Some observationson printing Arabic in Amerrca and by Americans abroad by Miroslau Krek

Much has been written on various aspects of the rather short.lasting only until 1800when he starteda history of printing with the Arabic alphabet on the new career selling land to his fellow countrymen continentsof Europe, Africa. and Asia. The area that through the Holland Land Compan.v. is quite neglectedin this respect.however, is the North What the appearanceof the adr,'ertisedtype was we American continent. To alleviate this shortcoming cannot say with certarnty.However. a rare specimen somewhat,an attempt is being made in this essayto of type in the American TypefoundersCompany Library bring together some less known data on the subject at Columbia University permits us to examine the which may prove useful in further study. Arabic type as it appearedin the samplesheet issued The earliestappearance of Arabic type in America by Mappa while he was still at Delft4 (seefigure 2). came about by way of a Belgiannamed Adam Gerard Given the little demand there was for this type and Mappal. He was baptizedon Decemberl,1754 in the consequently the absence of need to improve and Reformed Church at Doornik (French : Tournai) in changeit, the Arabic shown in the Delft specimenmay the province of Hainaut and became a soldier by well be the sametype that Mappa was advertisingfive professionat a rather young age. In October 1780, years later in New York. The font is not verv elegant however.he resignedhis commissionas military officer and shows definite similaritiesto thar designedand to devotehimself whollv to typefounding.To this end used b1' Thomas Erpenius(1584-1624) in Leiden, he and his father had bought the necessarl'equipment uhose Arabrc grammar underwent severaleditions, at auction from the survivor of the Dutch firm Vos- floodingthe book marketsof Europeduring the seven- kensand Clerk. the firm that had beensupplying t1'pes teenthand eighteenthcenturies. to England for many years. Now to the presumedfirst actually documenteduse Startingout as an associateto a printerat the Leuve of Arabic type in North America, and probably also Haven in Rotterdam. and after his resignation from in the Western hemisphere. the military having moved to Delft, young Mappa had In 1850the proofreader of the Rev. JamesL. Mer- to leavethe Netherlandsfor political reasonsin 1787. rick's translation of al-Majlisr's Life of Muhammad He went to France, where he met Thomas Jefferson, the Prophet entitledHayaí al-Qulubsbitterly complained then the ' minister to that country. about the lack of cooperation among printers: 'The Apparently at Jefferson'ssuggestion2, Mappa moved Arabian and Persianparagraphs (on p.401 fseefigure 3]) his family and typefounding equipment to the new have not a very comely aspectto the scholarlyeye, but world. The l/en' York Directory of 1792 lists him as the printer had no oriental type, and the typographical conducting a typefoundry in New York City at 22 brothers refusing to lend theirs, they were forced to Greenwich Street. However. his advertisementdated employ an engraveron wood, who has produced the July 2, 1790 published in the ,Ày'ex,York Journal and phenomena referred to. The Persian types used in 'Types Patriotic Registerof July 16, 1790offering: of printing the preface (see figure 4) have been inge- every kind - viz. Roman, Greek, Samaritan,Arabic, niously made with a jackknife by one of the printers.'ó English,Saxon, Siriac [!], &c., &c.' givesthe address Merrick's work is important for two reasons:(l) it of his foundry as 107 Queen Street (see figure l). representsthe first attempt to print Arabic from type Mappa's businessseems not to have gone well, for in manufactured in the U.S.; and (2) it indicates that 17943he sold off part of his equipment and with the other, probably imported, Arabic type was available remainder joined Binny and Ronaldson, who were in the area at the time. establishingthemselves as typefounders in Philadel- Who, then, were these'typographicalbrothers' men- phra around that time. What happenedto the Arabic tioned in the above passage?Given the transportation paraphernaliais not known; Arabic type is not inclu- situation of the day and the small amount of type that ded among the specimensof type publishedfor Binny was needed for printing the book, one should pro- and Ronaldson by Fry and Kammerer in 18123". bably not have to look too far, certainly no farther Mappa's associationwith Binny and Ronaldson was than New York. And indeed, Arabic type was avail-

Manuscriptsof the Middle East ó (1992) l- Ter Lugt Press.Donkersteeg 19. 2312 HA Leiden,Netherlands, 1994 ISSN0920-040r 72 MANUSCRIPTSOF THE MIDDLE EASTó íI992)

ï .G, ,f!i'

tè' .&-. &f,A F'P''*,*- g, \. No. ra1, QuEËN-SrRsE1.,f his F,,ury,i,rry -3"H,ls.gftabliÍhgdJ- \pe in thir ciry,- and is readyrcí i,rlÍil any,*.Coí* in thisline, T YPE,Sof every kind*v iz. Ronnan, Gieek, lr$i:, $**arir&trr Black Lettero Árabic, , l }:ript, Lngliíh, (Jerrnan, Saxcrr, Hebrelv, Siriacr'&c. &e, -&nddecorations to ernbcll;Íhtbc prinr, rvill bd attcnded to rvirh accurac):rr - and cxecurcdoo the, mà{l tetfgnatlle terrns. prinrers .Ti.,ercfpeilive can alfo be'piovide{ y,'? pÍopc( fy ires,in all the lcar:rec[ lan{ïages, i.r rhatthcy Ín.r!'larisfy tho, rviíbe. r,f thc feminaiiel of tlar.rri'qc{ïabli{heer rhroughaue rhe conrêrrnr. fho reputarionwhich ttris Fr;undery has acquired i rr E'rr-rperparticu la r ly in Hol landand, E,,rgland, ïlrttetS tne proorÍiÍOr to rnc(:tthar 'Írom eÍlC{}Ul:rÉf ntÊnt wbic}r i,r{ {lfpo'i he expcèt.:,i a juài.ioor 8ÍlO qltcCrnÍng,Ílarf rn, , $€'^ A-ttt.IOUI{ NEY}I.LN eequainredwirh the bufirrcfs,o Ap;rerirlcËsoÍ rhe,rg,, of r 6 yearr, *h1 aredcfirour df U*ingemployell .,rd íiro ..* pro,lrrcegood charatlrrsr-wih oc-exgegcd cn cquit- SPrriJer ms.

New Yurk, Julv e, r7go. 68-eaw+w. .t,

Figure 1. Mappa's advertisementof July 2, 1790,in the Nex' York Journal ancl Patríotic RepisterCourtesy. American Antiquarian Society. 11 MIROSLAVKREK. PRINTINGARABIC IN AMERICA t-)

&r*b*, Gros Romain. N:r*'

s (4^o ? ,/ r{rJ"t r , ;r ,-rl-*r""E S .a d-J* /1. . .:r,:..:.i:r. 'llfrr0 "J" J tJ u rw.l{ l* uL, t tr - lgÀ, '\íJ'..L.L,r".*J L} '"/ {.rbJi** t ; -€:Àg$trttyn. Aian-ë, avrt. - ii-

' i::r''

:tít 6

t , t ,sa ., ,.,-*-9 t:?e',àï^áÉ lol ,s4.t '. Ljf$LrJI . tla t 'rltg Jtg ,^, ,/ a/ ./!!|-le^i| dj",*Ls lil ÈLill -- -* - i -. . {ài:'

-.* ir,.. t iÍ.ll fd t'lê í lr Írr/v! Cièers, N: r?.

a*í, It .6t ,€ (t l, *il Lr*-il L+* g,t; ó*.! "1 ,/ / . 'Jb'g 9 &1o yrr /ít 1-3Jidlr#4 v{.:f "t? 8,-, *6, .,rc} cr5l; t;'*ï it€.r, c) .At t 'J*Uti: líï I 't'ii"È * $r 't,ÊCf *rí S í

Figure 2. Sheet of printing samplesof Mappa while he was still in Delft. Courtesy,Columbia University Library. 74 MANUSCRIPTSOF THE MIDDLE EAST6 (I992)

* 4 -12 letterg. the munificenceof Dr. John Codman, pastor of Second Persiaa- ."^'4 *l\i. There ir noue but God- Church in Dorchester,Massachusettie. It is for this È, 'Codman 4 + 3 + g+2- l2 do. reason that the words press' appear from 1821on in the imprint of works Àrabic- u// w àl/u ïbere is lo Goil brt Glod. that contain esoteric type, including Arabic. The press became so well Figure 3. EngravedArabic lettersas they appearin the known for its ability to set Oriental type that it was Harat al-Quluh.Courtesy. Harvard College Library. frequentlycalled upon to print works for publishersin Bostonand New Yorklo. able at that time to printers in New york and Boston. The question arises,where was this type obtained? but the oldestpress known to have possessedand used Although there are certain similaritieswith the Mappa such type was that of Timothy Flagg and Abraham type. indicating some common source,it is not identi_ Gould in Andover, Massachusetts.Although as earlv cal with it. The definitiveanswer to this questionmay as 1794 Andover had a press set up by lrn., uná lie buried in the vaulrs of the Houghton Library ai Barker, conducted in the beginning by Galen Ware. Harrard. for most of the now defunctAndover Semi_ the establishmentdid not gain prominence until the narl Librar\' \\'as transferredto the Harvard Univer_ Congregationalists.to counter the religiousliberalism sitr Librarl' s\stem11.A cursorl.examination of the that swept Harvard, establisheda theological semi_ backgroundof MosesStuarr oná hi, nary associatesat the in 1808 at the Phillips Academy there. This seminarr'- - especially'of Edward Robinson.editor of seminary besideshaving a strong curriculum in the the Bihlit,alRepositor.t.. which was also printed at the study of the - furnisheda number of outstandins 'Codman Press'beginning with lg3l - permits an missionariesfor work in the Middle East. It standstó intelligent guessas to the general source o1 the type. reason that the institution that prepared them would Looking at their researchand works one immediatàlv foster and encouragethe study ol languages of the notices how much these New England theologians countriesin which the missionary work was contem_ owed to German biblical scholarship. plated. It was noi too diÍicult. therefore.to identify the correspondingfont One of the mainstaysof the program at the newlv used in German biblical uorks. nhich at that time establishedseminary in Andor,'er \\,as Moses Stuart nere repleteilith Hebreu. 51nac. Greek. and Arabic (1780-1852),professor of Sacred Literarure and a quotattons and phrases.The npe u,hich was then graduateof Yale Collegewho. soon after his installa_ prevalentin bibiical uorks in Europe (seeflgure 7) tion, publisheda Hebrew grammar which was printed can. like the Mappa t1pe. be rraced in l8l3 ro rh; Low by the abovementioned local press,operated Countries. by Flagg and Gould. Both printers had cóme to We do not know the identity of the first compositor Andover from Cambridge, Massachusettsat the to have set the Arabic type. In the beginning Moses requestof Dr. Eliphalet pearson - first principal of Stuart, no doubt, had to set the type himself; ànd even the Academy, sometimeacting presidentàf Haivard. when the firm of Flagg and Gould had apprentices, and the initiator of the seminary- who also enlarsed their work had to be closely supervised.Ámong the the printing establishmenrand had it moved to ihe 'Old earliesthelpers at the presswas a certain John Fówler secondfloor of the Hill House.'7 Trow, brother-in-lawof Timothy Flagg who was one Stuart's Hebrew grammar was soon out-of_print . so of the co-owners.Born in Andover. Màssachusettsin that in l8l9 his class,among whom wasJonas king of 1809, Trow worked as an apprentice for Flagg and later repute,were required to copy the manuscript for Gould but moved later to New york wherehe bécame the secondedition, entitled A Hebrex. Grantmai v.ith quite famous in his own praxis. right. He also continued to Copious St,ntaxand which was printed by the print works requiring the use of esoterictype and was samepress in 18218.This is the first work printed in responsiblefor the first work to contain Arabic set America known to contain type-setArabic. An Arabic entirely in movable type in that city12. The work was alphabet is found vis-a-visthe Hebrew (seefigure 5), by William L. Roy and titled A CompleteHebrew and and some scatteredwords are found on page 32g (see English Critical and Pronounc.ingDictionary wiï.h the figure 6). The characteristicsof this font are. amons imprint New York: Collins, Keese & Co.. 230 pearl others,a depresseddàland dhal,the medial kaf withá press Street, University - J.F. Trow, printer. lg37 short forestrokeat the top, the rather closesettins of (seefigure 8). Unfortunately the composition of the the diacriticalpoints to rhe body of the letters,a sáall Arabic in that work leavessomething to be desired: depressionon the right side of the letter óa, when either it was not set by Trow p.rsonàlly, or he never standing alone, the loops of waw, and qaf /à' are filled, learnedto setArabic type independentlyand properly. in. and a peculiarawkwardness in the alif-iam lisature. As early as 1836Trow had ordered complete-fonts Some of these peculiarities are also found ln the from the Tauchnitz letter foundry in Leipiig for the Mappa specimen(cf. figure 2). The setsof foreign type printing of oriental languages,including the newly used in Stuart's grammars, with the exceptionof iire cast Arabic typeswhich had beendeveloped under the Hebrew usedin the 18l3 edition, *... u.qui.ed through supervisionof the orientalist Gustav Fhigel and Josef MIROSLAVKREK, PRINTINGARABIC IN AMERICA 75

PREFÁCT. v

(iudgr' eommonly written cadr') should be representeil by d, as is done by somelcarned authors, seemsunaccountable to one who has learned. the word familiarly from Persianswho uniformly pïonounce ít Ká,2y, some writers on oriental subjccts represente jeemby dg, as Dgemdcli, the nameof anothermonth, which by a Persian and easystandard. should be rvritten and pronouncedJemàcly. No useful object can be gained.by making the orthography of foreign n&mesappear more diffieult than it really is, especiallywhere a simple English form will best represent the native power of the original letters. ( ha and'x ào, though the formcr is a diffic*rt, anil the latter an easy power of the /r character,are neverthelessboth of them best represented by that letter. 7 kha, which frequently occurs,has not a distinct È sound, but a por- tion of that letter's power gutturally blended rvith á, whosesound in common pro'u'ciation, by good speakers in persia, is prominently heard. For example: the Persian titre I{hd,n,borne by the nobility, is often pronouncedin sosoft and easya w&y, that the earcatches little more ih.an lrá,n',though the crassical pronunciation of the letter involves a somewhat difrcult guttural sound. ghayn { is a difficult letter of the'g class,which perhaps cannot be better representedthan by the usual form of gÀ. S háf and gi &dl, though rhe former often partokes strongly of the g sound,may in gcneral both be representedby /c,while ,:! caÍ is denoted bv c, The propersound. of a number of letters of the perso-Àrabic alpha_ bet, can be eorrectlylearned onlv from an edueated.native, or from one who hns accuratclymastered the languagein which those forms oceur. of thc vorvelletters, I has generallythesound of "trf broad rí,but it is sometimesarticulateil ' like short e aa in emeer,short i os in rbrdheem, and short u as in the article ol in various eonnections. t ogn ís generallypronounced like a guttural o. some learned.authore endeavorto representthe power of this difficult vowel letter by a mark of eli:ion,as K'abah; but the commainthiscase doesnot expresstothe Engiish readcr the guttural force of the character,ancl serves rather to perplex the pronuncintion. The peculiarity of this letter might perhaps be denotedmore simply by a circumflex overthe corrcspondingd. some- times ó ayn lnasa simple o sound, as in Omar. ) ado,as a vorvelletter, has severalsounds according to its eonneetion, vowcl points, and good usagein Persia. Gencrally it has the full sound of u,,as in Abutd,tib,and sometimesthe particular power of oo,as in .Àroo- root, Irs a consonant,) odasometimes has the distinct sound of u, and in other casesthe expresspower of ra. The vowel porverof 3 ya is generallv expressedby orientalistsby ed, which in their prefaeesiirey state to be sound.edlike that diphthong in oein, Àn English read.eris apt to forget this notice, and to articulate the

Figure 4. Arabic letters produced by jackknife as they appear tn ï"heHaydt al- Qulub. Courtesy,Harvard CollegeLibrary. 76 MANUSCRIPTSOF THE MIDDLE EAST6 ( I992)

$ r0. &rJantnlSlBlabgrs,

$rrn*, Hebrer Heb. Àrabic Qoin-lett*. Àlphabet.

fr JT t F)r { Àt f ï 3 .gs t 3 ï 't '1 3 ? ï T ïï ï !ró ïï { ï 6 ï 3 ï'^ h ll r 5 1 n t u so ï n IJ v 5i t íïr à"./+ S tt l X Lb \ t * I /.\ ! X rrl \À,' r! fb I l" r5 I|r J E b a t v o0 t J b : I 3 íï1 aa 1v1 r P i 'l P" 1 qq D

lri * E)ê b trr \Á/ cf) t n À P x 1 r; v

i{ Li,

n JJ

Figure 5. Moses Stuart. Hehrey Grarnmar. Andover: Flagg and Gould.edition of 1821.p,Í271. Courresy. Harvard College Library.

the Arabians useSi }Íf JÍÁ JÍÁ, &c,for càou,ecce ! Figure6. Particlesas they appear in: M. stuart,A Hebrev,Grammarv,ith Copious Svntaxand Prarís.Andover: The codman press, 1821, p.32g. courtesy, Harvard CollegeLibrary.

Genau enrsprochendist aber_derarabische Sprachgo- partikotn, wo die Uí, $ï, UÁ, SÁ: $Í, '7 -Í r,-- r- -.r , ,18 2 \o f die alle aur den Fragepartilelnl , , J l, J.6, Figure 7. w. Gesenius,Ausfthrliches ... Lehrgebciutletler hebràischen sprache.Leipzig: Fr.chr. vogel, 1817.probably the model for Stuart's Grammar.Courtesy. Harvard College Library. MIROSLAVKREK. PRINTINC ARABIC IN AMERICA 17

ORIENTA L A I-,P IIAB ETS.

HEBREW. SÁMARITTN.

R€p. in : Formr. al Heb. by

N N Aleph Alif I Olaph JV N I b Baith Ba 5 Beth A Vaith v À 2 èo Gimmel Gomal ï gh T I d ó Dhal Dolath 1 Daleth T tl ï dh íJ Dal 1 tt h Huy o Ha ol He t v Wav Wav o Vau I I a 5 Za t z Zayin i I Ziln q n n hh Cheth > > Kha H -!J Hheth I, I D b 9 t Teth Ta, Da z Teth t v Yod ;l Ya a Yud m '|', k Kaph { Caf 3 Coph ;f " Kaf l,u eh I Lam \ Lomail 2 I Lammed 3 'r m Mem JO Mim :o Mim \ n Noon f Nun J Nun I s Sammek co Semchath ê It ay Ayin cD Aln, I Ee Fa Phe V llt ) P Puy 'i I I b Ph, I Phay. h J r tz Tzadee ,ê ,ê Sad, Tzode m í, 3 k'9 Kooph t Kaf o Koph l' I e r Raish Ra t Rish -l tli sh Sheen Sin .. Shin, I ll r* in g Seeu Shirl J\" h n th Thav. J Tha Thau

tt t Tav J Ta

Figure 8. From: William L. Roy, A Complete Hebrev, and English Crítical and Pronounc'ingDíctionary ... New York: Collins, Keese& Co.. 1837.J.F. Trow was the printerfor this work which displaysan early use in New York City of Arabic set type. Courtesy, Harvard Collese Librarv. ARÀBIC.

PICÀ. OrJJi#fí )Íi d^r ,,J Cl ,r* ;É ,Éï o- ) --t , - te | -- c' o-orf - ,1u,L"a: L.or x.>r\r >41 ,,r..tJ XJ ,1r-j*r-, L,o r;& v'z , ";oI t -),t/./ I v"' lu

í, tl t- )ti ,..JLJ $l ftf-t u ó;aj *uTY z'' +-t ,,i+r

3rtÀLL PIC-\.

Figure 9. From: William Adam, A Discourseon Íhe Life and Sert,íc'esof Professor MosesSruarÍ:deliyered in the City o.firtrex'York ... Januar).25,1852.New York: J.F. Trow. printer. 1852.Courtesl . Andor,'er-Harr,ardTheological Library,. Har- r ard L nirersitr.

W cËilERAL.lNTRoDUcrto!Í To Tttf,' sacRED aooxg

$ far tln bct; whrtevor ie uiifcial is hndly Íieo fiom ruspr- eion---{) In tlro oomp*r{rol of .wordsbtho analogyof the change of certeinletten (rerpectregwhich I hwe treatedin my Arabic grem' mar,$ 99-S6 p. 46-?á.,) is to b€ observed;and altlroughthe ex- ' aêptl@'fum thir malogr nro by no meansto be eltogetherrejecterl, yot tlry rre tot to be n*lrly admittsd. Thus rrd, a g&6 is to be ....6tu comprrcd Í_ii rnd the Aramern xrrn, andpn is properly "ittt TJ cmprtd butnot eo .r,^rir with whichis osly "" ;fli f

@mtirnes equivahnt to | th. hqt wlile properly it clat+ of f,re, qedry a &y.-q In somovorils o trtnrpositiouof letters i&il f,lee ; but thh is noverto be approvedot, uales the crsebe vc*y clerr, or no otber word exict in the dialects,which corresponds lith tle llebtow vithout transposition. For instancettr is not to be ' comprredtn b oihurn,boceirgeihe vord ta raum, f./ fJ iE rt hnd.*5) If in tbe ilialectgtrhore rre eevorarwords ctlr16Ë- pm@ *tb r sirgle lrebrer word, oitàer on rocount of oae or more lecorrof tht rord haring a twofold lNonunciation,or for gomeotber uroarrÈeym,rt allb* somprred.ïlruoit in neee**y tocomparewith tha Hebrew lt' notronlv , I ' ' q"^-! to áind'' to t*rd' but algo . |t, c?^^.áÊ ,, , t ,, to cr*, á.i.aÁ to 1g9í*n,naa cÍ^aeá b h arr g?t.r-o) crre mu:t be trten rcgt for wodr whosesicnifcrtion is certain"othornoaningr bo mught for in the irialecte,to eslbu"h .omc new opiaion. Thus in Is& liii 9., ïld, hrs bÊon comparedrvith { 't t.l' ot gq&Íftg1* Jte ?*er& rlrhorgh thê meaaingof rhe Hebrerv ) ir cetlein, ï:Í rd rupportcdby thc testimonyof rhe Aramearr ilialêct.1*z) radly ; the iaterprcter must not contenthimself with * $trt ir, barunl potd of vhtrpcctctor, tcckil*/| I1r.,

Figure 10. From: Án IntroducÍionto the Old Testsntelt/;translated from the Latin and German works of John Jahn ... with additional referencesand notesby Samuel H. Turner... and William R. Whittingham.New York: G. & C. Carvell,Broad- way. 1827.Courtesy, Harvard CollegeLibrary. MIROSLAV KREK. PRINTING ARABIC IN AMERICA

A FAB[0,

q, 1_ $)St tt+-- ro gir#l,É L:.^ud jl ÈtL/ \#^s ,)*$y

cl/ U,^^cb(.G*í#írí)' \> ( ) c^"*,-rt l)Yó \Sy, ) , &/ fóy -6U {\J*.. Ue, :' -'. , r*^* uqrl'c'X,. ,,Á! ) uf tl t)"o 1è t:*$4P JV

.ffuomutilue flgers0&oo @CI ËwU0, Figure | 1. From The LInionMagazine of Literatureand Art. Edited by Mrs. C.M. Kirkland. New York. Vol. l, no. 6 (December, 1847);H. Ludwig,printer. Courtesy, Harvard College Library.

.+ rl"*f llf urai erkí, Kitábnadhre! ïï.]. ïllull F * el'ighrídhfy nasret el-karrtrh,i. e. The book-of the ereganceof the parm- blossom,on the superioriryof poerry1" by t ; r'là.Jf ,J_ :+l grrl df s*sr; 2*r= Cf O., J."àiJf*lt o;i.r4r*ff ,,spl A+, ,sr^*Jf ft+ "ltt ,+f t* *ilf oo.e,rt , Figure 12.Note that the ba' in the word kitàbwas taken from the Andover font. whereasall other letters are from the FhigellHammer-purgstallfont. Sample taken lrom Journal of the AmericanOriental Societl.I (1849),p. xxiii. 80 MANUSCRIPTSOF THE MIDDLE EASTó (I992)

fQ 2. FremeJ.a rcailing of ilre abwe iuc+ri@.

? c*91ry (P.""*:':SS".) .]-.,t Pt $56*..

+ )y ,41 J-4 fL^r or-*++ ) el"l

125 6-2 b-p.rt*-;*6r; ops s)

-* t"b ,.r.,Ëf .rrliJ s oF Ol S

Figure 13. Another sampletaken from Journal of the AntericanOriental Societl' 1 (1849),plate opposite p. 323. The transcriptin the Arabic alphabetof this Himyaritic inscriptionwas reprintedfrom the JournelAsicttíque (Sep- tember-October1845). p. 182.

Freiherr von Hammer-Purgstall and which enjoyed widespreaduse in the nineteenthcentury (seefigure 9). However. thesefonts apparentlydid not arrive in time for usein printing of Roy's dictionar-v. Of courseArabic is noticed sporadicalll,in books and periodicals.but it is mostl)' not printed liom movabletype, rather from engravingsor b1 the litho- graphic process(see figures l0 and ll). In all cases which have come to my attention. the text was written by more or lessunskilled hands. 'thirties' 'forties' The and in the nineteenthcentury saw a marked proliferation of the use of Arabic type in New England. The Journal of the American Oriental Societv-,for example,which in 1849was published in Boston,exhibits a variety of fonts in use(see figures 12 and l3). It remains to establish which American press or Figure 14. 'Farewell which pressconducted by Americans was responsible Cover-titleof the Address'by Jonas King. The pamphletis dated 1825.but no place for the printing of the first title executedenrirell in of publica- tion is given.Courtesy of the Andover-Harvard Theoloeical Arabic. and when this occurred. Library. Carl Brockelmannl3 claims that the first work prin- ted in America from movable type was Mikhá'rl As'ad Rustum al-Shuwayrr'sDíwan Gharrbfi al-Gharb, by of Commissionersfor Foreign Missions(ABCFM) the Tijariyah pressin New York in 1895-1913.While throughthe Rev.Daniel Temple to lacilitaterhe printing this may be so, the printing of an Arabic Bible from of parts of the Bible and of religioustracts in the electrotypeplates is documentedin New York for the vernacularlanguages of the peoplesamong whom year 1867La. they wereto work. This presswas usually referred to But Americans and American presseswere turning as the PalestineMission Press. Another press was sent out Arabic books much earlierthan that. The printing a few years later. Rufus Anderson of the Board of the Psalmsin Beirut is quite firmly documentedfor reportedon his inspectiontour that 'the establishment 18381s.To seehow much earlier we can document consistedof threepresses, with fontsof type in English, such a printing will require a searchfor new data and Italian,Modern Greek,Greco-Turkish, Armeno-Tur- the interpretationof the information we have concerning kish16. the Arabic printing done on the island of Malta, the Scholarswho peripherally dealt with the problem early printing in Beirut, and in other missionary sta- disagreeas to whether or not the American missiona- tions. ries printed any Arabic works on Malta before the Most writers of missionary history agree that the presswas moved to Beirut in 1834.Joseph Nasral- American missionaries,eager to spreadthe Gospel in lah17.whose opinions are mostly basedon the articles the Middle East but encounteringdifficulties on the by Father Cheikho publishedtn al-Machriq18,believes mainland,decided in l8l9 to establishan intermediate that the pressactuaily printed Arabic works on Malta, base on the Mediterranean island of Malta. A press while Peter Kaweraule on good authority assertsa was forwarded there in 1821 by the American Board contrary opinion. Kawerau's sourceis a convincing MIROSLAVKREK. PRINTINGARABIC IN AMERICA 8l

/'-'""""""--" .,r' ti i' ,-,oiil- -e f\e o;)\, .-,)\ i Vr/v't I \.-- -\--- .r*r\Jl- aJll ,,,1 -,,,"'r'''

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Figure l4a. Title-page.shouing the date 5 Septemberlgl5. 'Farenell an

statement by Eli Smith (1801-1857),the missionary procured Armenian and Arabic fonts of type. the assigned the task of supervisingthe activities of the latter manufacturedunder the supervisionof the Bri- Arabic press, 'farewell who in his sermon'in Boston in tish orientalist Samuel Lee2a. These Arabic types, 1833 (i.e.. year one before the press was moved to however,did not reachMalta until 18281292s.When Beirut) 'our states: press had not begun to print the three years of his commitment to the American Arabic.'20 yet, And there existsa corpus of over two Board were fulfilled. King left the mission,and it was dozen Malta imprints in Arabic dated between 1824 on thts occasionthat he composedthe Farewell letter and 1834. Most of these,no doubt. were printed by which most likel-vis the Írrst work by an Americanto the (British) Church Missionary Society.which preceded have been published in Arabic. To that extent it is the American missionariesto Malta. Eli Smith men- perhapsa first (seefigure l4). No contemporarypress, tioned in that 'The same sermon also that: Bible was however, took responsibilityfor an lg25 printing of put into our hands by rhe British and Foreign Bible the pamphlet which gave neither the place of publica_ Societyfor distribution.'21 It is curious. however.that tion nor printer. The earliest bibliographic list or one of the earliestArabic works probably printed at report to cite the work is one lrom 1832.when the Malta was the Farev,ell Address to the Beloved in pamphlet was listed among the Arabic works printed Palestineand Svriaby the previously mentionedAme- in that year b1' the Church Missionary Society as rican missionary, Jonas King, dated 5 September, being the product of its press2ó.Considering that the 182522. date, September5, 1825,is unusually detailed,giving Born in West Hawley, Massachusetts,Jonas King day and month, and that this information is locateà studied at the Andover Theological Seminary but above the place where the imprint date is usually went later to to study with the famous French found, I would conjecturethat the date refers to th; orientalist Silvestre de Sacy. In 1822 he obligated completion of the manuscript,or to the date on which himself to work for the American Board for three the address was perhaps delivered, and that the years.During this time he traveledextensively and was Church Missionary Society which printed it in lg32 instrumental procuring in Greek type from Paris23. omitted the placeof publicationbecause it had instruc- He also visited England, where he raised money and tions not to get into controversieswith the Catholics. 82 MANUSCRIPTS OF THE MIDDLE EAST 6 1I992)

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Figure 15. Specimenpages from Ba'd Ma:amír li-al-TarannumfiSome psalms for singing']. reproducedwith permissionof the Houghton Library. Harvard Universitlr.Note also the scrap 'First of oaoerwith the rvords: oublications[?l of the BevrootPress.' who representedthe majoritl' of the populationof the b1' the number of copiesand or pagesprinted; and island27.And King's addresswas certainlycontrover- r.vhenthey do give actual titles. they omit the years of sial to this point. publication. Kawerau, in his researchbased on pri- The type used in most of the Malta imprints, with mary sources.states that the press remained unused the exception of the two that have come to my during the first years after the removal to Beirut, and attention and representa special problem2s, is that that in 1835 the press produced only alphabet cards used by Richard Watts for the printing in London of for usein the schools2e.But in 1836the productionis the whole Bible in 1822 and the New Testament in given as 4,200copies. or 381,000pages printed. This 1833 - or types very similar to them. Indeed. one must have included a number of pamphlets and books, would be tempted to place the publication of King's but which one was the first is at this time impossibleto work in London were it not for the paper, which - say. Cheikho3olists Ná9ïf al-YázijT'sFasl al-KhilAb íi although unwatermarked resemblesmore the tex- LIsul al-I'raá (168 p.) as having been published in ture of the Italian paper mills than that produced in 1836. The Andover-Harvard Theological Library England. owns, besidesa number of undated pamphlets,at least Since it seemsfairly certain that the Americans had three works in Arabic dated 183631.Furthermore. the not printed with Arabic type on Malta earlier, an Houghton Library lists under the entry Bible. O.T. 'Version attempt must be made to establish which work in Psalms. Arabic l8- of a few Psalms in Arabic was the first to have beenissued from the press Arabic,' shelfnumber *42-5898,a small,insignificant after it arrived in Beirut on May 8, 1834. looking and undated pamphleï of 24 pages entitled The early activity of the pressis obscure.Many of Ba'd Mazamrr li-al-Tarannun732(see figure 15).Within the pamphletswhich could be consideredearly show the book an inconspicuousslip of paper, most likely 'First no place or date of publication; the pertinent secondary contemporaneouswith the publication,reads: literature such as the various annual reports and publicatiols[?]1of the Beyroot Press.'33If this is proceedingsof the American Board usually list the correct. the pamphlet must have been printed some- printing production in the missionsin summary lashion time betweenMay 8, 1834and 1836.when the dated MIROSLAVKREK. PRINTINGARABIC IN AMERICA 83

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lB,lSl0-íron I I'ttrr'ii' ll-ll' \.,\ ;!/\,y !r.+ s\.-*á!t/ítu L'-\\LiJ irLJ ë u Fe,É, *ét,l\4 r;"-J\ t" L" ; Íl.tuLrrue)-i *írr !-K $ \ \ gX- gêt'-.-U ;li >L'r'!y.1; Jl "s* "iLJ\ y .JIJ\U nt ;"lt UÀJ\-UI- J-l "!=J t! orL-r& -ilh"rJi -r rÈ. f-JF.it -!.J\ ;\À.J \ ;,J.-: ;., -r}Jo--r-, f \

rlirnillrà,t rilh tho 0rrlinnlr,and olh* wrdr, [3 usadsl lbc ron' DtrccmtlloÍ thut*i and hollr, .bl,ltr$vht9txltxt", t"rt4tSU\ rJU\ Ui\ Ji{ ,/u\ g,U\\á\ eí\ ,/B\ L \ Figure 16. Page 170 of the Missionary Herald at Home and Ahroad, (Boston. May, 1877)shcwing the antíkàní type preparedby Homan Hallock' 84 M.\\[ SCRIPISOF THE VIDDLT FASI n 1loal1

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, '' o\ *,.-ri) ai.g- \ (:-\,.'.r.u . ..r..i. -.!!- "l '' I \ 1 .. ï '' r d1 ,,,;' .lr.; .1131L1 '1 -\'-r '\1 $'SJ l i f-' ;:\"r . tb- s,llï elto t: )t:.1 ,.,'J ,.,.rrlí*, ,,,(-'*".=iu J-\r*r à::i t;_\- \p, r ". , *-r.rlí- ,rS'irà!;.* s,1,. .)i Ë i' i.. p,Í;*l.+i'o; ., ,_. f +'." "-.. i- &4."1 L,j') *)* *t* ,L. *_r**"* u.rfil,l i .L {][\ Figure 17. Title-page and beginning of a Christian pamphlet in Malay (in Arabic script). See the colophon reproducedin figure l7a. Courtesy of the Andover-Harvard Theolosical Library. MIROSLAVKREK. PRINTINGARABIC IN AMERICA 85 works appeared,Who the printer of theseearly works American Board establishedthe Singaporestation as a vras is not yet known. It is possiblethat these items training ground for American missionariesultimately \verestill printed with the help of the Church Missionary bound for China. The printer who arrived there soon Society,for it was not until April 15, 1841 that a after the Rev. Mr. Ira Tracy was Alfred North who, professional printer, George C. Hurter, arrived in together with JosephTravelli, was expert for printing Beirut. In the meantime. Eli Smith realized that the in Jawi, i.e., Malay expressedin Arabic script. Byrd type in use at that time, namely the type that Jonas further states38that the Singaporemission press was King had obtained in England, was rather inelegant under American supervisionfrom 1835to 1836,but and was, in fact, a hindrance to the Arabs in reading that no singleimprint in the checklistcould be identi- the literature produced by the press. He tried to Íied. Fortunately, a few pamphletsdated 1835printed procure a font that would be closer to a calligraphic by this press were found among the uncatalogued prototype. The story is rather familiar and neednot be materialsof the Andover-Harvard Library which were repeatedhere3a. Let it only be said that the punches not recorded by Byrd. One of these.a pamphlet of for the new type, which becameknown as amrïkanr. sixteenpages using the same format and type as the were preparedby Homan Hallock. missionaryprinter previous ownerr the London Missionary Society,sta- 'lst. attached to the mission in Smyrna (izmir). and that tes in its colophon: Edition. 1000Copies Singa- this type was also cast by Tauchnitz in Leipzig (see pore American Mission Press: 1835' (seefigures l7 figure 16). The type arrived in Beirut with George and l7a). Hurter, the printer. From then on. the American press Until more researchis done it will remainundecided in Beirutwas completely self-sustained, having its ow'n .1ustwhtch of the presses.the one in Beirut or the one press,types, and printer. It might be mentioned that in Singapore. can properll' claim precedence.The lhe amrrkam fonts becamevery popular in the Middle Singaporedate could hardly be improved on sincethe East and were later used temporarily by the Catholic missionary station, according to accounts,started in pressesat Beirut and Mosul. that year, while there is a chancethat the Beirut press By l84l otherAmerican missionary presses were in may prove to have issuedyet an earlier pamphlet; or operation. The PresbyterianBoard of Foreign Mis- the above-mentionedPsalms, when dated, will prove sions(PBFM) had recentlystarted a missionin India. to have been printed in 1834. One of its first stationswas openedin Lodiana in the northernpart of India in 1833b1'the Rer'.J. Neu'ton. who had a printing establishmentconsisting of tuo \orr.s pressesand three fonts of type: English.Nagari. and Persian3s.His first printer \\'asa native.but in 1835 r The facts -sivenhere about \,Íappa's life are mainly Reese practical Morris. a printer from Phiiadelphia basedon the following sources:William E. Loi'. 'Typefound- was on the way,16 help with the printing3ó.Shortly ing in America.' The Inland Prínrer 25 (1900). pp. 814 f; afterward other stations were opened; the one in Maurice Annenberg, TypeJ'oundriesin Arnerico(Baltimore: Allahabad also had a press which started operation Maran Print Service, 1975), pp. 34-37: and Douglas C. 'The sometimebefore 1840. McMurtrie. Brothers Voskens and Their Successors.' The Inland Printer 74 (1924), pp. 59-66. I am indebted to - r f t. .1\l I t- - Mr. Victor Berch.the SpecialCollections librarian at Bran- \Á+L9 ijlre il;) ,':.i'::a deis University Library. for the first two references. I r. '. r 1: -]l, e I Although Jeffersonby his own admissiondid not read r,,LJ \] f r -rr 1'j \! 9-- Y'. v t t t., Arabic. there is some evidencethat he was interestedin the . - | Arabic script. The Massachusetts c.i,r{) ó-2t ilr Historical Socretypreser- 3-tJ, de'r ves in the Coolidge Collection an undated writing of thir- I t. teen linesin almost illegibleArabic signedwith what might r,LX) *:.!io 'T iliiJ,ltí be read as a (for J'?) and which may have been produced by Jefferson,perhaps by experimentingwith a ;11;g l;t. Íitlitiutr, lt)il$ f'o1:'rsSirtS,tltt,,'t. ]o7"si pantograph.Cf . MELA lrlotes35 (1985),p. 7. ,]jissit,p,?r € rt,' lSiJ. 3 According to McMurtrie, p. 61, this happenedin 1796. 3u Figure l7a. Colophon of the same Christian pamphlet in The specimenof Binny and Ronaldson of 1822men- 'Persic Malay (in Arabic script). See the title-pagereproduced in tions and other orientals'. Although no Arabic the previous figure. Courtesy of the Andover-Harvard specimenis shown it is possiblethat Mappa's type is among Theolosical Librarv. them. Reference supplied, courtesy of Mr. John Lane, Leiden. the Netherlands. a Adam Gerard Mappa. preuvesde caractèresorienta- But the most serious competitor to the supposed les quí se trouNentdans la Fonderíede A:G: Mappa. à Delft, first work printed in Arabic by Americans is the 1785. McMurÍrie, lot'. cíÍ. and, after him, Wytze Gs Hel- product of the Protestantmissionary establishment in linga, Copl' and Print in the Netherlands; an Atlas o./' Singapore. Cecyl K. Bird in his Earl1, Printing in rhe Historical Biblíograph1,(Amsterdam : North-Holland Publis- Straits Settlentents.1806-185837 mentions that the hing Company, 1962),p. 126. 86 MANUSCRIPTSOF THE MIDDLE EAST6 (1992)

s Muhammad Báqir ibn Muhammad Taqi al-Majlisi. 7e Amerika und die orientalischenKirchen; (irsprung und The Life and Religion oJ' Mohantmecl as Cr,tntainedin the Aryfang der amerikanischenMíssion unter den lllationalkir- Slteeàh Trctdítion o.f the Hvut-ul-Kulooó. Translated from c'henWestasiers. (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. 1958).p. 209: 'In the Persianby JamesL. Merrick (Boston: Phillips.Samp- Malta ist es nicht mehr zum Drucken arabischerSchrift- son.and Co., 1850). werke gekommen.' 6 20 lbid. p. [xi]. Eli Smith, Mis.;íonar1'Sermons and Addre.s.se.s(Bos- I Cf. Scott Hurtt Paradíse. A Historr oJ' Prínting in ton: Perkins& Marvin. 1833).p. 167. Andot'erMassachusett.s 1789-193I ([Andover] : The Andor,'er 2r Ibíd. 22 Press.1931). p. [5]. Wada' Yunus k-tn ila Ahbabih .fi Filastrn v'a-Surn'ah 8 William Adam. Á Discourseon the Lííe and Sertit'eso.f al-Yav'm al-Khamismin Aylul sanat 1825Masrhiyyah (n.p., Professor Moses SÍuart; Deliveretl in the Citl' of lt''ev'York n.d.). Small octavo. 24 p. 17 linesper page.Quire markings Januar.v25, 1852(New York: J.F. Trow. printer. 1852). I + . 2. + 2. Paperstrong, unwatermarked. resembling Italian pp. 26f. paper of the time. q Cf. Paradise.loc. cit. 23 Kawerau,op. cit., p. 205. 'The 10 An example of this was Wilhelm Gesenius'English 21 W.J. Burke. AmericanMission Pressin Malta.' edition of A Hebrev and EnglíshLericon ofthe Old Testa- lVev'York Publíc Líbrary Bulletin 41 (1937).p. 528. nrcnt, Including Biblical Chaldee, translated by Edward 25 It is the type referredto in the Missionar.t'Heraltlat 'An Robinson. published in Boston by Crocker and Brewster. Home anclAbroad. Boston 25 (1829).p. 8: Arabic font. and in New York by Leavitt. Lord & Co but the actual if not alreadyarrived, will be receivedsoon ...'. printingwas done in Andover. 26 Church Missíonar.t'Record, detailing the Proceedings 11 While some of the materials may have gone to the of the Church Missionar.r'Soc'retr' ./or the Year 1834.Vol. 5 Andover Newton TheologicalSchool Library. the majority (London: Printedb1' Richard Watts. 1834).p. 40. of them seemto have been depositedin the Andover-Har- 2' Mr. King must hare;oinedthe ABCFM betweenJull iard Librar.v.The rarer n.raterialsand the nranuscriptsare 1822when he r"as first contactedby Mr. Fisk from Malta, nou in the HoughtonLibrarv of Harrard Universiti. and September30 of the same year when he left Paris for 1: An earlierattempt to use Arabic type in Neu York Malta. The date September5. lu25 could thus have been vuasmade by G. & C. Carvill ten vearsearlier (1827) in the date of the conclusionof this three-yearemploy by the printing John Jahn. An Iníroclut'ííonto the Old Teslantent Board, coinciding with the day on which he wrote the trctnslcttedliont Íhe Latin and German y'orks ... by Samuel farewell.This would seemconfirmed by the French edition H. Turner and William R. Whittingham. Only one word of the letter printed at Malta in l843 by Gabriel Vassali was set in the Andover type. on p. 92. Apparently difficul- which is entitled: Lettres d'adieu à sesami.s de Palestine et ties were encounteredbecause the remainderof the Arabic de Syrie sur les erreurs de I'Eglise de écrite en arabe was printed from en-uravings(see figure 10). le 5 septembre1825. 13 Geschichteder arabischenLitteratur. Suppl. III (Lei- As for instructionsto avoid controversy.this is corrobo- den. 1942).p.440. rated by' a letter to Jonas King in Greecewritten by Daniel La NatíonalLiníon Catalogue. \'.53. p. 41. col. a. item 3 Temple.the Americanmission printer on Malta. sometime 'l from the top. Darlow & Moule no. 1699.It shouldbe noted after l816 uhich states: am sorry to saythat the Govern- that the two Arabic Bibleslisted in ÀL'C r'. 53. p.40b top ment [of Malta] refusesto give me permissionto print your with the dates1812 and l8l6 respectivelyare misidentified. valedictory'letter assigningas reason that it is an overt In fact. theseare the 1867edition. attack upon the dominant religion of thesepossessions.' Cf. 'Printers 1s David H. Partington, and Printing, Arabic,' F.E.H. Haines. Jonas King, Missionerv to Syrio and Enctclopedía of Library and Information Science.Eds. Allen .New York: American Tract Society. 1879.p. 192. Kent and Harold Lancour (New York: M. Dekker, 1968- 28 One of them is William F. Mavor, Sharh Taba'í' ol- 81)v. 24,p. 65. Haravc1n^translated from the English by Fáris al-Shidyáq 16 Historl' oÍ' the Missions of the Anrerícan Board of and printed at Malta in 1841.The type is much more Commissioners.for Foreign Missions to the Oriental Chur- elegant than that normally employed by the Church cftes (Boston: Congregational Publishing Society. 1872). MissionarySociety. 2 vols. 2q Kawerau,op. r'it.. p.264. 11 L'Imprimerie au Liban (Beyrouth: Sous le patronage 30 Loc. cit., p. 504. 31 de la Commissionlibanaise du mois de I'UnescoNov.-Déc. These are Qutb Maqalat al-Qiddrs YuhannaFamm al- 'an 1948. p.49 f. [Harissa: Imprimerie St. Paul, 1949]). Dhuhab Mutala'at al-Kitah al-Muquddas (translated by 'on 'Tsá Concerningthe ABCFM: I'installa à Malte et l'on Brtru, 159+ 1 pp): Qissatal-Yasabat lbnctt al-Luhnon al- 'an débuta par une imprimerie arabe qui fonctionna de 1822à Sa'tdah: and George B. Whiting. Kifib íi al-lmtina' 1842...', . Sharh al-Muskirat. 18 'Ta'rrkh 32 Luwrs Shaykhn [Louis Cheikho]. Fann al- Place. publisher, and date are lacking. The title is Tibá'ah Íï al-Mashriq,' al-Mashriq 3 (1900).p. 78 et pass. within a simple two-line border. Small octavo. On p. 504 Cheikho lists nineteentitles publishedat Malta 33 The paper of the strip is watermarked; the ink is 'Beirut' among which are severaldated after 1834,although on the brownish. the spellingof is archaic. 3a samepage he statesthat the American pressat Malta was Cf. Kawerau,pp. 261ff;[Edward] Robinson,'Oriental moved to Beirut in 1834. To explain this discrepancy, Types.' Missionctr Herald, May 1844, p. 170-2' Homan 'Manufacture Cheikho claims that part of the apparatus was left on Hallock. of Arabic Type.' The Inland Prínter Malta until 1842. 6 (April. 1899).p. 164.etc. MIROSLAV KREK. PRINTING ARABIC IN AMERICA 87 js TheForeign Missionan Chronicle,(1838). p.81. 3r (SingaporeNational Library. pp. 3ó 1970), l5f. Ashbel Green. Pre.sht.teríunMi,ssions,. With Suppte- 38 Ihid.,p. 16. tttenÍalltlotes ht' John C. Lowrie (New york: Anson D.F. Randolph& Co. [1893]).p. 156.