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INTRODUCTION iv HELMETS AND BODY ARMOR 1 The Genesis of Armor 1 Basic Factors in Armor Development 3 Development of Flyer's Armor 6 Flyer's Helmets 15 Air Force Opinions of Flyer's Armor. 17 Armor for Ground Troops 21 CATALOG OP HELMETS AND ARMOR 23 Helmet Ml 23 Release, Chin Strap (for Helmet Ml) 24 Helmet, Steel, MIC 24 Helmet M3 25 Helmet M4 25 Helmet M4A1 26 Helmet M4A2 26 Helmet M5 27 Armor, Flyer's,Vest, Ml 28 Armor, Flyer's, Vest, M2 28 Armor, Flyer's, Apron, M3 29 Armor, Flyer's, Apron, M4 29 Armor, Flyer's, Groin, M5 30 Armor, Vest, T46 30 Armor, Apron, T55 31 Armor, Apron, T56 31 Armor, Groin, T57 31 Armor, Neck, T59E1 32 Armor, Neck, T44 32 Armor, Crotch, T16E4 33 Armor, Eye, T45E4 33 Helmet T19E1 34 Helmet T21 34 BIBLIOGRAPHY. . 35 sjLii

INTRODUCTION

ESIRE to conserve life and reduce describe all current standard helmets the chances of injury to the com­ and armor and models under develop­ Dbat soldier has always motivated ment would take far more space than is leaders of the United States Army. The available in these pages. However, there welfare of the fighting man is the first are discussed herein some of the prob­ consideration of his officers and of those lems entailed in developing individual responsible for furnishing him equip­ items of armor. Stressed are the com­ ment to be used in battle. Consequently, plicated problems that are caused by it is but natural that humanitarianism the demands of tactical use. would inspire the Ordnance Department A catalog section following thegeneral * in its program of helmet and body armor text lists and describes standard helmets development; a program that has per­ and body armor, a number of develop­ sisted since World War I. This modern ment items undergoing combat service application of the ancient armorer's art test, and a few experimental models has saved, and will continue to save, the from which it is hoped there will evolve lives of American flyers and ground equipment worthy of adoption by the troops. ^ using services. This booklet briefly describes the rela­ The creation of helmets and armor is tion of present armor to armor of the a continuous and co-operative project past. It shows the significant develop­ , under the direction of the Ordnance ments over the centuries that have af­ Department. The Ordnance Department fected the design of armor successfully contributes its knowledge of ballistics protecting our soldiers in this war. It and materials and its other resources in also shows the conditions under which partnership with industry; the using armor can be effective, and answers the services supply the basic information question, "Why not put armor on all about tactical needs, and The Metro­ men in combat?" For those who want politan Museum of Art lends the skill proof that armor issaving lives, instances and experience of its Curator of Arms of Army Air Forces experiences are and Armor and the facilities of its cited. Armorer's Workshop. This combination A complete history of body armor and participates in the ever-changing de­ helmets would require a volume many velopments necessary to give the best times this size. Even to list and fully possible protection to the man in battle. HELMETS AND BODY ARMOR

The Genesis of Armor

HE use of armor as a primary defense for quilted cotton jackets and by overlapping plates the individual soldier is as old as the history of hard wood—a primitive but highly efficient Tof armed conflict. The helmet, the shield, armor which the Spaniards adopted with and the many forms of armor to protect body enthusiasm. and limbs were natural sequels of man's devel­ opment of sword and spear, sling and bow. The closing decades of the Fifteenth Century Armor appeared long before the dawn of his­ witnessed the introduction of firearms into war­ tory; it had attained a high degree of specializa­ fare. For a time the innovation stimulated the tion when shield and buckler and other armor armorer's craft and armor reached the zenith were mentioned in the Old Testament. Later in of its development during the Sixteenth Cen­ history, the well-armed and well-armored legion­ tury. The fight was a losing one. Armor and aries of Rome battled with armored tribesmen the armorer yielded slowly and very stubbornly in Scythia and Gaul; the Conquistadores who to the power of culverin, falconet, and wheel- rode behind the Pizarros and Cortez in Peru lock, but by 1648, when the Thirty Years' War and Mexicomade their desperate charges against ended, military leaders and tacticians had con­ Indians whose bodies were protected by heavily cluded that armor was outmoded in warfare.

(Left) Burganetof Cosimo II de'Medici, Italian, 1550. This Halian (Roman), about 1550. These burganets in the col­ richly gilded helmet is embossed in low relief with the lection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art not only Battle of the Centaurs and Lapithae, gorgons, foliation. A display the superb craftsmanship of sixteenth century Greek wave pattern is developed conspicuously on the armorers, but also depict the sound functional design crest. (Right) Burganetof the Guard of Pope Julius III, that characterized their work. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art French steel cap-lining, 1915. French steel cap-lining shown in position inside kepi.

It is true that armor was employed sketchily is shown in the development of the "casque and experimentally during the American Revo­ Adrian," the first modern military helmet. lution, the Napoleonic Wars, and by both North Xntendant-General Adrian of the French army and South in the American Civil War, but in talked with a soldier who had been struck in the main its survival was little more than a the head by a rifle bullet. The wounded man tribute to ancient tradition, the reluctance to reported that he owed his life to the circum­ part with somesuch ornamental item of uniform stance that he was carrying his metal food-bowl as the highly polished cuirass—gleaming like a under his cloth cap. The general seized upon mirror in the sunlight—which was worn by the idea as one which promised head protection French cavalrymen until after 1914. for the man in the trenches. He had a steel calotte—a skull-cap—made and fitted within the The First World War opened as one of move­ lining of his kepi. A brief trial demonstrated ment but after the First Battle of the Mgxne that it could be worn without discomfort and changed rapidly to one of position with the a number were made and issued to combat intrenched armies of France and Britain facing troops. It proved highly satisfactory, and Gen­ those of Germany across a narrow No Man's eral Adrian turned promptly to the development Land which extended from the Alps to the of a helmet with which all French troops were North Sea. Attacks were in mass and, neces­ equipped. Long before theUnited Statesentered sarily, frontal. Both attackers and defenders the conflict, all the warring nations had fur­ were exposed to a merciless barrage of high nished their men with steel helmets as partial explosive and shrapnel, thelatter predominating. protection against shrapnel and against glancing Tactics of both offense and defense demanded hits by low-velocity fragments. that troops so exposed be given some form The helmet used by the American Expedi­ of protection; armor found in that need its tionary Force in World War I bore the designa­ Renaissance. tion M1917. It was the British Mkl helmet, The trial-and-error approach to the problem slightly modified, stamped from manganesesteel.

2 A helmet superior in many respects to the Little of the body armor designed during M1917 was designed by the Ordnance Depart­ 1917-1918 saw front line service or was sub­ ment during World War I, but the British type jected to the ultimate test of combat. The was already in mass production and the diffi­ concensus was that the additional weight would culties and delays unavoidable in a manufac­ so hamper the movements of the infantryman turing changeover prevented the adoption of or combat engineer and so limit the ammuni­ the new helmet before the Armistice halted tion and weapons that he could carry that the war contracts. use of body armor, however light, was impracti­ Body armor, as distinguished from helmets, cal. These conclusions, it may be remarked, was given serious consideration Jby most mili­ paralleled exactly those reached by the General tary leaders during World War I. The Ordnance Staffs of Great Britain, France, and Germany. Department developed such articles as gorgets One must look deeper than the actual record to protect the neck and shoulders, body armor of things accomplished to determine the value in one-piece stampings similar to the French of the experimental research in design and with cuirass, and body- and back-armor made of materiel which the Ordnance Department con­ overlapping plates curved to fit the human ducted during the First World War and the years which followed. Those researches must torso. The use of plates also included pieces not be dismissed as non-productive. It was then composed of small plates or scales attached to a that the groundwork was laid and the path for fabric backing. One-piece shinguards and armor future research clearly indicated. Twenty-five completely the leg and the arm were to protect years later, when the tactical need for body also developed. Many and various forms of armor became acute, the records of Ordnance visors were fitted to the standard and to experi­ research indicated clearly the form which that mental helmets to protect the face and eyes, armor should take; six months before America and even at that early day experiments were became an active belligerent in World War II, conducted with a special helmet designed for the Ml helmet, standard for all ground forces, aviators. was in quantity production. In this connection Much of that equipment was frankly experi­ it may be mentioned that the Ml rifle, gas- mental. Much of it was designed for the specific operated, semi-automatic, was designed, devel­ use of troops or of individual soldiers whose oped, and put into production during the years duties did not require a high degree of mobility. of peace between the two World Wars. The two Snipers and front line sentries, for example, items, helmet and rifle, may well be cited might be supplied with armor so heavy as virtu­ together as proving the incalculable value of ally to immobilize attack troops. peacetime research.

Basic Factors in Armor Development

HE sole purpose of body armor is the saving but no study of the subject can be undertaken of lives. Unarmored men dieor receivewounds without consideration of several inescapable and Twhich cripple them permanently, while men definitely limiting factors. protected by armor may escape unscathed or It is scarcely necessary to remark that it is a sustain only slight wounds. That humanitarian- physical impossibility for a man to carry the ism is the single motivedominating all Ordnance weight of armor necessary to give him complete research in and development of armor is true, protection against a direct hit of a high velocity projectile, or against large shell-fragments trav­ from such a projectile or the impact of the eling at high velocity. Fortunately—and quite major portion of its burst may completely de­ contrary to popular belief—few men are killed stroy a plane in midair. No armor can be of sig­ by direct hits. The great majority of the casu­ nificant value in such contingencies. alties among both air and ground troops are In this connection it should be noted that caused by small fragments of high explosive heavy antiaircraft fire directed against theheavy shells traveling at comparatively low velocities. bombers generally bursts 100 feet or more from The body armor supplied to our men can and the plane. does protect them against those fragments. The majority of fragments from such bursts News dispatches and the soldiers' own ac­ which result in serious damage weigh only frac­ counts frequently describe shell fragments as tions of an ounce, not pounds. The number of "shrapnel" or "flak." The first term is wholly larger fragments is so small that the chances of a misnomer since no shrapnel shells are now in being struck by one are not a reasonable mathe­ use by any of the warring nations. "Flak"—an matical probability. Upon detonation, a consid­ abbreviation oiflugzeug abwehr kanone—is appli­ erable portion of these heavy shells is reduced cable only to antiaircraft fire or the batteries to dust consisting of tiny particles weighing a which launch it. "Flak" consists largely of shells few thousandths of an ounce.Shells from 20-mm from 75 mm to 120 mm in caliber. A direct hit guns are primarily fired from enemy fighter

Bombers vs. flak: This photograph shows the density of enemy flak through which our planes must fly to reach their targets. .\-- b 4s

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Recovered fragments of an exploded shell. Protection from such jagged edges and irregularly shaped fragments is afforded by armor.

Flash radiograph of an exploding shell.

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m # planes and detonate upon impact only. The Another factor is that of weight. The "cost" fragments from this type of shell average about of armor is not figured in dollars and cents but a hundredth of an ounce. in ounces per square foot. When one considers that an additional burden of five pounds is an Time tests made during static detonation of effective handicap for an 1,100-pound racehorse, shells of various sizes have shown that the frag­ the problems of weight vs. protection and of ments are projected from the bursting shell at a weight vs.coverage, becomefar moresignificant. velocity of approximately 3,000 feet per second. Such velocity, if maintained by even small frag­ This is especially true in supplying the in­ ments, could cause considerable damage, but fantryman with body armor. It is only natural the tests mentioned have also shown that the for a man to resent any addition to the weight fragments lose approximately half that initial which his tactical duties demand that he carry, velocity before striking.Only a small percentage and there is a point where this resentment will of the fragments produced by the burst of a eclipse any concept of safety and the soldiers 90-mm shell at 100 feet actually strike the will discard theextra burden. Any armor project target plane. Of these, many are intercepted by must balance the offensive power of the indi­ the plane's metal covering and its internal struc­ vidual against loss of mobility or reduced ture. It is against the small percentage remain­ efficiency. Obviously, there must be a real ing that the flyer's armor is designed to afford "payoff" if the heavily burdened foot soldier is" protection. to accept the extra weight of body armor. Development of Flyers' Armor

ENTION has already been made that when extremely restricted quarters and gun stations M the United States entered World War II of the Flying Fortresses and Liberators. .The the Ml helmet, developed and placed in pro­ need became urgent for helmets designed especi­ duction since the First World War, was the ally for flyers' use and for armor which would only standard item of armor on the Ordnance protect the men's bodies without hampering too lists. greatly their movements. The Headquarters of the Eighth Air Force had access to drawings The Ml helmet represented a tremendous and illustrations of armor designed during advance over the M1917 of World War I and World War I. Certain modifications to adapt it was superior in every respect to any helmet in to flyers' use were suggested by Air Force use by the warring nations in the second global officers and by flight surgeons and medical conflict. It was designed for and issued to officers who had studied the wounds which crew ground troops, and there was no thought that members had suffered and who had determined airplane crew members might find it useful. upon the body areas where protection was With the year 1943 theaerial offensiveagainst required. < Germanyincreased intempo and strategic bomb­ Speed was essential and a British manufac­ ing became a reality. Our casualty rates in­ turer was commissioned to make what were creased proportionately. Many men were killed first termed "flak suits"—a name which has or wounded by fragments of high explosive persisted as descriptive of flyer's armor—for shell fired from the 20-mm aircraft cannon of American bomber crews. Samples reached this the German fighter planes. country in July 1943, and the Ordnance De­ For their own protection, the crews of partment took over the improvement of flyers' American planes began to wear the Ml helmet armor and the task of placing it in quantity but soon learned that it was too bulky for the production. The facilities of the armor workshop of the technicians, pilot models have been produced Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York were for all the body armor worn by American called upon. That museum housed one of the soldiers, together with a number of specialized largest of the world's collections of armor and in helmets. Five of those helmets, all now items of its shop every type of armor in existence had standard equipment, are illustrated in the ap­ been examined, restored, and reproduced. Its pendix to this paper. Also illustrated are two staff, directed by the Curator of Arms and standard and three experimental aprons for Armor, included skilled craftsmen who found flyers, two standard and one experimental flyers' ready to their hands any one of the hundreds of vests, standard groin armor for flying personnel, highly specialized tools essential to the armorer's crotch armor for engineer troops, and eye work. Many of those stakes and planishing ham­ armor. mers were in themselves museum pieces; tools The vests and aprons may be worn in any which had once hung on the walls of medieval combination to adapt them to the particular shops. The Metropolitan Museum had partici­ station or to the specific duties of the man in pated in all armor development during and sub­ that station. A pilot or copilot, for example, sequent to World War I and its staff had a has no need for armor protection over his back thorough appreciation of Ordnance needs. since the back of his seat is of armor plate. The armor shop was the Ordnance Depart­ They wear the M2 vest, armored only in front. ment's research laboratory for armor research. Since pilots remain seated, the M5 groin armor There, with the collaboration of the museum's has been developed for their use. This armor

Armorer shaping an experimental helmet in the Armorer's Workshop at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. consists of a skirt which covers each thigh and a midsection which folds back between the legs and on which the wearer sits. Maximum pro­ tection is given the wearer's abdomen, inguinal area, and thighs. The groin armor attaches to the vest and replaces the smaller aprons which do not offer complete protection to a seated man. Groin armor is worn by the copilots, engineers, and bombardiers of certain planes as well as by pilots. Gunners, navigators, bombardiers, and radio operators wear the Ml vest, fully armored both front and back, and either the M3or M4 apron. The two aprons differ only in size, the M3 being the smaller and designed for men stationed in turrets and other cramped positions. It is obvious that flying personnel can wear armor weighing far more than that which a foot soldier could be expected to carry. None of the work which an airman is called upon to perform (Above) Cutting a piece of ex­ perimental armor in the Armorer's Workshop of the Metropolitan (Below) A section of the Armorer's Workshop at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Museum of Art, showing steps in armor design, sewing of fabric lining, and adjustment of neck armor to a mannikin equipped with helmet and body armor. could be considered sedentary, but he is not required to maintain a high degree of mobility or agility over extended periods. At the same time, theairman may becalled upon to abandon ship and take to his parachute at a moment's notice. It is equally obvious that a safe landing would be jeopardized by the twenty-four pounds of additional weight represented by the fully- armored vest Ml and the M3 apron.

Provision for the swift and certain jettisoning of armor was made in the first suits manufac­ tured in England for the Eighth Air Force and was greatly improved in the standard models developed by the Ordnance Department. The various combinations of vest and apron, and of vest and groin armor, are attached one to an­ other by quick release fasteners. Tapes passing within the units connect all the fasteners to a ripcord at the wearer's waist. Only a single jerk Pilot of a B-29 Bomber (Superfortress) wearing Helmet on the ripcord is required to break all the con- M5, Armor, Vest, M2, and Armor, Groin, M5.

Crew member of a B-17 Bomber(Flying Fortress),equipped with HelmetM5 and flyer'sarmor,pro­ ceeding along the bomb-bay catwalk. The necessity for keeping armor bulktoa minimum isappar­ ent. Waist gunner wearing helmet (right below) and flak suit while in action on a heavy bomber. nections between the various items of armor. of nylon canvas. The steel is the same as that The front and rear sections of the vest, the apron used in making the Ml helmet. and the groin armor, fall away instantly and A departure from this form of construction simultaneously and the flyer is free to jump, is represented by those vests and aprons which unhampered by the heavy armor. Should the are listed currently under "T" designations as neck armor, now designated T59, be added to development or experimental items. These—the the equipment worn by men in certain stations T55, T56, and T57 aprons and the T46 vest— it, too, will be jettisoned when the ripcord is represent a combination of metal and textiles, pulled. each fulfilling a distinct function. Construction details of all the standard ar­ The idea is not new but is an adaptation of mored vests and aprons are similar. The armor ancient practice to modern need. Quilted armor in each consists of 2-inch square overlapping has already been mentioned as used by the plates of Hadfield manganese steel secured in Indians from Mexico to Peru at the time of the pockets which, in turn, are sewed to a backing Conquest. The history of armor records the use

Waist gunner of a B-17 Bomber jettisoning his flyer's armor. Front and back sections of armor have just begun to fall after pull on the ripcord held in gunner's right hand. (Right, below) Waist gunner's armor has now been instantaneously and completely jettisoned. of silk, cocoanut fiber cloth, cotton and woolen foot offered satisfactory resistance to shrapnel, fabrics, braided and twisted rope, and other shell splinters, and bayonet thrusts, but it was textiles. A "Linen Armourers' Guild" was in not proof against the caliber .30, M1906, car­ existence in England during the 13th and 14th tridge or the caliber .45 ball fired from the Centuries. Leather was also widely used. M1911 pistol. Silk proved superior to steel in checking irregular projectiles such as shell frag­ This textile, or "soft", armor appeared as ments traveling at velocities lower than 1,500 quilted garments, in woven fabrics both coarse feet per second. and fine, and in combination with chain mail and steel splints, scales, and laminations. All of Those findings were recalled when Ordnance it utilized the same principle. technicians sought to reduce the weight of fly­ As early as 1915 extensive experiments were ers' armor without loss of protective qualities. conducted by the Ordnance Department to de­ Consequently, armor was developed with a hard termine theefficiency of silk as protection against metallic surface to shatter and slow up frag­ shrapnel and smallarms fire. It was found that ments, and with multiple layers of nylon behind a silk matting weighing one pound per square the plates to catch those fragments that pene-

Brigandine, Italian, 1400, from the armor collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. This armor is composed of 53 overlapping plates of iron (varying in size from 5 to 3 Vi to 7 x 3 inches) originally tinned on both sides and riveted to a double thickness of coarse canvas, with openings at the top for neck and arms. The length of the original canvas indicates that the brigandine protected the abdomen and loins. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art Jack, English, XVI Century. It is made as a coat in eight "Franco-British Cuirass/' 1916-1917, a flexible body sections. Each section is composed of square overlapping shield for wear under a tunic. iron scales secured between two layers of stout canvas.

Square pieces of metal were riveted from the center of each piece to a canvas support. Plates did not overlap Berkley's "Flexible Armor Guard," 1916 and gave little protection.

W* • trate the metal.Silk was unobtainable but nylon Finished units and pilot models are also tested, proved satisfactory in every way. Tufted pads and rejected if they fail to meet the rigid of multiple layers of nylon were used behind an requirements. armor composed of three-inch by five-inch An elaborate technique for determining the oblongs of an aluminum alloy lighter than man­ quality of armor materiel has been developed by ganese steel but equally resistant. Fragments the Ordnance Department and set up at Aber­ may penetrate the aluminum—as they do the deen Proving Ground. It permits comparative steel—but they are either checked entirely by testing of an unknown material against one for the yielding nylon or so retarded that they no which all data have been determined. For exam­ longer retain sufficient velocity to penetrate the ple, a plate of Hadfield manganese steel twenty- flyer's heavy clothing—in itself a protective four inches square is used as a control against covering of no small consequence. The fibers plates of the metal or alloy which is under test. of the nylon serve to trap the jagged fragments The apparatus consists of three rectangular where a smooth projectile, traveling at equal boxes which meet so that the space included velocity, might penetrate. between their ends forms a triangle—hence the Naturally, no material enters into the fabri­ name "Triangle Test" which the method has cation of body armor or helmets until after it been given. The Hadfield steel plate is set in has proved its worth in comprehensive tests. the end of one box, while plates of the material

Oblique and top views of Armor, Flyer's, Vest, Ml (back section) with covering removed to show overlapping arrangement of steel plates. The similarity of design to that of the Italian brigandine is apparent.

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J ': mMf i y j under test are placed in one or both of the other about 2,100 feet per second. The merit of the openings. Behind the armor plate, in each box, material under testis judged, not by the number are a number of thin sheets of metal for which of fragments which may penetrate it, but by all pertinent data have been determined. The determination of the power of those fragments sheets are spaced one inch apart and each of which have penetrated the plate to enter the the areas so set off is a numbered zone to which numbered zones. Any fragments which advance the penetration of fragments may be measured. beyond the sixth zone may be considered as A 20-mm HEI shell is then statically detonated having pierced both the flyer's armor and his within the triangle formed by the three ad­ clothing, and are capable of wounding or killing. jacent ends. Steel used in the manufacture of helmets is The static detonation of a projectile under also subjected to the Triangle Test to deter­ the conditions described will produce typical mine its resistance to shell fragments and to fragments projected at an average velocity of direct smallarms fire.

A sample of the latest design of flyer's armor (after test firing) under limited procurement for service test. It is constructed of aluminum plates approximately the size of plates used in the Italian brigandine of 1400. The design and type of construction are based on the craftsmanship of the ancient armorer of 1400, while the special heat-treated aluminum alloy and nylon backing are products of present industrial research laboratories. This combination is the result of the most modern ballistic testing, and provides protection against the soldier's worst enemy—shell fragments.

14 Flyers' Helmets

NUMBER of special helmets have been de­ used, so that it may be worn in gun turrets and A veloped by the Ordnance Department other combat positions where space is at a for the use of airplane crew members. These, premium. The M4 is cut away over the ears, like all armor, are designed primarily to save so that 'phones may be worn. The M4A1 and lives and to supply protection according to the M4A2 helmets are similar in construction and duties of individuals at specific combat stations contour except for plates which cover the ears. in planes. Special-purpose helmets for ground The M4A2 is slightly longer than the M4A1 troops will be considered in their place. so that all head sizes may be fitted. Standard flyers' helmets are the M3, M4, The M5 helmet, recently standardized, is in M4A1, M4A2, M5, and—for paratroopers— production and a first delivery is on its way to the MlC. The M3 is a modified helmet without combat. It is a streamlined modern version of a liner. The adjustable head suspension is at­ the Ml and M3 helmets, incorporating the tached directly to the steel. It is further modified lessons of the ancient armorer, the experience by the addition of hinged plates which cover the of the Ordnance Department, and scientific earphones worn by all crew members. Flyers' helmets M4, M4A1, and M4A2 are anthropological measurements. The M5 will be generally similar. All are armored with over­ the standard helmet of the Air Forces. lapping segments of the steel used in the Ml The MlC helmet was developed to meet the and M3 helmets. The steel segments are in cloth especial requirements of parachute troops. It pockets and the helmet clings closely to the is the Ml helmet of the ground forces equipped head when a leather or cloth flying helmet is with special chin straps and snap fastenings

Heads made to anthropometric dimensions for use in helmet design. View in Armorer's Workshop, the Metropolitan Museum of Art. which secure the steel helmet to the liner and models on twelve sculptured heads prepared prevent the helmet being knocked off when the after a thorough study of cranial measurements parachute opens. by the Aero-Medical Research Laboratory. There is no guesswork, no hit-or-miss method Every type of skull contour is included in that in the development of helmets and body armor series. for American fighting men. The Ordnance Two examples of design problems may be Department works in close association with cited. The bowl of the M5 helmet conforms such sources of information as the Office of the more accurately to the skull contour than did Surgeon General of the Army, the Aero-Medical preceding models. This allows economy of space Research Laboratory at Wright Field, airplane in newly designed planes—a problem always engineers, and ballisticians. Combat reports a bugaboo to designers, since every cubic inch are studied critically and airplane crew members is precious. The close limits within which armor —the men who wear the armor and trust their designers must work is again exemplified by lives to it—are called upon for opinions. their endeavor to provide a longer helmet Anthropometric records are made and scruti­ designated M4A2. The length was increased nized with the greatest care. The fit of a pro­ by 5/32 inch, a modification which made the posed helmet, the position and adjustment of helmet a trifle too large for certain combat its suspension, are determined by trying pilot stations.

Dimensioning an experimental helmet to determine minimum size on a Type VII head. Armorer's Workshop, the Metropolitan Museum of Art. (Right, below) Studying countour designs according to head types. On the left is Helmet T21, on the right, Helmet M5.

16 Air Force Opinions

T has been said that the entire significance of Iany human endeavor may be found in the answer to the simple question, "Will it work?" The effectiveness of protection by flyers' armor is clearly apparent when one reads the statements of the men who owe their lives to that armor. It should be noted, too, that the information comes only from those men wTho required medical attention. Hundreds of combat flyers have been struck by shell frag­ ments and have found that none of the missiles penetrated their armor. Those men merely drew new armor to replace the shot-up garments and forgot the incident.

Sgt. John P. Stankiewicz, waist gunner, 386th Bombardment Group, was saved from serious injury or death 25 April 1944. He said:

"While on a mission over enemy territory a piece of flak struck my helmet. It was as though someone had hit me on the head with a hammer. I felt some­ what dazed but was otherwise uninjured.,, (A dent 1.5 cm deep and 2.6 cm wide was made in Sgt. Stankiewiez's helmet.) Sgt. John P. Stankiewicz and damaged helmet that withstood the impact of a flak fragment. Sgt. Nicholas M. Rotz, waist gunner, 381st Bombardment Group, reported more fully of his experience on 19 May 1944:

"I thought it was foolish to wear a flak helmet because of its weight and I didn't take one along. It was fortunate that the radio operator had two and insisted that I wear one. I wore it all the time. We had unloaded our bombs over Berlin when I saw a concentration of flak outside the window. We were heading for home, going towards Denmark, and the next thing I knew was as though someone had hit me over the head with a sledge hammer. A piece of flak . . . had struck about two inches above the rim of the helmet directly above my left eye. ... It did not knock me unconscious, but I was dazed and developed a severe headache. The helmet saved my life. I urge all combat crew members to wear their flak suits and flak helmets from the time they leave the coast of England until they return. I think that my entire crew will always wear theirs. Flak fragment and damaged helmet worn by I have my helmet to thank for my life today." Sgt. Nicholas M. Rotz. Second Lieutenant Robert L. Schmidt, 391st Bombardment Group, reports:

"While on a mission as bombardier on 22 April 1944 I was struck by flak on the helmet. The cover­ ing fabric was torn and a steel plate dented. I was injured by flying pieces of material from the nose of the ship, which had been hit, and was stunned by the blow on my head. I am convinced that my flak helmet saved me from serious injury or death."

Captain Leo J. Murphy, Flight Surgeon, examined Lt. Schmidt's helmet and made the following report: Damaged helmet worn by 2nd Lt. Robert L. Schmidt. "Lt. Schmidt's helmet shows an indentation in the reinforced area of the right tempero-parietal region approximately two and one-half inches in cir­ cumference andone-quarter inch deep.The projectile of flak, weighing eightounces, was found in theplane. Without a helmet this officer would undoubtedly have been seriously injured if not killed."

Similar tributes are paid by combat flyers to the body armor with which they have been equipped. A seasoned man will not chance enemy fire without armor. An inexperienced flyer's bravado may outweigh his caution at first, but he learns quickly. Typical reactions of Eighth Air Force men appear in the state­ ments which they made after being slightly wounded or after escaping unscathed while wearing flyers' armor.

Second Lieutenant Kenneth Strom, navigator, 612th Squadron, 401st Bombardment Group, stated:

"I was on the Ludwigshaven mission of 7 January 1944. A piece of flak came through the nose of the ship and struck me in the side with such force that it turned me around. My first thought was that I had been hit and I wondered why it didn't hurt. Then I realized that the flak hadn't gone through Damage by shell fragment to flak suit worn by the suit. I wouldn't want to be on a mission with­ 2nd Lt. Kenneth Strom. out one."

18 S/Sgt. Albert J. Riley, waist gunner, 392nd Bombardment Group, said:

"While flying as right waist gunner on a B-24H on 22 April 1944 on my 25th mission I was hit directly over the heart by two large pieces of flak. The blow knocked me backwards into the left waist gun position but Ireceived no injuries beyond mild bruises. I advise everyone to wear flak suits. I'd be in pretty bad shape now if I hadn't had mine on." (The flight surgeon who examined Sgt. Riley stated that his body armor had saved him from a severe chest wound and probably from death.)

Second Lieutenant Thomas D. Sellers, co­ pilot, 535th Squadron, 381st Bombardment Group, advised:

"I speak to you straight from the shoulder and with the fullest experience when I say your flak suit This damaged flak suit saved S/Sgt. Albert J. Riley and helmet are your best life insurance. On previous from severe chest wounds. raids I had found that the flak suit and helmet were major mental comforts but on this flight [8 October 1943] 20-mm cannon shells exploded inside the cock­ pit and knocked me down in my seat. The fragmen­ tation ripped up everything. Wiring was torn loose, top glasses and windows were shattered, and the hydraulic system was shot out. "My whole side not covered by the flak suit was splotched with wounds but even though my suit was torn and dented, nowhere on the trunk of my body was I even scratched. ...I feel obliged to urge each and every member of a combat crew to wear his suit and helmet. It will pay a thousandfold and the man who leaves them off is subtracting enormously from his chances of going home physi­ cally whole. ...To those who may object to the weight I can say truthfully that you'll never notice it in the heat of battle. It gets lighter with each mile you go inside enemy territory until finally you wonder if it is heavy enough to do the job. . . . All in all, it has more than done its job for me, so profit by my experience and wear it. Don't learn the hard way and lose your life in the experiment. Armor has been amply proven and if you love yourself or anyone back home it is your duty to wear it, just Although it was torn by shell fragments, this flak suit as much as it is your duty to have ammunition for saved 2nd Lt. Thomas D. Sellers from wounds in the your guns." area covered by the armor. S/Sgt. Calvin W. Hopkins, waist gunner, 401st Bombardment Group:

"The flak suit is the only thing that saved me and if anyone figures it is too heavy to wear . . . get that thought out of mind."

2nd Lieut. Harold E. Donley, bombardier, 553rd Squadron, 386th Bombardment Group:

"While participating on a mission over enemy territory, 3 November 1943, I was struck above the heart by a piece of flak two inches long and one-half inch square. The blow knocked me flat on my back Damaged flak suit, with plates pierced or bent by shell from a kneeling position. The flak suit suffered very fragment, worn by S/Sgt. Calvin W. Hopkins. little damage but did a good job of stopping the piece of jagged steel. I think the protection offered by the suit greatly outweighs the discomfort it causes the wearer. In my estimation it is one of the most valuable pieces of protective equipment issued to combat crews."

S/Sgt. Earl E. Koehler, waist gunner, 401st Bombardment Group:

"On 11January 1944 after we had made our bomb run we were in the midst of a mass German attack. A 20-mm cannon shell entered the radio room, hit the left side of my flak suit, and exploded. I was knocked down and dazed until my oxygen was again hooked to a walk-around bottle. After we landed I was taken to the field dispensary and was found to have only a bruised side. In my opinion the flak suit had saved another life. I'll never go into battle without one."

S/Sgt. Joseph T. Ross, waist gunner, 324th Squadron, 91st Bombardment Group:

"They were coming at us from the tail position and my gun jammed. One ME-110 must have noticed that my gun was out and came in close. I could see his tracers. A bullet hit my right shoulder and spun me around. After we landed I saw the Effect on flak suit worn by S/Sgt. Earl E. Koehler of hole in my suit but I was uninjured. I have this to exploding 20-mm shell. say: I'll never fly on combat without a flak suit." Sgt. James J. Osterheldt, tailgunner, 392d Bombardment Group:

"A 20-mm cannon shell penetrated the side of the plane and struck the lower left half of the armor, tearing out an area of 6 rows of armor plates wide by 6 high and leaving this area a mass of shredded cloth." Sergeant Osterheldt was uninjured. He testi­ fied, "This flak suit saved my life yesterday. I'd like to keep it and have it framed." The flight surgeon asserted that Sgt. Osterheldt "was saved from serious injury or death by this flak suit." Less personal but equally significant endorse­ ment is found in the replies of various Air Force headquarters to Ordnance Department requests for suggestions which would improve the flyers' body armor. The consensus of those replies is: Flyer's vest worn by Sgt. James J. Osterheldt, after "Don't change it!" damage by fragments of 20-mm shell. Armor for Ground Troops HE weight limits on body armor for ground T forces have restricted but not halted Ord­ nance efforts to give the foot soldier protection approximating that which his comrade in the air possesses. Tests are constantly in progress with various types of body armor for snipers and other infantrymen whose duties do not call for a high degree of mobility over extended periods, for tank crew members, photographers, bulldozer drivers, and for engineer personnel engaged in mine-clearing operations. The confidence with which foot soldiers already regard body armor is shown in a report of an incident which occurred during the hedge­ row fighting on the Normandy peninsula. An enlisted man obtained three flyer's vests, put them on one over another, and advanced boldly into a field which had been raked by fire from an unlocated enemy machinegun nest.Supremely- confident of the protection which the armor gave him, he deliberately drew the enemy fire until his comrades located the hostile emplace­ ment and destroyed it.Thesoldier wasuninjured. Mention has been made of the Ml helmet, Sgt. James W. Bothwell, 8th Air Force, of the Flying developed during the years of peace between Fortress "Southern Belle", with portion of armor vest the two world wars and standardized in June which saved his life when he was struck in the back by 1941. Millions of these have been issued to low-velocity flak fragments. Only minor injuries were troops in all quarters of the globe; they have sustained by Sergeant Bothwell who returned to duty been tested and their merit proved on every after a few days' rest.

21 fighting front. Development, however, is never units engaged in mine clearing are being sup­ ended, and Ordnance engineers scan closely all plied with a special crotch armor, T16E4. This combat reports for clues which will aid them in consists of an hour-glass shaped center section eliminating any dangers for which the helmet constructed of overlapping plates similar to might be responsible. flyers' armor, and side pieces of multiple layers of nylon fabric. The center section passes be­ An example is the apparently simple ball- tween the wearer'slegs and protects the inguinal and-clevis release for the chinstrap of the Ml region and lower abdomen; the side pieces pro­ helmet. It was found that a man's helmet might tect the inner surface of the thighs and the be jerked sharply by the blast from a shell femoral arteries. The armor is suspended from exploding near him. Vertebrae might be broken the cartridge belt, and straps about the thighs or dislocated if the chinstrap did not yield. hold the side pieces in position. Engineers conducted extensive experiments to determine at what concussion pressure the Eye armor has been developed for men chinstrap should yield, then designed a catch engaged in the operations mentioned. These which would hold firmly under normal con­ eye protectors consist of a steel shield which ditions but yield at concussion pressure of 15 covers the eyes and the areas adjacent. Over pounds or greater. each eye the shield is pierced by a narrow horizontal slit crossed by a shorter vertical slit. A new design for consideration as an infantry A third slit descends at an angle from the inner helmet is currently in the experimental stage. corner of the wearer's eye. Extensive experi­ It incorporates the bowl contour of the M5 ments with many different apertures and orifices flyer's helmet and the brim of the Ml. The in various combinations determined that the overall size is reduced to a minimum, thus arrangement described exposed a smaller area presenting a smaller target as well as affording of the eye than any other and afforded satis­ greater protection. factory vision without undue strain. The proper A helmet, T14E1, is being developed for the interpupillary distance for the slits was deter­ use of cameramen. This is equipped with a mined from statistics provided by the Surgeon- pivoted frontal plate which may be raised to General's Office. A rubber dust-goggle frame permit the view and range finders to be brought will contain the slitted steel shield. closely to the eye. The constantly increasing demands of the using services for these specialized items of Several helmets have been designed for the armor provetheir valueundercombat conditions. Armored Forces. In one of these the brim of the Ml helmet was lowered to give additional No catalog listing of helmets and body armor, protection at the side, and the forward portion no account of the research and experimentation of the brim was cut back so that it would not which produced them, can tell the whole story interfere with the head rest when the wearer which the Ordnance Department wishes to was sighting the tank's gun. All Armored convey to the using services and to those who Forces helmets are provided with special shock- wait for the return of their fighting men. There absorbing suspensions. exists no statistical recording of the number of men who owe their lives, their limbs, or their In December 1943 the Ordnance Department vision to the armor which they wore, nor is it supplied the Corps of Engineers with flyers' possible to cite more than a few experiences of aprons and vests to be tested to determine their those men who have seen death approach and value for men engaged in such operations as pass them by. clearing mine fields or reducing bunkers and other enemy emplacements. The hazards in As long as there are wars, men will die in such operations are from flying gravel, stones, battle; but the American soldier of today is and dirt as well as from actual mine fragments. equipped with the most efficient armor that any fighting man of any nation has ever worn. The weight of flyers' armor is a severe hand­ Research and development are continuous and icap for men already burdened with field equip­ ceaseless. The aim is always for something ment and compelled to maintain a high degree better. If better armor can be produced, the of mobility over extended periods, and engineer American soldier shall have it. CATALOG OF HELMETS AND ARMOR

Helmet Ml Liner, Helmet, Ml

Liner, Helmet, Ml, showing suspension Helmet Ml

The Helmet Ml includes both a steel helmet and a separate liner which contains the head suspension. This liner serves the wearer as a hat when he is not in combat danger zones. The Ml is the standard helmet of the Ground Forces. The steel helmet is non-magnetic, an important consideration to those whose duties require the use of a compass or other instru­ ment affected by magnetism.

Weight 3 lb., 2 oz. P'• • • "Hii'iBfeJ.* e*©"™ilNI1 ijpsap-

Release, Chin Strap, for Helmet Ml. Release, Chin Strap (for Helmet NI) Supplied as an accessory to Helmet Ml, it the concussion acts on the helmet and chin strap replaces the rigid hook fastener of the standard to jerk the head violently. The release is engi­ chin strap. The purpose of this ball-and-clevis neered to break free at a blast pressure less than fastener is to reduce danger of injury to the is considered dangerous, and to remain fastened vertebrae of the neck which might be caused by during normal combat maneuvers. the concussion from a nearby detonation, when

Helmet MIC. Helmet MIC, showing suspension. Helmet, Steel, NIC This helmet is used by parachutists. It is (parachutists). The purpose is to keep the hel­ essentially the Ml helmet on which special chin met from being knocked off by the opening of straps are provided with snap buttons to secure the chute. the steel helmet to a special Helmet Liner MlC Weight 3 lb., 2 oz. Helmet N3

The Helmet M3 is used by flying personnel. It is a modi­ fication of the Ml helmet, the difference being that no liner is provided, as the adjustable head suspension is attached di­ rectly to the steel helmet. The body of the helmet is cut away to provide clearance for ear­ phones. Ear plates cover the earphonesand prevent possible injury from their fragmen­ tation.

Weight 3 lb., 3 oz. Helmet M3. Helmet N4 The Helmet M4 is used by flying personnel. of minimum size for use in turrets and other It consists of segments of the same steel as is combat positions not allowingsufficient spacefor used in the Ml and M3 helmets, overlapped the Helmet M3. It is a skull-cap type cut away and inclosed in cloth pockets. The purpose of at the ears to permit wearing of the head phones. this helmet is to provide a protective headgear Weight 2 lb., 1 oz.

Helmet M4. Inside view, Helmet M4 Helmet M4A1

The Helmet M4A1is used by flying personnel. It is the M4 helmet supplied with ear plates by Field Service modification.

Weight 2 lb., 12 oz.

Helmet M4A2

The Flyer's Helmet M4A2 is similar to the M4A1 in appearance and construction, but the length has been increased to fit all head sizes. It is equipped with ear plates like those of the M4A1.

Weight 2 lb., 12 oz.

Helmet M4A1.

Inside view, Helmet M4A2. Helmet M4A2.

26 Helmet M5, showing adjustable suspension.

Helmet M5. Helmet M5

The Helmet M5 is designed for flying per­ sonnel. It is a solid pot-type helmet of steel similar to the Ml and M3 but reduced to the minimum dimensions possible. The adjustable head suspension feature is so designed that regardless of head size the forehead is held against the front of the helmet thus preventing any cut-off in upward vision. This helmet re­ places all other Air Forces helmets excepting the M3 and M4A2 which will be used to a very minor extent.

Weight 2 lb., 12 oz. Armor, Flyer's, Vest, Ml The Flyer's Armor Vest Ml provides front and back sec­ tions fastened together at the shoulders by a quick detach­ able device. The vest is con­ structed of 2-inch square overlapping Hadfield manga­ nese steel plates secured in pockets attached to nylon can­ vas backing. The steel is the same typeused for Ml helmets.

Weight 17 lb., 6 oz. Area of protection.3.82 sq./ft. Oz./sq. ft. of protection... .72

Armor, Flyer's, Vest, M2 The Flyer's Armor Vest M2 is a vest with a front section similar to that of the Ml vest but with unarmored back. It is fastened at the shoulders and provided with a quick- detaching device.

Weight 7 lb., 13 oz. Area of protection.1.45 sq./ft. Oz./sq. ft. of protection 72

(Note: These figures apply to the front only.) Armor, Flyer's, Apron, M3 The Flyer's Armor Apron M3 is of the same construc­ tion as Flyer's Vest Armor Ml front. Smaller than the M4, it is used in turrets and other cramped positions.It at­ taches to the front of the Ml or M2 vest with three quick release fasteners.

Weight 4 lb., 14 oz. Area of protection.1.15 sq./ft. Oz./sq. ft. of protection 68

Armor, Flyer's, Apron, M3.

Armor, Flyer's, Apron, M4.

Armor, Flyer's, Apron, M4 The Flyer's Armor Apron M4 is of the same construc­ tion as Flyer's Armor Vest Ml front. It is a large apron used by waist gunners and is at­ tached to the front of the Ml or M2 vest with three quick release fasteners.

Weight 7 lb., 2 oz. Area of protection.1.66 sq./ft. Oz./sq. ft. of protection... .68 WEIGHT 151BS.4KS. Armor, Flyer's, Groin, M5 Flyer's Groin Armor M5 was designed for pilots, copilots, and others who remain seated. Its components are a skirt for each thigh and acenter extension piece upon which the wearer sits. It provides maximum protection to the wearer's abdomen, inguinal areas, and thighs. It attaches to the vests in place of the flyer's aprons.

Weight 15 lb., 4 oz. Armor, Flyer's, Groin, M5, Area of protection. . .3.72 sq./ft. Oz./sq. ft. of protection 65

Armor, Vest, T46 (Front),

Armor, Vest, T46 This armor fulfills the same function as Vest Armor Ml and is interchange­ able with Vest Armors Ml and M2. It is a combination of aluminum plates and nylon pad which provides equal pro­ tection per square foot asstandard flyer's armor. The weight saving on an equiva­ lent area of coverage is approximately 20 percent. The coverage has been in­ creased, primarily in the area of the collar bone. In conjunction with Neck Armor T59, a complete frontal coverage of the upper torso is provided. Status: Limited Procurement Weight 14 lb., 8 oz. Area of protection 4.09 sq./ft. Oz./sq. ft. of protection 56

30 Armor, Apron, Armor, Apron, Armor, Groin, T55 T56 T57 The Apron Armor T55 is a The Apron Armor T56 is The Groin Armor T57 is combination of aluminum similar in construction to Vest similar in construction to Vest plates and nylon padding simi­ Armor T46. It is comparable Armor T46. It is comparable lar in construction to Vest in sizeand use to Apron Armor in size and use to Groin Armor Armor T46. Comparable in M4, but the weight is substan­ M5. The weight is substan­ size and use to Apron Armor tially less. tially less. M3, its weight is substantially less. Status: Limited Procurement Status: Limited Procurement Weight 5 lb., 11 oz. Weight 12 lb., 2 oz. Status: Limited Procurement Area of protection. 1.66 sq./ft. Area of protection.3.72 sq./ft. Weight 3 lb., 14 oz. Oz./sq. ft. of protection. .54.8 Oz./sq. ft. of protection. .52.2 Area of protection.1.15 sq./ft. Oz./sq. ft. of protection. .54.2

Armor, Vest, T46 (Back).

31 Armor, Neck, T59E1 A two-piece neck protector, the design of which has been integrated with Helmet M5 and the additional coverage of the Armor Vest T46, thus providing as nearly complete coverage of the upper torso, head, neck, and collar bone as is possible without limiting freedom of movement. Design provides for use with Standard Vests Ml and M2. Protective materials con­ sist of aluminum plates and nylon as in Armor Vest T46. A minimum motion is required to jettison the armor, as it is made in two components, the front portion for attachment to the front of the vest and the back portion to the back of the vest. Either component may be worn individually. Pulling the rip-cord of the vest releases Neck Armor T59E1 along with the vest components.

Status: Under consideration for limited pro­ curement with Armor Vest T46. Weight 4 lb., 8 oz. Area of protection 1.30 sq./ft. Armor, Neck, T59E1, shown in conjunction with recently Oz./sq. ft. of protection 55 standardized Helmet M5.

Armor, Neck. T44- Armor, Neck, T44 Neck Armor T44 protects the neck between the areas covered by body armor and helmet. The con­ struction is of 2 x 2-inch steel plates similar to that of the standard fly­ er's armor. It rests on theshoulders, is fastened in front by a lift-a-dot fastener, and the upper forward corners are stabilized by the strap connection providedfor attachment to the M4 series of helmets.

Status: Limited Procurement Weight 4 lb., 5 oz. Area of protection 0.98 sq./ft. Oz./sq. ft. of protection 63.6

32 ilSitfLMdiiM:, i-iLl! Armor, Crotch, T16E4 The Crotch Armor T16E4 is for use by engineers when removing antipersonnel mines. The center section is of hourglass shape, constructed of overlapping plates similar to standard flyer's armor. Thegroin flanges for thigh protection are constructed of multiple layers of nylon fabric. It is worn by attachment to the cartridge belt, and the groin flanges are held in place by a strap which is fastened around the thigh.

Status: Limited Procurement Weight 3 lb., 6 oz. Area of protection 1.15 sq. ft. Oz./sq. ft. of protection 47.0

JKi Armor, Crotch, T16E4 (Front). Armor, Eye, T45E4 Armor, Crotch, T16E4 (Back). This ingenious armor was devised prin­ cipally to provide eye protection for per­ sonnel engaged in clearing mine fields. A plate, of the same steel as is used in helmets and body armor, is provided with small vision slits. The steel plate is mounted in a rubber dust-goggle frame.

Status: Limited Procurement Weight 7 oz.

Armor, Eye, T45E4. Helmet T19E1 A development item for use in tanks, this helmet is under service board test. The pur­ pose is to provide a helmet for use in conjunction with an Ml liner, modified to include a suspension that providescrash protection. The contour of the helmet enables maximum free­ dom of movement within the confines of a tank's interior. Earphones are protected, and optical and sighting equip­ ment can be used without in­ terference by the helmet.

Status: Development item un­ der Service Board test. Weight 2 lb., 1oz.

Helmet T19E1.

Helmet T21. Helmet T21 Designed to reduce the size of helmets for ground force use, without any sacrifice of the protective area, the shape of the T21 helmet is based on anthropometric studies of the contour of the human head. This helmet is the smallest size that can be provided for use with a liner. It is shaped so that at all points on the body of the helmet there is a curva­ ture in both directions, thus making a stronger, more pro­ tective helmet than is other­ wise possible.

Status: Development models. Weight 2 lb., 2 oz. (without liner) BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following sources were consulted during the preparation of this article: AN ALMAIN ARMOURER'S ALBUM. By Viscount Dillon. London, 1905. ANCIENT ARMOUR AND WEAPONS IN EUROPE. By John Hewitt. London, 1855. ARMES AND ARMURES ANCIENNES. By Generals Niox and Mariaux. Paris, Vol. I,1917; Vol. II,1927. THE ARMOURER AND HIS CRAFT; XI TO XVI CENTURY. By Charles FfoulkeS. London, 1912. ARMOUR IN ENGLAND. By J. Starkie Gardner. Portfolio, Monographs. London, 1897. ARMOUR AND WEAPONS IN THE MIDDLE AGES. By Charles H. Ashdown. London, 1925. ARMS AND ARMOUR. Translated from French of M. P. Lacombe by Charles Boutell. London, 1925. ARMS AND WEAPONS. By Charles Ffoulkes. Oxford, 1909. CATALOG OF LOAN EXHIBITIONS OF ARMS AND ARMOR. By Bashford Dean. New York, 1911. THE COLLECTION OF ARMS AND ARMOR OF RUTHERFORD STUYVESANT. By Bashford Dean. Privately Printed, 1914. A GLOSSARY OF THE CONSTRUCTION, DECORATION AND USE OF ARMS AND ARMOR. By George Cameron Stone. Portland, Maine, 193k. HANDBOOK OF ARMS AND ARMOR, EUROPEAN AND ORIENTAL, INCLUDING THE WILLIAM H. RIGGS COLLECTION. By Bashford Dean. New York, 1915. HELMETS AND BODY ARMOR IN MODERN WARFARE. By Bashford Dean. New Haven, 1930. HISTORY OF ARMS AND ARMOR. Museum Press, Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York, 1935. HISTORY OF CHIVALRY AND ANCIENT ARMOUR. By Rev. A. Lowy. London,1857. NOTES ON ARMS AND ARMOR. By Bashford Dean. New York, 1916. ORIENTAL ARMS AND ARMOR. From Henri Moser Collection. Leipzig, 1912. RECORD OF EUROPEAN ARMOUR AND ARMS. By Guy Francis Laking. London, 1920. SPANISH ARMS AND ARMOR. By Albert F. Calbert. New York, London, 1907. U. S. GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS: AMERICA'S MUNITIONS, 1917-1918. By Benedict Crowell. Washington, 1919. HANDBOOK OF ORDNANCE DATA. Washington, 15 November 1918. NEW WEAPONS AND EQUIPMENT. Ordnance Department publication. Washington, February 19M.

COMBINED ARMS RESEARCH LIBRARY FORT LEAVENWORTH, KS

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