegetables is also metabolism. As an illustration, spinach is a affected by the amount of moisture in the air very perishable vegetable and has a very high surrounding them in transit. A high relative respiration rate which, even at 32° F., produces humidity, about 90 percent, is desirable for 4,550 B.t.u. per ton per day. At 40", this rate most commodities to prevent wilting or mois- is doubled and at 50° it is 41/2 times as great ture loss. Humidity in both iced and mechan- as at 32°. This emphasizes the importance of ically refrigerated cars is usually high. Low rapid removal of field heat after harvest to humidities may sometimes be encountered in preserve quality and extend shelf life of the dry-car (no ice) shipments, moving under ven- commodity. In general the respiration rate of tilation. Top ice and package ice used for some fresh fruits and vegetables practically doubles commodities, especially the leafy vegetables, PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 21

TABLE 1.—Approximate rate of evolution of heat (heat of respiration) by certain fres fruits and vegetables at the temperatures indicated [B.t.u. per ton per 24 hours]

Source of Commodity 32° F. 40° F. 60° F. 80° F. data

B.t.u. B.l.u. B.t.n. B.l.u. Fresh fruits Apples 900 1,625 5,075 Avocados (') Bananas 2 (HÔ) Cherries, s\veet___ 1,250 [11,5) Citrus: Grapefruit ^ 660 1,015 3,090 (1Í5) Lemons 690 1,255 3,630 5,010 (US) Oranges 725 1,430 4,410 ins) Cranberries ^ 660 920 (U5) Grapes: American type. 602 1,170 3,487 8,481 (U5) Vinifera 365 2,410 ins) Peaches 1,110 1,735 8,285 20^200" (US) Pears 770 11,000 ins) Plums, Wickson.. 540 1,200 2,600 (18) Strawberries 3,265 5,180 17,960 41,830 (11*5) Fresh vegetables Asparagus ,300 14,000 32,000 (67) Beans, snap ,830 10,275 38,110 (ns) Beets (roots) ,650 4,060 7,240 (H5) Broccoli (sprouting;. ,450 14,300 41,900 (US) Cabbage. ,200 1,670 4,080 (H5) Carrots (roots). ,130 3,470 8,080 (11,5) Celery. ,620 2,420 8,220 (H5) Corn, sweet-. ,560 9,390 38,410 61,950 (HS) Cucumbers ,690 2,550 10,460 (HS) Lettuce, head. ,640 3,500 9,200 (89) Melons: Cantaloups. 1,320 1,960 8,500 (HS) Honeydew 900 3,100 (87) Onions, dry 5 880 (HS) Peas, green 1 g ,260 14,620 41,880 79,210 (HS) Peppers, sweet i 2 ,720 4,700 8,470 (HS) Potatoes 6 660 1,430 (HS) Spinach j 4 ,550 9,530 37,460 (HS) Sweetpotatoes.. 1,715 2,530 5,290 (HS) Tomatoes: Mature-green. 580 070 6,230 (HS) Ripe [,020 260 5,640 (US)

'Avocados at 50' F., 12,230; at 59°, 26,440. Unpub- ' Cranberries at 50°, 1,725. lished data from J. Biale. • Onions at 50°, 1,870; at 70°, 3,630. 'Bananas at 68°, 8,800. ° Potatoes at 70°, 2,860. ' Grapefruit at 70°, 4,180. provide added moisture to preserve freshness physiological disorders, however, are directly and also supply refrigeration. Moisture loss influenced by temperature. In general, rots may also be reduced with certain products by develop most rapidly at 70° to 85° F. Many the use of film box liners and bags (27, ^i). of these decays are retarded significantly by a reduction of only 10 to 20 degrees in commodity Diseases temperature. At 32° most decay-producing organisms are inactive, although there are some _ Diseases caused by bacteria and fungi and that develop slowly even at this temperature. disorders resulting from abnormal functioning Many diseases originate in the field. Con- of fruits and vegetables are numerous and may trol should be directed toward selection of re- cause serious losses in fresh produce after har- sistant varieties and an adequate spraying and vest {93-97, 109, 110, 113, IH, 138). Decay- dusting program. Some diseases of field origin producing organisms (fig. 14) are responsible are superficial and do not change or increase for more losses during transit than physiolog- during ti-ansit. Certain types of diseases, such ical or functional disorders. Both decay and as late blight rot in potatoes and tomatoes, and 22 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

BN-101.52 FlGlRE 14.—Transit decay in peaches (Rhizopus rot). buckeye rot in tomatoes, are ñeld infections, but include sulphur dioxide fumigation for grapes the disease may not be evident at time of paclv- (120), diphenyl liners and wraps for citrus ing. Incipient infections of the diseases men- fruits (38), and various sprays and dips {19, tioned develop into active diseases in time, 20). While these treatments are effective in regardless of transit temperatures. Many of varying degrees, they are only supplemental to the decays important during the postharvest adequate refrigeration. period cause little or no loss to the crop or com- modity in the field. In practically all cases, Mechanical Damage however, the organism is present in the soil or on weakened or dead plant materials in the Much deterioration is caused by mechanical field. The majority of rots, therefore, occur- damage which may occur at any time from ring in transit and on the market are the result harvest on. Careful handling is necessary at of infection by fungi and bacteria present on all stages in moving produce to market. Me- the fruits or vegetables when harvested. The chanical damage is evidenced as bruises, shat- amount of decay caused by these rots in transit ter, cuts, and abrasion. Several of the most is influenced by the inoculum present in the damaging decay organisms can gain entrance field; by weather before and during harvest; into fruits and vegetables only through breaks and by environment during marketing. Nat- in the skin, many of which are caused by rough ural or mechanical breaks in the epidermis handling. Proper containers, pads and other permit infection and possible decay. cushioning material, proper loading and brac- Various chemical treatments have been de- ing, and careful handling of cars in transit are veloped for retarding decay in transit. These all necessary to reduce mechanical damage. COMMODITY REQUIREMENTS In this section there is a brief description of transit requirements of temperature and each of the commodities covered by the hand- humidity, principal market disorders, special book. The descriptions include perishability. packaging or loading requirements, and other PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 23 information pertinent to proper handling in several months, thereby furnishing a steady transit. Desired transit temperatures and re- supply of fruit for the market through the win- lated data are given in tables 2 to 5. ter and spring (3). Temperatures of 30° to 32° F. are required for most varieties during Fresh Fruits this long storage. Certain other varieties, Apples which are injured by long exposure to tempera- Desired transit temperature, 32° to 40- F. tures below 40°, may be held satisfactorily for extended periods in 38° to 40° storage rooms if Most of the apple crop is held in cold storage the amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide are and shipped to market during winter and controlled therein. This is the so-called "con- spring. The rest of the crop moves directly to trolled atmosphere" or CA storage (125). The market during the harvest season (25). Apples storage life of apples is greatly affected by the shipped at harvest that are destined for storage rapidity with which their temperature is low- should be cooled rapidly and shipped under ered to the optimum level. refrigeration to hold ripening to a minimum. Apples shipped from cold storage should Apples of any variety harvested near the end of have a protective service which provides for the season are more mature than those har- temperatures as nearly like cold-storage tem- vested earlier, so further ripening in transit perature as possible. Because apples from stor- l)efore consumption may not be necessary. It age are at temperatures close to the freezing is especially important, therefore, that this point of the fruit, little reserve heat is avail- late fruit be shipped at low temperatures. able, so shipments exposed to cold weather for Under proper environmental conditions long- several days can freeze quickly if not protected keeping varieties of apples may be stored for by heater service. Overheating in transit must

TABLE 2.—Desired transit temperatures for certain fresh fruits and vegetables

Fresh fruits Fresh vceetables

Desired Desired Commodity transit Commodity transit temperature temperature

° F. ° F. Apples 32 to 40 Asparagus 34 to 38 Apricots 32 to 34 Beans (snap) ' 45 to 50 Avocados: Beets 32 to 40 Most varieties 4.5 Broccoli 32 to 36 West Indian varieties 55 Cabbage 32 to 40 Bananas ( green) 56 to 60 Carrots 32 to 38 Cherries (sweet) 32 to 36 Cauliflower 32 to 40 Citrus: Celery 32 to 36 Grapefruit 48 to 52 Corn fsweet ) 32 to 36 Lemons 50 to 55 Cucumbers 45 to .50 Limes 48 to 50 Endive and escarole 33 to 36 Oranges (Ariz., Calif., and Tex.) 33 to 45 Lettuce 32 to 36 Oranges 'Florida) 40 to 45 Melons: Tangerines 32 to 38 Cantaloups 35 to 40 Cranberries 36 to 40 Honeydew 45 to 50 Dates 40 to 50 Onions ( dry) 32 to 40 Figs (fresh) 32 to 36 Peas (green) 32 to 36 Grapes (Vinifera ) 32 to 40 Peppers ("sweet) 45 to 50 Peaches and nectarines _ 32 to 45 Potatoes: Pears 2 45 to 55 Early-crop 55 to 65 Pears ' 32 to 36 Late-crop 40 to 50 Pineapples: For chipping, early-crop 60 to 70 Mature-green 50 to 60 For chipping, late-crop_ 50 to 65 Ripe 40 to 50 Radishes 32 to 40 Plums (including fresh prunes) *.. 35 to 45 Spinach 32 to 40 Strawberries 32 to 35 Sweetpotatoes 55 to 60 Tomatoes: Mature-green 55 to 65 Pink 45 to 50

' If watery soft rot is present in snap beans at time of loading, a transit temperature of 40° to 45° is desirable to retard this decay, even though some chilling injury may occur. "Pears of all varieties shipped for immediate distribution and consumption. 'Pears for storage in producing area, at terminal market, or for transshipment. ' Class of service and desired transit temperature will depend largely on the maturity of fruit and whether or not the shipment is made in a fan car. 24 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 3.—Approximate freezing points of certain fresh fruits and vegetables^

Fresh fruits Fresh vegetables

Approximate Approximate Commodity freezing Commodity freezing point point

' F. » F. Apples 28.0 Asparagus 30.5 Apricots 29.5 Beans (snap) 30.0 Avocados 30.0 Beets (roots) 29.5 Bananas 29.5 Broccoli 30.5 Cherries (sweet) 27.0 Cabbage 30.5 Citrus: Carrots (roots) 29.0 Grapefruit 28.5 Cauliflower 30.0 Lemons 29.0 Celery 31.0 Limes 28.0 Corn (sweet) 31.0 Oranges 28.0 Cucumbers 30.5 Ta ngerines 29.5 Endive and escarole 31.0 Cranberries 30.0 Lettuce 31.0 Dates -4.0 Melons: Figs (fresh I 27.0 Cantaloups 30.0 Grapes (Vinifera ) 27.0 Honeydew 30.0 Peaches and nectarines 29.5 Onions (dry) 30.0 Pears 28.5 Peas (green) 30.0 Pineapples 29.5 Peppers (sweet) 30.5 Plums including fresh prunes) 28.5 Potatoes 30.0 Strawberries 30.0 Radishes 30.0 Spinach 31.5 Sweetpotatoes 29.0 Tomatoes 30.5

' Although temperatures shown in the table represent actual freezing points, certain fruits and vegetables are susceptible to cold injuries at temperatures considerably higher than those above indicated. Further reference to such critical temperatures is shown elsewhere in this handbook for the particular commodities involved. More de- tailed information on the freezing points of fresh fruits and vegetables, on which the above table is based, may be found in two USDA publications {136, 1Í5). be avoided to prevent overripening which can especially those which have been stored for cause a rapid deterioration in quahty and long pei-iods, are more easily bruised and there- flavor. During heating, car fans should be fore require more careful handling and packing operated to prevent temperatures in the top than those freshly harvested. Suitable con- layers from rising too high and to keep fruit in tainers and padding are necessary to minimize the bottom layers from freezing. Thermostat- bruising in transit and marketing. The 1- ically controlled alcohol heaters are now used bushel wooden apple box has l^een the standard almost exclusively for shipments of apples container for apples in the Northwest for many under heater service from the Pacific North- years but various types of fiberboard boxes are west, and heater thermostats should be set pref- now being extensively used. These include a erably at 321/2° ilOJ^, 105, U7). number of tray packs and cell packs which If apples are shipped without transit refrig- afi'ord greater protection from bruising during eration, vents should be kept closed to prevent shipment. Solid loads may be used safely with outside air at higher temperatures fi-om enter- apple shipments as apples are not usually pre- ing the car and warming the fruit. Apple cooled in the car. It is desirable to leave a shipments moving out of Heater Territory to space between the containers and car walls to warmer areas in the south and southeast should minimize the danger of freezing during winter be changed to refrigeration seiwice at diversion shipments in cars without sidewall flues. Film points such as Laurel, Mont., or Kansas City, box liners have been used with success to pro- Mo. When danger of frost is past in the long the storage life of Golden Delicious apples spring, ample refrigeration is required, as by preventing moisture loss and shriveling apples at that time are near the end of their (27). storage life and every precaution must be taken Most of the diseases of apples aflfect the fruit to maintain their residual quality. while it is in storage (Hi). Decay in transit The quality of apples is greatly affected by is controlled by transit temperatures of 32° to bruising (fig. 9), which not only reduces sal- 40° F. This temperature not only retards the ability but also increases susceptibility to infec- growth of the rot-producing fungi, but, by also tion bv decay organisms (US). Mature apples, retarding ripening, decreases the susceptibility PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 25

TABLE 4.—Suggested temperatures to specify for shipments of certain fresh fruits and vegetables in mechanically refrigerated cars under Rule 710, Perishable Protective Tariff

Fresh fruits Fresh vegetables

Commodity Temperature Commodity Temperature

Apples 33 Asparagus 35 Apricots 33 Beans (snap)i 46 Avocados: Beets 33 Most varieties 46 Broccoli 33 West Indian varieties. 56 Cabbage 33 Cherries (sweet) 33 Carrots 33 Citrus: Cauliflower 33 Grapefruit 50 Celery 33 Lemons 52 Corn (sweet) 33 Limes, green 49 Cucumbers 46 Oranges (Ariz., Calif., and Texas) ^ 35 Endive and escarole 34 Oranges (Florida) 2 42 Lettuce 34 Tangerines 33 Melons: Cranberries 37 Cantaloups 36 Dates 42 Honeydew 46 Figs (fresh ) 33 Onions (dry) 33 Grapes (Vinifera) 33 Peas (green) 33 Peaches and nectarines ^ 36 Peppers (sweet) 46 Pears * 47 Potatoes: Pears ' 33 Early-crop 57 Pineapples: Late-crop 42 Mature-green 52 Early-crop, for chipping 60 Ripe 42 Late-crop, for chipping. 60 Plums (including fresh prunes) ^ 42 Radishes 33 Plums (including fresh prunes) ' 36 Spinach 33 Strawberries 33 Sweetpotatoes 56 Tomatoes: Mature-green 56 Pink 47

'If watery soft rot is present in snap beans at time of loading, a temperature around 42' is desirable to retard this decay, even though some chilling injury may occur. ■ The desired temperature will depend on variety and shipping- area. 'If slight ripening- in transit is desired, a temperature of 45" will be suitable. ' Pears of all varieties shipped for immediate distribution and consumption. '" Pears for storage in producing area, at terminal market, or for transshipment. " Plums of average maturity. ' Plums above average maturity. of the fruit to decays such as blue mold, gray ing or other mechanical injury (II^S). Hence, mold, and bull's-eye rots. Most disorders of careful handling in harvesting, packing, stor- apples, including' not only rots such as blue ing, and shipping is of utmost importance to mold but certain physiological diseases such as minimize physical damage to the fruit. Jonathon spot and scald, are reduced by prompt cooling (to 30'""-o2") of the fruit immediately Apricots after harvest and maintenance of temperatures close to this range until the fruit is consumed. Desired transit temperature, 32° to 34° F. Jonathon spot and scald may develop rapidly at Apricots are very perishable, and losses from warm temperatures after the fruit has been injury and decay are considerable. For best removed from cold storage. Bitter pit, another results, apricots must be harvested and moved physiological disoi'der, has its inception in the quickly. The fruit should not be left in the orchard. Its further development is retarded sun after picking as it has a tendency to self- at temperatures of 32° to 40° ; in susceptible heat. Brown rot, an orchard disease caused by varieties of apples it could develop appreciably a fungus, may develop in apricots during tran- in 7 to 10 days at 50° to 60°. sit and in the market (113). It can be retarded Blue mold rot is the most important decay by temperatui'cs below .50° F. Xew infections organism affecting apples. It is controlled by are almost entirely prevented at such tempera- low temperatures (30°-32° F.). As this decay tures. A spotting known as scab or shot hole is primarily a wound parasite, it usually enters also occurs on apricots in California and the the fruit through skin breaks caused by bruis- Pacific Northwest. However, it does not de- 26 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 5.—Recommended thermostat setting fur LF most important rot of Califoi-nia avocados (liquid fuel) heaters in shipments of certain fresh fruits and vegetables^ (110). The fungus (which occasionally in- duces stem-end rot) sometimes enters the fruit Thermostat before harvesting. As the fruit softens, rot Commodity setting develops. This is about the time the fruit reaches the consumer. The marketing problem ° F. Fresh fruits is further complicated by the fact that a Apples method of detecting incipient infections has not Avocados 2 45 been developed to eliminate infected fruits be- Pears s 47J^ fore shipping. The fruit is less susceptible Pears * 321^ Pineapples: early in the season. Cercospora spot or blotch Mature-green _ . is the most important disease of Florida Ripe 42K avocados and is characterized by lesions and Fresh eegelables slightly sunken spots on the fruit. Scab and Celery .. _ _ _ 35 anthracnose are other common diseases affect- Peppers (sweet) 45 ing the avocado in Florida. Potatoes: Late-crop 40 to 45 Most varieties should be transported at a Late-crop, for chipping_ 60 temperature around 45°F., but the West Indian Tomatoes: varieties which predominate in Florida should Mature-green _ 50 be transported near 55°. If avocados remain 47}^ in transit for extended periods at relatively high temperatures, they will ripen rapidly and ' If LF heaters are used in shipments of commodities become soft. Avocados should be precooled to not listed in this table, the heater thermostat should be set as near as possible to the transit temperature shown the desired transit temperature before sliip- in table 4 for the commodity. ment and loaded in pre-iced cars. Florida ship- ■ Applies to winter shipments of avocados from Cali- ments need not be precooled if fruit tempera- fornia. ture is not above 60° at loading. All varieties ' Pears of all varieties shipped for immediate distri- should be given moderate refrigeration service bution and consumption. in transit, dependent on weather, as avocados ' Pears for storage in producing area, at terminal will not ripen satisfactorily if they are held market, or for transshipment. long at temperatures below 45°. Transit heater service is necessary during cold weather. Car vents should be kept closed. When LF heaters velop or spread in transit or storage. Apricots are used for California avocados, the heater moving by freight service should be room- thermostat should be set at 45°. precooled to 32"^ but loading temperatures of 35° to 40" are adequate for express shipments. Shipments from both areas should be loaded in Bananas (green) pre-iced cars. Standard Refrigeration Service Desired transit temperature, 56° to 60°F. is required in transit with 2 to 4 percent salt added to the ice depending on the weather. In Most bananas shipped coimiiercially do not California wrappecl dry ice is frequently added ripen properly on the plant so they must be with from 800 to 1,000 pounds placed in the picked and shipped green (J). In this condi- brace at doorway and 100 pounds in each tion they can be handled without excessive bunker with the water ice. The dry ice is not bruising but are very susceptible to chilling intended for refrigeration, but is used mainly injury at temperatures below 54°F. and ripen to retard decay and preserve freshness through rapidly above 60°. Practically all rail ship- effects of the carbon dioxide added to the car ments of bananas are made under the control air. California shipments move via express, of representatives (banana messengers) of the whereas those from the Pacific Northwest are companies importing this fruit, who have de- generall}' transported by freight. The use of veloped from experimentation special rules for fan cars is recommended for apricots. handling in transit. Because of this, recom- mended protective services for bananas are not Avocados included in this handbook. Detailed informa- tion for such handling should be obtained from Desired transit temperature, 45° to 55°F. the importer through whom the receiver ob- The avocado is an extremely tender fruit and tains his bananas. Other instructions pertain- requires very careful handling. The fruit ing to the transportation of bananas will l)e bruises easily and is very susceptible to decay found in Rules 105 and 110 of the Perishable when the skin is broken. Dothiorella rot is the Protective Tariff. PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 27 Cherries (sweet) cur. The growtli of decay fungi can be retarded by treating the fruit with certain approved Desived transit temperatures, 32° to 36°F. chemical dips, chemical-impregnated wraps or Rhizopus rot, gray mold rot (Botrytis), liners, and fumigants (38). These treatments green mold rot (Alternaría), and blue mold rot are used either singly or in combination and (Pénicillium) are the most common diseases are complementary to prompt and effective affecting sweet cherries (113). Some of these cooling to 50°F. are particularly destructive during transit and Pitting is a physiological disorder common to marketing, especially in the presence of skin grapefruit when held in temperatures near breaks and excessive moisture. Skin breaks 40°F. Early-season fruit is especially suscep- can be greatly reduced by avoiding excessively tible, often showing the typical peel pitting tight packing and careless handling before and within 15 days. Late-season fruit may not during loading. Rhizopus rot can be fairly well show the injury until after a storage period of controlled in transit by temperatures of 40 ' to 4 to 6 weeks. Grapefruit may not be adversely 45° F., but the other organisms can grow affected by short exposure to temperatures near slowly at 32'^ and below. It is, therefore, im- 40°. However, peel pitting can develop in ex- portant to place cherries in a cold room as soon port shipments and also in distant domestic after picking as possible. They should be pre- shipments if the fruit is held by the receiver cooled overnight to about 32'^, and subsequently for several days at undesirable temperatures. loaded in a pre-iced car. A transit temperature of 48° to 52° is recom- Maximum refrigeration service should be mended for grapefruit because of the impossi- provided in transit, with 2 to 3 percent salt bility of determining in advance its suscepti- added at pre-icing and all re-icings {1Í6). bility to pitting. The increased protection Additional retardation of decay and mainte- against pitting provided by this temperature nance of green stems can be accomplished by range compensates for any possible slight in- the carbon dioxide released from 800 to 1,000 crease in decays. pounds of wrapped dry ice placed in the door- Protective services in transit are somewhat way brace. An additional 100 pounds of dry the same as those required for oranges, such as ice can be broken up in each bunker with the ventilation only, ventilation in conjunction with water ice. Recent development of polyethylene refrigeration service, or cooling with ice rang- liners for lug boxes of Northwestern cherries ing from modified icing service to maximum has eliminated the need for dry ice in these refrigeration (m). Precooling of grapefruit shipments (28, 29). Because the polyethylene before shipment will be governed by fruit tem- liners extend the marketable life of the perature, fruit condition, and the weather. cherries, it is now possible to ship safely by When necesary, precooling to 50°F. is recom- freight instead of express, and this is steadily mended. As with oranges, some grapefruit is increasing in the Pacific Northwest. California "degreened" to produce a normal color by the shipments move mostly by express, using dry use of ethylene gas (IJ^O). However, more ice instead of the film liners. To maintain uni- rapid development of stem-end rot will occur in form temperatures, fan cars are recommended. gassed fruit, if the coloring-room operation is improper or the temperature therein is not Citrus (grapefruit) kept between 80° and 85°. As with oranges, when treatments are ap- Desired transit temperature, 48° to 52°F. plied which raise the temperature of the fruit, Some of the more important decays and consideration must be given to the removal of physiological disorders afifecting grapefruit are this excess heat by precooling or additional the same as those involving oranges: blue transit refrigeration. The use of fiberboard mold, green mold, stem-end rot, and pitting boxes poses the same cooling problem as with (37, 110, 112, 123, 139). Blue mold and, to a oranges and open loads (fig. 15) are necessary greater extent, green mold rots are a prol^lem {Jtl,U2). each year in all citrus producing areas in the United States. Stem-end rot causes important losses each year in shipments of citrus fruits Citrus (lemons) from Florida and Texas during rainy years but Desired transit temperature, 50° to 55°F. is of minor importance in arid States such as Arizona and California. The first consideration Lemons are stored and transported at higher for the control of blue mold and green mold temperatures than other citrus fruits. Lemons rots is careful handling throughout the harvest- sometimes become pitted if held for prolonged ing, packing, and marketing periods, to mini- periods at low storage temperatures but pitting mize peel breaks through which infections oc- is rare at temperatures above 55°F. Brown rot 28 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE

BN-7932 FIGURE 15.—One loading methud used tu provide vertical zigzag air channels through a carton load of citrus (Freight Tariff 823-c, loading rule 210; so-called spaced bonded-block load). caused by a soil-borne fungus is found on mold rot, whicli is more common on lemons lemons in groves, in packing houses, and in than on other citrus fruits. This rot is rarely storages (110). Due to the acidity of the juice found in the orchard, but is very common in the fungus is usually confined to the rind, the transit, in storage, or on the market. central cylinder, and the tissues between the For winter shipments of lemons Standard segments of ñesh. Certain chemicals are some- Ventilation only is geneially used, but some times added to the wash water to prevent in- refrigeration is recommended for weaker fruit fection in the packing house. However, the such as "tree ripes" and "B-Silver" lemons. treatment most commonly used at present to Various modified refrigeration services may be control brown rot is to sul^merge the fruit for used for summer shipments or for cars moving 2 minutes in water heated to 115°, or for 1 to points in the South {1^2). Pre-iced cars, with minute in 120° water. This disease, as well as bunker ice replenished after loading, are recom- blue mold and green mold rots, is greatly re- mended. The need for re-icing in transit will tarded at a temperature of 50°. Chemical treat- be governed by weather and by distance to ments immediately after harvesting also afford market. If a fan car is used for ventilated an effective control of these diseases. shipments it is recommended that the fans be Cottony rot, another important disease af- kept in operation. This, of course, also applies fecting lemons, is a rapidly spreading contact to cars moving under refrigeration. Practically decay that may attack both green and mature all lemons are now packed in fiberboard fruit, and cause heavy losses in the packing- cartons. Transit cooling is not a problem with house or in storage. At the relatively high lemons as they are usually near the desired temperatures deemed suitable for lemon ship- transit temperature when loaded. ments the decay-producing fungus may cause substantial damage. However, temperatures of Citrus (limes) 50° to 55° in transit afford the best control of most disorders of lemons. Careful handling, Desired transit temperature, 48° to 50°F. packinghouse sanitation, and washing the fruit Limes are subject to some of the same in hot water (as for brown rot) are recom- diseases that attack oranges and grapefruit: mended for preventing cottony rot. These same pitting, blue mold, green mold, and stem-end control measures should also be used for gray rot {110). They are subject to pitting at tern- PROTECTION OF KAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 29 peratures below 45 ' F. and develop stem-end of oranges. The exact amount of refrigeration rot at temperatures above 50°. The most im- to be used for obtaining desirable temperatures portant transit disease of limes is st\'lar-end in transit will depend upon fruit temperature breaJidown occurring in fruit of advanced at time of loading, variety, ciuality, weather, maturity. Occasionally this disease appears at distance to market, and whether or not the the stem end as weW as at the stylar end. Dur- shipment was precooled. The shipper may se- ing early stages no organism has been found lect various classes of protective service such as associated with the disease, therefore it is con- ventilation only (comprising both Combination sidered physiological in nature. The only con- Ventilation and Stanclai'd \'entilation) or cool- trol measure that can be recommended is to ing with ice, ranging from modified icing serv- pick the fruit before it becomes too mature. ice to Standard Refrigeration Service (75, Rind breakdown; such as conspicuous spotting H^). Ventilation is generally used with winter or collapse of the rind occurs in limes during shipments but it may be needed during cool transit and storage. The name "scald" has weathei- in other seasons, even in conjunction often been used for this trouble. Control meas- with a refrigeration service. A substantial ures consist of careful handling, prompt ship- number of orange shipments are precooled de- ment, and storage at temperatui-es between 48° pending on the type of container used, weather, and 50°. Limes should be room-precooled to and condition of the fruit. 52°-55° during warm weather. ^Modified icing Early in the season some orange varieties service in transit will suffice. are legally salable before developing normal yellow color, but frequently such oranges are Citrus (Oranges) treated with ethylene gas to degreen them (HO). However, this gassing treatment some- Desired transit temperature : Arizona, Cali- times accelerates development of stem-end rot, fornia, Texas, 33° to 45°F. ; Florida, 40° to 45°. if proper coloring-room procedure is not fol- The important decays and physiological dis- lowed. Because of considerable variation in the orders affecting oranges are blue mold, green color of oranges from time to time, some are mold, and stem-end rot (7 70, ]12). Blue mold colored with a harmless dye to improve their and green mold rots in particular are prevalent appearance. This process is referred to as in all citrus-producing areas. Stem-end rot is "color added," and the fruit is so stamped. The responsible for serious losses in Florida use of heated solution in this process some- oranges each year and during rainy seasons in times produces "aging," which causes brown- Te.xas, but is of minor importance in Arizona ing, wilting, and shriveling around the stem and California. Careful handling throughout button or elsewhere on tlie upper part of the the hai-\'esting, packing, and marketing periods fruit. Oranges from some areas are given a is of primary importance to minimize peel waxing treatment which is believed to help breaks, through \\hich infections such as blue minimize weight losses and retain a bright and green mold rots enter. Certain approved appearance for a longer time. chemical dips, chemical-impregnated wraps or All treatments which raise the temperatures liners, and fumigants may l)e used to retard the of the fruit increase the refrigeration require- growth of these decay fungi {:]9, ISO). These ments. Consideration must be given to the re- treatments are complementary to prompt and effective precooling to 50°F. at which tempera- moval of this excess heat through precooling ture oranges will generally remain fi'ee of de- or increased transit refrigeration. The rapid cay for 5 to 6 days. Additional cooling in increase in the use of fiberboard cartons for transit will lower the fruit temperature to 45° all citrus fruits has resulted in slower cooling or under. Oranges are more subject to decay rates because of the difficulty in moving air than gi-apefruit but are less susceptible to through the packages and the tighter loads as pitting at temperatures below 40° than grape- shown in figure 16 (4^1, JfS, llf2). As much fruit. Early and midseason varieties are space should be provided as possible in the load usually more susceptible to pitting than late- by means of channels (fig. 15) or the chimney ripening varieties, the pineapple variety from method (fig. 27, page 56) and more time Florida being especially susceptible even during .should be used for precooling in car. Bulk comparatively short periods in transit. Pitting hydrocooling of oranges is being used in a num- is generally more severe at 36° to 40° than at ber of Florida packinghouses. Fungicides are either higher or lower temperatures. added to the hydrocooling water to reduce the Oranges, when stored, are usually held at 32° development of decay. The fruit is then packed to 34-. This temperatui-e affords increased pro- in regular wirebound or fiberboard containers, tection against decay fungi. Overrefrigeration or in polyethylene bags placed in master con- is therefore not a factor in the transportation tainers. 30 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

MIDDLE I^DàKIER CEMERLINE TEWPEXATUKES FANS US CAKTUvS Vi BOXES PREICED, STD kEFRlGEKATlO

(Jutside Air n * A ,—•— su A A A ^ --A- -A A \ /\ /v MU' ^ -A A /r t \ / I \ ^ ^ y ^ j \ \Unventilated Cartons ;u' «/'A^ r T^ ^ ^ bU V V J \l v"^ ».^ Standard Boxes --^ / , 4U

20 July8 9 10 u 1Í 13 14 15 16 17 IS 19 19S5 § 4) ■o C c ^ a (A rt - c o a - c O c « o — o C 0; c c 1« (J ■a Q. ■o o 0 c c ,11 o u at 0 o X n ^ -4 J AMS Neg. 81.-;2-60(10) FIGURE 16.—Temperature curves showing lack of cooling in unventilated cartons of warm oranges in center of load as compared with standard boxes.

Citrus (tangerines) to bruising and physiological breakdown {loh)- Even at low temperatures decay will develop. Desired transit temperature, 32^ to 38°F. Moreover, at temperatures close to 32" cran- This fruit is highly perishable and not berries are subject to physiological breakdown, adapted to long storage (40). Tangerines be- resulting in the flesh losing its normal white come more tender as ripening progresses. They color and crisp texture. The flesh then becomes are then especially susceptible to green mold red, tough, and rul)l3ery, and the skin loses its rot {110). Temperatures of SS'^F. and below characteristic high luster. At temperatures are quite effective in retarding this decay. The above 40 (especially above 50°) decay de- usual packinghouse chemical treatment to velopment greatly increases. check green mold in other citrus fruits should The rots occurring in cranberries are numer- also be given tangerines. This treatment is best ous and not easily distinguished from each made soon after the fruit reaches the packing- other, even when examined by a specialist house. Tangerines should be thoroughly pre- (70.9). Bruising of the fruit during picking, cooled before shipment, after which moderate sorting, and packing operations should be refrigeration will suffice, depending on weather avoided, especially if the fruit is wet. However, and distance to market (í4o). The use of fan these precautions alone will not necessarily con- cars is recommended. trol decays and incipient fungus infections al- ready existing in the fruit before harvest Cranberries {128). Fungus rots can be controlled to a con- Desired transit temperature, 36° to 40°F. siderable extent by chemical spraying in the field, also by precooling freshly harvested, pre- The keeping quality of cranberries is deter- packaged cranberries in the car or cold storage mined by growing conditions, maturity, rooms especially during warm weather. Cold variety, and storage procedures. They can iDe storage rooms for precooling purposes are be- successfully stored from 3 to 4 months at tem- ing given some consideration by certain cran- peratures around 36°F. and fairly high relative berry growers. humidity {U7, h8). However, such tempera- tures are not always available in growers' Solid loads of warm (nonprecooled), pre- warehouses, where most of the storage life of ]:)ackaged cranberries packed in master cartons the fruit is spent. Fruit stored for 4 months at cool slowdy in transit, especially in the middle 36° should be retailed as quickly as possible layer of the load. Tests have indicated that thereafter, since such fruit is very susceptible precooling freshly harvested cranberries re- PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 31 duces decay in transit {49, 59, 6.J). Transit during transit carbon dioxide gas may be used temperatures of 36^ to 40° F. are desirable for as a supplement. In a good, tight car helpful cranberries. To obtain such temperatures, concentrations may be obtained with 750 to recommended classes of protective service are 1,000 pounds of wrapped dry ice placed in the given in table 7. If the weather is cool during doorway area brace of shipments. An addi- the early portion of the trip ventilation service tional 100 pounds of dry ice may be broken up (no ice) may be used at the beginning, followed and placed in each car bunker with the water by refrigeration later on, if outside tempera- ice for rapid buildup. Only fan-equipped cars tures near destination are high. Or protective should be used. service ranging from modified refrigeration to Standard Refrigeration Service and 3 percent salt may be necessary. The governing factors Grapes (Vinifera) are the temperature of the fruit at time of load- Desii^l transit temperature, 32° to 40° F. ing and the weather. If temperatui-es of the California Vinifera table grapes must be berries ai'e above 60' when loaded, the ship- cooled rapidly to preserve their quality (■?, ment should be loaded in a pic-iced car, and Uo). They are shipped either immediately then precooled in the car before departure. after harvest oi- after varying periods of stor- age. In either case, the fruit should be placed Dates under refi'igeration within a few hours after Desired transit temperature, 40" to 50°F. harvest. Undue delays at the high tempera- Although temperatures lower than 40° F. are tures usually prevailing at harvest time will beneficial, they are not recommended because favor stem drying, I)erry shrivel due to mois- of increased service cost. Only room-precooled ture loss, shatter, and infection by decay fruit is shipped in the summer. Although some organisms. precooling is also done during cooler weather, Precooling is accomplished foi- botli shipping the lack of time results in much fi-uit being and storing grapes by the use of room precool- loaded fairly warm (1^2). During the summer, ing, forced-air cooling (S2-J4), cooling tunnels, modified icing service is sufficient for dates. and car precooling (80) (the lattei' when The use of maximum refrigeration is not war- grapes move directly to market after harvest ranted and is wasteful because of the solid or are transported some distance to storage). loads used and the fiberboard placed over the Grapes are not adapted to vacuum cooling. car floor i-acks to protect the cartons. These They should be pi'ecooled to 40° F. or lower practices obstruct air circulation and result in for immediate shipment and as close as possible retarded heat removal from the load. During to the desired holding temperature of 31° for fall, winter, and spring, ventilation service only storage. Temperatures below 40' should be (no ice) is sufficient for date shipments. No maintained in transit. Car precooling is heater service is ever required. usually done by means of the built-in car fans, portable precooling fans, or a combination of Figs (fresh) l)oth. The class of protective service i-equii'ed in transit will depend on the extent of precool- Desired transit temperature, 32° to 36° F. ing before shipment, as well as the prevailing- Figs are extremely fragile and very suscep- weather and season (JO-]). Mechanically re- tible to decay organisms. Alternarla spot, frigerated cars may l)e used to shij) precooled Rhizopus rot, and gray mold rot are the prin- or storage grajees l:)ut some are not designed cipal decays affecting fresh figs in transit and for rapid precooling of warm loads. on the market (110). Figs should be promptly The standard grape display lug is the com- room-precooled or pi-ecooled in the car after monly used container for grapes. Railroad hai-vest to temperatu)-es of 33^ to 36° F. If tariffs require that these containers be loaded subsequently kept at temperatures not higher crosswise of the car. Some method for provid- than 40S they will not he seriously affected ing vertical air channels in the load should be with decay in transit, or during the usual mai- used, particularly when the lading is precooled keting period. Figs, due to their delicate in the car. To accomplish this, the gate load, nature, cannot be expected to keep satisfactor- Hoak load, block load, oi- othei- similar load pat- ily for more than about 10 days. Expedited tei-ns may be used. Tight loading lengthwise transit movement is desirable. Transcontinen- of the car is essential to prevent any container tal shipments move in express cars, which movement which may result in shattering of should be pre-iced befoi-e loading. Standard the grapes in transit (S2). Slack in the load Refi'igeration Service with 3 pei'cent salt added can be eliminated by the proper use of a me- to the ice is necessary in transit. To fui'ther chanical "car-squeeze" and an adequate center retard decay and excessive ripening of the figs gate, as described in the applicalile Freight 32 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE Container Tariff, to retain load tightness dur- frigerating units. Room precooling is the usual ing transit. practice in California and the Northwest, The decays that sometimes develop du ring- although car precooling and hydrocooling are transit include those caused by Botrytis, Clado- used to some extent. In hydrocooling, fruit sporium, and Alternarla (109). The spread of temperatures should be reduced to 45° F. or Botrytis (gray mold) and Cladosporium is con- lower and constantlv checked to determine the trolled quite effectively in both storage and performance of the h>-drocooler. The water transit by fumigation with sulfur dioxide gas, temperature should be in the range of 32° to but fumigation does not kill infections that 34° at all times for effective cooling. As the have occurred before harvest. Care must be cooling rate will vary considerably with size of taken to prevent excessive concentrations of the peaches, the speed of the hydrocooler should SO, in the car during fumigation, or injury to be adjusted to provide the desired cooling when the fi-uit will result (135). A supplemental the average size of peaches being cooled fan in the brace will provide uniform distribu- changes. After removal from the hydrocooler tion of the gas. In mechanically refrigerated the fruit should be loaded promptly into pre- cars, it may be necessary to open the doors cooled cars to prevent loss of refrigeration. after fumigation to aerate the car. Warm peaches may be shipped immediately FUMIGATION WITH SO. GAS MUST BE after loading in mechanical cars. The load will DONE WITH CAUTION TO AVOID INJURY cool in transit within 18 to 24 hours. While TO WORKERS, FRUIT, AND EQUIPMENT. this is a longer period than normally required EVEN A CONCENTRATION OF 0.25 PER- for holding and piecooling a load in an iced car CENT CAN CAUSE RESPIRATORY SPASMS at shipping point, it does eliminate the delay AND DEATH FROM ASPHYXIATION IF and extra cost that usually go with car pre- THE VICTIM CANNOT ESCAPE FROM THE cooling. Because of the slower cooling rate the FUMES. CONCENTRATIONS AS LOW AS peaches may ripen somewhat during this 0.04 PERCENT ARE IRRITATING AND CAN period. Fruit so shipped should be firm when INJURE THE MUCOUS MEMBRANES. A loaded, to prevent excessive softening during GAS MASK WITH CANISTER FOR ACID transit with consequent increased bruising. GASES, OR GOGGLES, SHOULD BE WORN Peaches that are harvested before reaching EVEN WHEN WORKING IN WEAK CON- proper maturity will not ripen with good CENTRATIONS. dessert quality. Considerable interest has been shown by the industry in improved harvest Peaches (and nectarines) maturity for raising market quality (21). Rapid precooling and transit temperatures be- Desired transit temperature, 32° to 45° F. low 40° are essential for fruit of advanced ma- Peaches, when eating-ripe, are too soft to be turity. Bruising is also a serious proljlem, shipped. They must, therefore, be harvested especially in bulging or overpacked containers, at a stage of maturity in which they are firm and better packaging than the conventional enough to be handled Avithout excessive bruis- containers now used is desirable. Single and ing (35). To maintain sufficient firmness dur- double layer tray-pack boxes of wood or fiber- ing the movement to market, the fruit must be l)oard are being used, mostly in the west. held at temperatures low enough to retard Moisture-resistant cartons suitable for hydro- ripening until it reaches the retailer. Of equal cooling with jumble-packed fruit are becoming importance is control of the two major decays available. Many studies are now being made to affecting peaches : brown rot and Rhizopus rot develop containers that will afford better pro- (fig. 14) (113). Their development during tection to the more mature fruit and still per- extended transit periods (7 to 8 days) can be mit rapid and adequate cooling. very rapid unless the fruit is held at 45° F. or The standard tub peach baskets have re- lower. However, peaches held at 40° for 2 ceived excessive damage when loaded in the weeks or more may be affected by internal usual upright manner in refrigerator cars. Ex- breakdown, which does not occur as rapidly tensive tests have shown that the alternately at temperatures above or below this point. inverted crosswise offset load (fig. 17) greatly Holding temperature should be reached quickly reduces basket breakage and also lowers re- after harvest by room precooling, precooling in frigeration costs per package because of the cars, or hydrocooling. larger load (127). Southeastern railroads have In the eastern peach-gi'owing area, hydro- offered incentive rates on carlot shipments of cooling (fig. 24, page 53) has become the most peaches loaded in this manner, provided they common method of precooling (106, 107, 129). are properly hydrocooled and a heavier load is In Colorado, precooling is done in the car by used by adding another complete layer to the means of car fans or portable mechanical re- normal load. r PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OP FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 33

C060 FIGURE 17.—Alternately inverted load of ^-t-bushel baskets in refrigerator car.

Two serious transit decays of peaches are after harvest, but its growth is held in check by brown rot and Rhizopus rot (130). The fungus transit temperatures of 45"' and lower. Sodium that causes brown rot occurs in the orchard and orthophenylphenate is also effective for reduc- is favored by warm, wet weather. It is most ing Rhizopus infections. A buildup of spores of prevalent in the Southeastern production area. decay organisms in the hydrocooling water can Adequate spraying schedules plus proper pacl-c- be avoided by the addition of 100 to 200 parts inghouse sanitation are the most effective con- per million of chlorine. However, this concen- trols. At least one chemical, sodium ortho- tration will not eliminate any brown rot or phenylphenate, applied after harvest, has been Rhizopus rot infection already existing on the found to be effective in reducing brown rot in- fruit. fections (74). Tolerances have recently been Nectarines are handled the same as Cali- established for this chemical by the Food and fornia peaches. Drug Administration. Although brown rot can develop slowly at temperatures as low as 32'-' Pears F., satisfactory control during normal transit periods is possible at the recommended tem- The transit protective service for pears is peratures of 32^ to 45"". However, following determined largely on the disposition to be the transit period and removal of the fruit to made of the fruit upon arrival at destination. normal temperatures during retail handling, It may go into immediate distribution and con- brown rot can develop rapidly, even though sumption, into cold storage in the East, or be none was discernible at time of loading. Thus, transshipped for overseas sale (J). it is important to reduce infections in the (1) Desired transit temperature, pears of orchard with effective preharvest sprays. The all varieties shipped for immediate distribu- Rhizopus rot organism usually attacks the fruit tion and consumption: 45*^ to 55°F. 34 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE Pears in this category should be partially extra handling required to move the fruit ripened in transit so that it will not be neces- through ripening rooms. sary to hold them for extended periods for (2) Desired transit temperature, pears for ripening after reaching market. Facilities storage in producing area or at terminal mar- available at destination often do not provide the ket, or for transshipment: 32 to 36'-F. proper environment for ripening, and result For maximum storage life, pears must be in poor quality fruit. Delay in ripening may quicklv cooled to 31'^ to 32^F. and held contm- cause an excessive accumulation of fruit in uouslv at that temperature, whether they are wholesale and retail channels which adversely stored in the production area or at the terminal affects prices. Depending on maturity at har- market. Consequently, temperatures near the vest, pears from the earlier districts usually optimum storage temperature should be main- require from 7 to 12 days to reach the eating- tained in transit. Fruit shipped immediately ripe stage when held at ideal ripening tempera- after harvest should be thoroughly precooled, tures. Therefore, moderate transit tempera- either by room precooling or in the car, and tures should be provided to initiate this ripen- shipped under maximum refrigeration in warm ing process during a 6- to 8-dav transit period weather and some modified icing in cooler fall (118.119). months. During severe cold weather, freezing For early varieties shipped immediately after damage in transit must l^e prevented by heater harvest (Bartlett, Bosc, Comice), modified service with car vents kept closed to destina- icing services as indicated in the tables should tion. Car fans should be operated in transit to be used to provide temperatures in the range prevent overheating (hence ripening) in the of 45" to 5.")-F. for the first 5 to 6 days in top layers of the load. The thermostat on LF transit. These icing schedules are based on a heaters should be set at 32V2'"^. transit period of 7 to 10 days. With faster train Practically all pears stored in the Pacific schedules now in effect which pi-ovide delivery Northwest and some in California are now on the seventh morning in New York City, it packed and stored in film-lined containers appears that some further modification of pro- which increase their storage life and lengthen tective services could be safely used. If a non- shelf life several days after ripening (27). To fan car is used, moderate precooling at origin prevent possible fruit injury from excessive should be done to avoid excessive ripening in atmosphere changes during transit and retail the top layers during transit. For shorter handling, it is recommended that the film liner transit periods (less than 6 days) the fruit may be slit at shipping point after removal from be treated with ethylene gas before or during storage. shipment to hasten ripening (116). The most common transit decays of pears ]\Iidseason and late pears are usually har- are blue mold and gray mold rots, bulls'-eye rot, vested at a more advanced stage of maturity, and Alternaria rot (IH). All of these decays so less ripening in transit is needed. They are develop slowly in storage but can increase if generally room or car precooled and shipped the fruit is exposed to higher temperatures in under a modified refrigeration service as indi- transit. However, development of these de- cated in the tables. cays is retarded by the low transit tempera- All varieties shipped from cold storage dur- tures previously recommended. Chemical treat- ing fall or winter in fan cars may have ripen- ments before storage and proper packinghouse ing initiated in transit if desired, by the proper sanitation will minimize sources of infection. use of LF heaters with thermostats set at 471/2°- Because of the low temperatures usually Pineapples prevailing during transit in late fall and win- ter, no significant warming of the cold fruit can Desired transit temperatures Mature-green, be expected from any natural source, so artifi- SO'^ to 60°F. ; Ripe, 40° to 50°. cial heat must be applied. Tests have been Practically all pineapples moving by rail have made with winter shipments of pears from the been imported from Cuba. They were loaded Northwest in which heaters Avere installed at in rail cars on the island and transported by Chicago (90, 102). Fruit temperatures Avere car ferry to West Palm Beach or other Florida raised to 50°-60° by the time of arrival in New ports. Here they were reloaded into refrigera- York. Pears in these cars were then ripe tor cars for movement to points in the United enough for distiibution 18 to 36 hours sooner States. In general, the class of protective serv- than those in a companion car which was not ice used is that which the buyer specifies to heated. Other tests (91) indicated the feasibili- produce the desired break in color or stage of ty of ripening pears by heating in fan cars ripeness required upon arrival at the market. after arrival at market (car fans operated by Pineapples are sensitive to temperatures below portable motors) (69) thus eliminating the 40 F., especially mature green fruit, which PROTECTION ÜF KAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 35 may retain its acid flavor and fail to color prop- the extent of precooling at origin and also the erly if exposed to such low temperatures. class of protective service necessary in transit Therefore, temperatures of 50" and higher ai'e de])ends lai-gely on the maturity of the fruit at needed for mature green fruit, depending on loading and whether the shipment is being the ripening desired in transit. Ventilation made in a fan car or in a car without fans. service in warm weather and LF heaters dur- Fan cars should be given preference. All ship- ing winter montlis are usually employed. To ments should l)e loaded in pre-iced cars. The maintain the color break in ripe pineapples, alternately inverted crosswise offset loading temperatures of 40- to 50- in transit are de- method (fig. 17) may be used for fruit packed sired. This will require the use of a modified in baskets, if the fruit is adequately precooled refrigeration service in warm weather and LF before loading and shipped in fan cars (127). heaters in cold weather, with heater thermo- It has been found that such a load pattern re- stats set at 121 -j" for ripe and 52i 2° for mature duces basket flamage and fruit bruising in ti'an- green pineapples, and car vents kept closed. sit. For nonprecooled fruit in nonfan cars it Black rot, sometimes called soft rot, water is believed the end-to-end offset method of load- blister, or water rot, is one of the most serious ing provides some additional air space around diseases affecting pineapples both in the field the baskets and helps increase the cooling rate. and in transit (110). The causal fungus enters With either method of loading, the Ijaskets the fruit through skin breaks caused by insect should not be overpacked or imve a pronounced punctures or injuries received during harvest- bulge in their lids. ing, packing, and marketing processes. It de- velops more rapidly in ripe than in green fruit. St rawberries Cai-eful handling and packing is necessary to minimize infection. Black rot develops very Desired transit temperature, 32° to 35°F. rapidly at temperatures between 70'^ and 90^F. Strawberries are among the most perishable l)ut becomes relatively inactive below 50*^ and fruits shipped commercially by rail and, as will not develop in fruit below 45^. such, require expedited handling in all phases of distribution. Hence all rail movement is by Plums (including fresh prunes) express. Because both ripening and develop- ment of decay after harvest are very rapid, and Desired transit temperature, 35 ' to 45"F. because of a high degree of susceptibility to Because of their perishability, plums and bruising, the fruit must be handled with great prunes (fresh) should be handled carefully at care. Low temperatures will control both ripen- all stages of marketing, from the orchard to ing and decay. Proper precooling is essential the consumer. They are not stored extensively, to remove field heat from the berries at the nor are they adapted to long cold storage. More- earliest possible time after picking. Precooling over, fresh prunes coming out of storage at may be done in cooling rooms or in the car. shipping point cannot safely be stored again In room precooling the berries should be held after arrival at eastern markets. Thus the for 8 to 12 hours or overnight at an air fruit should be put into trade channels as soon temperature as close to 32° F. as possible. as possible after ari-ival at market. Plums are Air-circulating fans should be used and the susceptible to the same rots as other stone containers stacked to provide adequate air fruits, the most important being Rhizopus rot, movement around the stacks. The precooled brown rot, gray mold rot, and blue mold rot berries should be loaded in pre-iced cars and (11-1). The controls usually found effective are protected during loading by a door shield or adequate spray operations in the orchard, prop- tunnel to prevent warming up and wetting er precooling of the fruit after picking, pre- from condensation. vention of skin breaks and bruising during When cooling in the car, portable precooling handling, and the avoidance of excessively tight fans in conjunction with the car fans should be packs (17). used to obtain the maximum cooling rate (fig. The fruit should be either room precooled or 26, page 55). With beri-ies packed in baskets precooled in the car to the recommended tem- in wire-bound crates, at least 4 hours of car peratures promptly after packing. The addition precooling should be performed to reduce tem- of .salt to the bunker ice during car precooling peratures of berries at the doorway to near is desirable. Transit temperatures of the fruit 40°. Fiberboard trays, unless loaded so as to should be kept between 35^ and 45"F. If the provide air channels equivalent in ai'ea to those fruit is precooled soon after it is picked, a in a regular crate load, may require more time temperature of 45° or lower will fairly well for precooling in cars. Bunkers should be care- retard the progress and development of the fully re-iced just before precooling starts and four principal decays. As indicated in table 7, at least 400 pounds of salt should be worked 36 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OP' AGRICULTURE into the ice. The car should apain be i-e-iced All containers should be carefully handled be- before moving in transit. cause the berries are easily bruised. Only fan cars should be used for the move- The principal transit decays of strawben-ies ment of strawberries. They should be pre-iced are gray mold and Rhizopus rot (109). It is at least 6 to 12 hours before loading. Tests very important to ship only sound fruit, free have shown that after express fan cars start from all defects, since these decay fungi, by moving in transit, cooling by car fans continues nesting, can spread throughout the container. at about half the rate occurring during pre- In transit, Rhizopus rot is more likely to be cooling with car fans and portable precooling found in berries exposed to temperatures above fans combined. This factor should be con- 50° F., whereas gray mold predominates at sidered when determining whether to release temperatures below 50°. Although the latter a car after it has been given only the minimum decay mav develop slowly at lower tempera- precooling time. tures, maintaining the load at 32° to 35° should safely protect the fruit from decay during Strawberries shipped from the Louisiana area are precooled in the car and move during transit. relatively cool spring months (100). If precool- ing has been thorough, salt in transit may not Fresh Vegetables be required. However, if the weather is hot en route or precooling was not thorough, 2 to 3 Asparagus percent salt should be added at replenishing Desired transit temperature, 34° to o8°F. after precooling and at the first re-icing in Asparagus is one of the most perishable com- transit. While no similar tests have been con- modities shipped commercially. It requires ducted in the strawberry areas of Arkansas, special care at all stages of distribution. Once Tennessee, and Kentucky, it is believed that the harvested, asparagus quickly loses its quality above recommendations for Louisiana straw- while undergoing marked changes in structure berries will also apply to these other areas. In and chemical composition (66, 67). It has a California, where room-precooled berries are very high rate of respiration (table 1), even at shipped over the greater part of the year, the low temperatures. At temperatures above 40° transit protective service should be commen- F. sugars and vitamin C are lost rapidly and surate with the season. Standard Refrigeration coarse fibers develop. It is, therefore, very im- Service is used throughout the year, but the portant that asparagus be rapidly cooled to 40° amount of salt added varies with the weather or lower immediately after harvest, and that (117). low temperatures be maintained during transit. Wrapped dry ice is commonly used to slow In packing, the butt ends of the spears are ripening and reduce decay in transit ; from 800 set on either spliagnum moss or water-retentive to 1,200 pounds are required to produce the fiber pads in the crate to maintain crispness of necessary concentration of carbon dioxide in the spears. While most of the asparagus spears the car." Carbon dioxide concentrations of 10 packed are 9 inches long, there is a trend to- percent or above for 24 hours or more are quite ward shipping shorter (7-inch) spears, thus effective in reducing the growth of decay or- avoiding the waste of shipping inedible butts ganisms and in retarding ripening and soften- which represent from one-quarter to onc-tliird ing of the berries. The dry ice should be placed of the total market weight. Prepacking the in a crib or on a shelf built into the center brace shorter spears in film bags has been started on in such a way that there is at least 6 inches a small scale and will probably continue. For between the closest dry ice and the berries. prepackaging it is essential that the bags be The additional refrigeration furnished by these adequately ventilated (about ten to twenty Yn- amounts of dry ice should be considered in inch holes per 1-pound package) to avoid un- selecting the aniount of salt to he added to the desirably high CO, and low oxygen levels. This water ice in transit, or freezing damage may amount of ventilation will keep water loss low result. If 3 percent salt is indicated without enough to avoid undesiral^le weight losses and dry ice, 2 or even 1 percent may be ample when to maintain turgidity. Preliminary tests indi- the a))ove amounts of dry ice are used. cate that asparagus prepackaged in properly The standard wirebound strawberry crates, ventilated film bags can be vacuum cooled suc- loaded lengthwise with 2- to 4-inch vertical cessfully and without injury to the spears. channels between rows, provide a very satis- Bacterial soft rot is the most serious post- factory pattern for rapid cooling. The fiber- harvest decay, but it is effectively controlled by board tray pack, when loaded with similar temperatures below 40°F. (H). Prolonged channels, also cools well. As California berries holding (10 days or more) at 32° to 34° may packed in these trays are room precooled, air result in chilling damage. The longest storage channels in the load are of less importance. life can be expected at about 36°. PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 37

Beans (snap) use of larger containers frequently results in Desired transit temperature, 45° to 50°F. the development of excessive heat in the center of the crate. The pony crate is lined Avith Snap beans held for 3 to 5 days below the waterproof paper and two layers of broccoli desired temperature range (especially below are packed between three layers of crushed ice 40 F.) are subject to chilling injury. This ranging from 30 to 35 pounds per crate. Hy- injury is manifested by pitting and russeting drocooling, if available, may be used for quick of the pods. If watery soft rot is present a removal of field heat. transit temperature of 40° to 45° is desirable to I'etard this decay even though some chilling injury may occur. Cabbage Precooling of warm beans is essential. Hy- Desired transit temperature, 32° to 40°F. drocooling is effective in quickly removing ex- While less perishable than some of the other cess field heat but, bec-ause of the moisture left leafy vegetables, field heat should be removed on the beans, russeting may result if tliey are fairly quickly from early-crop cabbage by hy- held more than a total of 7 to 8 days. In con- drocooling, vacuum cooling, or top icing in the sidering the cumulative effects, both time in car. A light top icing is desirable after hydro- transit and in marketing must be included. cooling or vacuum cooling since moisture loss A number of decays affect snap beans in in transit is the most serious problem. Late- transit. The most important are watery soft crop cabbage is somewhat less susceptible to rot, soil rot, bacterial blight, anthracnose, and wilting but it, too, should be handled under bacterial soft rot (9i). Reasonable control of proper temperatures. The use of fiberboard the development of these decays in transit is cartons or multiwall paper bags has not beeir aft'orded at temperatures around 45°F. Well- very successful in warm weather except when ventilated containers and open loads are recom- a good vacuum-cooling job has been done and mended to permit adequate air circulation the shipment moved under Standard Refrigera- through the commodity, to remove heat of tion Service. During cool weather, nonpre- respiration in transit, and permit some drying cooled shipments in these containers may move of hydrocooled beans. under Standard Refrigeration Service only. However, hydrocooling before packaging in Beets (bunched) such containers may be used to advantage to Desired transit temperature, 32° to 40°F. precool and moisten the loads. When top ice is Bunched beets packed in wirebound crates used as a cooling medium for crated cabbage, 3- to 4-inch channels should be left between must be package iced and also top iced to keep each row of crates, also next to the sidewalls, the tops in prime condition. The crates when so that some of the top ice may settle down into loaded in the car should provide sidewall space for top ice to enter and blanket the load on the the spaces. In addition to top ice, block ice can be placed on the floor racks in the centerline sides as well as the top. Bacterial soft rot is most prevalent on the channel of the load to insui-e adequate refriger- tops of bunched beets, rarely attacking the ation in this location. Cabbage harvested im- rootvS (93). The disease is greatly retarded by mediately after a rain during warm weather, especially if heavily fertilized, may develop ex- rapid cooling and by transit temperatures of cessive wastage during marketing. 32° to 40°F. Winter shipments of New York cabbage from storage may require protection against Broccoli freezing by preheating the cars followed by Desired transit temperature, 32° to 36°F. heater service in transit. Broccoli has one of the highest respiration The most important transit decays are bac- rates of any of the fruits or vegetables listed terial soft rot, alternarla leaf spot, gray mold (table 1) and must, therefore, be handled rot, and watery soft rot (95). Bacterial soft under maximum refrigeration at all times. Ex- rot can be controlled and the development of posure to temperatures above öOV. for only a other decays retarded, by temperatures below short time results in yellowing or browning of 40°F. the buds with consequent reduction in salability. Emanation of ethylene by the Carrots broccoli is believed to be one cause of this yellowing (65). Moisture loss is also very high Desired transit temperature, 32° to 38°F. so broccoli should be kept wet by the use of Carrots are packed in a variety of containers package and top ice. The pony crate is the which will govern the transit protective service usual and best crate for shipping broccoli. The required. Most of the crop is now topped and 38 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE either prepackaged in film bags or packed in F. or lower immediately after harvesting (ÍU). crates or in mesh or multiwall paper bags (J, Hvdrocooling or vacuum cooling will quickly JO). Hydrocooling of the roots, at least to 40" remove field heat of celery. When celery is to 50"^ F., before prepackaging is highly de- packed in crates or water-resistant cartons, top sirable for all prepackaged carrots. Top ice icing immediately after loading continues the should be used if hydrocooling is not available cooling obtained in the hydrocooler or vacuum for loose or jumble-packed carrots shipped in cooler and furnishes the necessary moisture in crates. Bunched carrots, if not hydrocooled, transit to prevent wilting. The amount of top should be cooled by package and top ice, plus ice used will be governed by the season and bunker ice during hot weather. Prepackaging destination. In loading, it is the practice in or packing in film-lined crates provides proper California to leave a space between the con- moisture retention. Carrots in fiberboard con- tainei-s and the car sidewalls for filling with top tainers should be loaded with channels between ice. For long hauls in hot weathei-, retop icing rows or in a chimney pattern to provide ade- in transit may be necessary. Bunker ice in quate air circulation to remove heat of respira- conjunction with the top ice may be used dur- tion in transit, and the appropriate amount of ing hot summer months. bunker ice used (no top ice) as indicated in Celery hearts prepackaged in perforated film table 8. Fan cars should be used with fans in bags can be hydi-ocooled before packaging, operation. vacuum cooled after packaging, or room cooled. The two most important decays are bacterial The shipping container is usually a fiberboard soft rot and watery soft rot, both of which are box. Standard Refrigeration Service and fan controlled bv transit temperatures of 32- to 38° cars are necessary at all times to maintain de- F. (H). sired transit temperatures, with salt added dur- ing extremely hot weather. Half-stage Stand- Cauliflower ard Refrigeration Service may be adequate during mild weather. Desired transit temperature, 32° to 40°F. Because of heavy losses from freezing dam- Cooling cauliflower to the desired transit age reported in winter shipments to Canadian temperature range within a few hours after and northeastern destinations for both Califor- harvest is important to prevent wilting and nia and Florida celery, consideration should be poor arrival condition. Untrimmed cauliflower given to the use of some classes of heater serv- is packed in wooden crates, loaded in cars with ice. Both the shipper and the receiver should channels between rows of crates, top iced, and keep informed on weather conditions and order forwarded with or without bunker ice depend- heater service when forecasts indicate low tem- ing on the weather at loading point and en peratures en route or at destination. All winter route to market {60-62). Much of the trimmed, shipments (except celery hearts in fiberboard film-wrapped cauliflower from California is boxes) moving into northern territory should packed in ventilated cartons or in crates and move with top ice only and dry bunkers in vacuum cooled after packing. Other shippers order that lieaters may be placed in the bunkers prefer to hydrocool the trimmed heads before if necessary, without the hazard and cost of re- they are wrapped and packed. In either in- moving bunker ice en route. stance, the cars should be pre-iced and Stand- ard Refrigeration Seiwice used in transit. For Corn (sweet) loads that are well precooled, half-stage Stand- ard Refrigeration Service may be adequate in Desired transit temperature, 32° to 36°F. moderate weather. Winter shipments of Corn loses quality more quickly than any trimmed and film-wrapped cauliflower from other vegetable or fruit after harvest if not Texas may be cooled satisfactorily with top ice properly handled. Sugar, which is largely re- only. sponsible for the eating quality of corn, is lost Principal decays in transit are bacterial soft very rapidly at ordinary room temperatures. rot of the curd and leaves, and brown rot (Al- Over 50 percent is lost in 24 hours. Quick ternaria) (.9.5). Temperatures below 40° F. cooling to 32° F. reduces this loss to onlv 20 will control bacterial soft rot and retard de- percent in 4 days as shown in figure 18. Rapid velopment of the other decays. cooling immediately after harvest is therefore imperative. Because of the high respiration Celery rate of corn, maximum refrigeration is re- quired in transit. Even under optimum condi- Desired transit temperature, 32° to 36°F. tions, corn gradually loses quality and should Celery being a leafy vegetable is highly be moved without delay to the consumer. Heat perishable and therefore should be cooled to 40° removal is generally accomplished by hydro- PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 39

and the development of certain decays in transit (95). Bacterial soft rot, watery soft rot, cottony leak, and black rot are especially stimulated by transit temperatures above 50° F. Cucumbers are susceptible to chilling in- jury at temperatures below 45°, particulai'ly if subjected to such temperatures for 6 days or longer, and anthi-acnose rot frequently follows this injury. Precooling is not usually required. A modi- fied refrigeration service will provide the de- sired 45 ' to 50 " F. temperatui'e range. Waxing is a common practice for reduction of moisture loss and shriveling. Shipments moving to desti- nations in Northern States and Canada may require heater service during cold weather.

Endive and escarole 0 12 24 56 48 60 72 84 96 Desired transit temperature, 33° to 36°F. These leafy vegetables are similar to lettuce HOURS AFTER STORAGE and are handled somewhat similarly. Because FiGURK 18.—Effect of temperature on sugar loss in they are very perishable and have a high sweet corn. (From Appleman, Chas. 0., and John M. respiration rate, prompt refrigeration after Arthur. Carbohydrate Metabolism in Green Sweet Corn During Storage at Different Temperatures. Jour. Agr. harvesting is required. Hydrocooling is the Res. 17: 137-152. 1919.) usual commercial practice followed by top icing and bunker ice. However, vacuum cooling can also be effectively used. Transit decays are cooling-, but vacuum cooling- is being- used with similar to those of lettuce (.9J). some success in certain growing areas. Top icing is desirable for vacuum-cooled corn to Lettuce replace moisture that may be removed from the husks during cooling. Because of the difficulty Desired transit temperature, 32° to 36°F. in removing the heat from ears of corn due to Lettuce is one of the most perishable and the insulating effect of the husks and the tight easily damaged of the commercially shipped pack, the usual commercial hydrocooling or vegetables. Prompt cooling, suitable transit vacuum cooling does not reduce the tempera- temperatures, and careful handling are re- ture to the desired 32° ilJ^l). Therefore, im- quired to prevent excessive deterioration in mediately after precooling the corn must be transit. Precooling to 33° to 35° F. should be loaded into pre-iced cars and top-iced. Stand- done just as soon after cutting as possible. ard Refrigeration Service is generally needed This is accomplished by vacuum cooling oi- with in addition to top ice, with 2 percent salt added package ice and top ice. Cooling with forced to the bunker ice during hot weather. air circulation in bunker-iced cars has occasion- To hasten cooling a channeled or open load ally been used in areas where harvest tempera- should be used so that the top ice can settle tures are low. Vacuum cooling provides the between the containers. Space between the fastest cooling but it does not necessarily insure crates and sidewalls of the car is also desirable the lowest average transit temperature. The to provide a blanket of ice around the load. lettuce may be cooled Ijy subjecting the packed Retop icing in transit may be required in hot container to the vacuum process before loading weather. Tests have shown that operating- car or, in some special installations, the entire load fans results in lower and more uniform tem- can be cooled simultaneously by placing the peratures even with top ice on the load. With loaded refrigerator car in a vacuum chamber the proper amount of top ice, there is no dangei' (fig. 25, page 54). This latter method has the of the commodity wilting or losing moisture in advantage of not exposing the lettuce to outside the car from the forced air circulation. temperatures after cooling which occurs when cooling precedes loading. Vacuum cooling is Cucumbers now being used for most of the commercial lettuce crop and is being expanded by the de- Desired transit temperature, 45° to 50°F. velopment and use of portable units (26). Excess field heat should be removed from cu- The other method of cooling involves the use cumbers within 24 hours to retard yellowing of 20 to 35 pounds of crushed ice in the con- 40 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

tainer Mith 4 or 5 dozen heads of lettuce. In temperatures provides the best control of wast- addition to package ice, from 9,000 to 25,000 age in lettuce. pounds of top ice is used per carload, depending on seasonal temperatures. Tests have shown Melons (cantaloups) that after the usual 16 to 18 hours required to cool the lettuce to 32° to 34° by this method, Desired transit temperature, 35° to 40°F. it is held consistently at this temperature by The sooner cantaloups are precooled after the package and top ice. Precooling of dry- picking, the longer will be their marketable life pack lettuce with car or portable fans is slow, (85, 137). California, Texas, and Arizona especially in the carton-pack. cantaloups are precooled in pre-iced refrigera- The rapid development of vacuum-cooling tor cars by portable or car fans and bunker ice. facilities has enal^led the wide use of fiberboard Usually a calculated amount of top ice is used containers and the economies of field packing. to speed the precooling (S3). Either half-stage The elimination of package ice in these con- or full bunker Standard Refrigeration Service tainers has somewhat reduced bruising of the is provided in transit, depending on weather or lettuce but has increased the problem of main- destination (121). taining adequate refrigeration. It is important Cantaloups should be thoroughly precooled to to thoroughly precool carton-packed lettuce be- 35° to 40° F. to assure arrival in sound condi- cause the insulation provided by the container tion of hard-ripe or choice melons on trans- and the usual solid load permit only slow cool- continental shipment. Cantaloups are now gen- ing in transit (4J). Transit refrigeration erally packed in nailed or wirebound wooden should be depended on only to remove the heat crates although the use of fiberboard cartons of respiration and heat leakage into tlie car. has increased in recent years. The amount of For vacuum- and car-precooled lettuce ship- top ice supplied for precooling depends on the ments maximum refrigeration with bunker ice loading temperature of the melons (83). A and at least 2 percent salt in transit is required recommended top icing schedule is shown in during the summer months. Half-stage Stand- the tables following this section. It is essential ard Refrigeration Service or modified full- that either the top ice be completely melted or bunker services may be used at times during the remaining ice be removed from the car on cool weather. Mechanically refrigerated cars completion of precooling, for additional freight with the thermostat set at 34° F. are also being charges will be assessed on any ice remaining. used for vacuum-cooled lettuce (8, 13). Special precooling methods are necessary for melons in cartons as the use of top ice is not As with celery, considerable freezing damage well adapted to this pack (133). Some shippers has been found at destination in winter ship- have used hydrocooling with apparent success. ments of lettuce that moved in cars without Fan cars are recommended for cantaloup ship- heater service to Canadian markets. Cars mov- ments, not only because of the convenience of ing through extremely cold weather should be the built-in fans for precooling, but also be- pz'otected by heaters under one of the "Pro- cause they provide more uniform temperatures tective Service Against Cold" rules appearing in transit. The fans produce faster meltage of in the Perishable Protecti\e Tariff. When cars the top ice and also dry the melons and crates are held on track at destination for more than after the top ice is gone. a few hours, the car fans should be opei-ated with portable holding motors to maintain uni- Melons (honeydew) form load temperatures, whether the car is un- der heat or refrigeration (69). Desired transit temperature, 45° to 50°F. Bacterial soft rot is the most important While a cool shipping temperature is de- transit disease of lettuce (92,98). It commonly sirable, honeydew melons do not require pre- follows physiological disorders, such as tipburn. cooling. Prolonged exposure to temperatures Bruising and mechanical injury, which may oc- below 40° F. is harmful (137). Honevdew cur from rough handling or excessively tight melons from California, Texas, and Arizona packing, also increase susceptibility to soft rot. are loaded in dry (noniced) refrigerator cars Careful handling and low temperatures provide and treated for 18 to 24 hours before shipment the most effective control. Other important dis- with a low concentration of ethylene gas (500 orders which affect lettuce in transit are russet to 1,000 p.p.m.) to accelerate degreening and spotting, gray mold rot, tipburn, downy mil- other ripening processes. Pulp temperature dew, and watery soft rot. Some of these are must be 65° or above for significant response caused by fungi and others are physiological to ethylene. Often during hot weather the pulp disorders. They are all minimized by tempera- temperature at loading is 90° or above, but tures near 32° F. It is therefore evident that this high temperature is not harmful during the the continuous maintenance of nearly optimum gas treatment. PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 41

Initial icing is done after etliylene treatment, transit are bacterial soft rot, gray mold rot, I soft rot, all greatly retarded by the either at the loading shed or at the first icing and watery station en route. Half-stage icing is commonly low transit temperatures recommended (9i). used under either Standard Refrigeration Serv- ice or modified icing rules, depending upon seasonal temperatures and degree of transit Peppers (sweet) ripening desired (88). Fan cars are desirable for producing more uniform temperatures in Desired transit temperature, 45° to 50°F. transit. Sweet or bell peppers are subject to chilling HOWEVER, NO FANS SHOULD BE OPERATED injury when held at temperatures below 45° F. DURING THE ETHYLENE GAS TREATMENT, They should therefore be shipped at moderate DUE TO EXPLOSION HAZARD IF CONCENTRA- temperatures. The symptoms of chilling injury TIONS OF ETHYLENE SHOULD HAPPEN TO are surface pitting and discoloration near the BE MUCH HIGHER THAN THOSE RECOM- calyx, followed by such decays as alternarla rot MENDED. and gray mold rot. Temperatures above 50° not only increase the development of bacterial Onions (dry) soft rot and Rhizopus rot, but also favor ripen- ing (.96). Desired transit temperature, 32^ to 40°F. ^Modified refrigeration service is usually all A temperature of 32' to 40° F. and low rela- that is necessary. The amount of ice needed tive humidity, not above 70 to 75 percent, are depends upon the temperature of the peppers at desirable for onions to keep them dormant and loading. During winter months, some refriger- prevent sprouting and decay. ation service in conjunction with ventilation During cool weather. Standard Ventilation is may be necessary during the early part of the adequate for the ti-ansportation of onions from transit period, followed by heater service in most areas. During warm summer weather, colder areas. dry car loading followed by half-stage Standard Refrigeration Service is recommended for Cali- Potatoes fornia. During winter weather, shii)ments orig- inating in New York State will frequently Desired transit temperatures: Early crop, require heater service, such as Carriers' Pro- 55° to 65°F. ; late crop, 40° to 50°; for chip- tective Seiwice or Shippers' Specified Service. ping, early crop, 60° to 70° ; for chipping, late Pads on the floor racks of the car are desirable crop, 50° to 65°. to minimize bruising in the bottom layer of Potatoes are often erroneously treated as sacks. "hardware" with not enough regard for care- The commonest disease of onions is "neck ful handling or optimum temperature (111). rot," a gi'ay mold rot that develops at the top This results in heavy losses from sprouting, of the bulb (94). The fungus can develop to decay, overheating, freezing, and mechanical some extent even at 32° F. damage. While temperature is not generally a vital factor in the transportation of sound, Peas (green) mature potatoes, decay originating at bruises, cuts, or skinned areas, or induced by heat in- Desired transit temperature, 32^ to 36°F. jury before or during harvest, is a serious prob- During 1958, green peas showed the heaviest lem and must be controlled by relatively low loss per car of any of the fresh fruits, melons, temperatures. Like most fruits and vegetables, and vegetables, averaging $155.32 per car in potatoes with unbroken skins are substantially 642 carloads originated. While this loss in- protected against the invasion of decay-pro- cludes container damage it does indicate the ducing organisms ; are resistant to moisture perishability of this vegetable which requires loss, and are largely immune to tissue (sur- top speed in handling and maximum refrigera- face) browning. Fortunately, potato tubers tion in all phases of distribution. Green peas have the ability to produce suberin and wound tend to lose a large part of their sugar content rapidly and hence, their flavor, unless promptly periderm (essentially new skin). Thus skinned cooled to near 32° F. Because of the high and feathered surfaces may be healed if pro- respiration rate of peas, they should be main- vided the proper environment. The optimum tained near 32"° during transit and distribution. temperature range for healing is from 65° to Hydrocooling or vacuum cooling and loading in 75° F. Below 50° healing proceeds slowly, and pre-iced cars is desirable, followed by top icing no measurable protection develops at tempera- plus Standard Refrigeration Service in transit. tures below 40°. High humidity is essential to The most important decays that develop in periderm formation. 42 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Preventing physical ii).juiies by careful han- Late-crop.—These potatoes are harvested at dling from harvesting to the retail outlet is a mature stage in summer and fall, a large very important. Padding over floor racks of percentage being placed in storage. Transit cars is essential to protect the bottom layer of temperatures lower than the 55° to 65=F. rec- potatoes in bags from scuffing and bruising in ommended for early potatoes are not injurious transit {70, 132). With the current availability for fi-eshly hai'vested late potatoes as skm of special per-car freight rates in certain dis- healing is not an impoi'tant factor. During hot tricts, heavier loading is being encouraged. weather, some refrigeration to retard decaj- is With the resulting higher stacking, more essential for freshly harvested potatoes. Spe- weight is imposed on bottom layers of bags, cified refrigeration services are compulsory thus increasing the possibility of physical dam- during the summer and early fall for certain age. However, no information has been re- areas in Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, as ceived that indicates much greater damage shown in the Perishable Protective Tariff under occurs due to the increased weight, even for the Rule 200. The governing dates and refrigera- 50,000-pound load. Care must be taken with tion services applicable thereto are prescribed these high loads not to obstruct the top bunker by the shippers' agencies and are subject to openings which would impair needed air cir- revision each year. As a consequence, such culation. Proper stacking is important to pre- data in table 8 may diflfer somewhat from that vent shifting. Winter shipments must be loaded for the current year. \"entilation service is so as to minimize the danger of even slight usually sufficient during cool fall weather from freezing. most of the late-crop-producing areas. From The principal decay of potatoes in transit is November 16 to but not including March 1, bacterial soft rot {97), which is most prevalent Carriers' Protective Service is compulsory in during warmer weather. Following cool, wet Heater Territory (Part 1). Special Heater growing seasons, late blight may cause decay Protective Service with LF heaters (fig. 6) is in transit. Both are held in check fairly well available for potato shipments originating in at temperatures below 60'F. Special Heater Protective Service Territory, Potatoes may be divided into early crup and and heater thermostats should be set at 40°. late crop. Each requires somewhat different Winter shipments from Maine move under protection in transit. Shippers' Protective Service and it is custom- Early-civp.—These are "new" or "early" ary to set the thermostats on LF heaters at 45° potatoes which are shipped immediately after {101). harvesting and are generally not fully matured. Protection against freezing in transit is the This immaturity results in varying amounts of greatest problem in moving table-stock potatoes skinning or feathering during washing, .sorting, of the late crop to market. Studies are now and sizing ; therefore, conditions in transit being conducted on shipping precut potato seed must be provided for the formation of new skin under appropriate heater service (50). In ad- to minimize the development of decay and sur- dition to adequate transit heater service, it is face bro\\-ning. A moderate temperature of also essential to preheat cars before loading, about 60 F. in transit is desirable for these provide protection during loading with appro- potatoes. This temperature, while slightly be- priate canvas door shields or loading tunnel low the optimum for periderm formation, is (fig. 19) {22), and use proper loading methods effective in preventing development of decay {^6. 56). The "pyramid through load" method, organisms. The desired temperature can be as recommended by the Freight Loading and achieved by modified icing services, or some- Container Bureau of the AAR, is the most satis- times by ventilation service alone {6, 9, 115). factory type of load (fig. 20). No bags are in Properly used, these services will provide the contact with the sidewalls, thus minimizing desired temperatures for healing and reduce chance for freezing in lower layers and side protective service costs as compared with rows. The bottom two or three layers of loads Standard Refrigeration Service. Early-crop containing small-consumer bags should also be potatoes should be loaded so as to permit cool- loaded to avoid contact with the sidewalls as ing of the load. Precooling is not necessary shown in figure 21. Paper may be used on side- unless the potatoes are unusually warm at load- walls to prevent scuffing and chafing of con- ing, and it is not desirable to precool the load sumer-size bags but is of no value as insulation below bb"-" to 60'^'. The recommended refrigei-a- {70). If paper or pads are used on the floor tion services presented in table 8 are based in i-acks, space must be left at the juncture of the part on the loading temperatures of the pota- racks and sidewalls to permit air circulation toes. Ventilation can be used to aid in drying, around the load. Car fans should alwavs be if weather permits. This is particularly true operated. While shipments are under heater of the Floiida ci'op moved during the winter. service, fan operation will prevent cold pockets PROTECTION Oí^ KAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 43

BN-10153 FIGURE 19.—Canvas loading tunnel between car doorway opening and potato storage to prevent loss of temperature during loading. on the floor and overheating in the top of tlie (¿4). However, chipping potatoes coming out load. For Maine potatoes shipped at the end of 50° to 55° storage may be transported at of the storage period in late spring, one rail- the same temperature (50° to 55°). road provides free initial icing- up to 5,000 Consideration is being given by the cai-riers pounds. and carlines, to a special arrangement that will Potatoes for chipping.—Early-crop potatoes permit the use of LF heaters east of St. Louis for chipping require a transit temperature be- and Chicago in shipments of chipping potatoes tween 60- and KP F. While 70° is closer to the originating in Special Heater Protective Serv- desired optimum, the presence of decay may ice Territory. require temperatures nearer 60 . \'entilation service only may be used for such potatoes but Radishes some modified refrigeration service with vents open may be required in hot weather. Early- Desired transit temperature, 32° to 40° F. crop chipping potatoes are less likely to develop Practically all radishes are now topped and decay in transit if shipped unwashed. prepacked in small consumer-size film bags and Late-crop potatoes for chipping i-equire shipped in wirebound crates or baskets. Hy- higher temperature in transit than those for drocooling is recommended, followed by top table stock so that sugar will not accumulate icing of the load. In addition, bunker icing in the potatoes during transit, and recondition- should be used in warm weather. Bunched ing can proceed in potatoes which have been radishes should also be top iced to prevent stored at low temperature. yellowing, wilting, and decay of the tops. Bac- When LF heaters are used for late-crop chip- terial soft rot is the principal decay that may ping potatoes which were stored around 40^" F., occur in transit. Bagged and bunched radishes the heater thermostats should be set at 60° in are both affected by a black spotting of the order to promote some conditioning in transit surface which can be effectively controlled by 44 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

UN 10160 FIGURE 20.—One form of lecommended compact "pyramid" load for 100-lb. bags of potatoes. (Note space between car walls and potatoes.) a temperature of 50' F. or lower (90). An spinach are bacterial soft rot, antiiracnose, open or channel load should be used to permit downy mildew, and leaf spot (i?.j'). Tempera- the top ice to settle down between the con- tures from 32- to 40^ F. should be maintained tainers throughout the load for maximum in transit in order to inhibit these decays, re- refrigeration efficiency. tain good gi-een color and crispness, and control the rate of respiration. Spinach Desired transit temperature, 32° to 40° F. Sweetpotatoes This leafy vegetable has a very high rate of Desired transit temperature, 55"' to 60° F. respiration (table 1). For this reason, the Sweetpotatoes that are to be marketed packing of spinach in fiberboard cartons or promptly should be kept at temperatures above multiwall paper bags has been found unsatis- 55° F. Roots that are to be stored should be factory because of the difficulty in removing cured at 85° with high humidity for about 1 the respiratory heat from these containers in week and storage temperatures then maintained transit. Containers such as crates or baskets Ijetween 55 and 60'. Sweetpotatoes are more that provide more adequate ventilation and are subject to chilling injury than is generally adaptable to package and top icing are usually thought (68). Such injury increases the pos- used and are recommended. While vacuum sibility of decay, reduces culinarv qualitv, and cooling of this commodity might be desirable, impairs apixiarance. Subiecting roots to tem- the general practice is to cool with package ice peratures of 50° or below for only a few days and top ice in conjunction with modified bunker may seriously affect their storage life. The icing. chilling injury often does not become evident The more important diseases that affect immediately after exposure to low tempera- PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 45

BN-10154 FIGURE 21.—Method of loading bottom ayers of bagged potatoes away fi'om car sidewalls to minimize danger of freezing damage. tures but may become apparent 2 or 3 weeks 7a), and althuugli tomatoes may escape damage later. Principal transit decays are Rhizopus rot from a period of low field or transit tempera- and black rot (9:1). tures alone, they may be seriously damaged if Proper transit temperatures can usually be one exposure follows the other; and (3) expo- obtained by Special Ventilation Service, closing sure to low temperatures short of serious injury vents below 55'' F. and opening them above 55". may cause numerous dark skin blemishes that Shipments to northern markets in winter detract from the appearance of the fruit. months should be protected by Special Ventila- Chilling injury ordinarily cannot be detected tion in conjunction with heater service. at the time the tomatoes are unloaded from the cars. Tomatoes (mature-green) Most of the decay of tomatoes injured by low Desii-ed transit temperature, 55° to 65° F. temperatures is caused by a fungus, Alternaria sp. {77, 96), which ordinarily will not attack Tomatoes are subject to chilling injury. Best tomatoes that have been kept at moderate tem- results are obtained when mature-green toma- ¡îeratures. The influence of temperature on toes are kept between 55° and 65° F. (1, 76, the susceptibility of mature-green tomatoes to 126). Although tomatoes which have had no this rot is shown in figure 22. field chilling can withstand low, but not freez- Excessive field heat should be removed ing, temperatures for a few days without be- quickly, but additional refrigeration should be coming seriously injured, it is not advisable for used sparingly and in line with calculated the fruit temperatures to be lower than 50° needs. A schedule of modified icing services during transit (77). This precaution is taken for mature-green tomatoes, based on their load- for several reasons: (1) transit temperatures ing temperature, appears in tables 8 and 9 (see below 50° retard ripening even after the toma- also 7, 11, 12, 57, 8Í). These services are- toes are placed at favoral)le ripening tempera- ])redicated on the use of fan cars, with the fans tures; (2) chilling injury is cumulative (75, in operation from origin to destination and 46 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE needed to remove excessive field heat from such tomatoes. The desired temperature to which they should be precooled depends on the stage of color development and the distance to mar- ket. In a 3- to 4-day transit period, fruits showing less than Vs color at harvest need not be precooled below 60° F. providing the transit 70 temperature is held around 45'-' to 50°. Toma- toes harvested with more than Vis color should be precooled to 50° and transported at 50°, if transit ripening is to be held to 50 to 70 percent color during a period of 4 days {76). Recom- mended modified icing services for pink toma- 60 toes, based on the use of fan cars, are presented in table 8. The thermostat on LF heaters should be set at 47V2° and car vents kept closed during heater service.

Frozen fruits and vegetables Desired temperature. OF. and lower. 55° The inherent quality of frozen fruits and vegetables is dependent on prompt freezing to the recommended temperature and then main- taining this temperature eoniinuouisJy until the 50 product is used by the consumer. This recjuires the most careful handling at all points in the chain of distribution : packing, transportation, subsequent storage, wholesaler, retailer and consumer {12Jf). Unless temperatures no high- er than 0- F. are maintained constantly, origi- BN-10155 nal quality is afi'ected. Studies by the United FiGl'RE 22.—Influence of tempeiature on susceptibility States Department of Agriculture have shown of mature-green tomatoes to alternaria rot. Fruits that quality lost by exposure to temperatures shown were inoculated and held at indicated tempera- above the optimum cannot be recovered (2). tures for 14 days and then held 14 days longer at 60°F. This quality loss accumulates or increases dur- ing each intei-val that the temperature is above the optimum. In other words, recooling a vents kept closed after icing. At certain times frozen product to zero or lower does not correct of the year when outside temperatures are cool, previous temperature damage or restore the Standard Ventilation will suffice. If shipments original quality. As a result of studies of this from Florida encountei- cold weather, heater nature, the National Association of Frozen service with LF heaters will be necessary under Food Packers has recommended that all frozen Shippers' Specified Service (Rule 520). On products be transported no higher than 0°. late fall shipments from California and winter Every precaution should be taken in loading shipments from Texas and Mexico, Special and unloading frozen commodities to prevent Heater Protective Service with LF heaters any rise in temperature. Cars should be (Rule 580) mav be used, followed by Shippers' thoroughly precooled to zero before loading if Specified Service with LF heaters (Rule 514) if possible. All loading and unloading should be so reciuired, upon entry into the territory ap- done inside the cold storage warehouse, or suit- plying to each rule. The thermostat on LF able loading tunnels or door shields should be heaters should be set at 50"" F. and car vents jirovided. If there is any delay, car doors kept closed during heater service. should be closed and the mechanical refrigera- tion unit operated during the interim. Most Tomatoes (pink) frozen foods moved by rail are now shipped in mechanically refrigerated cars in which the Desired transit temperature, 45" to 50° F. thermostat is set at zero. Tomatoes picked after some color has devel- Heavily insulated, iced cars (either end oped are usually referred to as "pink" tomatoes Inniker or overhead bunker types) are used to but they are sometimes erroneously termed a limited extent for frozen foods, moving under "vine ripened" tomatoes. Precooling is usually Standard Refrigeration Service plus 30 percent PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 47 salt. The cars should be pre-iced from 24 to 86 of a nuinbei' of packages should be checked by hours before loading- in order to become means of a reliable hand or insert thei'mometer thoroughly precooled. They should have 6 during loading (Jl). Air circulation ai'ound inches or more of insulation and be in good con- tlie load is necessary to prevent the heat pass- dition. End-bunker iced cars should be equipped ing through car wails fi'om i-aising commodity with built-in fans in good working order. The tempt«atures during transit. Wall flues oi- I'acks commodity tempei'ature in storage before load- should be provided and car fans kept in opera- ing should be at oi' below 0 ' F. Temperature tion to insure forced-air movement.

METHODS OF CONTROLLING TRANSIT ENVIRONMENT The necessity for providing favorable en- Ice.—When water freezes to ice at 32' F., a vironments for fruits and vegetables after har- consideral)le amount of heat must be removed vest has been explained. This section desci'ibes to change it from the liquid to the solid stage. the available methods of heating and cooling This heat is called "latent" heat because it is that can be used to obtain these conditions in not felt or apparent as the temperature remains transit. Some of the basic principles of heat at 32° during this change. A total of 144 B.t.u. transfer are discussed in the following para- must be removed to freeze 1 pound of water graphs to provide shippers with a better under- and the same amount must be added to melt 1 standing of the subject. pound of ice. Therefore, 144 B.t.u. must be absorbed from surrounding air and objects for Refrigeration Principles every pound of ice melted. This is why ice is such a good source of refrigeration for many Definition uses above 32\ The standard ton of refrigera- tion represents the amount of heat required to What IS refrigeration? It is the process of melt 1 ton of ice in 1 day and is 288,000 B.t.u. removing heat from a substance, or of lowering- (144 B.t.u. 2,000 lb.) or 12,000 B.t.u. per its tempei'ature and maintaining it at a desired hour. Although ice freezes (and melts) at 32"^ level. What, then, is heat—or cold? Heat is a its temperature can get much lower while it is form of energy- that is possessed by all matter. being made or while it is stored at low tempera- Its level is measured by temperature. Cold is tures. If abnormally cold ice is placed in merely an expression of a relatively low level of packages or used as top ice, it may cause freez- heat and has no real substance. Therefore, we ing damage when it comes in contact with pro- cool an object by removing heat from it, not by duce, especially the leafy vegetables. pumping "cold" into it. Heat always flows naturally from a warmer to a cooler body. For Ice and salt.—Since most of the heat-absorb- instance, when you place your hand near or on ing ability of ice occurs at 32 - F., we must add a cold object it feels as if cold was coming- from salt to the ice if we want lower temperatures the object. Actually, what is felt is heat leaving or a more rapid cooling rate. When salt is the hand. When ice is placed in water, the added to ice, it causes the ice to melt faster. water is cooled because the ice alDsorbs heat This means it absorbs heat faster from its sur- from the water. Heat is measurable and can be roundings than normally, resulting in faster added to or removed from a body to laise or cooling and a lower ultimate temperature than lower its temperature. It is commonly measured can be obtained from ice alone. In addition, the in British thermal units (B.t.u.). One B.t.u. is salt lowers the freezing point of the water defined as the quantity of heat required to raise melted from the ice, and the resulting brine the temperature of 1 pound of water 1^ F. The temperature is below 32°. The lowest theoreti- ratio of heat required to raise the temperature cal temperature of ice, salt, and brine that can of a given weight of any other material (such be obtained is —6°, but because it is not pos- as fruits and vegetables) to that required to sible to obtain a perfect mixture of ice and salt cause an equivalent rise in the same weight of in practice, +.5° is about the lowest tempera- water is called its specific heat. This is dis- ture obtainable. This is obtained when the cussed under refrigeration-load calculations. amount of salt added is 30 percent, by weight, of the ice. Lesser amounts of salt give corres- pondingly higher temperatures. Proper mixing Sources of refrigeration of the salt with the ice is necessary to get To provide the necessary means for absorb- maximum refrigeration. ing heat from the commodities to be cooled we Carbon dioxide (dry ice;.—Solid carbon use ice, ice and salt, solid carbon dioxide (dry dioxide has a very low temperature (—109°F.) ice), evaporation, mechanical refrigeration, which is most suitable for frozen foods. Unless and cold outside air (ventilation). used in specially designed bunkers or other con- 48 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195. U. S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE tainers, its cost is excessive. It is unusual in temperatures of zero and below in transit. that it does not melt but passes directly from However, mechanically equipped cars designed the solid to the gaseous state. The latent heat to operate at a wide range of temperatures required for this change of state is approxi- with thermostatic control are now in service mately 260 B.t.u. per pound or somewhat less for nonfrozen commodities including fresh than twice that of water ice. In shipments of produce as well as frozen foods (A). some highly perishable fruits, such as straw- berries and cherries, dry ice is placed in the loading space or in car bunkers with the water The heat load ice to build up a concentration of CO; gas in the Now that we have briefly discussed the car as a deterrent to spoilage and ripening in source of refrigeration available for cooling, let transit. us determine the heat to be removed. The heat Mechanical réfrigération.—This may be de- load is composed of (1) sensible or field heat scribed as a mechanical heat pump in which the of the commodity, packages, and car structure, heat is picked up in the space to be cooled by (2) the heat of respiration of the commodity, the refrigerant in the cooling coils or evapora- (3) heat leakage into the refrigerator car dur- tor. It is then pumped outside by means of the ing transit, and (4) heat generated by the compressor, to the condenser where it is dis- operation of car fans. sipated to the outside air or cooling water. The Field heat (Hg) is that which must be re- capacity of the system depends on the size of moved to lower the temperature from that at the compressor (how much it can pump), the loading to the desired transit temperature. It size of the cooling coils (how much heat they involves the specific heats (Sp.ht.) of product can absorb), and the size of the condenser (how and containers (see table 6), the w'eight of much heat it can give up to the outside air or product and containers, and the temperature cooling water). When mechanical refrigeration difference (TD). was first developed it was natural to compare its cooling effect with that of ice. Hence, if a Hs = Sp.ht. X weight X TD = B.t.u. system could absorb as much heat in 1 day as a Car body heat is the heat (He) to be re- ton of ice (288,000 B.t.u.) it was said to have a moved from the walls, floor, ceiling, and insula- capacity of 1 ton. This expression is still used tion to cool the interior of the car. As a rough generally in rating refrigerating machines, but estimate for the average 40-foot refrigerator is usually expressed in B.t.u. per hour (12,000 car, the total weight of car-body items to be for 1 ton). Because mechanical units in refrig- cooled may be assumed as 8,800 pounds with a erator cars can easily produce temperatures specific heat of 0.40 B.t.u./lb. well below the freezing point, they have been used primarily for frozen foods which require He = 8,800 X 0.40 X TD = B.t.u.

TABLE 6.—Specific heat above freezing of certain fruits and vegetables^

Fresh fruit Specific heat Fresh vegetables Specific heat

B.t.u./lb. B.l.u./lb. Apples 0.87 Asparagus 0.94 Apricots .88 Beans, snap .91 Avocados .72 Beets (roots) .90 Bananas .80 Broccoli (sprouting) .92 Cherries, sweet .87 Cabbage, late .94 Citrus: Carrots (roots) .90 Grapefruit .91 Cauliflower .93 Lemons .92 Celery .9.5 Limes .89 Corn, sweet .79 Oranges .90 Cucumbers .97 Tangerines .90 Endive and escarole .94 Cranberries .90 Lettuce .96 Dates, dried .36 Melons .94 Figs, fresh .82 Onions, dry .90 Grapes .86 Peas, green .79 Peaches .90 Peppers, sweet .94 Pears .86 Potatoes .82 Pineapples, ripe Radishes .95 Plums (fresh prunes) Spinach .94 Strawberries .92 Sweetpotatoes .75 Tomatoes .95

'Amer. Soc. Eefrig. Engin., Refrig. Appl. Data Book, chap. 23. 1959. PROTECTION OF KAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 49

Heat of respiration (Hu) is determined from speed of 35 m.p.h. At this speed, fan heat out- table 1 which gives the amount evolved per ton put is around 2,000 B.t.u. per hour per car in 24 hours at different temperatures (oO). (Ht-r). The amount of heat produced in transit in- Hpp = 5,000 X precooling time (hr.) .B.t.u. volves two time periods, one covering- the initial xj r, nn cooling period, and the other the balance of the HPT = 2,O00X.60 (%) Xtransit time (hr.) transit period after the temperature has stabi- = B.t.u. lized. In calculating the heat evolved by respi- Heat hud during precooling (H,.) can be ration, the average temperature for each of shown as follows ■ these periods is used. The time involved in the H„ = H, (field'heat) + H.P (respiration) first period wil vary depending on Nvhether +HO (car structure)+H„ (fans) cooling IS done before shipment or m transit. u ^ , . / ^ tp v^«"^/ Precooling in the car (before shipment) may . ^^^^^^ ^0"^d dunng transit aiter initia] cooling require from 6 to 20 hours, while cooling in indufies somewhat difl'erent sources : transit may take from 1 to 3 days. Total heat HT = HRT + HI, (leakage) +HFT (fan) of respiration in car equals H«, + HHT- These heat loads are all in B.t.u. For the ice HRP^ Respiration rate (at average temperature requirement in pounds, divide by 144. during initial cooling) ' time ■ Wt. (tons) :-B.t.u. Heat transfer HRT = Respiration rate (at average transit tern- So far, we have been discussing the heat that perature after cooling) x No. of ^"^*^ ?^ removed by a source of refrigeration. davs Wt. (tons) = B.t.u. f^^^^' ^^ this heat transferred from the warm „ . , , ' ,TT , . ,, , ^ ^, ^ '^^"i t^ the refrigerating surface? Heat can Heat leakage (Hj is the heat that passes move directlv from a warm to a cold body by through the car structure. It varies with the radiation, bv direct contact (conduction) or by amount and condition of insulation and air means of an intermediate medium such as air leakage into the car. as well as the difference (convection). Radiation of heat is not an im- between temperatures inside and outside the portant means of cooling in refrigerator cars car. During short precooling periods the heat Cooling bv direct contact (conduction) is ac- leakage is generally not great enough to be complished when top or packao-e ice is used or included m calculations. The rate of heat flow when cold water is used for hvdrocooli'ng through the walls is called the "conductance" Cooling a load in a car is usuallv "done bv air (C), and IS expressed in B.t.u. per degree tem- which moves either by natural convection'or is perature difference per hour. For rough calcu- forced bv fans. The rate of heat transfer lations, the following conductances for the (cooling) is speeded up considerablv bv forced average 40-foot refrigerator car with 1,430 circulation of the air with fans or moving larw square feet of surface area were determined volumes of ice water by means of pumps HiSi from tests conducted by the Association of velocity of air is also desirable for the ranid American Railroads (108) : transfer of heat from the commodity to the Insulation thickness Conductance COOHllg mcdlum. Tllis IS whv COOlincr ic mnvo I'lt'' ^''¡o^,''-' 1-apid and temperatures more unifoîm Tn^ars 4-414 _'"_ -I"" "!"""_ liT^o ^^'ith fans operatmg than in cars without fans 5-6 98..5 (69. SO). 6-7 90.0 To calculate heat leakage (H^) in transit. Sample Refrigeration Load Calculations HL==CXTD/ time (hr.) =B.t.u. ^, u'^^ü"^' *^^^í '^ ^^^' ^^ l^^^^cd with oranges in %-bushel wirebound crates: Car fans generate a certain amount of heat Load = 1 056 ci-ates (Hp) when operating. This heat should be Net Wt. fruit = 45 0 lb per crate considered when calculating the refrigeration =47 600 lb total load. During precooling, car fans or portable Net Wt. crates = 3..5 lb each precooling fans move approximately the same =3 700 lb total volume of air as the car fan output at 50 m.p.h. Sp.ht. fruit = 0.90 B tu /lb /°F car speed, with a heat input of approximately Sp.lit. crates = 0.40 B t u /lb/°F' 5,000 B.t.u. per hour (HFP). During transit, Initial temp. (T,)=8b° ' " "^ "^ ' fans operate only when the car is moving, so it Final temp. (To) =50° is necessary to estimate what percentage of the TD = Ti—T- = 80 50 time a car is moving and its average speed dur- =30° ing the transit period. Assume that the car is Car conductance (4 to moving 60 percent of the time at an average 41/0 in. insulation) = 117.0 B.t.u./°F/hr 50 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

1. For precooling- in 8 hours: Heat of respiration at 50° = 2,600 B.t.u., ton day Field heat (Hs)-^VVt. > Sp.ht.

Av. temp. dui-iiiK remaining 2 davs in transit = frigeration capacity required can readily be calculated by dividing the heat load in the Av. respiration rate at 50''= 2,600 B.t.u.'ton ' above problem by the time. In the example, the dav total heat to be removed in 8 hours of precool- HR (3 davs cooling) =4,000x3x23.8 = 285,600 ing is 1,506,997 B.t.u. This is 188,375 B.t.u. B.t.u. per hour. Dividing this by 12,000 shows that HR (last 2 davs) ^2,600x2x23.8 = 123,760 a capacity of about 15 tons would be needed at B.t.u. the temperatures stated in the problem. Total lieat of respiration: 285,600 + 123,760 = A question that has been asked many times 409,360 B.t.u. is, "How much cooling can I expect from a ton Ice requirement : 2,843 lb. of ice?" Using the figures from the sample Heat hakage (HL) =Conductance - TD ; hours calculation, this is simple to determine. In the Av. TD during 3 davs at 65°= 10° equation H = Wt. X Sp.ht. xTD, we find that HL=117X10 72 TD -- H/ (Wt. - Sp.ht. ). The amount of refrig- = 84,240 B.t.u. eration available for cooling from 1 ton of ice is Av. TD during- 2 davs at 50° = 25° 288,000 B.t.u. For the given load then the tem- H, -117x25x48 1 .• ^ .. 288,000 perature reduction expected = = = 140,400 B.t.u. 1056x45 .90 Total heat leakage: 84,240 + 140,400 = 224,640 6.73 or roughly 7 degrees. This, of course, does B.t.u. not take into consideration the car body heat, Ice requirement : 1,560 1b. heat of respiration of the product, and heat Fan heat (HF) =2,000 ■ hr. in transit; ; ^c car leakage from the outside which will compete fan operation for the refrigeration available from the ton of = 2,000 120 .60 ice. Therefore, the actual temjjerature reduc- = 144,000 B.t.u. tion of the commodity will be somewhat less. Ice requirement : 1,000 lb. Precooling tests on carloads of grapes and Total transit refrigeration load : cantaloups indicated that only about 70 percent Hs-1,329,600 B.t.u. of the theoretical amount of cooling could be Hc= 105,600 attained, because of loss of refrigeration. As HR= 409,360 the sensible heat of the fruit represents around HL= 224,640 90 percent of the total heat, it is reasonable to Hr= 114,000 assume that the actual temperature reduction Hs+ H,- + HR will be about 90 percent of 6.73 or 6 degi'ees, if + HL + HF = 2,213,200 B.t.u. no losses occur. Products with a lower specific heat such as sweet corn (0.79) have a lower Total ice requirement: 9,233 + 733 + 2,843 + heat content so that a little more cooling could 1,560-1,000 = 15,369 lb. be expected. As a rule of thumb then, we can Following is a comparison of refrigeration say that 1 ton of ice, under conditions of no requirements of the precooled and nonprecooled refrigeration loss, will cool 24 tons of fruit 6 cars : degrees. It should be remembered that time is Precooled rar Nonprecooled car not involved in this calculation. The time re- Heat load (lb. ice) fib. ice) quired to do this cooling will depend on the Field heat 9,233 9,2.33 Heat of respiration 2,370 2,843 method of precooling used. Car bodv heat 733 733 Heat leakage 2,437 1,560 Car fans 1,278 1,000 Precooling Methods Total 10,0.51 1.5,36!) Precooling is the rapid cooling of a com- lb. (8.00 lb. (7.68 modity to a suitable transit or storage tempera- tons) tons) ture soon after harvest, befoi'e it is stored or These calculated totals indicate a slightly moved in transit. Precooling is accomplished greater ice requirement for the car precooled before or after packaging; by holding in stor- before moving in transit. This is due to the age, special cooling rooms, or tunnels before increased heat leakage in the precooled car be- loading or by cooling in the car after loading. cause of a greater temperature difference be- Types of precooling include hydrocooling, tween the inside and outside of the car for the vacuum cooling, room cooling, tunnel cooling, entire period of 5 days. cooling in car with mechanical device, or the These calculations are presented only to give use of package and top ice (98, 99). Adequate the reader some understanding of refrigeration precooling reduces the transit refrigeration re- requirements and some of the factors which quirements and helps to maintain more uni- contribute to ice meltage. The mechanical re- form temperatures (fig. 23). 52 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

/TOF k. • N \ 6 0! -ÑON- •PREC OOLE D V,

^^^ 50 \ ^ ^^ \ y 'PREC GÓLE D TO 3Q F \ 40 / / N i'^. V -PREC ooLir JG I TRAN SIT PE RIOD PER OD 30 F

I 23456769 10 TEST PERIOD - DAYS AMS Neg. 8153-60(10) FIGURE 23.—Adequate precooling results in lower transit temperatures. Two cars of warm pears shipped under Standard Refrigeration Service (one precooled in car, the other nonprecooled) and scheduled for storage at terminal market.

Hydrocooling is accomplished by flooding, temperature. The water can be kept sanitary spraying, or submerging tlie commodity in cold by the use of bactéricides which are made avail- water (fig. 24). Refrigeration is supplied by able by the manufacturers. Research on the means of ice or mechanical refrigeration. use of fungicides in the cooling water is being Usually the product is packed in conventional carried on ; some fungicides are being used in wooden containers before hydrocooling and the citrus hydrocooling. containers are lidded after passage through the Vacuum cooling, a relatively new method of hydrocooler. The increasing use of fiberboard rapid cooling, is particularly adapted to the boxes or cartons has resulted in considerable leafy vegetable {26). Celery and sweet corn research to develop a waterproof fiberboard are also being cooled by this process although that will stand up during hydrocooling and in more time is usually required than for leafy transit after wetting. Bulk hydrocooling (be- products such as lettuce or spinach. The rapid fore packaging) of certain commodities is now cooling obtained with vacuum and the elimina- being done in several States. The time re- tion of package and top ice has resulted in the quired to obtain the desired temperature in a wide adoption of fiberboard cartons for certain hydrocooler depends on the physical character- products, notably lettuce. istics of the commodity, the amount of heat to Vacuum cooling is based on a simple princi- be removed, the type of container, and the ple. The commodity to be cooled is placed in a volume, velocity, and temperature of the water steel chamber or tube that can be tightlv sealed (129). (fig. 25) and a high vacuum is drawn.' Water Water temperature should be kept as close to evaporates rapidly from the commodity under 32° F. as possible for maximum cooling rate. these conditions provided the resulting vapor The performance of the hydrocooler should be is condensed or exhausted from the system. watched closely by frequent checks on fruit The commodity is cooled by this evaporation at PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OP FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 53

BN-10156 FIGURE 24.—Packed peaches movinp thioug-h hydrocooler.

a rate oí around 1,060 B.t.u. removed per pound The film must be perforated to allow moisture of water lost. Since the boiling point of water to be removed from the container. The use of drops under reduced pressure, the pressure in vacuum cooling and fiberboard cartons has the tubes is held close to 4.6 mm. or .18 inch of made field i)acking possible with some commo- Hg. At this point water boils at 32- F.; thus dities, thereby reducing costs as compared with a high rate of cooling is accomplished without former shed operations. Because of the high danger of freezing the commodity. initial and operating costs and the complexity The i-ate of cooling under vacuum depends of the equipment, permanent vacuum installa- upon the ratio of surface to volume or mass of tions are limited to large-volume business in the commodity and the ease with which water central locations. However, practical portable can he I'emoved from the tissues. Thus leafy vacuum cooling units have been developed, vegetables cool much faster and to a lower which have extended use of the process to many temperature in practice than, for example, areas of limited production (99). cantaloups or potatoes. While this process Room cooling probably provides the most necessarily remo\'es some water from the prod- thorough precooling whore refrigeration facil- uct, the moisture loss is not high enough to ities are available in the packing area {120). impair quality in the commodities now being Disadvantages are the slow cooling rate and commercially vacuum cooled. Cooling is con- the extra handling involved. However, it pro- tinued to the desired temperature by further vides for the accumulation of wanted sizes and reducing the air pressure. Evacuation of the grades of commodities and permits holding chamber and cooling of the product require them for market for short periods if necessary. about 3<' minutes for leafy vegetables. One of Refrigeration is supplied by mechanical units the advantages of the vacuum process is that or by ice bunkers. Rapid cooling is dependent cooling proceeds uniformly throughout the on adequate volume and velocity of air, as pro- produce in standard containers and conven- vided by portable or built-in fans. Containers tional load patterns. Studies have shown that must be stacked properly to permit maximum impermeable materials, such as film liners in air flow around or through them for rapid lettuce cartons, greatly reduce the cooling rate. cooling (120). Cars can generally be loaded 54 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

I;N- 10157 FIGURE 25.—Carload uf lettuce moving into vacuum cooler.

more advantageously from a precooling room complished through (1) utilizing the bunker than from the packing line. Gases for decay ice by operating either car fans or portable control may be applied in storage and cooling- precooling fans, or both, (2) using mechanical rooms if means are provided for exliavisting or precooling units mounted along the tracks or washing the gas from the air after each expo- on trucks, (.j) using top ice on the load with or sure period. without package ice, and (4) circulating cold A new method of room cooling now being air from a storage-plant cooling system into tried with fruit is forced-air cooling. The con- the car. tainers are tightly stacked in rows to prevent Car fans are operated by portable precooling air passing between the containers. The air motors (electric or internal combustion) at- is forced through the fruit because a pressure tached to special fittings on the car as shown in differential is developed between the two sides figure 4 (70.;). Portable precooling fans are of the containers. Very favorable cooling rates mounted at the top bunkei- openings in both have been obtained by this method in California nonfan and floor-fan cars, or over the center with packs and containers which permit free fan in electric fan cars. To increase cooling passage of air (■J2, ■].), Ji). It has also been rates the car fans and portable fans can be li'ied in car cooling with some success. operated simultaneously (fig. 26) (100). In Tunnel coolers in which produce is moved electric fan cars the canvas baffles of the port- beneath high-velocity jets of cold air are used able fans should not cover the two outside or to a limited extent in California. The produce corner car fans, as a greater volume and move- may move directly from the tunnel into cai-s or ment of air is obtained with these fans it may be placed in storage rooms for holding uncovered. or further cooling. This method requires a In all types of air cooling, high air velocity is number of high-speed lans which use consider- necessary, not only to quickly carrv the lieat able power (81). from the load to the ice or cooling coils, but to Cai precooliny, or cooling in the car after provide good air distribution through the load. the warm commodity has been loaded, is ac- Because of the great refrigerating capacity of r PKOTKCTION OF KAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 55

liN~101.")8 FiciRE 211.—Recommended method of installing portable precooling fans for operation in conjunction with electric car fans. Corner car fans should be left uncovered.

ice, especiall.v with air movement over its sur- cooling of the product will occur during load- faces, the cooling rate is determined largely by ing. It is desirable that the ice bunkers be re- the velocity and distribution of the air. With plenished to capacity before the precooling fans the use of fiberboard cartons thei'e has been are started. In pre-iced cars the old ice should considerable difficulty in precooling because of be barred do\\-n before replenishing and all the usual solid load pattern, inadequate ventila- voids eliminated so that the maximum amount tion of the cartons, and the natural insulating of ice can be placed in the bunkers. For most characteristics of the fiberboard which i-educes commodities, it is necessary to add salt to the heat flow from the product. ]\Iany studies are ice before the start of precooling. At least 400 being conducted to develop adequate ventilation pounds per car should be supphed during the in fiberboard cartons and improved load pat- re-icing and worked in well with the ice. Ad- terns that will permit better air circulation to ditional salt should be added during the pre- all containers in the load (J^1, H2). As the cooling of warm loads. The ice should not be rate of cooling depends largely on the amount allowed to become lower than the half-way level of surface of the carton exposed to air move- in the bunkers during precooling and the ment, it is important to open the load as much bunkers should be refilled to capacity before the as possible. A step in this direction is the car is released for transit, or the car should be chimney method of loading (fig. 27). However, re-iced at the first icing station if it is close to this method exposes only a limited surface to the loading point. The shipper or precooling air movement and is not as efficient as the operator should take temperatui-es of the com- bonded block method (fig. 15 on page 28). modity in a number of places in the car with Cars should be pre-iced when used for pre- accurate insert thermometers, to determine cooling, as much of the heat stored in the car what amount of cooling was done. A single superstructure will thus be removed, and some temperature taken in a container at the door- 56 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 27.—One manner of providing openings in a carton load (chimney method). However, note the small areas of carton surfaces exposed to the circulating air in the chimneys. BN-10159 FIGURE 28.—Precooling car with truck-mounted, me- way will not represent the average load tem- chanical refrigerating- unit. perature. In many cases, not enough time is allowed for thorough precooling due to lateness in loading, or short circuit other parts of the load. The early pickup by the railroad, and the desire to bunker top openings and car fan openings get a car rolling to mai'ket as soon as possible. shoukl be covered to prevent the air from by- Thorough precooling will provide lower average passing the load. transit temperature and better product condi- Warm produce loaded in a mechanical car is tion at destination. cooled by the car's refrigeration unit. It is not I\Iany of the above suggestions apply to me- necessary to hold mechanical cars at the load- chanical precooling units as well. It is impor- ing station for precooling as required when tant to pre-ice the cars, to provide an open load auxiliary precooling equipment is used in regu- pattern for maximum contact of cold air with lar ice-bunker cars (4). One of the advantages the commodity, and, above all, to allow suffi- of the mechanical car is that cooling begins im- cient time for precooling. Truck-mounted pre- mediately after the doors are closed on com- cooling units (fig. 28) may be used in certain pletion of loading, and continues uninter- areas where electric power is not available to ruptedly whether or not the car is moving. operate car and portable fans. This is true However, most of the mechanical cars now in when limited track space is available at the service are designed primarily to maintain de- loading shed and loaded cars must be moved sired temperatures in transit, rather than to away to provide space for incoming empty cars. precool rapidly at origin. The additional ca- Precooling unit operators should keep a close pacity and higher air velocities that would be check on air blast and return air temperatures required for rapid cooling of warm loads would and promptly defrost the cooling coils when re- increase equipment cost considerably. quired. Care must also be taken in adjusting Most of the present mechanical equipment the canvas baffle placed on top of the load at the will reduce commodity temperature to 40-50^ doorway, so that the cooling air does not bypass F. m 18 to 24 hours, which is satisfactorv for PROTECTION OF KAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 57 many of the less perishable fruits and vege- nished to citrus shippers for about $8 per car. tables. Some mechanical cars have been de- The cars are moved to these plants from the signed for rapid cooling. More attention is loading stations and cold air is forced through being directed to this factor in the general the cars by the use of ducts connected to the service cars now being built. The use of stated bunker hatch openings. amounts of body ice in these cars for precooling or as an aid to cooling in transit has been authorized for melons and vegetables in some Transit Refrigeration areas. However, this applies only to the rela- The refrigeration service required in transit tively few mechanical cars equipped with floor depends on (1) commodity characteristics, (2) racks and suitable drains for disposal of water seasonal temperatures, (3) load temperature from the melting ice. (whether precooled or not), (4) load pattern, Crushed ice placed in the container as it is (5) type of container, (6) I'outing, and (7) packed is an excellent means of rapid cooling, destination. Basically, the commodity will dic- but with many commodities, it is being sup- tate the overall transit environment required. planted to a large extent by hydrocooling and These may be grouped as follows: minimum vacuum cooling. Snow ice, blown into the car refrigeration (50° to 65° F., for such items as to cover the top of the load and fill channels in bananas, lemons, mature-green tomatoes) ; the load, is also effective in precooling leafy average refrigeration (38° to 50°, for oranges, vegetables, cantaloups, and similar perishable peaches, grapefruit) ; maximum refrigeration products (72). The water from the melting (32° to 37°, for sweet corn, strawberries, ice moves down through the load and maintains grapes, asparagus, cheiTies) ; frozen foods (0° the desirable high humidity. For precooling and below). some fruits and vegetables, cantaloups for in- Outside air temperatures en route are a pri- stance, portable precooling fans or car fans are mary influence on inside car temperatures in used to accelerate meltage of the ice and cool transit. The refrigeration service must be ad- the load before transit movement (So). By justed to seasonal variations. If a load has been melting all of the top ice before transit, the thoroughly precooled either before or after shipper is relieved from the payment of certain loading, less refrigeration in transit is neces- charges ordinarily assessed by the railroads on sary to maintain desired temperatui'es. Re- cars which are forwarded with ice remaining frigeration costs may be reduced by the use of on the load. such services as half-stage (fig. 29) or modified Some western railroads have established pre- icing services in fan cars (described in follow- cooling plants for rapid cooling of loaded cars ing sections). Moderately warm loads moving at cei'tain origin points. This service is fur- in fan cars mav be cooled in transit nearly as

ii. 50

ÜJ 45 (T FULL BUNKER ICING 3 h- < 40 a: UJ a. 35 HALF - STAGE ICING

LiJ 30 LOADING 23456789

DAYS IN TRANSIT AMS Neg. 8134-60(10) FIGURE 29.—Transit temperatures of room-precooled California grapes shipped m fan cars under full bunker and half-stage Standard Refrigeration Service. 58 AGRICULTURE HANÜBUUK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

effectively with half-stage as with full bunker railroad representative or by means of trade refrigeration as shown in hgure 30. Shipments publications. It is again emphasized that car moving to northern destinations over relatively fans should always be placed in the "ON" posi- cool i-outes will require less refrigeration than tion regardless of the pi-otective sei-vice used, those going to warmer southern areas. in order to obtain uniform tempei-atures and The means for obtaining specific transit tem- faster cooling. peratures are provided under the regulations of In mechanical cars, tempei-ature is controlled the Perishable Protective Tariff. These include by the thermostat setting. Suggested tempera- such varied refrigeration services as certain tures for various commodities shipped in these amounts of ice specified by the shipper; initial cars may be found in table 4, ]3age 25. ice with no re-icing in transit; initial ice plus one, two, or three re-icings; or Standard Re- Ventilation frigeration Service in which tlie bunkei-s are Many times duiing the year the temperature re-iced to capacity about once a day en route. of the outside air is below that desired for the Varying amounts of salt may l^e added if de- commodity. Within certain limitations, outside sired in very hot weather; also different quan- air may then be used to cool the load by opening tities of top ice may be placed on tlie load, with the ventilators of refrigerator cars and circu- or without bunker ice. The icing services lating the cool air through the load. The recommended for fruits and vegetables are pre- amount of cooling desired is obtained by sented in detail in tables 7, 8, and 9. manipulating the vents at different outside air It is important that full advantage be taken temperatures and at certain regularly assigned of the protective services provided in the inspection points as specified by the shipper Perishable Protective Tariff, not only for (fig. 31). Commodities may not only be cooled proper protection of the commodity but to re- or warmed, but some that are wa.shed just be- duce the cost of the service. Oven-efrigeration fore loading, such as potatoes, may have much may not only damage the lading l)ut result in of the surplus moisture removed in transit by unnecessary costs to the shipper. In certain proper venting. No charge is made by the instances, a railroad may offer a quantity of carriers for this service but the waybills must free ice for a certain commodity at a specified carry full instructions as authorized in the time of the year. The shipper should keep in- Protective Tariff from the shipper covering the formed of such offers by contact with his local class of ventilation desired.

WARM FLORIDA ORANGES AVERAGE TOP DOORWAY TEMPERATURES FAN CARS STANDARD REFRIGERATION FULL BUNKER VERSUS HALF STAGE 80

■^^^-^^-^ APRIL, MAY ^s MARCH, ^ 70'

UJ cr 3 \ ( S < 6Ü cr UJ Q. ^____^ HALF STAGE LLI 50' FULL BUr Pt^^fL^ "^"""-^ ) o_——n}

40 LOADING 1 ^ :< 4 ; ■ DAY DAYS AFTER LOADING

.\MS Nepr, 813:,-fi0(10) FIGURE .30.—Transit temperatures of warm Florida oranges shipped under full bunker and half-stag-e Standard Refrigeration Service. PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 59

0

UJ Q: D < cr. hi ÛL

NOV. 29 30 DEC. I 8 9 10 II .\MS Nee. >il.5

Protective Service Against Cold and vegetables originating at stations outside of Heater Territory, Part 1. During winter months, cars moving through An apparent lack of knowledge on the part low outside temperatures may be heated to pre- of some shippers of the need for and the avail- vent losses from freezing. The railroads pro- ability of heater service, together with the vide heater service with portable heaters under shipper's desire to keep transportation costs as the Perishable Protective Tariff in "Heater low as possible, results in heavy losses from Territories" designated therein (figs. 32 and freezing damage each year. Losses are greatest 33), which cover roughly the northern half of in commodities that are normally moved at the United States {'>1, ■',.:). The service is temperatures near their freezing point, such as available for shipments originating in or mov- lettuce, celery, and particularly apples when ing into or through these territories durhig shipped out of cold storage (77). The approxi- specified winter months. It is optional on the mate freezing points of certain fresh fruits and part of the shipper with the exception of po- vegetables are shown in tal)le 3, page 24. Ship- tatoes (other than sweetpotatoes or yams) for ments of top-iced vegetables have been par- which Carriers' Protective Service is compul- ticularly vulnerable, especially when moving sory from November 16 through February in with additional ice in the bunkers. Cars from Heater Territory, part 1. There is also a Volun- the warm producing areas often move into tary Heater Service provided by the carriers at northern regions where the temperatures may stations in Heater Territory, part 1, at stations be well below zero before heater service can be outside of the Heater Territory west of the inaugurated. It is costly to remove ice from the Mississippi River, and at some stations east of bunkers for installation of heaters. Also, un- the river on a few specified railroads. This desirable temperature changes may occur in the heater service, however, applies only to fi'uits car during the operation. Therefore, bunker 60 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195. U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

•sr

M.Ol.r T.intorr if"" ')

[ j H.ol.. T..r,«)r-, (Pon 2)

Hon H«al«r Tarfitary

A.MS NIK. S1:.7-C0U0) FIGURE 32.—Heater Territory (Parts 1 and 2).

ice service should be prescribed only if neces- adverse effects. Thermostatically controlled sary. liquid fuel (LF) heaters (fig. 6), with control Serious consideration should l)e given by the based on inside air temperatures, in fan- shipper or receiver to ordering a heater service equipped cars provide safe and uniform tem- for shipments moving into the Heater Terri- peratures. These heaters are also of consider- tory before very low temperatures are en- able advantage in nonfan cars because their countered in transit. Heater service may be thermostatic control reduces the danger of advisable for certain commodities for which it ovei'heating in the top layers of the load. Auto- has not been specified in the tables of recom- matic LF heaters are rapidly replacing mended protective services which follow. Exist- manually controlled charcoal heaters, especially ing and anticipated weather conditions upon in Heater Territory, part 1. The lighting and which to base this decision are usually availal)le extinguishing of heaters at specific outside air from the local offices of the Weather Bureau. tem])eratures may eventually l)ecome obsolete Full advantage should be taken of this valuable for most commodities (ICH, 105). Protection service. against freezing in most general-service me- Heater service, in general, as defined by the chanical cars is provided theiTnostatically tariff, not only provides protection against either by electric heating elements or by hot gas freezing, but also against artificial overheating. in the refrigerating unit under reverse cycle When portable charcoal heaters, with uncon- operation H). trolled burning rate, were used in nonfan cars, A number of heater services are available to there was constant danger that high tempera- the shipper. They vary in cost and complete- tures would be built up in the top layers of the ness of coverage, and their use will be governed load and would result in overripenmg or other l)y the geographical location of shipping point F PROTECTION OF KAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 61

Heater T«rrltory (Part ])

SHiippsra Spvcified S«rvlc« Rui« 514

Non H«oí»r Terrltofir

"« Portiolly Sl^ipper» Specified Servie« Territory

AMS Neg. 8158-60(10) FIGURE 33.—Heater Teiritory (Part 1 and Ship)5ers' Specified Service Territory.

and routing of the car. The most complete railroads on a basis somewhat similar to that in coverage is Carriers' Protective Service in the United States. If heater service in Canada which the raih-oad assumes all responsibility or definite ventilation instructions are not spe- for freezing damage. In Shippers' Specified cified by the shipper on the waybill, shipments Service, available generally in the eastern half will be handled under Standard Ventilation of the country, the heating equipment and serv- after crossing the border. At the present time ice is furnished by the carrier, but tempera- only charcoal portable heaters are used for the tures for lighting and extinguishing (or ther- most part in end bunker cars in Canada. LF mostat setting on LF heaters) are specified by heaters are not generally available. Except the shipper. Under Shippers' Protective Serv- under special arrangements U.S.-owned heaters ice, the shipper or his agent may supply all heaters and initial servicing thereof, but subse- are removed at the border and Canadian heat- quent servicing is by the carrier as the shipper ers installed. Under "Standard Heating in directs (101). Canada," the portable charcoal heaters are With all these classes of service, the shipper lighted and extinguished by the Canadian rail- must specify the type of ventilation desired. It roads at specified outside temperatures for dif- may range from Standard Ventilation to "Keep ferent kinds of connnodities (15). These tem- Vents Closed." peratures are also shown in the regular Perish- Heater services are covered in more detail in able Protective Tariff of the U.S. railroads. the section pertaining to the tariff rules. However, the shipper is permitted to specify Cars moving to destinations in Canada may other lighting and extinguishing temperatures have heater service provided by the Canadian on the bill of lading if he wishes. 62 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE

Operating Car Fans at Destination several degrees, causing excessive ripening or decay, whereas bottom layers may be cooled to Upon arrival at destination, many cars are a dangerously low temperature. Electric hold- held up to several days before unloading. While ing motors are now available for operating the under refrigeration with the car fans off, tem- car fans to maintain a uniform temperature m peratures in top layers of a load may rise the car during the holdover period (69).

RECOMMENDED PROTECTIVE SERVICES Tables 7, 8, and 9 present the protective serv- shown thereon by the carriers' agent at point ices recommended for carlot shipments of the of origin. The rule numbers appear in numeri- different connnodities shown, together with the cal order and therefore are not necessarily m Perishable Protective Tariff rule numbers ap- tlie order in which the protective services are plying thereto. listed. The "Remarks" columns of the tables Mixed shipments of certain fruits and vege- contain such entries as type of container, load tables are provided under the tariff. As only pattern, weather conditions, or certain other one protective service applies to the entire car- data to aid in selection of the proper protective load, only commodities requiring somewhat service. similar transit temperatures should be loaded The general terminology used in the hand- together. In general, the protective service se- book tables conforms with that appearing in lected should be based on the most perishable the Perishable Protective Tariffs. A few of the commodity in the load. Charges for the pro- technical terms used are as follows : tective service on mixed loads are based on the Pre-iced : Bunkers or tanks of refrigerator highest rated perishable commodity in the car. cars iced to capacity before loading. Proper selection of the service to be used Initial icing: To ice the car bunkers for the must l)e governed by weather prevailing at first time after loading is completed, generally loading and anticipated en route, time in at tlie first icing station en route. transit, kind of container, load pattern, and Re-icing or ventilation service at some desig- size of load. Also to be considered are com- nated station or after a certain lapse of time, modity loading temperatures, whether the car such as "re-ice in transit at third and fifth will be precooled, condition and maturity of the icing stations" or "Standard Ventilation be- commodity, and type of car being loaded. These ginning fourth or fifth night" : The actual and many other factors must be evaluated by location of the icing or inspection stations the shipper. To many experienced operators in where such special service will be performed, the produce industry, these requirements are for entry on bill of lading, can be determined quite familiar. All concerned should be con- by the local freight agent on the basis of the stantly alert to possible savings afforded by particular train schedule involved. modified refrigeration service, but they must Percentage of salt (2% salt, etc.) : The ratio keep in mind the temperature requirements of of salt to be added should be based on the quan- the commodity, the need for more refrigeration tity of ice supplied. to protect certain heavier loads, and the ever- Icing: All icing or re-icing operations re- present danger of freezing damage in winter ferred to pertain to full-bunker icing unless shipments. "half-stage" icing or stated amounts of ice are Entries in the tables have been kept as brief specified. as possible by including only those factors Cold storage: Refers to commodities that which may have a direct bearing on the class have been held in a cold room at or near the of protective service to be selected. Descrip- desired transit temperature for some time be- tions of the protective services recommended fore loading. have been reduced to a minimum. Usually a Room precooled: Commodity is cooled to choice of services is given, each to provide the near the desired transit temperature by placing desired transit temperature under certain in cold room for a short time, generally over- weather conditions or other influencing factors. night or from 8 to 12 hours. Some of the services described are not based Precooled in car : Referred to in the tariff as on studies by the Department but are commer- "cooling in car." Car fans, portable fans, or cial practices that have been evaluated and mechanical cooling units are used. given a tentative recommendation. These prac- Carton : A "fiberboard box" as defined in the tices are indicated by a footnote in the tables. Freight Container Tariffs. The tariff rule numbers cited are not broken Shipping point: The area shown is that down into parts, sections, or paragraphs there- which is usually quoted by the produce trade. of. When such additional designation is neces- Destination: "East" means the area gener- sary for entry on the bill of lading, it will be ally east of the Mississippi River and north of PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 63 I Potomac Yard. "North" refers generally to the west" to the general area of Texas, New States along the Canadian boundary between Mexico, and Arizona. the Rockies and Lake Älichigan. "Midwest" is These terms are fairly broad in scope and the general area adjacent to the Mississippi some overlapping can be expected. River and extending to the Rockies. "West References in the handbook to tariff rules are Coast" means the Pacific Coast States, whereas meant to include supplements to and reissues of "Northwest" may mean either the Pacific the tariff, also reissues, changes, and cancella- Northwest or such States as Montana, Idaho, tions of such rules, or the items, notes, and or Nevada. "South" or "Southeast" refers to exceptions pertaining thereto. The handbook the southern group of States. "Northeast" re- will be revised as often as practicable, to reflect fers to the New England States, and "South- such changes. 64 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

1 precooling. amount of weather and dei^ending on dependent on ness of fruit. from 2';, to 4% weather, dis- tance, and ripe- transit freezing. Express movement Protective service Salt may be varied After no danger of

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O O o o o o o o Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q 68 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

n M tt 1 0Î Do. Do. Do. and long hauls. and long hauls. pre-iced cars not available. weather. or shipper. Extremely hot 1. Cool weather. 2. Hot weather 1. Cool weather. 2. Hot weather Precool by carrier 3. Use only when

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o o o o o o o o o o Q Q Q Q Q Q o Q Q 70 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Pi weather. weather. advance sched- ule shipments. ule" shipments. ule" shipments. 1. Early fall; warm 2. Late fall; cool "Advance sched- 1. "Advance sched- 2. Warm weather;

3 ÎI

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0 oooo 0 00 Q QQQQ Q QQ p PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 71

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+j u I - I I r o g c 0) .2"'« • =: O C .H Se o .. o .. O -c S bi >-.'-S !S c •g-ö-is "ît. •S-o-.3 =^t^ wi c M O ^ o cii o '^ -^ t- QJ 2 ai -2 ÜJ "c - tu c-2r .2 o t^ o f-i c c CJ *^ .^ ca ^ ai OJ O) +j —j_^ a< oTS ■- 0) •ïïi >. ^ '-"tí . "tí si « E ^ n¡ - C O) . C aï ' 0) ¡s o oj o^ te 0) o^ b« £- „ O) ji S ÇJ ^-O eu S .S CJ tí CJ Qj C^ 72 c« M m ca fl — _ te . 0/ OJ . w Í- ._- tH :3 s = >> a c >> . C .3 =5 = M ca T QJ ti P T 01 c aJ"T o .3 3! c'^a ■- ?^ c c3 QJ c :a &H QJ o. o o ûj «^ -— 4^ cd .^ is bo c •TO •T ■- t, s +^ OJTS >o]i: CM a o i-H c :d m M car with mo- car fans. or precool in bile unit. car with mo- or precool in bile unit. precool in car with mobile unit. Room i)rocool Precool with Room precool, Not precooled... Room precool or do do do do do 4 to 5 days. nental. 2 to 3 days. 5 to 7 days; nental. transconti- 4 to 5 days. East, Midwest, Transconti- East, Midwest, 3 to 4 days East, Midwest, East, Midwest, do do do do May and June. _ do do do.... do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do do

o o o o o o o Q Q Q Q Q Q Q 72 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE

cn

ci E «

a; 3 Pi 252 255 246 247, 385 252 246, 251, 201, 246, 201, 246 201, 202, 201, 240, 201, 202 240, 246 201 246, 251, 201, 385

1 11

1 1 re-icing in transit on .sec- ond or third day. F: Standard Refrigeration, perature is over 60° F: Pre-ice, replenish. Standard ard Refrigeration, 3'';, salt at pre-icing, replenishing, and first two re-icings. stage. Standard Refrigeration. perature is 50° to 55° F: Standard Refrigeration. perature is 55° to 60° period and for same des- perature is under 50° F: destination are high. 3% salt at initial and first two re-icings. grapefruit, during similar tinations.2 Standard Ventilation. Standard Refrigeration if outside temperatures near for Texas nonprecooled from some designated point, Pre-ice, replenish by shipper, Pre-ice, replenish by shipper. Standard Refrigeration, half- Same protective" services as Initial ice, do not re-ice Initial ice, 1 re-icing in transit. When commodity loading tem- When commodity loading tem- When commodity loading tem- When commodity loading tem-

■g 'S £ be c

1c car fans. car with mobile unit. or precool in car fans. or precool in car with mobile unit. Room precool Precool with Precool with Precool in car.-- Not precooled.-- Room precool Not precooled... do do do

c-r o fc

.H-5 nental. Texas grape- 11 fruit. 7 to 10 days All points Transconti- Same as for 3 to 5 days do do.... do do do-

c Í

be c 'E _a October. Cß September and October to June. May and June.. October to April. do do do do do do

'0c bC c a

X (Cape Cod). Grande Valley). Florida (all points). Massachusetts Texas (Lower Rio do do do do do do do Do variety Do Do Do Do Do Do Do (early season). Tangerines... Commodity and Cranberries PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 73

>01 o .tí > tí X o S: .2 B CU 'U O o o o Q c:£-2§3S Part Q Q p c3 CO > Pi-i m bX) g m bí

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T3 ¿Sí . .3 1« C 3 .2-£ E g. tH o; = £.§ â? Oí3 3 a 0^ ^ a ^ 0 a^ es â> '^^Vl> O U 0

n « tn U, tfO OJ (1> o o o o o o o o -4-> Q Q Q Q Q fí C3 Q Q C3 ■^ a b« o Q S o 74 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE

.3 « s tí Do. consumption. consumption. 1. For immediate For immediate

— Pi 246 255 246 246 254 201, 202, 246, 254 247, 254, 201, 202, 201, 202, 247, 255 201, 202 202, 240 201, 255 1 II ¡I II plenish, 3 re-icings in E transit on fourth, sixth, and seventh days; or

o ture is over 75° F: ation; or ation, half-stage. tion, for fan cars. Same service for nonfan cars, except add 2% salt at pre- icing and all re-icings. in transit. 1. Pre-ice, half-stage, re- tion, 2 or 3% salt at first re-icing only, on basis of bunker capacity. tion, 2 or 3% salt at first under: Initial ice, half-stage after loading, 3 re-icings in transit on fourth, sixth and re-icing only, on liasis of bunker capacity. and all re-icings. temperature is 75° F. or seventh days. 1 tion, 3% salt at pre-icing Pre-ice, Standard Refrigera- Pre-ice, replenish, 2 re-icings Pre-ice, Standard Refrigera- Pre-ice, Standard Refrigera- 1. Pre-ice, Standard Refriger- 2. Pre-ice, Standard Refriger- Pre-ice, Standard Refrigera- Pre-ice, do not re-ice, 3% salt- When commodity loading When commodity tempera- do

-a o 1 be c "o 8 precool, or hydrocool 35° to 45° F. precool, or hydrocool to lower. 35° F. or or precool in car. £ overnight. 04 Cold storage Room or car Room or car Precool in car Not precooled Hydrocool Room precool Not precooled... do do

§•1O 0) 5 to 9 days. 5 to 9 flays. Coast; 3 to 5 days. P-Í3 days. Midwest, West East, Midwest, East, Midwest; All points East, Midwest; West Coast East; 7 to 10 do do do

C S

c 'a, CL March. September. September. May to August May to June to August-- November to .July and August- July do do do Shipping point (southeast). South Carolina (Wenatchee, (central). Junction). sades, Grand Yakima). (Sacramento River, Marys- ville). Georgia and Colorado (Pali- Washington California California do do do do do

-0 c

■■BA Do Do- Do Do Do £ Do

o nectarines. Bartlett Peaches..^ Peaches and Pears: PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 75

Si oi C M •- a . 0) > t- M *. S s c o g ~ c o '>'-S a; r- -I.Í o ,, c +J tn t- -i-> 0) 3! C -w O, 3 aj.c ,££ ^Ë. il. fTí n 4J .;: 0) 3 es c o S o 2 2 8Sl c *^ Q "o "o "o o ü ü c O fe

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_c ^C oTi g:g o «u c S-ÏÏ £ £ 0) OI oi .S cß .1^o C-J o hfl c c _C C •i S-r ¿ c 'o Car Carriers' For more o 1 'T on, ice.

¿Î in transit.

1^S§ 13 hört hauls, ■^ > s such as O y; .ti tion, keep rvice, then and Heater •C J= Ä K K in ce, loa fift C C 3 o , %* OJ ^e +J *t3 *3 -C Ö ^ — — bt es -Ö cu" oT ^ t« d a c c rotective Ser cial Ventila 0) CD bu 3 ents closed o c +^ +j o

o • 0; Protective Se Territory for s do not re-ice. distant point Florida, re-ice

l-H 1—1 PH Special Ventila p^ c/:'

PH >-I (M

O C «5 . C . - w t- CÛ cl- t:- .- iz; .C >. . >. -^ J= >. 4-> ■ë o (B r—< O o H m February. April. October. November. Sí^ptember. October to September to September September to August to July to do do do (Medford, (central and (Medford, northern). Washington Yakima). (central, north- Hood River, Yakima). Washington W'enatchee, ern). California Oregon and Oregon and California do do do do do...

and

o c o c c mice. c c o Q G Q c go Q Q Q W 76 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

1 weather. turity fruit in fan cars. For average ma- 3. Warm weather. 1. Cool weather. 2. Moderate

0Î 515 520 247, 255 240, 247, 246, 254 201 247, 515 385 251 240 247, 255 385, 519,

>> ll Ú c; o

|a or 521 2° for mature-green, or transit.2 or keep vents closed.2 E ice. Set thermostat on liquid fuel heaters at 4212° for ripe and nation: in transit. above for Oregon and Washington cold storage or room precooled Bosc and Comice pears destined to the S(juth. Standard Refrigeration 2 above for Oregon and Washington cold storage or Comice jjears destined to I.Standard Ventilation; 2 3. Initial ice, 1 re-icing in in transit. room precooled Bosc and the East. in transit. Customary practice is to I.Standard Ventilation; 2 2. Initial ice, do not re-ice; 2 load in box cars, thence by car ferry to West Palm Beach for reloading in re- 2. Shippers' Specified Serv- 1 frigerator cars.2 Pre-ice, half-stage, 1 re-icing Same protective services as Pre-ice, replenish, 2 re-icings Same ¡¡rotective services as Pre-ice, half-stage, 1 re-icing Origin to West Palm Beach: West Palm Beach to desti-

1 E

§ precool, 40° to 45° F. Room or car Not precooled... do .._ lio do..... do do do do

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1s Do. Do. February. (10, 15, and 50 pulsory Novem- ber 16 through Standard Re- (100 lb.). subject to frigeration charges. Master paper bags (50 (50 lb.); paper tive Service com- lb.); paper bags lb.); burlap bags (100 lb.). bags (10, 15, and 50 lb.); burlap bags pyramid load on and 100 lb.) in blanket pads; paper and mesh bags (50 lb.); paper, polyethy- bags (10 lb.) in lene, and mesh master paper bags. Re-icing in transit Carriers' Protec- Master paper bags Burlap bags (50 515, 580 255 201, 237 385, 514, 237, 240 247, 255 201, 247, protective service closed. In Shippers' Specified coal heaters, light one one heater at 15°, second heater at 25°, keep vents Service. Set thermostat at 40° F. on liquid fuel heaters, keep vents closed. heater at 20°, second heater at 10°, extinguish transit on third or fourth day; 2 or 5,000 lb. may be made ice; or Service Territory for char- period by one railroad.2 on fourth or fifth day; eration, half-stage. available during this 5,000 lb. may be made period by one railroad.2 perature is over 70° F: or fifth day; ish, 1 re-icing in transit or available during this icing in transit on fourth perature is under 70° F: Initial ice, half-stage, 1 re- fifth day. icing in transit on fourth or Recommended or commonly used 1. Initial ice, 1 re-icing in 1. Standard Ventilation; or 1. Initial ice, do not re-ice; 2 1. Initial ice, half-stage, 1 re- 2. Carriers' Protective Serv- 3. Special Heater Protective 2. Pre-ice, half-stage, replen- 3. Pre-ice, Standard Refrig- 2. Free initial icing up to When commodity loading tem- 2. Free initial icing up to When commodity loading tem-

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1 Rule 1 520 519,520 519, 520 519, 520 240, 247 385, 519, 240, 255, 240, 255, 240, 255, Î5

13 >, a 1 or capacity, 1 re-icing in capacity, do not re-ice; ' 2,000 lb. per bunker on fifth day.' transit with 1,000 to CO 8 o perature is 80° to 90° F: u 0) 1. Initial ice, full bunker 2. Initial ice, full bunker perature is .50° to 55° F: 50° F. on liquid fuel heaters, Initial ice, half-stage, with 50° F. on liquid fuel heaters, Special Ventilation, keep perature is 55° to 60° F: 1,000 lb. per bunker, do not 50° F. on liquid fuel heaters, perature is 60° to 65° F: Initial ice, half-stage, with Service. Set thermostat at perature is 65° to 75° F: 3,000 lb. per bunker, or to half-stage capacity, do not re-ice. Shippers' Specified Service. Set thermostat at keep vents closed.' vents closed. Shippers' Specified Service. Set thermostat at 50° F on liquid fuel heaters, keep Initial ice, half-stage, with Service. Set thermostat at keep vents closed.' 2,000 lb. per bunker, do not re-ice. Shippers' Specified keep vents closed.' K vents closed.' re-ice. Shippers' Specified

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TABLE 9.—Texas mature-green tomatoes shipped by rail from loiver Rio Grande Valley and east Texas: Recommended icing schedules for fan-equipped cars witli fans in operation and vents kept closed

Second First re- First re- Second icing re-icing Total Commodity loading Maximum icing re-icmR Total Commodity loading Maximum I initial I (second (sixth ice temperature, size of load, initial (third (seventh ice temperature, size of load, icing supplied and number of days icing ' icing and number of days icing ' icing icing supplied station) station) in transit station) station) in transit I 3 I

75° (<) K0° F. Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds S5° to nil" F.

700 lugs: 700 lugs: , 13, 600 3 to 4 days _ 10,000 1,800 0 11,800 3 to 5 days ; 10,000 3,600 0 10,000 6 to 7 days 10,000 3,600 1,800 15 400 5 to 7 days_. 2,700 0 12,700 16 300 8 days 10,000 2,700 1,800 14,500 8 days. 10,000 3,600 2,700 9 days. 10,000 3,600 3,600 17 200 9 days 10,000 2,700 2,700 15,400 100 10 days 10,000 2,700 3,600 16,300 10 days. 10,000 3,600 4,500 18

840 lugs: 840 lugs: 15,100 3 to 4 days 10,000 2,700 0 12,700 3 to 5 days 10,000 5,100 0 5 to 7 days 10,000 13,900 6 to 7 days 10,000 5,100 1,800 16.900 3,900 0 2,700 17.800 8 days 10,000 3,900 1,800 15,700 8 days 10,000 5,100 9 days 10,000 2,700 16,600 9 days , 10,000 5,100 3,600 18,700 3,900 4,500 19,600 10 days. 10,000 3,900 3,600 17,500 10 days ! 10,000 5,100 1,000 lugs or 532 1,000 lugs or .532 wirebound wirebound 3 to 4 days 10,000 3,600 0 13,600 3 to 5 days ' 10,000 6,600 0 16,600 5,100 0 15,100 6 to 7 days 10,000 6,600 2,100 18,700 .5 to 7 days 10,000 3,000 19,600 days 10,000 5,100 2,100 17,200 Sdays 10,000 6,600 5,100 3,000 18,100 9 days 10,000 6,600 3,900 20,500 9 days 10,000 4,800 21,400 10 days. 10,000 5,100 3,900 19,000 10 days 10,000 6,600 616 wirebound crates: 616 wirebound crates: 18,100 3 to 4 days 10,000 4,500 0 14,500 3 to 5 days , 10,000 8,100 0 10,000 6,600 0 16,600 6 to 7 days ! 10,000 8,100 2,100 20.200 5 to 7 days 21,100 8 days 10,000 6,600 2,100 18,700 8 days i 10,000 8,100 3,000 10,000 6,600 3,000 19,600 9 days 10,000 8,100 3,900 22,000 9 days 22,900 10 days 10,000 6,600 3,900 20,500 10 days 10,000 8,100 4,800

S0° to K5° F. 90° F. and over 700 lugs: 700 lugs: 3 to 4 days. . 10,000 2,700 0 12,700 3 to 5 days 10,000 4,500 0 14,500 5 to 7 days.. 10,000 3,600 0 13,600 6 to 7 days... 10,000 4,500 1,800 16,300 10,000 3,600 ,800 15,400 8 days 10,000 4,500 2,700 17,200 8 days 4,500 18,100 9 days 10,000 3,600 ,700 16,300 9 days 10,000 3,600 10 days 10,000 3,600 ,600 17,200 10 days 10,000 4,500 4,500 19,000 840 lugs: 840 lugs: 3 to 4 days. 10,000 3,900 0 13,900 3 to 5 days. 10,000 6,600 0 16,600 10,000 5,100 0 15,100 6 to 7 days. 10,000 6,600 1,800 18,400 5 to 7 days. 2,700 8 days 10,000 5,100 1,800 16,900 8 days 10,000 6,600 19,300 10,000 5,100 2,700 17,800 9 days. 10,000 6,600 3,600 20,200 9 days 4,500 10 days 10,000 5,100 3,600 18,700 10 davs. 10,000 6,600 21,100 1.000 lugs or 532 ,000 lugs or 532 wirebound wirebound crates: crates: 3 to 4 days 10,000 5,100 0 15,100 3 to 5 days 10,000 8,100 0 18,100 5 to 7 days 10,000 6,600 0 16,600 6 to 7 days... 10,000 8,100 2,100 20,200 8 days 10,000 6,600 2,100 18,700 8 days 10,000 8,100 3,000 21,100 10,000 6,600 3,000 19,600 9 days 10,000 8,100 3,900 22.000 9 days 10,500 10 days 10,000 6,600 3,900 10 days 10,000 8,100 4,800 22,900 616 wirebound crates: 616 wirebound crates: 3 to 4 days 10,000 6,600 0 16,600 3 to 5 days 10,000 10,000 0 20,000 10,000 8,100 0 18,100 6 to 7 days j 10,000 10,000 2,100 22,100 5 to 7 days 20,200 8 days 10,000 8,100 2,100 8 days \ 10,000 10,000 3,000 23,000 10,000 8,100 3,000 21,100 9 days I 10,000 10,000 3,900 23,900 9 days 22,000 10 days 10,000 8,100 3,900 10 days 10,000 10,000 4,800 24,800

' For tomatoes shipped from lower Rio Grande Valley, if car is initially iced before loading, increase the amount of ice added at first re-icing by 900 lb. For shipments from east Texas, if car is initially iced the day before load- PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 103 ■ LITERATURE CITED 1. AGRICULTURAL MARKETING SERVICE. 14. ßUE XKUiUN, P. L. I'J-'ILJ. SHIPPIXG TEMPERATURES FOR TOMATOES. 1959. EFFECT OF HEAVIER LOADING OF RAIL U.S. Dept. AgT., PA-290, 4 pp. SHIPMENTS ON THE MARKETING OF AGRICULTI'RAL RESEARCH SERVICE. FRESH FRUIT, VEGETABLES, AND MELONS. 1958. PROTECT FROZEN FOODS FROM TEMPERA- U.S. Dept. Agr., Mktg. and Transpor- TURE DAMAGE. U.S. Dept. Agr., West. tation Situation, MTS-134, pp. 33-37. Res-. Res. Lab., Albany 1Ü, Calif., July. ARS-74-9, 11 pp., illus. 15. CANADIAN NATIONAL RAILWAY COMPANY. ALLEN, F. W., and HEWITT, V. J. 1946. CODE OF RULES FOR HANDLING PERISHABLE 19o9. APPLES, PEARS, GRAPES, AND BANANAS. TRAFFIC. Cir. 19-D, Aug. 1. Amer. Soc. Refrig. Engin., Refrig. 16. CAREY, L. C. Appl. Data Book, chap. 24, 18 pp. 1950. CONTAINERS IN COMMON USE FOR FRESH ANDERSON, G. E. FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. U.S. Dept. 1959. RAILWAY REFRIGERATOR CARS. Amer. Soc. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 2013, 61 pp., illus. Refrig'. Engin., Refrig. Appl. Data CEPONIS, M. J., and FRIEDMAN, B. A. Book, chap. 33, 17 pp. 1957. EFFECT OF BRUISING INJURY AND STORAGE BARGER, W. R. TEMPERATURE UPON DECAY AND DIS- 1956. TRANSIT-REFRIGERATION STUDIES WITH COLORATION OF FRESH, IDAHO-GROWN PREPACKAGED C-ARROTS. Conf. on Trans- ITALIAN PRUNES ON THE NEW YORK portation of Perishables, Asilomar, CITY' M.ARKET. Plant Dis. Rptr. 41(5) : Pacific Grove, Calif., Apr. 10-12, Proc, 491-492. May 15. pp. 50-56. 18. CLAYPOOL, L. L., and ALLEN, F. W. 1951. THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE AND 1958. TRANSIT REFRIGERATION AND PRECOOLING OXYGEN LEVEL ON THE RESPIRATION STUDIES WITH EARLY POTATOES. Conf. AND RIPENING OF WICKSON PLUMS. on Transportation of Perishables, Hilgardia 21(6): 129-160. Nov. Davis, Calif., Feb. 3-5, Proc, pp. 178- 19. COOK, H. T. 181. 1956. TREAT.MENTS SUPPLEMENTING REFRIGERA- TION. Conf. on Transportation of HARVEY, J. M., and RINGEL, S. M. Perishables, Asilomar, Pacific Grove, 1959. TRANSIT TEMPERATURES OF CALIFORNIA Calif., Apr. 10-12, Proc, pp. 69-73. MATURE-GREEN TOMATOES SHIPPED BY' 20. RAIL. U.S. Dept. Agr., Mktg. Res. Rpt. 1959. SUPPLEMENTS TO REFRIGERATION. Amer. 349, 12 pp. Soc. Refrig. Engin., Refrig. Appl. HARVEY, J. M., and STEWART, J. K. Data Book, chap. 29, 7 pp. 1958. TEST RESULTS SHOW SAFE LETTUCE SHIP- 21. CRAFT, C. C. PING PRACTICES. West. Grower & 1955. EVALUATION OF MATI'RITY INDICES BASED Shipper 29(3): 24-26,39. March. ON PRESSURE-TEST READINGS FOR EAST- - and !McKiLLOP, A. A. ERN-GROWN PEACHES. U.S. Dept. Agr., 1957. A RAILWAY' TRANSPORTATION TEST WITH AMS-34, 8 pp. CALIFORNIA EARLY POTATOES. U.S. 22. EDGAR, A. D. Dept. Agr., AMS-160, 10 pp. 1955. SHIPPING POTATOES IN SUBZERO WEATHER. lu. ■ and R.\DSPINNER, W. A. U. S. Dept. Agr., Mktg. Activ. 18(11) : 1956. TRANSIT REFRIGERATION STUDIES WITH 10-11. CALIFORNIA PREPACKAGED C-A.RROTS. U.S. 23. ENGER, M. R., MYERS, K., BREAKIRON, P. L., and Dept. Agr., AMS-97, 21 pp. BARGER, W. R. 11. RADSPINNER, W. A., FRIEDMAN, B. A., 1958. EFFICIENCY' AND POTENTIAL ECONOMIES OF and MORRIS, L. L. DUAL-PURPOSE SHIPPING CONTAINERS 1953. TRANSIT AND RIPENING STUDIES WITH FOR MATURE-GREEN TOMATOES. U.S. CALIFORNI.A MATURE-GREEN TOMATOES, Dept. Agr., Mktg. Res. Rpt. 257, 69 FALL 1952. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling, pp., illus. Transportation and Storage Off. Rpt. 24. FiNDLEN, H., and HANSEN, J. C. 302. 1958. TRANSPORTATION OF LATE-CROP POTATOES 12. R.\DSPINNER, W. A., and MORRIS, L. L. FOR CHIPPING. Nati. Potato Chip Inst., 1954. TRANSIT AND RIPENING STUDIES WITH Prod, and Tech. Div. Mtgs. Proc, pp. CALIFORNIA MATURE-GREEN TOMATOES, 3-6. January. FALL 1953. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling, FISHER, D. F., and SMITH, EDWIN. Transportation and Storage Off. Rpt. 1951. HANDLING APPLES FROM TREE TO TABLE. 317; Univ. Calif. Veg. Crops Ser. 66. U.S. Dept. Agr., Cir. 659, 43 pp., illus. 13. STEWART, J. K., HARVEY, J. M., and (Revised.) others. 26. FRIEDMAN, B. A., and RADSPINNER, W. A. 1958. TRANSIT TEMPERATURES OF CALIFORNIA 1956. VACUUJI-COOLING FRESH VEGETABLES AND LETTUCE. U.S. Dept. Agr., Mktg. Res. FRUITS. U.S. Dept. Agr., AMS-107, Rpt. 285, 16 pp. 15 pp.

ing it should be re-iced at first icing station instead of second or third with double the amount of ice shown in the schedule for first re-icing. In no case, however, should the amount of ice added at such re-icing, plus that still re- maining in the bunkers from previous icing, exceed 10,000 lb. ■ For east Texas shipments, if third icing station is reached less than 60 hours after initial icing, re-ice at fourth icing station instead. ' For east Texas shipments, if second icing station is reached less than 30 hours after initial icing, re-ice at third icing station instead. 104 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE

27. GERH.\RDT, F. Handling, Transportation and Storage 1955. USE OF FILM BOX LINERS TO EXTEND Ofi'. Rpt. 260. STORAGE LIFE OF PEARS AND APPLES. 43. ATROPS, E. P., RADSPINNER, W. A., U.S. Dept. Agr., Cir. 965, 28 pp., illus. LUTZ, J. M., and others. 28. SCHOMER, H., and WRIGHT, T. R. 1956. COMPARISON OF TYPES OF CONTAINERS, 1956. SEALED FILM LUG LINERS FOR PACKING REFRIGERATION, AND LOADS IN THE BiNG CHERRIES. U.S. Dept. Agr., AMS- TRANSPORTATION OF NON-PRECOOLED 121, 8 pp. NAVEL ORANGES IN HALF-BOX FIBER- 29. ScHOMER, H., and WRIGHT, T. R. BOARD CARTONS FROM CENTRAL CALIFOR- 1957. FILM LUG LINERS LENGTHEN MARKET LIFE NIA TO CHICAGO AND NEW YORK, DECEM- OF SWEET CHERRIES. U.S. Dept. Agr., BER 1952 AND JANUARY 1953. U.S. AMS-177 (leaflet.) Dept. Agr., AMS-135 (formerly 30. GREEN, W. P., HUKILL, W. V., and ROSE, D. H. Handling, Transportation, and Storage 1941. CALORIMETRIC MEASUREMENTS OF THE Rpt. 293). HEAT OF RESPIRATION OF FRUITS AND HARVEY, M. VEGETABLES. U.S. Dept. Agr., Tech. 44. J Bui. 771, 22 pp., illus. 1958 THE USE OF POLYETHYLENE-LINED PACK- 31. AGES TO MAINTAIN FRUIT QUALITY IN GUILFOY, R. F., and JOHNSON, H. D. STORAGE AND TRANSIT. Conf. on Trans- 1956. SUGGESTED METHODS FOR CHECKING TEM- portation of Perishables, Davis, Calif., PERATURES OF FRESH AND FROZEN FOOD Feb. 3-5, Proc, pp. 86-90. SHIP.MENTS. U.S. Dept. Agr., Mktg. Res. Rpt. 150, 9 pp., illus. 45. 1958. FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSIT TEMPERA- 32. GUILLOU, R., and PARKS, R. R. TURES IN RAIL SHIPMENTS OF WESTERN- 1956. FORCED AIR FOR COOLING FRUIT. Univ. GROWN LETTUCE. Conf. on Transpor- Calif. Agr. Ext. Serv. August tation of Perishables, Davis, Calif., (pamphlet.) Feb. 3-5, Proc, pp. 127-131. 33. 1956. FORCED AIR FRUIT COOLING. Amer. Soc. 46. HRUSCHKA, H. W. Agr. Engin., Mtg. Pacific Coast Sect., 1959. PROTECTING MAINE POTATOES FROM Dec. 26-27, 11 pp. (Mimeo.) FREEZING, OVEff iEATING AND BRUISING 34. DURING RAIL TRANSIT. Maine Agr. 1956. CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS I.N FRUIT PACK- Expt. Sta., Misc. Rpt. 89, 28 pp. AGES REL.ATED TO REFRIGERATION AND and KAUFMAN, J. TRANSPORTATION. Conf. on Transpor- 1949. STORAGE OF PREPACKAGED CRANBERRIES. tation of Perishables, Asilomar, Pre-Pack-Age 3(2) :18, 20, 22, 32. Oc- Pacific Grove, Calif., Apr. 10-12, Proc, tober. pp. 34-39. 48. and KAUFMAN, J. 35. H ALLER, M. H. 1951. STORAGE TESTS WITH PREPACKAGED CRAN- 1952. HANDLING, TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE, BERRIES. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling, AND MARKETING OF PEACHES. U.S. Transportation and Storage Off. Rpt. Dept. Agr., Bibliog. Bui. 21, 105 pp. 235. 36. HARDENBURG, R. E., and LUTZ, J. M. 49. ■ KAUFMAN, J., REDIT, W. H., and 1959. COMMODITY STORAGE REQUIREMENTS. RAMSEY, G. B. Amer. Soc. Refrig. Engin., Refrig. Appl. Data Book, chap. 23, 13 pp. 1955. EFFECTS OF PRECOOLING, SALTING, CARTON ^TINTILATION .AND LOAD P.ATTERN ON 37. HARDING, P. L., and FISHER, D. F. TEMPERATURE, MOISTURE CONDENSATION 1945. SEASONAL CHANGES IN FLORIDA GRAPE- AND SPOILAGE IN RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUIT. U.S. Dept. Agr., Tech. Bui. 886, PREPACKAGED EARLY BLACK MASSACHU- 100 pp., illus. SETTS-GROWN CRANBERRIES. U.S. Dept. 38. LUTZ, J. M., RADSPINNER, W. A., and Agr., AMS-43, 23 pp. SUNDAY, M. B. 50. SMITH, W. L., JR., TOKO, H. V., and 1955. INFLUENCE OF CHEMICAL TREATMENTS .\KELEY, R. V. AND POLYETHYLENE BAGS ON KEEPING QUALITY OF FLORIDA GRAPEFRUIT. U.S. 1959. HEALING PRECUT POTATO SEED PIECES DUR- Dept. Agr., AMS-8, 14 pp. ING TRANSIT. U.S. Dept. Agr., AMS- 334, 24 pp., illus. 39. MACRILL, J. R., and NIXON, H. W. 1959. CITRUS FRUITS. Amer. Soc. Refrig. Engin. 51. JAMISON, W. T., AGENT Refrig. Appl. Data Book, chap. 25, 32 1955. CODE OF RULES FOR HANDLING PERISHABLE pp. FREIGHT. Nati. Perishable Freight 40. and SUNDAY, M. B. Com., Cir. 20-D. April 20. 1949. SEASONAL CHANGES IN FLORIDA TANGE- 52. RINES. U.S. Dept. Agr., Tech. Bui. 1958. SPECIFICATIONS OF STANDARD CONTAINERS 988, 59 pp., illus. AND LOADING RULES FOR FRUITS, FRESH, 41. HAR\-EY, E. M., ATROPS, E. P., HRUSCHKA, H. W., AND VEGETABLES, FRESH OR GREEN. and BARBER, H. R. Freight Container Tariff 1-F, Pacific 1954. SHIPPING AND COOLING-IN-CAR TESTS WITH Coast & Transcontinental Ter. Effec- ORANGES IN FIBERBOARD CARTONS IN tive Nov. 14. DIFFERENT LOAD PATTERNS, 1953. U.S. 53. Dept. Agr., AMS-2, 38 pp. 1958. SPECIFICATIONS OF STAND.ARD CONTAINERS 42. . ATROPS, E. P., KAUFMAN, J., and MAC- AND LO.ADING RULES FOR FRUITS, FRESH, RILL, J. E. AND VEGETABLES, FRESH OR GREEN. 1951. TRANSPORTATION TEST WITH LEMONS Freight Container Tariff 2-F. South- FROM SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA TO NEW west. & West. Trunk Line Ter. Effec- YORK, AUGUST 1951. U.S. Dept. Agr., tive June 20. PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 105

54. 68. LUTZ, J. M. 1952. SPECIFICATIONS OF STANDARD CONTAINERS 1945. CHILLING INJURY OF CURED AND NONCURED AND LOADING RULES FOR FRUITS, FRESH, PORTO RICO SWEET POTATOES. U.S. Dept. AND \EGETABLES, FRESH OR GREEN. Agr., Cir 729, 8 pp., illus. Freight Container Tariff 4-B. Official 69. FiNDLEN, H., and KAUFMAN, J. & 111. Ter. Effective Dec. 26. 1957. OPERATING FANS IN CARS OF PRODUCE 55. AFTER ARRIVAL AT TERMINAL MARKETS. 1960. RULES AND REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE U.S. Dept. Agr., Mktg. Res. Rpt. 206, HANDLING OF PERISHABLE FREIGHT. 9 pp., illus. Perishable Protective Tariff 18. Nati. 70. REDIT, W. H., HARDENBURG, R. E., and Perishable Freight Com. Effective FiNDLEN, H. June 18. 1952. INFLUENCE OF PADS AND CAR LINING ON POTATO TRANSIT TEMPERATURES. U.S. 56. JAKVIS, J. W. 1959. HANDLING POTATOES. Union Pacific Rail- Dept. Agr., Handling, Transportation road, Dept. Traffic, Livestock and and Storage Off. Rpt. 274. Agr., Omaha, Neb. 71. MALLISON, E. D., GORMAN, E. A., and HUKILL, W. V. JOHNSON, H. B., and NEWSOM, D. W. 0 1. 1937. PROTECTION OF APPLES AND PEARS IN 1957. RAIL TRANSIT REFRIGERATION OF MATURE- TRANSIT FROM THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST GREEN TOMATOES FROM THE LOWER RIO DURING THE WINTER MONTHS. U.S. GRANDE VALLEY OF TEXAS. U.S. Dept. Dept. Agr., Tech. Bui. 550, 55 pp., Agr., AMS-188, 12 pp. illus. 58. JOHNSON, H. D., and BREAKIRON, P. L. 72. and PENTZER, W. T. 1956. PROTECTING PERISHABLE FOODS DURING 1938. BODY ICING IN TRANSIT REFRIGERATION OF TRANSPORTATION BY TRUCK. U.S. Dept. VEGETABLES. U.S. Dept. Agr., Tech. Agr., Handb. 105, 70 pp., illus. Bui. 627, 42 pp., illus. 59. KAUFMAN, J., BEXFIELD, P. L., and HARDING, 73. MANN, C. W., GORMAN, E. A., and HUKILL, W. V. P. R., JR. 1943. STAGE ICING IN THE REFRIGERATION OF 1955. SHIPPING TESTS WITH MASSACHUSETTS- ORANGES IN TRANSIT FROM CALIFORNIA. GROWN CRANBERRIES IN CONVENTIONAL U.S. Dept. Agr., Tech. Bui. 857, 37 REFRIGERATOR CARS WITH STANDARD pp., illus. VENTILATION AND IN MECHANICALLY MCCLURE, T. T., and SMITH, W. L. REFRIGERATED CARS. U.S. Dept. Agr., 1959. POSTHARVEST DECAY OF PEACHES AS AF- AMS-187, 9 pp. FECTED BY TEMPERATURES AFTER HYDRO- 60. HRUSCHKA, H. W., and WlANT, J. S. COOLING IN WATER OR DOWICIDE A SOLU- 1950. RAIL SHIPPING TESTS WITH LONG ISLAND TIONS. Phytopath. 49:472-474. CAi'LiFLOWER—1949. U.S. Dept. Agr., 75. McCoLLOCH, L. p. Handling, Transportation and Storage 1955. EFFECT OF LOW FIELD TEMPERATURES ON Off. Rpt. 228. QUALITY OF TOMATOES. Fla. State Hort. 61. HRUSCHKA, H. W., and WIANT, J. S. Soc, Proc. 68:188-192. 1951. RAIL SHIPPING TESTS WITH LONG ISLAND 76. CAULIFLOWER—1950. U.S. Dept. Agr., 1958. BETTER QUALITY TOMATOES THROUGH Handling, Transportation and Storage TEMPERATURE CONTROL AND CAREFUL Off. Rpt. 259. HANDLING. 12th Nati. Conf. on Han- 62. HRUSCHKA, H. W., and WIANT, J. S. dling Perishable Agr. Commod., Mar. 1952. RAIL SHIPPING TESTS WITH LONG ISLAND 10-14, Proc. pp. 66-72. CAULIFLOWER—1951. U.S. Dept. Agr., 77. and WORTHINGTON, J. T. Handling, Transportation and Storage 1952. LOW TEMPERATURE AS A FACTOR IN THE Off. Rpt. 268. SUSCEPTIBILITY OF MATURE-GREEN 63. RINGEL, S. M., HAMER, A. A., and TOMATOES TO ALTERNARÍA ROT. PhytO- others. path. 42(8) :425-427. 1958. EFFECT OF PRECOOLING ON MARKET QUAL- — and WORTHINGTON, J. T. ITY OF CRANBERRIES SHIPPED BY RAIL OR 1954. WAYS TO PRE\T;NT CHILLING MATURE- TRUCK. U.S. Dept. Agr., Mktg. Res. GREEN TOMATOES. Pre-Pack-Age 7:22- Rpt. 287, 9 pp. 25. Feb. 64. LEWIS, W. E. 79. PENTZER W. T. 1957. MAINTAINING PRODUCE QUALITY IN RETAIL 1954. WASTE AND SPOILAGE. Marketing—Year- STORES. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handb. 117, book of Agriculture, U.S. Dept. Agr., 30 pp., illus. pp. 377-381. 65. LIEBERMAN, M., and HARDENBURG, R. E. 80. AsBURY, C. E., and BARGER, W. R. 1954. EFFECT OF MODIFIED ATMOSPHERES ON 1945. PRECOOLING CALIFORNIA GRAPES AND RESPIRATION AND YELLOWING OF BROC- THEIR REFRIGERATION IN TRANSIT. U.S. COLI AT 75 DEGREES F. Amer. Soc. Dept. Agr., Tech. Bui. 899, 64 pp., Hort. Sei. Proc. 63:409-413. illus. 66. LiPTON, W. J. 81. and BARGER, W. R. 1958. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON ASPARAGUS 1948. PRECOOLING GRAPES IN TUNNEL COOLERS. QUALITY. Conf. on Transportation of U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling, Transpor- Perishables, Davis, Calif., Feb. 3-5, tation and Storage Off. Rpt. 198. Proc, pp. 147-151. 82. BARGER, W. R., and KAUFMAN, J. 67. 1949. TESTS ON THE SHATTERING OF GRAPES IN 1957. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES IN HARVESTED TRANSIT IN SHIPMENTS MADE FROM ASPARAGUS (ASPARAGUS OFFICINALIS) CALIFORNIA TO NEW YORK, IN AUGUST, AS RELATED TO TEMPERATURE OF HOLD- SEPTEMBER, AND NOVEMBER, 1948. U.S. ING. Univ. Calif., Davis, Calif., 116 and Storage Off. Rpt. 207. pp. (Ph.D. thesis.) Dept. Agr., Handling, Transportation 106 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 195, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

83. —; BARGER, W. R., DEWEY, I). H., and 98. REAR, J. C. othei's. 1956. PRECOOLING. Conf. on Transportation of 1948. TOP-ICING C.\NT.A.LOUPS. U.S. Dept. Agr., Perishables, Asi lomar. Pacific Grove, Handling, Transportation and Storage Calif., Apr. 10-12, pp. 60-69. Off. Rpt. 18.5. 99. 84. — and McCOLLOCH, L. P. 1959. PRECOOLING. Amer. Soc. Refrig. Engin., 195 REFRIGER.\TION OF TOMATOES IN TRA.NSIT Refrig. Appl. Data Book, chap. 31, Pre-Pack-Age 6(1) :11-14. 8 pp. 85. WiANT, J. S., and MACGILLIVR.A.Y, J. H. 100. REDIT, W. H., and HAMER, A. A. 1940. MARKET QUALITY AND CONDITION OF CALI- ID:.:». PRECOOLING AND SHIPPING LOUISIANA FORNIA CANTALOUPS AS INFLUENCED BY STRAWBERRIES. U.S. Dept. Agr., Mktg. MATURITY, HANDLING, AND PRECOOLING. Res. Rpt. 358, 39 pp., illus. U.S. Dept. Agr., Tech. Bui. 730, 74 101 and LuTZ, J. M. pp., illus. 1955. HEATER TESTS WITH WINTER SHIPMENTS 86. PLUMMER, K. V. OF MAINE POTATOES BY RAIL, JANU.\RY 1958. LATEST DE\ELOPMENTS IN THE RAILR0.4D AND FEBRUARY 1954. U.S. Dept. Agr., REFRIGERATOR CAR FIELD. Conf. on AMS-7, 28 pp. Transportation of Perishables, Davis, 102 RADSPINNER, W. A., and WIANT, J. S. Calif., Feb. 3-5, Proc. pp. 193-196. 1951. RIPENING PEARS IN TRANSIT IN FAN CARS. 87. PRATT, H. K., and MORRIS, L. L. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling, Transpor- 1958. PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF VEGETABLES tation and Storage Off. Rpt. 234. AND FRUIT HANDLING. Food Technol. 103. RYALL, A. L., HANNUM, D. B., and in Australia, 10(8) :407-417. Aug. HRUSCHKA, H. W. MORRIS, L. L., RY.A.LL, A. L., and 1953. COMPARISON OF FLOOR TYPE WITH 0\ER- FRIEDMAN, B. A. HEAD ELECTRIC TY'PE REFRIGER.\TOR CAR 19o7. TESTS OF MODIFIED PROTECTIVE SERVICES FANS IN THE PRECOOLING AND TRANSIT IN THE TR.\NSP0RTATI0N OF HONEY DEW REFRIGERATION OF CALIF. TABLE GRAPES, MELONS FRO.M CALIFORNIA TO NEW SEPT. 1952. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling, YORK CITY, 1955 AND 1956. Univ. ' Transportation and Storage Off. Rpt. Calif., Veg. Crops Ser. 90, 15 pp. 288. August. 104. and SMITH, E. 89. MORRIS, L. L., and TUCKER, C. L. 1948. CAR HEATERS AND WINTER PROTECTION OF 19.34. TEMPER.\TURE .iND LETTUCr: DETERIOR.\- FRUIT SHIPMENTS—SUMMARY' OF TRANS- TiON. Conf. on Transportation of PORTATION TESTS WITH APPLES FROM Perishables, Davis, Calif., April 26-28, WASHINGTON STATE, DEC. 1947, JAN. Proc, pp. 77-83. AND FEB. 1948. U.S. Dept. Agr., AAR- 90. RADSPINNER, W. A. USDA Tests No. 22-27, illus. 1949. RIPENING OF PEARS IN FAN CARS. U.S. 105. SMITH, E., and GERHARDT, F. Dept. Agr., Handling, Transportation 1947. CAR HEATERS AND WINTER PROTECTION OF and Storage Off. Rpt. 203. FRUIT SHIP.MENTS SUMßlARY OF TRANS- 91. WOMELDORPH, S. E., JR., WIANT, J. S., PORTATION TESTS WITH APPLES FROM and REDIT, W. H. WASHINGTON STATE, DEC. 1946-JAN. 1950. RIPENING PEARS IN FAN CARS AT THE TER- 1947. U.S. Dept. Agr., AAR-USDA .viiNAL MARKET. U.S. Dept. Agr., Han- Tests No. 12-15. dling, Transportation, and Storage 106. and S.MITH, M. A. Off. Rpt. 222. 1953. PRECOOLING SOUTH CAROLINA PEACHES. 92. RAMSEY, G. B. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling, Transpor- 1958. DISEASES AND INJURIES OF LETTUCE ON THE MARKET. Conf. On Transportation tation and Storage Off. Rpt. 306. 107. of Perishables, Davis, Calif.. Feb. 3-5, SMITH, M. A., and BENFIELD, P. L. Proc, pp. 126-127. 1955. TESTS ON HYDROCOOLING AND REFRIGERA- 93. FRIED.MAN, B. A., and SMITH, M. A. TION OF PEACHES IN TRANSIT FROM 1959. .AiARKET DISEASES OF BEETS, CHICORY, EX- GEORGIA AND SOUTH CAROLINA, 1954. DIVE, ESCAROLE, GLOBE ARTICHOKES, U.S. Dept. Agr., AMS-62. 24 pp. LETTUCE, RHUBARB, SPINACH, AND 108. RICHARDSON, C. A. SWEETPOTATOES. U.S. Dept. Agr., 1948. HEAT TRANSMISSION REPORT. AsSOC. Handb. lo5, 42 pp., illus. Amer. Railroads, Refrig. Car Res., 178 94. and FRIEDMAN, B. A. pp. 1941. :MARKET DISEASES OF FRUITS AND VEGE- 109. ROSE, D. H., BRATLEY, C. 0., and PENTZER, W. T. TABLES: ASPARAGUS, ONIONS, BEANS, 1939. MARKET DISEASES OF FRUITS AND VEGE- PEAS, CARROTS, CELERY, AND RELATED TABLES: GR.4PES AND OTHER SMALL VEGET.-'-BLES. U.S. Dept. Agr., Misc. FRUITS. U.S. Dept. Agr., Misc. Pub. Pub. 440, 70 pp., illus. 340, 25 pp., illus. 95. and SMITH, M. A. 110. BROOKS, CHAS., BR.\TLEY, C. 0., and 1960. MARKET DISEASES OF CABBAGE, CAULI- WINSTON, J. R. FLOWER, TUR.N'IPS, CUCI'MBERS, MELONS, 1943. MARKET DISEASES OF FRUITS AND VEGE- AND RELATED CROPS. U.S. Dept. Agr., TABLES: CITRUS AND OTHER SUBTROPI- Handb. 184, illus. In press. CAL FRUITS. U.S. Dept. Agr., Misc. 96. WiANT, J. S., and MCCOLLOCH, L .P. Pub. 498, 57 pp., illus. 1952. MARKET DISEASES OF TOMATOES, PEPPERS, 111. — and COOK, H. T. AND EGGPLANTS. U.S. Dept. Agr., 1949. HANDLING, STORAGE, TRANSPORTATION, Handb. 28, 54 pp., illus. AND UTILIZATION OF POTATOES: A DI- 97. WiANT, J., and S.MITH, M. A. GEST OF INFORMATION ON THE SUBJECT 1949. .MARKET DISEASES OF FRUITS AND \EGE- PUBLISHED MOSTLY FOR 1938 TO 1948. TABLES: POTATOES. U.S. Dept. Agr., U.S. Dept. Agr., Bibliog. Bui. 11, 163 Misc. Pub. 98, 60 pp., illus. pp. PROTECTION OF RAIL SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 107

112. COOK, H. T., and REDIT, W. H. PACIFIC NORTHWEST. U.S. Dept. Agr., 1951. H.\RVESTING, HANDLING AND TRANSPORTA- AMS-178, 14 pp. TION OF CITRl'S FRUITS. U.S. Dept. 126. SEELIG, R. A. A.ST., Bibliog. Bui. 13, 178 pp. n. d. FACTS AND POINTERS ON MARKETING 113. — FISHER, D. F., BROOKS, CHAS., and FRESH TOMATOES. United Fresh Fruit BRATLEY, C. O. & Veg. Assoc. BuL, 77 pp., illus. 195Û. MARKET DISEASES OF FRUITS AND VEGE- SHADBURNE, R. A. TABLES: PEACHES, PLUMS, CHERRIES 127. AND OTHER STONE FRUITS. U.S. Kept. 1958. IMPROVED LOADING OF BASKETS OF Agr., Misc. Pub. 228, 27 pp., illus. PEACHES AND FRESH PRUNES IN RAIL- (Revised.) ROAD CARS. U.S. Dept. Agr., Mktg. 114. — McCoLLOCH, L. P., and FISHER, D. F. Res. Rpt. 275, 76 pp., illus. 1951. MARKET DISEASES OF FRUITS AND VEGE- 128. SHEAR, C. L., STEVENS, N. E., and BAIN, H. F. TABLES: APPLES, PEARS, QUINCES. L^.S. 1931. FUNGOUS DISEASES OF THE CULTIVATED Dept. Agr., Misc. Pub. 168, PP-. CRANBERRY. U.S. Dept. Agr., Tech. illus. (Revised.) Bui. 258, 58 pp., illus. 11.5. RVALL, A. L. 129. SMITH, W. L., JR., REDIT, W. H., BENFIELD, P. L., 1953. REFRIGERATION OF CALIFORNIA EARLY PO- and others. TATOES. 9th Ann. Yearbook of the 1957. PEACH HYDROCOOLING, SHIPPING, AND Kern County Potato Growers Assoc. 5 FUNGICIDAL TESTS. U.S. Dept. Agr., pp. March. AMS-199, 19 pp. 116. 130. HAULER, M. H., and MCCLURE, T. T. 1955. ETIIVLENE TREAT.MENT OF BARTLETT PEARS 1956. POSTHARVEST TREATMENT FOR REDUCTION MO\TNG TO MIDWESTERN AND WESTERN OF BROWN AND RHIZOPUS ROTS OF M.4.RKETS. Blue Anchor 32(2) :11. May. PEACHES. Phytopath. 46:261-264. 117 RVALL, A. L. 131. SPANINGER, C. A., Agent 1956. THE EFFECTS OF BUNKER SALTING, DRY ICE AND AIR CIRCULATION ON TEMPERA- 1957. CONTAINER AND LOADING RULES TARIFF. TURES IN EXPRESS SHIPMENTS OF FRESH Freight Tariff 823-C, Southern STRAWBERRIES. Conf. on Transporta- Freight Tariff Bureau. June. tion of Perishables, Asilomar, Pacific 132. STEWART, J. K., and KASMIRE, R. F. Grove, Calif., Apr. 10-12, Proc, pp. 1958. AN EVALUATION OF FLOOR PADS FOR 7.3-86. TRANSIT PROTECTION OF POTATOES. 118. Conf. on Transportation of Perish- 1959. TRANSIT SERVICES AS RELATED TO THE ables, Davis, Calif., Feb. 3-5, Proc. pp. RIPENING OF CALIFORNI.A BARTLETT 182-188, illus. PEARS. Advisorv Bd. for Promotion of 133. and LIPTON, W. J. Fresh Bartlett Pears, 1515 Ninth St., 1958. PRELIMIN.ARY PRECOOLING TESTS WITH Sacramento 14, Calif., 8 pp. June 10. CANTALOUPES IN FIBERBOARD CON- ( Mimeo.) TAINERS. Conf. on Transportation of 119. CLEMENTS, J. R., RADSPINNER, W. A., Perishables, Davis, Calif., Feb. 3-5, and others. Proc. pp. 113-117. 1950. .A. COJIPARISON OF TR.A.NSIT PROTECTIVE 134. TOLLE, W. E. SERVICES FOR BARTLETT PEARS DURING 1959. MAINTENANCE OF QUALITY OF PREPACK- THE E.ARLY PART OF THE SHIPPING AGED CRANBERRIES DURING RETAIL DIS- SEASON. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling, PLAY. U.S. Dept. Agr., Mktg. Res. Transportation and Storage Off. Rpt. Rpt. 320, 20 pp., illus. 232. Oct. 135. UOTA, M., and CooK, F. L. 120. and HARVEY, J. yi. 1958. IMPROVED METHODS NEEDED FOR SO: GRAPE 1959. THE COLD STORAGE OF VINIFERA TABLE FUMIGATION. Blue Anchor 35(3) :20- GRAPES. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handb. 159, 21, 36. Aug. 46 pp., illus. 136. WHITEMAN, T. M. 121. — and RADSPINNER, W. A. 1957. FREEZING POI.NTS OF FRUITS, \EGETABLES, 1953. HALF-STAGE ICING OF CANTALOUPES TEST AND FLORIST STOCKS. U.S. Dept. Agr., SUCCESSFUL. West. Grower & Shipper Mktg. Res. Rpt. 196, 32 pp., illus. 24(5) :54-59. April. 137. WlANT, J. S. RYGG, G, 122. L. 1938. MARKET-STORAGE STUDIES OF HONEY DEW INFLUENCE OF HANDLING PROCEDURES AND 1958. MELONS AND CANTALOUPS. U.S. Dept. STORAGE AND TRANSIT TEMPERATURES Agr., Tech. Bui. 613, 19 pp., illus. ON IMPROVING AND MAINTAINING May. QUALITY OF DATES. Date Growers' Inst. Rpt. 35:2-5. 138. — and BRATLEY, C. 0. 12.3. and GETTY, M. R. 1948. SPOILAGE OF FRESH FRUITS AND VEGE- 1955. 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THE COMMERCIAL STORAGE OF FRUITS, ICING ON TEMPERATURE REDUCTION IN VEGETABLES, AND FLORIST AND NURSERY CARLOT SHIP.MENTS OF CRATED GREEN SWEET CORN. U.S. Dept. Agr., Han- STOCKS. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handb. 66, dling, Transportation and Storage Off 77 pp. Rpt. 270. 146. WRIGHT, T. R., and ADAMS, D. F. 142. --— CuBBEDGE, R., and KAUFMAN, J. 1949. SALTING PRACTICES IN EXPRESS FAN CARS 1959. SHIPPING FLORIDA CITRUS FRUIT IN WIRE- LOADED WITH PACIFIC NORTHWEST BOUND CRATES AND CARTONS—A COM- CHERRIES. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling, PARISON OF COMMERCIAL PRACTICES. Transportation and Storage Off. Rpt. U.S. Dept. Agr., AMS-342, 15 pp. 215. 143. —— HRUSCHKA, H., and CUBBEDGE, R! 147. and SMITH, EDWIN. 190Í5. EFFECT OF PACKINGHOUSE TREATMENTS 1951. FRUIT TEMPERATURES IN COMMERCIAL TEMPERATURES IN TRANSIT AND CON- NORTHWESTERN APPLE SHIPMENTS PRO- TAINERS ON DECAY IN TANGERINES. U S TECTED WITH AUTOMATIC ALCOHOL Dept. Agr., AMS-125 (formerly Han- HEATERS DURING JANUARY AND FEBRU- dling, Transportation and Storage Off. Rpt. 263), 37 pp. ARY 1951. U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling, 144. -— HRUSCHKA, H., CUBBEDGE, R., and Transportation and Storage Off. Rpt. MECKSTROTH, G. A. , , U 249. 1953. A COMPARISON OF PROTECTIVE SERVICES 148. and SMITH, EDWIN. COMMONLY USED FOR RAIL SHIP.MENTS 1954. RELATION OF BRUISING AND OTHER FAC- OF FLORIDA ORANGES AND GRAPEFRUIT. TORS TO BLUE MOLD DECAY OF DELICIOUS U.S. Dept. Agr., Handling, Transpor- APPLES. U.S. Dept. Agi-., Cir. 935, 15 tation and Storage Off. Rpt. 305. pp.

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