Exploring a Theology of Translation As Revelation Bryan Harmelink Wycliffe Global Alliance Introduction 1 the Heavens Proclaim the Glory of God

Exploring a Theology of Translation as Revelation Bryan Harmelink Wycliffe Global Alliance Introduction 1 The heavens proclaim the glory of God. The skies display his craftsmanship. 2 Day after day they continue to speak; night after night they make him known.1 From the beginning of time, God has been intent on making himself known. The well-known first line of John’s Gospel, “In the beginning was the Word,” reflects this intention since, as Andreas 2 Köstenberger says, the “idea underlying ‘Word’ is that of divine self-expression.” The writer to the Hebrews declared, “Long ago God spoke many times and in many ways to our ancestors through the prophets. 2 And now in these final days, he has spoken to us through his Son.” God spoke creation into existence and he has spoken, has communicated, through his creation and to his creatures ever since. All through the pages of Scripture, in episode after episode, God makes himself known. In Eden, God made himself known to Adam and Eve. That relationship was ruptured by sin, but he continued to communicate with them and their descendants. In Moses’ case, God’s self-disclosure was taken to another level by God revealing his name “I AM WHO I AM” (Exo 3:14). In Jeremiah 31:33 we find one of the great promises of God: “I will be their God, and they will be my people.” This is not merely communication, but a promise of relationship. But this is not all, of course. “The Word became human and made his home among us” (John 1:14) and when it appeared that he was leaving his followers behind, the Spirit was sent to continue his presence among his people (John 16:5-12). God’s intent has always been to make himself known, and his people are sent to be witnesses, to also make him known. The heavens proclaim the glory of God and we are called to proclaim his glory among the nations. The Old Testament prophets were witnesses to the mighty works of God and communicated what God had revealed or entrusted to them and the Gospel authors were witnesses to the life and ministry of the Incarnate Christ who was the “visible image of the invisible God (Col 1:15). As John wrote in 1 John 1:1 “We proclaim to you the one who existed from the beginning, whom we have heard and seen.” And we, his people, are called to be his witnesses to the ends of the earth (Acts 1:8). Scripture can also be considered a witness. On the road to Emmaus, Jesus, "beginning with Moses and all the Prophets, … explained to them what was said in all the Scriptures concerning himself" (Luke 24:27). Similarly, in John 5:39-40, Jesus told the Pharisees, “You study the Scriptures diligently because you think that in them you have eternal life. These are the very Scriptures that testify about me, yet you refuse to come to me to have life." The Triune God, his people, and the Scriptures work together to make known, to testify to the glory of God. At the culmination of all things in the new Jerusalem, there will be no sun because “the

1 Psalm 19:1-2 2 Köstenberger, Encountering John, 50. 1 glory of God illuminates the city, and the Lamb is its light” (Rev 21:23). His people will be in his eternal Presence forever. Thinking Theologically About Translation as Revelation As noted in the previous section, Scripture is a rich source for reflection on the many ways God makes himself known. This kind of reflection is a necessary component of thinking theologically. Another component is considering the analysis of theologians and biblical scholars, which follows here. In Revelation and Reason, Colin Gunton defines revelation as “the making known of truths 3 about the ways of God towards and with the created order that cannot be obtained elsewhere.” In Holy Scripture: A Dogmatic Sketch, John Webster states: Revelation is the self-presentation of the triune God, the free work of sovereign mercy in which God wills, establishes and perfects saving fellowship with himself in which humankind comes to know, love and fear him above all things.4 Revelation refers to God being made known through Creation, Christ, and the Canon of Scripture. Scripture is our commentary on both creation and Christ, revealing aspects of both in-time events that we would not otherwise know. All three aspects of revelation work together in the self-presentation or self-revelation of the Triune God. Or as Grenz expresses it in Theology for the 5 Community of God, “[R]evelation … is the self-disclosure of God-in-relation.” In brief, revelation refers to the Triune God’s mission to make known who he is and his desire for relationship with his people. In Divine Discourse, however, Wolterstorff argues that revelation should technically be 6 reserved for “unveiling the veiled, uncovering the covered, exposing the obscured to view.” Kevin Vanhoozer concurs with Wolterstorff’s analysis in Divine Discourse, but prefers Triune Discourse as a 7 way of attributing “speaking both to the three persons and to the unitary being of God.” Both points are helpful refinements. Both Wolterstorff and Vanhoozer, by proposing Divine and Triune Discourse respectively, prefer to place revelation in the broader context of communication. Based on their analysis, I suggest Triune communication as a way of bringing together all the communicative acts of God through creation, in Christ, and in Scripture. This also provides a fruitful context for developing a biblical-theological perspective on Bible translation as the extension of Triune communication across cultural boundaries. The locus theologicus for Bible translation would be Triune communication, which includes revelation. This kind of biblical and theological reflection lays an important foundation for doing Bible translation in the context of the global Church. 8 This research has taken place with awareness of the transdisciplinary nature of translation and the benefits of conceiving of translation as a reflective practice. Thinking theologically about translation is just one example of interdisciplinary reflection which can enhance and nuance our

3 Gunton, Revelation and Reason, 72. 4 Webster, Holy Scripture, 13. 5 Grenz, Theology, location 1,381, Kindle. 6 Wolterstorff, Divine Discourse, 23. 7 Vanhoozer, “Triune Discourse,” 55. 8 Arduini and Nergaard, “Translation: A New Paradigm,” 15.

2 missiological understanding of Bible translation. Historical and cultural reflection are also integral to this paper’s consideration of various influences on and ways of perceiving Scripture translation. One of the common threads in the long history of Bible translation is the motivation shared by God’s people to communicate Scripture in new culture-and-language settings as the Church crossed cultural boundaries. This is consistent with seeing Bible translation as an extension of Triune communication. Reflection on this history also reveals that Bible translation is not an independent activity separated from the historical milieu in which it is practiced. It is, rather, embedded within specific intellectual, philosophical, cultural, and religious contexts, and influenced by dynamics that, at first glance, may seem external to translation itself. The following brief vignettes illustrate this and give a sense of the flow of this history. Vignettes from Translation History 1. Translation in the pages of Scripture Translation is part of Scripture itself. The example par excellence is the Gospels coming to us in 9 Koine Greek, preserving only a few words of Jesus in Aramaic. There is scholarly debate about the possibility of Aramaic versions of the Gospels, but most scholars agree that the New Testament was written in Greek, the lingua franca of that time period. An Aramaic text of the Gospels probably did not exist, but there would have been oral transmission in Aramaic of many episodes of Jesus’ life and teachings. It is likely, in fact, that both Aramaic and Greek were used as languages of oral transmission even though the Gospels come to us almost in their entirety in Greek. 10 This is what leads Lamin Sanneh to refer to Christianity as a "translated religion." He summarizes this phenomenon this way: Bible translation has marked the history of Christianity from its very origins: the gospels are a translated version of the preaching and message of Jesus, and the epistles are a further interpretation and application of that preaching and message. Christianity is unique in being promoted outside the language of the founder of the religion.11 2. The Ancient Versions 12 The ancient versions (Syriac, Latin, Coptic, Ge‘ez, Old Slavonic, etc.) represent fascinating chapters of Bible translation history reflecting the various historical and cultural contexts in which these versions were translated. Consider the following from Wilken’s The First Thousand Years: Though Nicholas had supported the Western mission in the Balkans, he was nevertheless very interested in the work of Cyril and Methodius. In 867 he invited

9 Raca meaning “fool” (Matthew 5:22); Eli Eli lema sabachthani meaning “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” (Matthew 27:46); Talitha cum meaning “Little girl, get up!” (Mark 5:41); Ephphatha meaning “Be opened.” (Mark 7:34); Hosanna meaning “O Lord, save us.” (Mark 11:9); Abba meaning “Father” (Mark 14:36); Rabbouni meaning “teacher” (John 20:16). https://bustedhalo.com/ministry-resources/what-verses-in-the-new-testament-are-aramaic 10 Sanneh, "Post-Western Wine," location 1,768. 11 Sanneh, “Domesticating,” 71. 12 For more detail, see Harmelink, Translation as Transmission, 23.

the two brothers to Rome, and on their way they stopped in Venice, where they met stiff opposition to the use of Slavonic in the liturgy. The local bishops and clergy informed the two brothers that there were only three sacred languages: Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. Cyril would have nothing of their linguistic imperiousness. “We know of numerous peoples who possess writing,” he said, “and render glory to God, each in his own tongue.13 In this early era of Bible translation, the notion of “only three sacred languages” played a significant role in influencing officially sanctioned translation strategies. Given this cultural and religious notion of sacred languages, it is quite remarkable that so many translations were completed during this era. 3. Martin Luther In a recent article by Ben Witherington III, he comments that Luther “and William Tyndale deserve equal billing as the real pioneers of producing translations of the Bible from the original languages into the language of ordinary people, so they might read it, study it, learn it, and be moved 14 and shaped by it.” The significant contribution of both Luther and Tyndale to the Bible translation movement cannot be denied, but their contribution must be understood in the particular intellectual, philosophical, cultural, and religious contexts in which they lived and worked. With specific reference to Luther, his translation took place in the context created by the general social and intellectual upheaval of the Renaissance and the cry within Humanism, ad fontes, to return to the sources. The context of Luther’s translation also includes the revolutionary printing press, and the work of Erasmus on the Greek New Testament. Luther played a significant part in the Reformation and translation history, but it was in a context of multiple convergences. 4. The Modern Bible Translation Movement th Likewise, the modern Bible translation movement since the middle of the 20 century needs to be understood in the specific intellectual, historical, cultural, and religious context from which it emerged. Without the context created by Anthropology, Descriptive Linguistics, and the modern missionary movement, the Bible translation movement would not be what it is today. In For the Gospel’s Sake, Aldridge comments on the “fortuitous encounter” of William Gates and William Cameron Townsend, observing: If this fortuitous encounter had never occurred, then Townsend might never have linked missionary Bible translation to the emerging discipline of structural linguistics, a move that would eventually have far-reaching effects not only on the development of SIL but also on the development of indigenous languages and the advancement of Bible translation theory in the mid-20th century.15 The founders of the various organizations that flourished in the modern Bible translation movement were “men of their times” embedded within and influenced by their contexts. Even though

13 Wilkens, First Thousand Years, 349. 14 Witherington, “The Most Dangerous Thing.” 15 Aldridge, For the Gospel’s Sake, 29. 4

Townsend has been described as having “progressive ideals for the social uplift of the world's 16 indigenous peoples,” these ideals were not shaped in a vacuum. To say that Townsend, as well as Luther and Tyndale before him, were “men of their times” does not, however, reduce them to mere products of their environment. Marching to a different drummer typically requires a predominant drummer from which someone departs to go a different way. In Townsend’s case, American Fundamentalism was predominant in his context, but his breaking 17 “more than a few rules in the fundamentalist playbook” happened in that context. It is likely that his early experiences and observations in Guatemala of the marginalization of and prejudice against indigenous people were very influential in his decision to march to a different drummer. 5. The Bible Translation Strategy Within what is perceived as the same context, different people are influenced by different contextual factors—context does not control or determine how people respond. In For the Gospel’s Sake, Aldridge discusses how “[T]he Bible Society believed the church interpreted the text, whereas SIL argued that the Bible, if appropriately translated into the local idiom, was essentially self-interpreting. The implications of these differing views for Bible translation theory and practice were substantial” (Aldridge, 99). By the 1970s, concerns were being raised within SIL that translations were not being used or read to the extent anticipated by translation teams. In the late 1970s, this concern motivated Wayne Dye to research the causes of unused translations. His findings were published in 1980 in The Bible Translation Strategy.18 19 According to Aldridge, “Dye’s findings were not well received in some quarters” of SIL because they challenged standard practice, but the Bible translation movement has benefited in many ways ever since from Dye’s reflection and research. The current emphasis on Scripture Engagement in many translation agencies can trace its genesis back to Dye’s seminal research. This is an example of strategies being adjusted in response to changes in the global context. The following vignette discusses one of the most significant changes being faced by the global Bible translation movement today. 6. The Global Church and Global Theologies Interest in the global Church has led to a steady flow of publications, describing the demographic and geographic changes that have been experienced around the world. As stated by Mark Noll in The New Shape of World Christianity, "...the Christian Church has experienced a larger geographical redistribution in the last fifty years than in any comparable period in its history, with the 20 exception of the very earliest years of church history. In The Next Christendom, Philip Jenkins wrote: "Whatever Europeans or North Americans may believe, Christianity is doing very well indeed in the 21 global South—not just surviving but expanding." And Dana Roberts observes in “Shifting Southward:

16 Aldridge, For the Gospel’s Sake, 11. 17 Ibid, 52. 18 Dye, “The Eight Conditions of Scripture Engagement,” International Journal of Frontier Missiology, 26:2 Summer 2009 is an updated re-presentation of Dye’s earlier publication. 19 Aldridge, For the Gospel’s Sake, 101. 20 Noll, New Shape, 21. 21 Jenkins, The Next Christendom, 2. 5

Global Christianity Since 1945” that “[T]he typical late twentieth-century Christian was no longer a European man but a Latin American or African woman.”22 The shifting, expanding Church has also stimulated a flood of publications on global and contextual theologies, but here I can only comment on a small trickle of them. In 1993 Tite Tiénou stated that “we have learned that all Christian theologies are products of their social, historical, and 23 cultural environments.” More than a decade later, Vanhoozer says in “One Rule to Rule Them All?” that “[T]he single most significant methodological development that stems from the changing demographics of Christianity” is the new appreciation for context.”24 But these demographic and geographic changes are only part of the story. There has also been a steady flow of publications attempting to capture the global theological conversation. In many ways, this global conversation was anticipated by Hiebert already in 1985 when he proposed 25 self-theologizing as the “Fourth Self” of the Church. Theologizing or thinking theologically is vital to the life of the Church as the people of God grow in faith seeking understanding in their various contexts. 26 In “The Gospel as Prisoner and Liberator of Culture,” Andrew Walls asks a crucial question: “Is there a ‘Historic Christian Faith’?” As a way of providing an answer, he relates the story of a spaceman who visits earth at various moments in the history of the Church: Jerusalem in the year 37, the Council of Nicea in 325, Ireland three hundred years later, London in the 1840s, and finally Lagos, Nigeria in 1980. The space visitor observed many differences, but nevertheless is led to recognize an essential continuity in Christianity: continuity of thought about the final significance of Jesus, continuity of a certain consciousness about history, continuity in the use of scriptures, of bread and wine, of water.27 So in both dimensions, historical and global, the Church is diverse, yet it acknowledges that “[T]here is one body and one Spirit (Eph 4:4). 7. The Impact of Bible Translation Commenting on the growth of the global Church, Mark Noll observes: Over the course of the last century, the Christian entrance into local cultures has accelerated as never before. Many factors have contributed to this acceleration, but the most important is translation.28 The final comment here may come as a surprise to those in the Bible translation community who have been concerned about the impact of their work—and Noll is not the only scholar to write about the impact of vernacular Bible translation. In Translating the Message, Lamin Sanneh wrote: “The flowering of Christian activity in modern Africa took place in ground suitably worked by

22 Robert, “Shifting Southward,” 50. 23 Tiénou, “Forming Indigenous Theologies,” 246. 24 Vanhoozer, “One Rule,” 93. 25 Hiebert, Anthropological Insights, location 2388, Kindle. 26 The Missionary Movement in Christian History: Studies in the Transmission of Faith, 3-15 27 Walls, “Prisoner and Liberator,” 7. 28 Noll, Turning Points, 23. 6

29 vernacular translation. Brian Stiller, in From Jerusalem to Timbuktu, comments that “The centuries of Bible translation … built a foundation on which the current rapid and stunning building of Christian 30 faith rests. Similarly, in Turning Points, Noll claims that the “translation of the Scriptures, in turn, may be the most enduringly significant feature of the global expansion of Christianity that has been 31 taking place since the start of the nineteenth century. In Christianity in the Twentieth Century: A World History, Stanley observes: The role of the Bible societies in effecting the transformation of Christianity into a global religion is still undervalued. Societies such as the British and Foreign Bible Society (1804), the American Bible Society (1816), and, more recently, the Wycliffe Bible Translators (1942) have supplied the vernacular scriptures without which Christianity could never have taken its current shape as a multicultural religion.32 Finally, again from Stiller, “without translation, the current explosion of indigenized 33 Christianity would have been unimaginable.” These comments are certainly encouraging and gratifying to the Bible translation community. The volumes mentioned here are a mere sampling of a small part of the vast literature that has resulted from historical, theological, and missiological interest in the global Church and in global theologies. Implications of Global Church Shifts There are many reasons to celebrate the abundance of publications stimulated by changes in the global Church. The volume and scope of these historical, theological, and missiological publications, however, make it impossible to keep up with how the Church has changed and continues to change. But they are overwhelming evidence that the global Church is not an anticipated future, but a present reality. The question, however, is how do we respond? For example, in 1993 in “Forming Indigenous 34 Theologies,” Tite Tiénou was already writing about the “polycentric nature of Christianity.” At the turn of the century, well-known missiologist Wilbert Shenk similarly declared, “[T]he task in the twenty-first century is to conceptualize theology in light of the fact that the Christian faith is global 35 with multiple heartlands.” Twenty years later, the Bible translation movement is still coming to grips with this reality. Mere awareness of these changes does not automatically lead to changes in practice. I urge us all, individually and corporately, to consider the interconnections of the Global Church, the global theologies conversation, and the global Bible translation movement. Then, to reflect on the potential need for reassessment and reorientation based on these realities. I acknowledge that certain changes and adjustments have already been made, but more are needed. These realities call us to move beyond “engaging the Church” to discern appropriate ways to

29 Sanneh, Translating the Message, 5 30 Stiller, From Jerusalem to Timbuktu, location 261. 31 Noll, Turning Points, (location 261) 32 Stanley, A World History, 59. 33 Stiller, From Jerusalem to Timbuktu, location 695. 34 Tiénou, “Forming Indigenous Theologies,” xx. 35 Shenk, “Recasting,” 105.

7 participate with the Church in the mission of God in the world, with Bible translation rooted in the global Church and embedded in the global theologies conversation. We need to recognize that “[T]ogether, we participate with God in the restoration, reconciliation and transformation of all things for God's glory.”36 Bible Translation Rooted in the Global Church, Embedded in the Global Theologies Conversation One of the most critical aspects of reassessing Bible translation in light of the current state of both the global Church and global theologies is to enhance our understanding of the theological 37 dimensions of Bible translation. If Bible translation is going to be rooted in the global Church and embedded in the global theologies conversation, we need to be conversant in biblical-theology, ecclesiology, and missiology in order to view Bible translation through these lenses. Theology and Bible translation have not, however, always been the best of friends. The following analysis of this relationship focuses on the modern Bible translation movement since the th early 20 century. The following list is not strictly chronological, although there is a certain temporal progression. This analysis reflects tendencies within the western, academic, and Evangelical segments of the Bible translation movement and is motivated by the desire to discern points of connection between the global Bible translation movement, the global Church, and the global theologies conversation. The first perspective reflects assumptions that were common about a half-century ago. 1. Translation first, Theology follows Translation is perceived primarily as textual transfer. Once the transfer is complete, the text is read, studied, and interpreted theologically, both individually and corporately. The linguistic process of translation does not involve theology, interpretation, or application. 2. Protect Translation from Theological Agendas Theology is perceived as a separate domain and is viewed with suspicion because it is frequently associated with debates and divisions. This perception is possibly in the background of the fifth point in the Forum of Bible Agencies International statement of Basic Principles and Procedures for Bible Translation: “Concerning translation principles, we endeavor insofar as possible: To make every effort to ensure that no political, ideological, social, cultural, or theological agenda is allowed to distort the translation.”38 3. Exegesis as Theology The discipline of Systematic Theology is perceived as having limited value in Bible translation, but biblical backgrounds and other information from the context in which the biblical texts were written is highly valued. Commentaries are useful to the limited extent that they provide exegetical details that inform specific translation decisions. This desire for exegetical translation advice

36 Wycliffe Global Alliance, Statements Regarding the Wycliffe Global Alliance’s Relationship with the Church, 5. 37 Different organizations within the Bible translation community have had different histories and experiences in relation to the Church. The need for reassessment and reorientation on this point will therefore differ from organization to organization. It is likely, however, that other kinds of reassessments and reorientations may still be called for in order for Bible translation to be rooted in the global Church and embedded in the global theologies conversation. 38 FOBAI Basic Principles and Procedures for Bible Translation. 8 motivated the publication of various series of Handbooks, Manuals, Guides, and Notes that have been widely used in the Bible translation movement. 4. Theology as a Diagnostic check Structural Linguistics (in translation approaches) and Word Studies (in Biblical Studies) both emphasize lexical choices. In the Bible translation process, this influence led to focused attention on “key terms.” The main connection to theology is many of the terms are identified as key theological terms that 1) would be unknown in many contexts and 2) would cause challenges in translation. Analyzing the standard lists of key terms in their biblical contexts, discussing them with translation teams, and verifying appropriate key term choices in translation became a standard diagnostic check for accuracy in translation. Other linguistic features are also important, but they do not raise the same theological concerns. 5. Translation of a theological text Increased attention to Hermeneutics, Intertextuality, and Biblical Theology raised awareness of the theological nature of the biblical text. Effective translation, therefore, requires more thorough understanding of and appreciation of the theological contours of the biblical text. In contrast to the key terms approach mentioned above, attention shifts to the intertextual and biblical-theological ways in which theological concepts are expressed in the text. Lexical choices are still important, but words are seen more as pointers to the theological and conceptual themes and motifs of Scripture. From this perspective, the theological character of the biblical text is highlighted. 6. Theological Presuppositions of all Interpreters According to Moisés Silva, “it is not feasible to separate biblical interpretation from 39 40 theology.” He also argues that “proper exegesis should be informed by theological reflection.” This perspective is very different from 1 & 2 above in its acknowledgement of the theological (and other) presuppositions that everyone brings to their reading of the biblical text. Rather than deny the existence and influence of these presuppositions, all readers, interpreters, and translators should acknowledge them, not to impose them on interpretive practice, but rather to expose them for conversation and negotiation. Participation in these conversations requires awareness of and sensitivity to theological thinking in the contexts in which Bible translation is being done. This does not mean mastering the content of all varieties of global theologies, but rather learning how to participate in the global theological conversation with a “hermeneutic of humility.” 41 Part of developing this “hermeneutic of humility” is developing “respect for difference.” According to 42 Tiénou, “mutual enrichment and mutual correction…” are the benefits to those who engage in this way. These are crucial components of effective co-participation with others in the mission of God,

39 Silva, Introduction, 259. 40 Ibid, 261. 41 Schreiter, New Catholicity, 95. 42 (1993, 248)

43 with far-reaching implications for the processes of Bible translation. From this perspective, the theological context of the translator is highlighted. 7. Translation as a Theological Practice This perspective recognizes 1) the theological context in which the biblical texts were written and brought into the canon, 2) the theological perspectives of the authors reflected in the biblical texts, 3) the theological context of readers, interpreters, and translators, and 4) translation as a thoroughly theological practice. This does not reduce translation to theology, but it acknowledges that the theological nature of the biblical text calls for a commensurately theological approach to its translation. From this perspective, the theologizing practice of the translator is in focus. Summary The preceding survey of these seven perspectives shows the progression from perceiving theology as separate from Bible translation (in 1) to theology being considered as integral and essential (in 6 & 7). This progression mirrors changes that have taken place in Biblical, Theological, and Translation Studies, but perspectives 5, 6, & 7 are not yet evenly implemented in the global Bible translation movement. As mentioned above, as early as 1985 Paul Hiebert proposed “self-theologizing” as the Church’s Fourth Self. Self-theologizing is not reserved for the few, but rather is a practice for the whole Church as the people of God live by faith, seeking understanding in their varied contexts. Now, thirty-five years after Hiebert’s proposal of the Fourth Self, my analysis indicates that there are still many places where self-theologizing has not been fully appreciated or implemented in the Bible translation community. Apart from exegesis, background studies, and diagnostic checks, the role of theology in Bible translation is unclear. There is room for much improvement. In “Christian Theology in an Age of World Christianity,” Tite Tiénou says “[F]or Christians, theology is necessary because it enables them to think and live Christianly so that they can love God 44 fully, with heart, mind, soul, and strength.” Likewise, thinking theologically about Bible translation is necessary for Bible translation to be rooted in the global Church and embedded in the global theologies conversation. To this end, I propose seeing Bible translation as a theological practice and the extension of Triune communication across cultural boundaries. Conclusions and Implications I conclude with several implications that emerge from this analysis: ● The realities of the global Church should lead us all to celebrate the awesome movement of the Spirit of God around the world ● The realities of the global Church also call us all to reflect on possible reassessment and reorientation of our place, individually and corporately, within the global Body of Christ ● Bible translation rooted in the global Church and embedded in the global theologies conversation should be the frame of reference for discussions of Bible translation

43 The course “Theology as a Local Practice” in the Master of Applied Linguistics for Bible Translation at YWAM’s University of the Nations focuses on this topic. More information available on request. 44 Tiénou, “Christian Theologies,” 38.

● Training for those involved in different roles in the Bible translation movement should include orientation to the global Church, the global theologies conversation, and Bible translation as a theological practice ● Training for translators and consultants should include orientation to the global theologies conversation and self-theologizing seen as an integral part of the theological practice of Bible translation May we all discern together how Bible translation can be more fully rooted in the global Church and embedded in the global theologies conversation so Triune communication can be extended more and more as we look forward to the knowledge of the glory of the Lord covering the earth as the waters fill the sea (Habakkuk 2:14). Works Cited Aldridge, Boone. For the Gospel’s Sake: The Rise of the Wycliffe Bible Translators and the Summer Institute of Linguistics. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2018. Arduini, Stefano and Siri Nergaard. “Translation: A New Paradigm.” Translation, Inaugural Issue, (2011): 8-17. FOBAI Basic Principles and Procedures for Bible Translation. Grenz, Stanley. Theology for the Community of God. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000. Gunton, Colin. Revelation and Reason: Prolegomena to Systematic Theology. London: T&T Clark, 2009. Harmelink, Bryan. “Translation as Transmission.” JBTM 12-1 (Spring 2015): 20-25. Hiebert, Paul. Anthropological Insights for Missionaries. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1986. Jenkins, Philip. The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.

Köstenberger, Andreas. Encountering John: The Gospel in Historical, Literary, And Theological nd Perspective (Encountering Biblical Studies) 2 Edition. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013. Noll, Mark. The New Shape of World Christianity: How American Experience Reflects Global Faith. Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2009.

rd Noll, Mark. Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity 3 Edition. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012. Robert, Dana. “Shifting Southward: Global Christianity Since 1945.” International Bulletin of Missionary Research. (April 2000):50-58. Robinson, Anthony B. What’s Theology Got to Do with It? Convictions, Vitality, and the Church. Herndon, VA: The Alban Institute, 2006.

Sanneh, Lamin. “Domesticating the Transcendent.” In Bible Translation on the Threshold of the Twenty-First Century: Authority, Reception, Culture and Religion. Ed by Brenner, Athalya, Jan Willem Van Henten. New York: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002.

Sanneh, Lamin. Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Culture. Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 2009.

Schreiter, Robert. The New Catholicity: Theology Between the Global and the Local. Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 2015. Shenk, Wilbert. “Recasting Theology of Mission: Impulses from the Non-Western World.” International Bulletin of Missionary Research. (July 2001):98-107. Silva, Moisés. Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics: The Search for Meaning. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994. Stackhouse, John G. ed. Evangelical Futures: A Conversation on Theological Method. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2000. Stanley, Brian. Christianity in the Twentieth Century: A World History. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2018.

Stiller, Brian C. From Jerusalem to Timbuktu: A World Tour of the Spread of Christianity. Downers Grove: IVP Books, 2018.

st Tiénou, Tite. “Forming Indigenous Theologies.“ In Toward the 21 Century in Christian Mission. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993. Tiénou, Tite. “Post-Western Wine? Post-Christian Wineskins?“ In Understanding World Christianity: The Vision and Works of Andrew F. Walls. Ed by by Burrows, William R., Mark R. Gornic and Janice A. McLean. Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 2011. Vanhoozer, Kevin. “One Rule to Rule Them All? Theological Method in an Era of World Christianity.” In Globalizing Theology: Belief and Practice in an Era of World Christianity, edited by Ott, Craig and Harold A Netland. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006.

Walls, Andrew. The Missionary Movement in Christian History: Studies in the Transmission of Faith. Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1996. Webster, John. Holy Scripture: A Dogmatic Sketch. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Wilkens, Robert Louis. The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012.

Witherington, Ben III. “The Most Dangerous Thing Luther Did.” Christian History, October 2017. https://www.christianitytoday.com/history/2017/october/most-dangerous-thing-luther-did.h tml Wolterstorff, Nicholas. Divine Discourse: Philosophical Reflections on the Claim that God Speaks. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

Wycliffe Global Alliance. Statements Regarding the Wycliffe Global Alliance’s Relationship with the Church, 2018.