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Index

abortion 220–21 opposition to US military bases on Abu Ghraib prison, Iraq 282, 351–2 Japanese soil 339 prisoner abuse 274, 344, 351–2 Women for Genuine Security (US sexual positioning 277–8 affiliate of INWAM)355 Act Now to Stop War and End Racism Army of Sierra Leone 120 (ANSWER) 354 Association of Female Lawyers of Afghanistan 127 Liberia (AFELL) 409 femininity in 137 asylum law, gendered aspects 195–6 homosexualization ofAfghan men 134–5 Bangladesh ‘Long War’, 2001–14, 127–43 mass rape, forced impregnation, soldiers deployed in 27 1970s 499 Afghan NationalArmy (ANA), training Blackwater,nowAcademi 86 of 134–6 Boko Haram 223–5 Afghan women 154–5 Nigerian girls, kidnap 169 Africa, forced migration 194–5 Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions African-American women 147 (BDS) 381, 394–5, 397 black women reporters 321 Britain 68 Agency 4, 48–9, 51, 55, 61–2, 105–23, British espionage in First World War 156–7, 187, 189–90, 298, 368–9, 73–4 385, 470, 529, 565, 576 during Second World War 80–83 Al-Aqsa Intifada 390, 391–2 significant contributions from Al Qaeda 63, 120 women 83 Al Shabab, Islamic militant group 223 British intelligence, inter-war period American antiwar movement 362 75–6 American Colonization Society (ACS) British military, resistance to 527 homosexuality 37 American PsychologicalAssociation gentleman spy 25, 69 task force 260 British Union of Fascists 76 Bush administration 154, 370 Amnesty International 533 Anarchists against the Wall (AATW) Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament 397 (CND) 338, 419–35 Anglo-Boer War (1899–1902) 68 challenges to traditional gender Angolan peace processes 469–70 norms 424, 435 anti-nuclear movement, Japan 439–40 Chechnya, ‘Palestinization of’155–6 Anti-Vietnam WarAlliance 441 child abuse, parental deployment 254 anti-war activism 338 child brides 215–6 feminist anti-base activism in child soldiers 123, 551–3 Okinawa 452 demilitarization and reintegration of see also Okinawa 463 gender archetypes 292–4 former combatants, girls as 224–6 anti-war protest in Japan 438–55 Child Soldiers International 224

591

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592 Handbook on gender and war

China post–1959 equality of men and equality of men and women 244 women 244 social reorganization, farm Cuban Missile Crisis 422–3 collectivization 245 cyber defense measures 118 CIA 24, 50, 62 civilians in armed conflicts 128, 132, Defence of the RealmAct, 1914, 71 213–4 Defense Science Board Task Force 117 civil society organizations (CSOs) 477 demilitarization 347, 461–3, 520, 526–7 civil war(s) 181, 215–6, 233–5, 237–9, DemocraticAccountability forArmed 316, 318, 321–2, 324, 337–8, Forces (DCAF) 89 341–3, 352, 362, 400–402, 411, Democratic Front for the Liberation of 467, 496, 499, 527, 530 Palestine (DFLP) 387 Coalition of Women for Peace (CWP) Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) 392–3, 397 girl child soldiers 224–6 Israeli attacks on Gaza 392–3 sexual violence 220, 499 Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Department of Defense (DoD), US 253 Soldiers 552–3 Task Force on Suicide Prevention 256 see also Child Soldiers International desertion rate 251 CODEPINK 338, 340–41, 348, 350, development/security nexus 483 355–7, 368 DirectAction CommitteeAgainst CODEPINK US 355 Nuclear Weapons Tests (DAC) 429 colonialism 127, 446, 490, 497 Directorate of Military Intelligence 68 genocidal colonialism 490 Directorate of Military Operations 68 combat exposure 250–51 Disarmament, Demobilization and combat roles ban removal 366 Reintegration (DDR) 11, 472–5, ‘comfort women’443, 446–8, 450, 454 188–9, 463, 473, 494, 497–9, 530 Asian Women’s Fund for ‘comfort Disarmament, Demobilization, women’449 Reintegration and Rehabilitation Korean 449 DDR(R) 526–7, 530–37, 540, Commission on the Status of Women 544–5 (CSW) 574 disarmament programs, 410, 498 concentration camps 81 domestic and sexual slavery, Sierra Conflict-Related SexualViolence Leone DRC 512 (CSRV) 472 domestic violence 155, 170, 177, 179, conflicts, and political processes 6 182, 198, 203, 206–7, 240, 242, and education 217 446, 506 and sexual abuse 218–22 in military families 179, 253–4, 493, Convention on the Elimination ofAll 496 Forms of Discrimination against Don’tAsk Don’t Tell (DADT) 36–7, Women (CEDAW) 446, 575–6, 344, 373–4 585 drones 106–7, 112 Copenhagen School 488 drug and alcohol abuse by soldiers counterinsurgency 127–8, 136–7 112–13, 119, 120, 172, 253 Counterinsurgency Operations (COIN) Abu Ghraib 351–2 127–43, 256 Cuba, legislation on gender equality Enigma, encryption machine 78–9 245 ethnic cleansing 215

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Index 593

mass rape, forced impregnation, gendered resistance to political violence Bangladesh 221 Israel 6–7, 34, 155, 296, 318, 324, European Court of Human Rights 37 329, 338, 357, 380, 382, 386, European Union (EU) 57 388–97 Japan, approach through women’s female Communist spies, media’s activism 445–7 reporting of 67 justice 7, 351 ‘Female Engagement Teams’(FETs) refugees 210 26, 129, 137–42 gender hierarchy 149, 160 female espionage 66–7 gender-neutral studies 158 female genital mutilation 199 gender-oriented transformation 464 female inclusion, in peace 347 gender-responsive peacebuilding 474 female targeting for sexual favors 171 female terrorists 159 gender-sensitive designs for refugees feminine 227 attributes, compassion, concern 26, planning in schools 218 129 projects in post-conflict societies 464 values, passivity, virtue 24 gender-specific myths 25, 36, 47, 67, femininity in Campaign for Nuclear 83, 139, 290–91, 292–4, 305–7, Disarmament 431–2 366–7 feminism gender-specific training antiwar 352–3, 454 Liberia 534–5 intersectional 8–9, 349, 438, 447, 520 Geneva Convention 188 and pacifism 320, 420 genocidal colonialism 490 and peace 346 genocide postcolonial 14, 521 criminal trials for Rwanda and former transnational 349, 353 Yugoslavia, 1990s 512 feminist and antiwar organizations, 355 rape as weapon, Bosnian conflict feminist antimilitarism 341, 348–52, 182–3 353–7 German agents in Britain 69, 70, 76, 77 ‘human security’, ‘global security’5 Germany, woman in reconstruction feminist intersectional analysis 8–9 work 244 feminist perspectives on reparations Nazi regime, Germany 553–4 516–17 psycho-social impacts 560–61 Feminist Security Studies 489 after Second Word War 244 feminist solidarity 393–6 social stigma 558–9 ‘feminization’of US military 272–4 subject to sexual abuse 171 First World War 70–74, 231, 316 Ghana forced migration 194, 196–7, 199 Peace Talks inAccra 407 Four Mothers 390–93 girls Fourth World Conference on Women in in armed conflict 557 Beijing 12–3 armed conflict, becoming mothers 557 gay and lesbian soldiers 38, 352 difficulty of readjusting in aftermath gender mainstreaming 12–14, 575, 585 of war 556 gender-based crimes 11–12 no formal schooling 223 gender-based violence 156, 175–90, as human shields, suicide bombers 499 223

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594 Handbook on gender and war

killed en masse for refusing captor’s heroes and heroism, 47, 70, 107–10, orders 223 116, 118, 362, 367–8, 376 peacebuilding, exclusion of 469 risk-taking 107, 108, 109 sexual sale 221 heroic warrior in twenty-first century soldiers as human shields 171 heroine of war 50–56, 74, 293 tradable commodities 221 ‘post-heroic’25–6, 107–10 undervalued due to son-preference heterosexuality 215 in the military 36–40, 41, 135 weapons of war 213–28 Hirohito, Emperor girl soldiers death in 1989, 443 demobilization and reintegration responsible for crimes against 550–66 humanity 450 economic realities 559–60 supreme Commander in Chief, Japan, identity ‘militarized’561–3 war crimes 443 Joan ofArc 553–4 HitlerYouth in WestAfrica 553–4 Bund Deutscher Mädel (League of Global North hegemonic masculinity 10 German Girls) 554 global peace goal for Japan 443–5 HitotsuboAntiwar Landlords Global South and Global North tensions Association 442 16 HIV/AIDS 220, 233, 555 armed struggle 34 homicide and violent crime 251–3 international instability 487 homoeroticism/homosocial practices international security and 32–3, 38–9 development 486 homosexuality sources of insecurity for Global Afghanistan 134–6 North 483–4 homosexuality declaration 373–4 Golders Green Committee for the in the military 37–9 Abolition of Nuclear Weapons 425 homosexual men 37, 132, 423 governance of insecurity and danger, honor killings, protection from 217, 227 construction of 98 household roles of women 170 Government Code and Cypher School vulnerability to wars 176–7 75 human intelligence and signal decoding of messages 79 decryption 73 Government Communications human interdependence and relational Headquarters (GCHQ) 1942 autonomy Ultra, intelligence 79 re-visioning 189 Greenham Common 430 human-interest approaches to covering Greenham Common Women’s Peace war 328 Camp 368, 430 humanitarian aid 246 Gulf War 1991–92 humanitarian soldier-scholar 130–31 women’s deployment 137 human-machine interfaces 111 Human Performance Initiative program health care access in wartime, 113 difficulties for women 180 Human Rights Watch 120, 156, 220 Health Promotion, Risk Reduction and child soldiers 123, 551–3 Suicide Prevention report 261 human rights violations 213, 389, 392, hegemonic masculinity 9–10, 31, 505–9, 513–15, 517–18, 583 105–23, 423 Human Terrain Systems Project 135

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Index 595

human trafficking 180, 224, 226, intersectional analysis 8–9, 383, 520 239–40, 496 intifada, first 380, 381–3, 385, 387, 388 Iraq 88 Improvised Explosive Device (IED) 93 invasion of 251 infanticide 293 IraqVeteransAgainst the War (IVAW) Innocent Child 297–300, 305 338–40, 361–77 Interim Care Centres (ICCs) 533 Islamic militants 134, 222 Internally Displaced People (IDP) 194 Islamic State 224 International Center for Transitional rape as combat strategy 169, 221 Justice (ICTJ) recruiting young girls, strategies for Gender Justice Program 507 224, 299 recognition of gendered harms 517 Islamism/radical Islam 150, 153, International Code of Conduct (ICoC) 155–6, 290 88 Israeli-Palestinian conflict 155, 339, International Committee of the Red 380, 382, 386, 390, 395 Cross see also Palestinian-Israeli conflict Treatment by Coalition Forces 352 Israeli WomenAgainst the Occupation International Criminal Court’s Rome (SHANI) 382 Statute 512, 575 Israeli Women’s Peace Net (RESHET) International Criminal Tribunals 182, 382 187, 514 International Tribunal for the Far East Japan 438–55 rape as war crime 219, 511 aggression during Second World War International Law 8 438 international criminal law 511 anti-base activism 450–51 International Criminal Tribunal for anti-US-Japan Security Treaty Rwanda protests, 1950, 1959, 440 rape and genocide 182–3 antiwar movements 443 International Criminal Tribunal, anti-war protest 438–55 formerYugoslavia (ICTY) Basic Law on Gender Equality, 1999, women indicted for genocide 187 446 international human rights laws 506, Communist Party 511 popular protest against Japan-US international law, gender, transitional Security Treaty 440 justice 509–10 feminist anti-base activism, Okinawa International Network for Women 452 Against Militarism (INWAM)355 Japanese Constitution, 1947 international peace conferences 382 renunciation of war 439, 444 International Relations (IR) 88, 147–8, Japanese feminist activism, racial bias 156–7, 483, 487–90 446 and men 9 Japanese militarism, challenges to 445 International Rescue Committee (IRC) land seizure for US military bases 215 451 International Women’s Day 415 pacifism 438–55 International Women’sYear (IWY) public apology for ‘wartime comfort 573–4 women’448–9 intersectionality 147, 154, 157, 339, –US SpecialAction Committee on 438, 447, 469, 520–21 Okinawa (SACO)

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596 Handbook on gender and war

recommendations 451–2 Lord’s ResistanceArmy Northern treaty with US Uganda 200, 225 on US military involvement with Ugandan and Sudanese women Vietnam 439 abductions 205 Jerusalem Link 388–9 Lysistrata 354 Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC) 75 Machsom Watch 392 Khmer Rouge regime 234 Madres of the Plaza de Mayo 509 Korean 438 Malayan Emergency Korean comfort women 449 counterinsurgency 127 see also comfort women male pacifists 423 male privilege 31 man-machine interface 117 land mines 218 masculinity Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, hegemonic masculinity, 26, 31–3, 38, Queer and Intersex (LGBTQI) 8, 105–7, 139, 149, 185 16, 344, 394 hyper-masculine enhanced warriors Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, 2011, 106 216 hyper-masculinity 35 Liberia hypermasculinization of Muslim men addiction problems of children in 150 Liberian conflict 533 masculine attributes 24 ‘black colonizers’541 men, masculinities and militarism child soldiers, sexual violence, 9–11 violent conflict 400 militarised masculinities 89, 99, Christian and Muslim women 181–2 together 402 subordinate masculinity 185 peacebuilding work 403 masculinism and war 346 Comprehensive PeaceAgreement masculinist power 345 (CPA) 409, 410–11, 528, 530 masculinity, caring forms 32, 409–10 DDR(R) ‘Mau Mau’, Kenya 127 disarmament and demobilization men 530–33 and masculinities 504, 519 reintegration and rehabilitation and violence 159–60, 347 533–7 post-conflict 485 demilitarization 533 mental health, 252, 260–61 Liberian history, gender in 541 care for invisible mental health Liberian warzone, roles of women problems 260–61 529 children of service members 254–5 pregnancy danger, diseases 500 child soldiers 560–61 women activism 492, 404–6, 408 see also child soldiers women fighters 400 diagnoses of members of armed women and girls in Liberia 529 forces 260 ‘Woman’s MassAction for Peace’ suicide risk 257 403 women’s depression 264 women-only peace movement 339 militarism 129–30, 490 Liberians United for Reconciliation and and masculinism 9–10, 24, 30, 40, Democracy (LURD) 406–7 346–8, 353, 493, 539

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Index 597

masculinist racist militarism 341 nuclear weapons 419, 425, 433 militarization 246–7 Nuremberg trials 511, 521 militarization of femininity 272–4, 283 military and antiwar dissent, gendered Okinawa 439–42, 446–7, 451–4 363–9 Battle of Okinawa 452 military deployment, toll of war, feminist anti-base activism 452 249–66 Operation Fortitude 78 military families 250, 263 Organisation for Economic military masculinity 29–41, 421 Co-operation and Development military response to 9/11 249–50, 423 (OECD) 13, 215 domestic violence 253 Organization ofAfrican Unity 211 see also domestic violence Orientalism 132–3, 136, 149 policy on military violence 454 Military orientalism 133–4 military training 31–2, 139 Millennium Development Goals 214 Neo-orientalism 143, 147–50, 154, mixed gender teams 58–9 158, 160 Muslim women 172–3 OsloAccords of 1993, 385, 387–8, 391 motherhood 50–54, 563–4 Mothers and Others DayAction 354–5 pacifism 420 see also Nevada Test Site Palestine 6–7, 155, 322, 338, 357, Movement of Democratic Women in 380–81, 384–5, 387–9, 391, Israel (TANDI) 393 394–5, 397 Palestinian–Israeli conflict 383, 394, Namibia Plan ofAction 471 397 NationalAction Plans (NAPs) 471 Palestinian Liberation Organization National Council for theAbolition of (PLO) 382, 387 Nuclear Weapons Tests Palestinian NationalAuthority (PNA) (NCANWT) 425–6 387 National Gender Policy, equality Palestinian Queers for BDS (PQBDS) promotion 414 394 National Patriotic Front of Liberia Palestinian uprising, first intifada 380, (NPFL) 527 382–3 ‘Nazi death machine’120 Paris Principles 552 Nevada Test Site 354–5 PATRIOTAct 154 NGO Working Group 55, 578, 583 peace agreements 207–8, 491–2, Nobel Peace Prize 512–20 women recipients 400, 415 in Sudan 207–8 NorthAtlantic Treaty Organization peacebuilding 462, 467, 468–70 (NATO) 41, 132–5, 161, 324 ‘peacebuilding masculinity’141 Operational Mentor and Liaison peacekeepers 222 Teams (OMLTs) 134 peacekeeping missions, women’s training local security forces 134–5 involvement 13 non-governmental organizations Peace Outreach Project 402 (NGOs) 101, 171, 200, 211, 440, PeaceWomen 355–7 453, 464, 507, 531, 536, 542, Persian Gulf War 249, 346 583–4 Pinkwatching Israel 395 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Popular Front for Liberation of (NPT) 440 Palestine (PFLP) 158, 387

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598 Handbook on gender and war

population-centric counterinsurgency sexual abuse (COIN) 128–30, 133 coercion to commit violence 225 pornography 508 Sexual and Gender-BasedViolence post-conflict security 501 (SGBV) Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) gender-based violence 181–2 122, 233, 251–2, 257, 260–61, 323 Liberia 528 prisoners, abuse 277–8 sexual assault 345 Private Military Security Companies SexualAssault Prevention and (PMSC) 86–102 Response Office (SAPRO) 345 prostitution 35, 179–80, 225, 236 sexual benefits to service personnel process theory 156–60 271–2 protection myth 91, 184–5 sexual harassment 343, 372 protector/protected 93 in US army 279–80 of women by servicemen 35 RationalActor Model 152–3 sexualization of war 270 racism, racial bias 150, 278, 343, 441 sexual offences by US soldiers 172 rape in war 11, 152, 175, 181, 183, sexual slavery 12, 448 218–9, 220, 227, 346, 372–3, 451, sexual victimization of men 512 453, 511 sexual violence 170, 213, 215, 219–20, see also wartime rape 496–500, 510, 537, 542 refugees 179, 195–7, 204–8, 209–11, see also Sexual and Gender-Based 582–3 Violence (SGBV) Refugee Convention, definition of a SouthAfrican anti-apartheid movement refugee 198 394 resettlement places for Syrian SouthAfrican Truth and Reconciliation refugees 196 Commission 515–16 Sudanese as refugees 209 Sri Lanka 160–61 women refugees 33–4, 170, 202, 204, Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam 208–9 (ILTTE) 158 reparations, feminist perspectives Sudanese camps in Uganda 200, 204 516–17 Sudanese People’s LiberationArmy Rome Statute of ICC 586 (SPLA) 205 ‘Rosie the Riveter’240 suicide bombers 120, 152–3, 255–8, Russia and the Caucasus 156 290, 295, 296–7 Russia, human rights records 156 girls 225 Russian Revolution 316 Syrian civil war 215

San Francisco Peace Treaty 442 Taliban 222–3, 242, 247 second intifada 391 Tamil Tigers 160–61 see also Al-Aqsa intifada technology 105–23 Second World War 76–83, 178, 188, terrorism 27, 146–61, 187, 290–92, 294, 237–8, 240, 243, 316–19, 321, 423 301–2, 305, 307, 323, 445, 487, Security Council Resolution 1325, 572, 555 575–6, 578–9 Terrorism Studies 146, 152, 156–7 Security Sector Reform (SSR) 473–5 trangender soldiers 339 security studies 7, 485–7 veterans 374–5 Serbian genocidal rape strategy 187 transitional justice, 7, 11, 462, 476, sex-trafficking 89 505–6, 507, 508–12, 512–20

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Index 599

Truth and Reconciliation Commissions US declaration of war against (TRCs) 495–6, 516 Germany, 1917, 71 Truth Commissions (TCs) UNSCR 1325, 219–20, 464, 476, 572 Chile, El Salvador 515 Sierra Leone 496–7 Veteransfor Peace 369–75 Vienna Declaration and Platform for Uganda Action 449–50 Christianity for men and women 202 Vienna Human Rights Declaration 585 men refugees, advantages for Vietnamese National Liberation Front younger 209 431 women refugees, improvement in Vietnam War 249, 319–23, 439 standing 208 black women reporters in UNIFEM (UN Women) 408, 515, 582 ‘mainstream’media 321 Uniform Code of Military Justice violence (UCMJ) 119, 252–3, 365 gender-based violence 181–2 United Nations (UN) Violence against Women in War charter 572, 576 Network, Japan 450 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) 453, 551 war of independence in Eritrea 239 Decade for Women 573 War on Terror 150, 160, 342–3, 361–2, policies, relevance of 583–6 370 peacekeepers 12, 47, 171, 222, 412, BushAdministration 357 581 wartime rape 182–4, 188–9, 219, 236, Population Fund 223 499–500 Security Council Resolution (SCR) war trauma 257, 259 188, 219, 464, 509, 572, 575, WestAfrica Network for Peacebuilding 587 (WANEP)401 United Nations Development Westphalia 146–7, 150–53, 156, 161 Programme (UNDP) 413, 530, WikiLeaks 374–5 533–4, 539, 543 Windhoek Declaration 471 United Nations High Commissioner for Winter Soldier 371–3 Refugees (UNHCR), 198, 200, woman war reporters, 313–21, 323–4 211 woman warrior 2, 172, 293, 295–7, children 305–6 after-war impacts on, violence and women neglect 254–5 in armed forces 33–4, 158, 270–84, separation from parents 217 366 United Nations Mission in Liberia in military service 11, 272, 282–3 (UNMIL) 410–11, 530–31 US armed forces 172, 272 United Nations Peacebuilding and health risks in war 173, 179 Committee (UNPBC) 474 and militaries 33–6, 40, 56–61, 137–9 United States see also Female Engagement 9/11 attacks 151–2 Teams; UK woman combat gender hierarchy in US military 361 ban GovernmentAccountability Office and pacifism 421 253 as perpetrators of violence 48, 50–51, Marines, women 137–8 54–6, 60–61, 186–8

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600 Handbook on gender and war

gender-based violence 186–7 Women PeaceMakers Program 478 and political protest 381–3 Women Strike for Peace 368 and political violence 51, 62–3, 156 Women’sAuxiliaryAir Force (WAAF) refugees 33–4, 170, 202, 204, 208–9 79 see also refugees Women’s Initiative for Gender Justice rights as human rights 510–11 507 suicide bombers 153, 172, 290, 295, Women’s International League for 297, 306 Peace and Freedom (WILPF), 338, terrorists 158, 290–94, 302–6 348, 392, 420, 573 UK woman combat ban 27, 34, 56–62 Women’s International League for in warfare 47–8 Peace and Freedom (international) as war victims 2, 485, 494–5 355 women’s liberation 8 ‘Women’s MassAction for Peace’ Women’s Liberation movement, 403–4 Britain 425 Women’s NetworkAgainst Militarism Women and Mothers for Peace 390 348 Women in Black (WIB) 338, 348, 355, Women’s Organization for Women 382, 356–7 Political Prisoners (OPFPP) 382 Women in Peace and Security Network Women’s Refugee Commission 214 (WIPSEN-Africa) 415 Women’s Royal Naval Service (WRNS) Women in Peacebuilding Network 78 (WIPNET) 338, 400, 401–2, 529, World Conference on Women 573 531 World Food Programme 202 Women, Peace and Security 13–14, World Peace Now (WPN) 445 347, 504 Wounded Knee Massacre 313 Women, Peace and Security (WPS) agenda 573–4, 413, 580, 583, 402 Zionism 385

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