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People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

L'Arbi Ben Mhidi University, Oum El Bouaghi

Faculty of Arts and Languages

Department of English

Anne Boleyn: A Victim of Circumstances?

The Reasons Behind Anne Boleyn's Downfall.

A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

A Master’s Degree of Arts in Anglo-American Studies

Members of Jury: Candidate:

Supervisor: Dr. Maameri Fatima Miss Massem Abir

Examiner: Mr Filali Billel

Chairwoman: Mrs Haddad Mordjana

2019/2020 II

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Acknowledgements:

All praise to Allah, the most graceful and the most merciful, who granted me the needed knowledge and patience to accomplish this thesis.

Without forgetting the teachers of the English department especially the head of the Department Mr Ayadi Karim, my supervisor Dr Mameri Fatima and the members of the jury Mrs Haddad Mordjana and Mr Filali Billel.

I am also immensely grateful to my wonderful parents who taught me to lead my life with compassion and grace and to my beautiful two little sisters who never fail to remind me that there is still goodness in this world.

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Abstract:

Anne Boleyn was Queen of England, the second wife of Henry VIII, and the mother of

Elizabeth I. She had lived a turbulent yet astonishing life that is highlighted by her passionate love affair with Henry VIII. She was executed after being falsely accused of adultery and treason. Her sudden rise and fall made her a very controversial historical figure. This study was conducted through an analytical approach. It took a dive in the final months of Anne Boleyn’s life as Queen up until her execution. It also reveals what happened behind the scenes to cause her untimely death. This study shows that her husband, Henry VIII, was one of the primary causes of her death due to the impact that his jousting accident had on his brain, the chaotic political situation of his reign, and the influence of his advisers. It also helps prove that the ultimate reason that made Anne

Boleyn targeted by many was due to her feminist tendencies. The study provides an acknowledgment of her contributions to the Reformation movement and to the women whom helped shape her way of thinking.

Key Words: Anne Boleyn- Feminism- Proto-feminism- downfall- Henry VIII- Love story- Oliver Cromwell- the Tudors- 16th century- Protestantism- Coup.

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ملخص

كانت آن بولين ملكة إنجلترا، الزوجة الثانية لهنري الثامن وأم إليزابيث األولى. عاشت حياة مضطربة ومدهشة

أبرزتها عالقتها الغرامية مع هنري الثامن. تم إعدام آن بولين بعد اتهامها زوراً بالزنا والخيانة. صعودها وسقوطها

المفاجئ جعلها شخصية تاريخية مثيرة للجدل. أجريت هذه الدراسة وفقا لمنهج تحليلي. حيث تتناول تنقيبا دقيقا لألشهر

األخيرة من حياة آن بولين كملكة للكشف عما حدث وراء الكواليس ليسبب وفاتها المفاجئة. ت ظهر هذه الدراسة أن من

األسباب الرئيسية وراء موتها هو تأثير حادثة المبارزة على دماغ زوجها هنري الثامن والذي نتج عنه خلل في

احكامه، إضافة لسوء الوضع السياسي السائد آنذاك وتأثير مستشاريه. كذلك تثبت أن ميول آن بولين النسوية هي ما

جعلتها مستهدفة من قبل الكثيرين. تقدم الدراسة أيضا تقدي ًرا لمساهماتها في حركة اإلصالح والنساء اللواتي ساعدن

في تشكيل طريقة تفكيرها.

الكلمات المفتاحية : آن بولين- النسوية- بروتو النسوية- السقوط- هنري الثامن- قصة حب- أوليفر كرومويل- عائلة

تيودور- القرن السادس عشر- البروتستانتية- انقالب.

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Table of Contents:

Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………………. III

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………….. IV

V…………………………………………………………………………………ملخص

Table of Contents…………………………………………………………….……...VI

General Introduction………………………………………………………………...01

Chapter One: A Historical Overview: a Countdown to Anne Boleyn’s fall

I- A Countdown to the Fall of Anne Boleyn………………………….…...06

1. The Beginning of a New Year……………………………………………....06

1.1.Accused of Murder…………………………………………………….……06

1.2.The Impact of Henry VIII’s Accident on Anne Boleyn………………...…..07

1.3.A New Rival and a Miscarriage……………………………………….……08

1.4.Anne Boleyn, the Witch…………………………………………………….08

2. Legal Preparations for Anne Boleyn’s Downfall………………………..….09

2.1.The Rise of Jane Seymour……………………………………………….….09

2.2.A Plot and a Cover Up……………………………………………………...11

II- The hysteria of Arrests………………………………………………….12

1. Rumors, Desperation and Misbehavior…………………………..…………12

2. The First Arrests: Smeton and Norris………………………………..….…..14

3. More Arrests: George Boleyn, Lord Rochford………………………...... …16

III- The Queen’s Fall From Grace…………………………………….…….17

1. The Arrest of Anne Boleyn…………………………………………………17

2. More Arrests………………………………………………………………...20

3. The View……………………………………………………………..….….20 VII

IV- The Trial and Execution of Anne Boleyn………………………..…...... 22

1. The Defense of the Queen………………………………………………….22

2. The Execution of Anne Boleyn…………………………………………….24

Chapter Two: Henry VIII, the Major Player in Anne Boleyn’s Story

I- The Start of a Tyrant…………………………………………………...27

1. The Jousting Accident……………………………………………………..27

2. Henry VIII’s Frontal Lobe…………………………………………….…..29

II- The Political Chaos in Henry VIII’s Reign……………………….…...35

1. Trouble at Paradise………………………………………………….……..35

2. An External Influence……………………………………………………..38

Chapter Three: Anne Boleyn, a Feminist in the 16th Century?

I- A European Education………………………………………………...43

1. Une Demoiselle D’honneur…………………………………………...…..45

2. Influential European Female Figures……………………………………..48

II- Anne Boleyn, a Feminist?...... 54

1. An Advent of Reform………………………………………………...55

2. A Christian Humanist……………………………………………..….56

General Conclusion………………………………………………………..…..59

Bibliography……………………………………………………………...….61

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General Introduction:

Anne Boleyn was a Queen of England, a wife to Henry VIII, and a mother to one of

England’s greatest monarchs, Elizabeth I. Despite the extraordinary life she led, she is mainly known for her passionate love story with England’s infamous King Henry VIII. Anne and

Henry shared a tremendous love affair that is still inspiring to this day; their story is being adapted into novels, series, and films such as The Other Boleyn Girl. People fail to recognize

Anne Boleyn as a multifaceted person; she is either portrayed as pious or a vixen, a seductress or a martyr of the Anglican faith, a manipulator or a victim. This conflict in perception makes her even more fascinating and intriguing; yet it opens a large door for subjective speculations.

Anne Boleyn is one of England’s and the world’s most controversial Queens. A vivacious young lady that stole the heart of the mightiest King of the 16th Century. Henry VIII could not help but fall head over heels for this audacious brunette beauty. He would strenuously persuade her for years, challenging not only the authority of the Pope but his own faith as well just so he could claim her and make her his Queen. Henry would soon change the faith of a whole nation, defy the Catholic church of Rome, abandon his first obedient wife,

Katherine of Aragon, and his only legitimate daughter, Mary, and risk a war with one of

Europe greatest empires, Spain, to honor his promises to the woman he wholeheartedly loved.

Anne Boleyn rose to the top in the span of seven turbulent years of a vivid and passionate love story, but her demise was way more rapid then the latter. The outcome of years of waiting, anticipation, and strenuous legal procedures was fruitful but only for a short while. Henry and Anne’s story is not your typical fairytale; it is a poetic story that took a tragic ending. After years of pursuit, devotion, and passion, Henry eventually convicted his beloved of charges such as conspiring against the King, witchcraft, adultery, and incest. On

19 May 1536, Anne Boleyn headed towards the scaffold where she would be executed on 2

false charges by a French swordsman, who was summoned by King Henry VIII, as a last minute act of mercy towards the woman that he bravely moved heaven and Earth to marry and declare as his Queen.

If we took a look at the events leading up to Anne’s death, we would not notice a major climax that marked an apparent shift in Henry’s love and affection for her, nor would we find any specific incidents that gave away an aura of approaching danger. Anne Boleyn’s final months went by almost as swiftly as the sword that took off her head. We might all know how Anne’s story pans out; but how well do we actually know its leading players? One cannot help but wonder how Anne went from being the dearest person to Henry’s heart, and the most celebrated woman in Europe at the time to being belittled to the status of a witch and a common whore? Was she guilty of the crimes laid against her? Centuries later, and after pending researches, historians determined that Anne Boleyn was in fact innocent of most if not all crimes laid against her. They noted that there was not an actual proof that would prove otherwise, and that if she was in fact guilty; her only guilt lays in failing to provide Henry with a male heir (Ives).

After scamming through many reading materials that tackled Anne Boleyn’s life, I discovered that many were interested in her rise more than her fall. Little to no emphasis was put to discovering the underlying reasons behind her tragic demise. Historians credit her death to the fact that she was not able to bare Henry a son and an heir to England. Anne did however provide Henry with a daughter (Elizabeth I); but with both Spain and France lurking as a constant threat, a male heir is highly desired and needed. It is fairly noted that a princess was set to marry a European prince, which will leave England in foreign hands; however that was not enough reason to justify the injustice that Anne endured. I could not fathom the fact that the woman, that persuaded Henry VIII to set the whole nation on a Reformation movement, would be discarded easily and face a brutal execution for not giving him a son. 3

Henry was no fool; he was well aware that Anne was still young, fertile, and very capable of providing him with more sons. The latter reason cannot justify why Anne went down in history as the woman that lost her head. Henry’s first wife, Katherine of Aragon, failed to give him a son after many strenuous miscarriages; yet she managed to stay and rule alongside him for twenty years. He might have discarded her eventually; but she died in her warm bed with her reputation intact unlike her rival that went down in history as a vicious figure.

The overall aim of this study is to uncover the reasons behind Anne Boleyn’s sudden fall from grace, and to showcase that such an inspiring woman did not go down without a fight. The study seeks to prove that Anne was indeed falsely villainized and to determine if she was actually a victim of a Coup. In addition, it strives to highlight Anne Boleyn as a

Proto-feminist and an influential figure of 16th century Europe, and to inspect if that was one of the reasons she faced condemnation. This study adopts an analytical methodology; data is obtained through excessive reading and analysis of both primary and secondary sources.

This study is divided into three chapters. The first chapter entitled A Historical

Overview: a Countdown to Anne Boleyn’s fall, gives an overview of the last months of

Queen Anne’s life. It aims to highlight the incidents that were of major importance and that played a vital role in her demise. This chapter tackles dissecting the events that marked a notable shift in Henry’s affection towards Anne and the underlying procedures that hinted at an approaching Coup to strike her down. It would also provide a glimpse of Anne Boleyn’s final days, and how she handled herself in those crucial moments until she faced her heartbreaking and untimely death.

The second chapter, entitled Henry VIII, The Major Player in Anne Boleyn’s Story, focuses on Henry VIII and the role he played in his wife’s downfall. It provides a scientifically derived study to uncover the effects of Henry’s jousting accident of his frontal lobe, and how that subsequently had an effect on his relationship with Anne. It also inspects 4

the exterior influences that ultimately led Henry to execute his Queen; such as the political struggles, he was facing at his reign. This chapter identifies Anne’s rival, Thomas Cromwell, who turned Henry against her, and determines why he wanted her out of the picture and plotted her ending.

The third chapter, entitled Anne Boleyn, a Feminist in the 16th Century?, answers this question by giving an overview of Anne’s enticing personality that set her apart from other females of her time. It investigates whether Anne should be considered a proto-feminist or not; and if yes, then what and who shaped her way of thinking and molded her to be the woman she was. This chapter also gives homage to Anne’s contribution and influence and highlights her unique personality, which is subsequently the ultimate reason behind her downfall.

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Chapter One: A Historical Overview: a Countdown to Anne

Boleyn’s Fall.

Introduction:

On the first of June 1533, Anne was crowned Queen of England, a day that marked the epitome of all of Anne’s patience and endurance throughout those long and hard seven years.

“Le temps viendra, Je Anne de Boleyn”, Anne was finally at the top of the world as she had had anticipated and hoped. She was married to one of the most prosperous and influential

Kings of the time, but most importantly she was to rule by his side and ultimately gain the highest possible power that a woman could acquire at the time. In less than three years, Anne would find herself again at the tower of London (where the upcoming Queen of England is to stay before her Coronation), but this time it would be for a very tragic reason for she would be

Queen only for a thousand days.

It had taken Henry and Anne long seven years to get together, so I’d be tracing back their footsteps in order to underline what went wrong and led an epic love story and a shared child (Elizabeth I) to go down the drain in the span of just three years. In order to pinpoint when and where exactly did things stopped working in Anne Boleyn’s favor, one must look at the events leading up to her execution. In this Chapter, I will be analyzing the instances that I believe were of major importance in Anne’s downfall by relying on both primary and secondary sources using the analytical method to uncover what were the events that marked a shift in Henry VIII’s affection for her. It would be a play by play of the last months in Queen

Anne’s life, and the emotionally challenging aspects she had to endure leading up to a very heartbreaking death. 6

I/ A Countdown to the Fall of Anne Boleyn:

1. The Beginning of a New Year:

1.1. Accused of Murder:

January 1536 had brought some disturbing yet much anticipated news; Katherine of

Aragon, Henry VIII’s first wife, had finally passed away at Kimbolton Castle. The news was surprisingly celebrated at court; everyone felt relieved that the real threat to the legitimacy of

Henry and Anne’s marriage had perished. The joyful outburst of the court upon hearing the news further insinuate that Anne was already endangered. Katherine’s health had dramatically gone downhill by the end of December; her body was examined after her death only to reveal a black heart upon inspection. Nowadays, modern experts speculate that her heart’s condition is a result of heart cancer, but back in the day, a black organ was believed to be the result of witchcraft (Ives 295).

The roaring majority pointed their fingers at Anne Boleyn’s back thinking she had poisoned her rival due to her reaction upon hearing the news. It was no surprise that Anne wished for Catherine’s death, she gave the messenger that delivered the news to Greenwish a present; while her father and brother rejoiced in the occasion. Meanwhile, Henry had burst into tears shouting “God be praised that we are free from all suspicion of war, now that the real cause of our enmity no longer exists”. The King’s reaction furthermore reinforce the speculations that he had been under severe stress since he took Anne Boleyn as his bride.

Katherine of Aragon’s death gave Henry VIII peace of mind, because his marriage to Anne is no longer deemed void, which will ensure the legitimacy of their children in the eyes of the whole world. The French, that were a constant lurking threat, would now lose their advantage over England and would have to risk an English alliance with Charles if they were to make a move (Ives 295). 7

On 9 January, two days after Katherine’s passing, Henry held an outstanding ball at court celebrating the long gone war threats. The couple both wore yellow, as they paraded amongst the crowds, a color that represented renewal, hope, light and purity in early Christian art. They both seemed hopeful for a better, more secure and fertile future as Anne was with child, a child she spoke of earlier to her ladies1 as the fragile life that stood between her and her doom (Weir “The True Queen” 404). Although everything seemed blissful at the court of

Henry VIII that day, Anne Boleyn had an inkling that something disturbing was approaching.

1.2. The Impact of Henry VIII Accident on Anne Boleyn:

One of the most life altering experiences Anne Boleyn had was not even inflicted on her; it was however inflicted on her spouse. On the morning of 24th of January 1536, during a not so merry joust at Greenwich, Henry had fallen off his horse and lay unconscious for two hours. The Duke of Norfolk delivered the sad news of Henry’s incident to Anne. She showed little distress, even though she was told that his survival was a miraculous thing (Weir “The

Lady in the Tower” 402). Anne Boleyn must have been terrified upon hearing about her husband’s accident, since he was literally her Knight in a shining armor and the only person that ensured her safety. England without Henry would be a blood bath since the threat of a

Civil war is now on high alert. Despite her fears, Anne was best known for showing strength, resilience, and dignity under pressure; her grace in facing tremendously challenging situations is probably her greatest legacy (Weir “The Lady in the Tower” 402).

1 Ladies is a term used in the middle ages to refer to the women of court and that served the Queen and were of a noble caliber.

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After his accident, Henry VIII would forever be a changed man. Being a big man falling of a moving horse then being stepped on by that horse until unconsciousness was no easy matter. The old bounty athlete is long gone, an old wound on his leg had reopened, and it would result in a blister that would never heal. Henry would now always have his leg bound up, and despite his initial uplifted spirit and will to recover, his health status would now only decline. His inability to ride and hunt would consume him, leaving him immersed in over indulging with food until he grew obese (Weir “The Lady in the Tower” 402).

1.3. A New Rival and a Miscarriage:

On 29 January 1536, the day of Catherine’s funeral, a day that was supposed to mark a stepping stone towards Anne Boleyn’s everlasting happiness, Chapuys had noticed Henry’s infatuation with ‘Mrs Semel [sic]’. Anne’s happiness would suddenly turn sour that day, after catching her husband with Jane Seymour on his knee. According to the comments made by the Duchess of Feria, one of the ladies of Mary Tudor, the Queen had an alarming hysterical reaction upon seeing that heartbreaking scene. Henry, terrified for the life of his unborn child, started soothing the hysterical Anne, whispering in her ear “peace be, sweetheart, and all shall go well with thee” (Weir “The Haunted Queen” 405).

That evening, Henry’s fears came to life, Anne had miscarried her precious baby. The fetus was about three months and a half old and he was identified as a boy. Henry was outrageous; he stormed into Anne’s chambers upon hearing the news saying: “I see that God will not give me male children”. He continued to insult Anne until she lashed out pointing out that it was his entire fault, to which he responded to saying that she “should have no more boys by him”. Anne Boleyn’s temper got the best of her especially under her current circumstances; she yelled that she was distressed due to “that wench, Jane Seymour”. Anne 9

added, “Because the love I bear you is so great, it broke my heart to see you love others”, to which Henry responded, “I will speak to you when you are well” as he walked out the door

(Weir “The Lady in the Tower” 405).

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1.4.Anne Boleyn, the Witch:

The miscarrying is probably the most monumental event in Anne Boleyn’s short life, because it was the starting point to all speculations that would eventually cause her downfall.

Her miscarriage had lit the match to endless rumors that would still be open for debate even in her daughter’s (Elizabeth I) reign. We might never know the real cause of Anne’s miscarriage; she herself claims that it was the result of fear for the life of her husband after she heard about his jousting accident. She blamed Norfolk, since he was the one that delivered her the distressing news (Ives 453).

Henry VIII on the other hand had a more disturbing explanation, according to

Chapuys, some Exeters conveyed to him that Henry had been spilling his guts to a courtier.

The king was reported to have said that he had “made this marriage seduced and constrained by sortileges” and that “ for this reason he held the said marriage void and that God had demonstrated this in not allowing them to have male heirs, and that he considered that he could take another” (Ives 451). Henry’s remark could be just the outbursts of a disappointed and outraged man, but they were more than enough to plant everlasting seeds of doubts around the validity of his marriage to Anne and her dabbling in witchcraft.

The rumors concerning Anne’s use of sorcery and witchcraft had long been surfacing.

Back in 1533, Chapuys had written about the couple (Henry and Anne) noting, “This accursed lady has so enchanted and bewitched him that he will not dare to do anything against her will”

(Ives 452). Henry VIII had ridden himself of his first, loyal and obedient wife Catherine solemnly for her inability to grant him male heirs, and he had used that as his golden ticket to prove that their marriage was null. Now, faced with the very same situation, Henry must have found himself wondering if the same rules would apply to his second marriage with Anne?

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2. Legal Preparations for Anne Boleyn’s Downfall:

2.1. The Rise of Jane Seymour:

By 1 April 1536, Henry VIII’s involvement with Jane Seymour was no longer a hidden matter; his display of affection for her was fully fledged. Seymour, ‘the lady whom he serves’ as Chapuys had described her, was Henry’s mistress while Anne Boleyn was with child. She had been raising to favor with the King, as did her family. Her brother Edward

Seymour was recently appointed a member of Henry’s privy chamber, a decision that was not very pleasant to Anne Boleyn as Chapuys had reported “to the intense rage of the concubine”

(Ridgway 255). Henry had sent Jane a present with Sir Nicholas Carew, according to

Chapuys:

[the king] sent her a purse full of sovereigns and a letter. The young lady,

having kissed the letter returned it to the messenger unopened and falling on

her knees besought him to ask the king on her behalf, to consider carefully that

she was a gentlewoman, born of good and honourable parents and with an

unsullied reputation. She had no greater treasure in the world than her honour

which she would rather die a thousand times than tarnish, and if he wanted to

give her money she begged that he would do so once God had sent her a good

match. (Ives 461)

Many would say that Jane was following Anne’s footsteps. She knew that inside that letter was a summons to the royal bed and she refused to oblige. Her sudden display of virtue after she had been courting Henry publicly since the beginning of the year shows that her intentions are now changed. She no longer was keen on settling for a mistress and obviously had her eye on something much greater. Before Anne Boleyn and Henry VIII’s marriage, such hope would breed eternal misery, but since Anne had succeeded in overthrowing her 12

rival Catherine, Jane probably thought that she might as well be next. Jane’s unexpected response indicated that shed aimed at marriage and nothing less.

Henry’s reaction to Seymour’s endeavor and respect for her wishes further proved that he is serious about her, ‘She has behaved herself in this matter very modestly,’ he said, and in order to let be seen that my intentions and affections are honorable, I intend in future only to speak with her in the presence of her relatives’(Weir 410). He later gave orders to prepare the rooms that were connected to his own apartments to Sir Edward Seymour and his wife. Jane would eventually move in with them and they would act as her governors upon meeting the

King. All of these developments gave her supporters a stronger foothold to pursue their plan of overthrowing Queen Anne. They started to dine with Eustace Chapuys to seek clerical counsel about the possibility of a divorce and a new bride for Henry VIII (Ives 464).

2.2. A Plot and a Cover Up:

On 24 April 1536, the Lord Chancellor and one of Cromwell’s closest allies, Thomas

Audley had set up a commission of oyer and terminer2. It had consisted of him, Cromwell,

Norfolk (Anne Boleyn’s uncle), Suffolk and others. The commissions were geared towards felonies that took place in the counties of Middlesex and Kent and covered a wide range of crimes such as misprision, treason, rebellion, felonies, murder, homicide, rioting, plotting, insurrection, extortion, oppression, contempt, concealment, ignorance, negligence, falsities, deception, conspiracy, and even being an accomplice to any of the previous crimes (Ridgway

280).

2 A commission issued to judges on a circuit to hold courts. 13

You would think that such commissions were very commonly set up in the reign of

Henry VIII, but in fact, they were quite rare. There had only been seventeen commissions of high treason in Henry VIII reign. Fifteen of those trials only began after the suspect had been arrested and went through thorough investigations, because in Tudor times the protocol was to arrest first, investigate second in order to trap the convicted and prevent their escape.

However, in the case of Anne Boleyn and her supposed lovers, the only two trials that were the exception to that rule, the commissions were actually issued six days before the first arrest took place (Ives 488).

Commissions that were declared unexpectedly and made specific for the two counties

(Middlesex and Kent) that would just eight days later bring about the arrests of Anne and

George Boleyn are definitely no coincidence. Records have showed that Henry VIII’s signature was not on the patent of the oyer and terminer, which begs to hint at the fact that he did not actually know of the alleged coup that was set in motion against his Queen

(Wriothesley 190). Just a day after the suspicious procedure of oyer and terminer took place,

King Henry wrote to Richard Pate, his ambassador in Rome, stating his hope for a fertile near future with his beloved wife, “God will send heirs male [by] our most dear and most entirely beloved wife the Queen” he wrote (Weir “The Lady in the Tower” 414). Were Henry’s endearing words a sign of his everlasting love for his wife and his undeniable commitment to their marriage, or were they just a smooth cover up for what he was secretly plotting against her?

Anne Boleyn’s defenders believe that the King did not plot against his wife; they see his words as a proof of the love he has for his Queen. Critics, however, view it as a part of a political game. Even though words can be misleading, actions are usually reliable when it comes to understanding the scope of certain situations. On the day before the arrests, Henry had personally signed conditions for an Anglo-French alliance. One of the conditions stated 14

that Francis I must end his alliance with the pope, unless the Curia3 abrogates all actions against England (Friedmann 230). This act did not only show that Henry was still backing up his marriage to Anne and proclaiming it as valid, but it showed as well that he was willing to end alliances and risk war with France if they did not end ties with the pope whom in March

1534 announced that Henry and Anne’s marriage was invalid.

II/ The Hysteria of Arrests:

1. Rumors, Desperation and Misbehavior:

On the other side of the tracks, Anne Boleyn had a hunch that something terrible was about to come her way. On 26 April, just two days after the commissions of oyer and terminer, Anne had a meeting with her chaplain, Matthew Parker. She had entrusted him with the care of her only daughter Elizabeth if anything would happen to her, which insinuates that she must have heard, saw, or felt something behind the scenes that was alarming to the extent that she had to take precautions to ensure the safety of her child. Years later, in Elizabeth I reign, Sir Parker would pledge his allegiance to her, not only as her Archbishop of

Canterbury, but also as her loyal servant due to the fact that “he cannot forget what words her

Grace’s mother said to him not six days before her apprehension” (Weir “The Lady in the

Tower” 415).

Henry and Anne spent Easter together and all seemed blissful in the court of Henry

VIII despite the murmuring that was echoing in the background. The couple had planned to go to Calais and preparations were made so that the journey would commence a day after

3 The central government of the Catholic Church, which is responsible for several Praesidia 15

May Day’s celebrations at Greenwich. Despite everything being set up as planned, on eleven o’clock, 30 April, without any prior engagements, the trip was cancelled and new instructions were announced entailing that the King would be traveling alone a week later. Henry was a tempered and notorious man but he was not one to change up his plans in a split second so something would have taken place to result in his sudden demeanor (Ridgway 277).

A day beforehand, on 29 April, something unfortunate had happened. Queen Anne, famous for her wit and flirtatious commentary, made a foolish deed that would add fuel to the fire that is already transpiring. Anne had had a quarrel with Henry Norris, one of the King’s favorite courtiers. Norris was a Chamberlain of North Wales, a position that only further proves that he had the king’s trust and admiration; he was also in hold of the office of Groom of the Stole, which ensured that he would be by Henry’s side on a daily basis. Anne had accused Norris of being in love with her, saying, “You look for dead men’s shoes, for if aught came to the King but good, you would look to have me”, to which he replied, “if he [should have any such thought] he would his head were off” (Ridgway 277).

The Queen must have quickly realized that grave words that just came out of her mouth in front of her maidens; she had spoken of the King’s death, a high treason act that was set out by the English Parliament in 1397. Anne’s playful nature often resulted in foolish acts that were not well calculated nor fit for a Queen, but this particular incident was more than just a silly banter that would later be overlooked especially not under the current circumstances. She must’ve of wished that she could take those words back, since she was quick to instruct Norris to head to her almoner and take an oath that the Queen “was a good woman”. Anne’s desperate attempt at salvaging the situation had done no good, since the news had already spread like wild fire at court.

The following day, on 30 April, Henry was clearly furious at what had transpired. He had met up with Anne in what was her last opportunity to sway her beloved husband and 16

reason with him. Anne was really desperate; in an account written years later in September

1559 by the Scottish Lutheran divine, Alexander Ales to Anne Boleyn’s daughter Elizabeth I, entailing how her mother tried to use her to appeal to her father. Ales was at court that day at

Greenwich to retrieve a promised payment, he noted:

Never shall I forget the sorrow which I felt when I saw the most serene queen,

your most religious mother, carrying you, still a baby, in her arms and

entreating the most serene king your father, in Greenwich Palace, from the

open window of which he was looking into the courtyard, when she brought

you to him. I did not perfectly understand what had been going on, but the

faces and gestures of the speakers plainly showed that the king was angry,

although he could conceal his anger wonderfully well. Yet from the protracted

conference of the council (for whom the crowd was waiting until it was quite

dark, expecting that they would return to London), it was most obvious to

everyone that some deep and difficult question was being discussed. (Sharp

63)

2. The First Arrests: Smeton and Norris

Later that same day, another disastrous incident took place. Secretary Thomas

Cromwell, in his disparate attempt to bring Anne down, had found out through his investigators that Mark Smeton, who didn’t make a lavish living, had just spent a huge sum of money on horses and liveries for his serves (Weir 420). Smeton was 20 years old musician, believed to be the son of a carpenter; the King took him on to entertain at court. He was no 17

gentleman4 and had no wit for politics, which made him very vulnerable and an easy target for

Cromwell to use in his big scheme against the Queen.

Mark would often visit the Queen’s apartments to delight her and her ladies with playing the virginals, the news quickly reached Cromwell, who ordered his arrest. The young lad had been under interrogation for twenty-four hours, according to George Constantine “the saying was that he was first grievously racked, which I never could know of truth”, until he finally confessed to committing adultery with the Queen. He was then sent off to the tower of

London, where he will await for his trial and verdict (Ives 494).

Despite the turbulent course of the previous days, the May Day celebrations were held as planned. Both Henry and Anne attended the event and everything seemed normal at best.

Anne’s brother George Boleyn had led the challengers while Henry’s close friend Sir Norris had led the defenders whilst riding the King’s personal horse after having difficulties with his own. Out of the sudden, tension rose in the air as Henry unexpectedly stormed out of the joust, after he obviously received news of Smeton’s confessions via Cromwell. He ordered

Norris to accompany him as they rode off to Whitehall, so he could question him properly since now his suspicions are fully ignited (Weir “The Lady in the Tower” 421).

Henry promised him a pardon if he would only confess to sleeping with the Queen.

However, Norris had retained his and Anne’s innocence by saying that “in his conscience he thought her [Anne] innocent of these things laid to her charge; but whether she was or not, he would not accuse her of anything; and he would die a thousand times, rather than ruin an innocent person”. Henry enraged with jealousy dismissed his confession and ordered his arrest immediately, he was then sent to the Tower by the following day (Weir “The Lady in the Tower” 421).

4 A word used to refer to the noble men of the Court. 18

One of Henry VIII’s least pleasant character traits was probably his victim mentality, and now he had the perfect opportunity to put it to good use. According to Chapuys, Henry had claimed that Anne had slept with more than a hundred men. Later that night, the duke of

Richmond went to wish his father a goodnight only to find him weeping, Henry had said that

“He and his sister [Mary] owed God a great debt for having escaped the hands of that cursed and poisoning whore who had planned to poison them”. The story that Anne had actually poisoned Katherine of Aragon and intended to poison her daughter Mary as well; was first coined by the Seymours which goes further to show the great deal of influence they had on

Henry. As an understandably bitter, hurt, and an ashamed man, Henry took it upon himself to drawn in his sorrows as Chapuys reported “No man, ever paraded with such regularity the fact that his wife had cuckolded him, and with so little sign that he minded” (Span 121).

A King’s vitality is one of the prime aspects that were highlighted back in the day.

For Henry’s wife to be said that she had slept with several men; would only serve as a blow to his masculinity and stamina. He is now seen as a sexually inept man, which means that his ability of providing England with heirs is now questionable. Whether those implications were surfacing at Henry VIII’s court or not, the mere thought of it had sent him through a loop.

Henry VIII portraits, after the end of his second marriage to Anne Boleyn, would display emphasis on his gentiles as a sign of vitality and fruitfulness, which could very much be a sign of his insecurities and vigorous need to prove his manhood.

3. More Arrests: George Boleyn, Lord Rochford.

By the morning of 2 May, Lord Rochford, Anne Boleyn’s brother, was secretly admitted to the tower alongside Norris under the charge of incest. Chapuys wrote to Charles

V to inform him “The Concubine’s brother, named Rochefort, has also been lodged in the 19

Tower, but more than six hours after the others, and three or four before his sister”. In “Las nuevas de Ynglaterra de la presion de la Manceba del Rey”, a record from that day, entails that George Boleyn was convicted due to him covering up for his sister’s crimes and being an accomplice rather than him being one of her lovers:

The Emperor has letters from England of 2 May, stating that the mistress of the

king of England, who is called queen, had been put in the Tower for adultery

with an organist of her chamber, and the King’s most private “sommelier de

corps.” Her brother is imprisoned for not giving information of her crime. It is

said that, even if it had not been discovered, the King had determined to leave

her, as he had been informed that she had consummated a marriage with the

earl of Nortemberlano (Northumberland) nine years ago. (Weir “The Lady in

the Tower” 421)

The later document shows an unsettling fact, which is that Lord Rochefort was not actually charged with incest at first, but the horrendous allegation was made up later on to serve a hidden agenda.

III/ The Queen’s Fall From Grace:

1. The Arrest of Anne Boleyn:

Meanwhile, the Queen was watching a tennis match until a messenger had arrived with a summons that entailed that she must immediately make an appearance before the Privy

Council. Upon her arrival at the Council’s chamber, Norfolk (her uncle), Sir William

FitzWilliam and Sir William Paulet greeted her. She was immediately charged with committing adultery With Norris, Smeaton, and another nameless man, and she was told that both men had confessed their crimes. Anne had been astonished, and said nothing as she was 20

escorted to her apartments where she would wait for the Council’s decision whilst remaining guarded (Weir “The Lady in the Tower” 421).

Anne did not fear much for her life, she probably thought that she would not face anything worse than divorce (like what had happened to Catherine of Aragon), exile, or imprisonment. The custom was for Queens before her that had committed adultery is to be sent to a nunnery, where they would spent the rest of their mortal lives penning for their sins, we later learn that Anne was the exception for that rule, but at the time she was unaware of what would become of her. Her fear though was for the lives of the men that were falsely incriminated on her account; she knew that their fate would not be as merciful as hers would.

At two o’clock that day, while Anne was dinning, Norfolk, Cromwell and Lord

Chancellor Audley had entered her apartments with a warrant for her arrest. Anne had asked them for the reason behind their visit; to which her uncle replied that they came by his

Majesty’s orders to escort her to the Tower, “there to abide during his Highness’s pleasure”, she answered in a dignified manner “If it be his Majesty’s pleasure, I am ready to obey”. She was admitted to the Tower in broad daylight, without even having the chance to pack any of her belongings; she was told that everything she needed would be provided for her in the

Tower. Anne had remained silent throughout the journey even despite her uncle’s desperate attempts to rattle her by telling her the horrendous things that her accomplices had confessed committing (Ives 401).

Around five o’clock, Anne had finally arrived to her gloomy destination; she entered through the Court’s Gate and not the Traitors gate, which was not the usual custom. The

Constable of the Tower, Sir William Kingston and its Lieutenant, Sir Edmund Walsingham then greeted her. Kingston would be in charge of Anne during her stay at the Tower. He knew the Queen well, since he was often at Court. Although Kingston’s duties were of a cruel nature, he was a kind man. He would soon find himself conflicted between his allegiance to 21

his Majesty and his commands, and his growing respect and admiration for the condemned

Queen. Anne’s courage and grace under pressure inspired something humanly in him; he would from now on show her the utmost courtesy and humility until her departure from this world (Weir “The Lady in the Tower” 422).

All of Anne’s strength and vigilance would crumble as soon as she sat foot on the stairs of the Tower. She fell to her knees on the cobblestones, praying for God’s help as she

“was not guilty of her accusement”. She begged the Privy Councilors, before they left, to

“beseech the King’s Grace to be good unto her”, then she cried. Cromwell had instructed

Kingston to spy on Anne Boleyn and record everything she utters in hopes of finding a loophole that he could use to incriminate her. In one of Kingston’s accounts, he wrote to

Cromwell of the Queen’s arrival saying:

On my lord of Norfolk and the King’s Council departing from the Tower, I

went before the Queen into her lodging. She said unto me, “Mr. Kingston, shall

I go into a dungeon?” I said, “No, Madam. You shall go into the lodging you

lay in at your coronation.” “It is too good for me, she said; Jesu have mercy on

me;” and kneeled down, weeping a good pace, and in the same sorrow fell into

a great laughing, as she has done many times since. She desired me to move

the King’s highness that she might have the sacrament in the closet by her

chamber, that she might pray for mercy, for I am as clear from the company of

man as for sin as I am clear from you, and am the King’s true wedded wife.

And then she said, Mr. Kingston, do you know where for I am here? and I said,

Nay. And then she asked me, When saw you the King? and I said I saw him

not since I saw [him in] the Tiltyard. And then, Mr. K., I pray you to tell me

where my Lord my father is? And I told her I saw him afore dinner in the

Court. O where is my sweet brother? I said I left him at York Place; and so I 22

did. “I hear say, said she, that I should be accused with three men; and I can

say no more but nay, without I should open my body. And there with opened

her gown. O, Norris, hast thou accused me? Thou are in the Tower with me,

and thou and I shall die together; and, Mark, thou art here to. O, my mother,

thou wilt die with sorrow; and much lamented my lady of Worcester, for by

cause that her child did not stir in her body. And my wife said, what should be

the cause? And she said, for the sorrow she took for me. And then she said,

Mr. Kyngston, shall I die without justice? And I said, the poorest subject the

Kyng hath, hath justice. And there with she laughed. (Starkey 285)

2. More Arrests:

Anne’s laugh speaks volumes; she knew what Henry was capable of doing to those who cross him. She had witnessed firsthand what he had done to one of his favorite people and old Chancellor Thomas More. Even though more had been nothing but a good servant and friend to Henry VIII, he faced decapitation in the same Tower where Anne is now staying; just because he stood for what he believed in. Anne’s knowledge of her husband’s temper and blood thirst is what caused her to panic.

Once she set foot in the Tower she knew that her fate would be tragic, which led to have random outbursts that ranged from hysterical crying to vanity and sarcasm. She would spend the following days fluctuating like the tide of the Thames beneath the Tower. Her vulnerable state, however, made for a delightful raw material that Cromwell used to incriminate her. Anne’s carless words would be reported back to Cromwell via Kingston, and they would serve to incriminate two new innocent victims Sir William Brereton and Sir 23

Francis Weston. If only Anne had knew that her normal emotional response was twisted to form a fatale narrative, she might of have remained silent (Ives 420).

3. The View:

On the following day, Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, heard of the news of his beloved

Queen’s imprisonment. He immediately wrote a letter to Henry VIII expressing how astonished he was upon hearing the saddening news:

Have come to Lambeth, according to Mr. Secretary’s letters, to know your

Grace’s pleasure. Dare not, contrary to the said letters, presume to come to

your presence, but of my bounden duty I beg you “somewhat to suppress the

deep sorrows of your Grace’s heart,” and take adversity patiently. Cannot deny

that you have great causes of heaviness, and that your honor is highly touched.

God never sent you a like trial; but if He find you no less patient and thankful

than when all things succeeded to your wish, I suppose you never did thing

more acceptable to Him. You will give Him occasion to increase His benefits,

as He did to Job. (Starkey 288)

After Cranmer’s words of solace to the King, urging him to practice patience in those challenging times, he went on to speak about his mistress and patron the Queen:

If the reports of the Queen be true, they are only to her dishonor, not yours. I

am clean amazed, for I had never better opinion of woman; but I think your

Highness would not have gone so far if she had not been culpable. I was most

bound to her of all creatures living, and therefore beg that I may, with your

Grace’s favor, wish and pray that she may declare herself innocent. Yet if she

be found guilty, I repute him not a faithful subject who would not wish her 24

punished without mercy. “And as I loved her not a little for the love which I

judged her to bear towards God and His Gospel, so if she be proved culpable

there is not one that loveth God and His Gospel that ever will favor her, but

must hate her above all other; and the more they favor the Gospel the more

they will hate her, for then there was never creature in our time that so much

slandered the Gospel; and God hath sent her this punishment for that she

feignedly hath professed his Gospel in her mouth and not in heart and deed.”

And though she have so offended, yet God has shown His goodness towards

your Grace and never offended you. “But your Grace, I am sure, knowledgeth

that you have offended Him.” I trust, therefore, you will bear no less zeal to the

Gospel than you did before, as your favor to the Gospel was not led by

affection to her. Lambeth, 3 May. (Ridgway 220)

Many people would perceive Cranmer as a coward that easily turned his back on his supposedly dear Queen. What many people fail to understand is that Cranmer only rose to his position with the help of the Boleyn fraction, and since the latter is facing condemnation; his position now is more fragile than ever. Rattling Henry VIII cage at such a time would only result in more harm than good. Part of the reason why Cranmer holds the Queen in such a high regard as he had expressed in his letter saying, he “had never better opinion of woman”, and that he was “most bound to her of all creatures living” is due to their shared faith

(Ridgway 220).

Anne Boleyn was a reformer very much like himself, and she fought in her own way so the new faith would persevere. Cranmer’s love for her stems from his love of the Anglican faith, so it makes sense that he would let the life of Anne and four other innocent men go to waste if that meant that he could save millions of other Anglican lives. In order to fight for his cause, he needs his position; it does not matter how he got there, he was intent on keeping it. 25

As a Holy man, his first and last allegiance was to his Lord and to his Lord’s representative on earth his King.

IV/ The Trial and Execution of Anne Boleyn:

1. The Defense of the Queen:

In the following days, Anne Boleyn’s supposed lovers would be tried and condemned to a heartbreaking ending. Her brother would be tried as well and face his death as his sister watches from the Tower in horror. The rest of the story is widely known to the mass, how

Anne was tried, how she maintained her innocence before God:

My lords, I will not say your sentence is unjust, nor presume that my reasons

can prevail against your convictions. I am willing to believe that you have

sufficient reasons for what you have done; but then they must be other than

those which have been produced in court, for I am clear of all the offences

which you then laid to my charge. I have ever been a faithful wife to the King,

though I do not say I have always shown him that humility which his goodness

to me, and the honours to which he raised me, merited. I confess I have had

jealous fancies and suspicions of him, which I had not discretion enough, and

wisdom, to conceal at all times. But God knows, and is my witness, that I have

not sinned against him in any other way.

She added:

Think not I say this in the hope to prolong my life, for He who saveth from

death hath taught me how to die, and He will strengthen my faith. Think not,

however, that I am so bewildered in my mind as not to lay the honour of my

chastity to heart now in mine extremity, when I have maintained it all my life 26

long, much as ever queen did. I know these, my last words, will avail me

nothing but for the justification of my chastity and honour. As for my brother

and those others who are unjustly condemned, I would willingly suffer many

deaths to deliver them, but since I see it so pleases the King, I shall willingly

accompany them in death, with this assurance, that I shall lead an endless life

with them in peace and joy, where I will pray to God for the King and for you,

my lords. (Weir “The Lady in the Tower” 435)

Despite Anne Boleyn’s efforts to maintain her innocence, she was sentenced to death. In her last days at the Tower, she portrayed such outstanding courage and humility that radiates throughout history until this day. The breathtaking love story of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn would result in an annulled marriage; a desperate attempt to erase what was once a passionate and overwhelming ride.

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2. The Execution of Anne Boleyn:

As a last act of mercy towards his once beloved wife, Henry had appointed a skilled

French executioner that was best known for his swift strike and his sharp sword. On 19 May

1536, Anne Boleyn would be escorted out of her Lodgings. Walking past the Great Hall, where she had celebrated there the night before her coronation, and through the Cole Harbour

Gate, along the west side of the White Tower. Finally, Anne is facing the scaffold, a grim platform draped in black and surrounded by thousands of people waiting to see the first ever

English Queen executed. Around the scaffold were familiar faces: Thomas Audley, Charles

Brandon, Henry Fitzroy, and Thomas Cromwell. The faces of men that could not bear to be in the shadows of a strong and opinionated woman. A woman that challenged the social norms of the times and could not just step aside and let them roam freely with injustice and scrutiny

(Ives 540).

Sir William Kingston escorted her, her four ‘wardresses’ behind her. Anne wore a grey damask gown lined with fur; over it, she wore an ermine mantle with an English gable hood. The Queen approached the edge of the scaffold to address her people:

Good Christian people, I have not come here to preach a sermon; I have come

here to die. For according to the law and by the law I am judged to die, and

therefore I will speak nothing against it. I am come hither to accuse no man,

nor to speak of that whereof I am accused and condemned to die, but I pray

God save the King and send him long to reign over you, for a gentler nor a

more merciful prince was there never, and to me he was ever a good, a gentle,

and sovereign lord. And if any person will meddle of my cause, I require them

to judge the best. And thus I take my leave of the world and of you all, and I

heartily desire you all to pray for me. (Weir “The Lady in the Tower” 448) 28

Anne did not profess her innocence, nor did she argued; she simply just obliged. Her silence was deafening, it had not only showed her dignity but the strength of her faith. As a woman that was often portrayed as a vixen, a witch, and a seductress; she showcased such piety and perseverance. She only spoke well of the man whom she loved deeply, even though he was the one behind her demise. Her spirit echoed, sending the whole crowds to a serene silence as they watched her face death with such courage only a subject innocent from all sins could portray.

Anne knelt for her final prayer, and then she rose to take off her famous French hood to reveal a coif covering her luscious dark hair. Her ladies said their goodbyes to her while weeping. She gave the executioner his fee, as he knelt asking for her forgiveness for the deed he is about to commit to which she granted. Anne then removed her necklace and knelt before the block blindfolded. The crowed knelt to show respect to their Queen as she prayed loudly, repeating over and over again, ‘Jesu, receive my soul! O Lord God, have pity on my soul!’.

Finally, the executioner grabbed his sword and cut off her head swiftly, as Sir John Spelman described it ‘before you could say a Paternoster’. Her head was retrieved by the headsman as he yelled ‘So perish all the King’s enemies!’. Anne Boleyn had died a gracious and dignified death, as Kingston wrote to Cromwell later “The Queen died boldly”, “God take her to His mercy” (Weir “The Lady in the Tower” 449).

29

Conclusion:

We do not often remember the monumental events that lead Anne to her fall; we fail to see the underlying plot that led to her destruction. Many, thinking it of a lesser importance than the actual outcome, often overlook how she got there. In order to get the bigger picture and fathom the swift and sudden way in which things unraveled for Anne Boleyn, one should examine and trace her pervious footsteps. In doing that we see the complex nature of her situation. Historians say that she died unjustly; a view that would be further analyzed in the following chapter.

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Chapter II: Henry VIII, The Major Player in Anne Boleyn’s

Story.

Introduction:

Anne Boleyn’s life had taken a dramatic turn; her rise and fall is still historically astonishing until this day. Her heartbreaking journey revolved around none other than the man she loved; little did she know that he would be the one to strike her down as quickly as he raised her. Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn shared a tremendous love story, which is widely known to the world. It is common knowledge how Henry fell for Anne, persuaded her for seven turbulent years, left his first loyal wife for her, and most importantly, changed his kingdom’s faith for her. Most people cannot seem to make the smallest love gestures, but that was never Henry VIII’s case with Anne Boleyn. Henry had moved mountains to claim her; he risked a civil war and a war with Spain just so he could call her his one and only. We cannot argue that Henry loved Anne, but as heartwarming as that thought is, we fail to recognize that he was also the one behind her demise.

In the first chapter, we looked at the most life altering incidents that Anne Boleyn had endured, and we cannot help but notice that Henry VIII was the calyx of most of those incidents. Whether Henry was conscious while making decisions concerning his marriage or under the influence of several elements, is still something that is up for debates. This chapter aims at dissecting both primary and secondary sources using the analytical method to try to uncover what went wrong between Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. It also aims to discover the underlying influences and issues that lead the once chivalrous lover to become a bitter egotistical beast that took the life of the woman he had once wholeheartedly loved, married, and had a child with. 31

32

I/ The Start of a Tyrant:

1. The Jousting Accident:

On 24 January 1536, at Greenwich, the King was attending a tournament. Henry VIII, who was 44 years old at the time, fell off his horse while he was jousting. Henry was in full armor while he fell off an armored horse as well; which then fell on top of him. He had been unconscious for two whole hours and it was perceived by his physicians that he must be fatally injured (Weirs “The Haunted Queen” 402). Henry would later on miraculously survive the incident but a part of his soul would never recover again. The accident that ended Henry’s jousting career would result in more serious health issues.

According to the History Channel documentary Inside the Body of Henry VIII, a show that sheds light on the health problems that plagued Henry’s body in his later years, the accident had opened a leg wound that the King was already suffering from. That wound would never heal again and it would result in an ulcer that would prevent the once very active

Henry from ever being an athlete again. He would no longer joust nor enjoy vigorous sports activities again; which would lead him to self-sooth by stuffing his face in food and experiencing an everlasting state of melancholy. Henry VIII would then gain a substantial amount of weight; the 6ft King’s waist expanded from 32 inches to 52 inches according to the measurements of his old armor from when he was in his 20s and his latest armor from when he was in his 50s.

Robert Hutchinson, a biographer of Henry; Catherine Hood, a doctor; and the historian

Lucy Worsley, who is chief curator of Britain's Historic Royal Palaces, report that the monarch was overwhelmed by health issues by the time of his death. According to the records of his physicians, Henry VIII had a severely ulcerated leg that made him unable to walk properly, a horrible sight probably due to type two diabetes, and that he was haunted by 33

paranoia and melancholy. Henry was not always an obese tyrant; in fact, he was deemed a very handsome man in his younger years. He had enjoyed excellent health and was known and vastly admired for his body and his skills in many sporting activities, as one ambassador reports “His Majesty is the most handsomest potentate I have ever set eyes on. Above the usual height with an extremely fine calf to his leg and a round face so very beautiful it would become a pretty woman.” (Erickson 120).

Henry had the smallpox when he was 23; but his real medical problems started surfacing at the age of 30 when he contracted malaria, which would resurface later on in his life as well. Around the age of 36, the King would start to complain of sores - varicose ulcers; that began on his left leg and would later on effect his right leg as well. The sores might have been due to the restrictive garters he wore to show off his calves; they would never properly heal, especially after reopening because of his jousting accident, and would go on to restrain him for the rest of his life. Henry VIII’s love of sports made him the victim of many injuries.

He excelled at archery, wrestling and real tennis; which lead to him seriously injuring his foot

(Weir “The Haunted Queen” 213).

Jousting5 however was perceived as the most dangerous sport activity of the times.

Henry’s first jousting accident was in 1524 when he was not able to lower the visor on his helmet in time; he was then hit by his opponent’s lance just above his right eye. The latter incident would cause him an endless suffering from migraines. Twelve years later, Henry would yet again endure another jousting accident that nearly put an end to his life (Weir “The

Haunted Queen” 213). His fall left him unconscious for two hours, his wife Anne Boleyn was informed that he would die which led her to miscarry a fetus that was identified as a male. It

5 It was a medieval sporting contest in which two opponents rode on horseback, typically knights, while they fought with lances. 34

was immediately after that Henry told his once beloved that he would clearly not have any male children by her. Less than six months later, she would be executed and he would be hinged to another (Jane Seymour).

35

2. Henry VIII’s Frontal Lobe:

Henry VIII’s accident is undeniably one of the reasons behind his sudden change of heart towards his beloved wife. His demeanor would now forever be different, as expert doctor Lucy Worsley explains:

We posit that his jousting accident of 1536 provides the explanation for his

personality change from sporty, promising, generous young prince, to cruel,

paranoid and vicious tyrant. From that date, the turnover of the wives really

speeds up, and people begin to talk about him in quite a new and negative way.

After the accident, he was unconscious for two hours; even five minutes of

unconsciousness is considered to be a major trauma today. Damage to the

frontal lobe of the brain can perfectly well result in personality change.

The frontal lobe is the front part of the brain; it extends from the area behind the forehead back to the precentral gyrus. It is the part of the brain that is responsible for most cognitive functions such as memory, emotions, impulse control, problem solving, social interaction, and motor function.

According to a team of US researchers led by Dr Arash Salardini, behavioural neurologist and co-director of the Yale Memory Clinic, Henry VIII had endured several traumatic brain injuries similar to the ones American football players have. The researchers believe that the accidents Henry had experienced resulted in an irreversible damage to his brain; which led him to lash out in explosive anger, have headaches, insomnia, memory problems, inability to control impulses, and even impotence. The study claims that “Henry suffered from many symptoms which can unambiguously be attributed to traumatic brain injury”. In an interview with History Extra, Dr Salardini had said “I thought [Henry] was a man with personality disorder, possibly narcissistic with sociopathic tendencies who had 36

some form of mood disorder later on his life and took it out on his subjects. That is not what I ended up finding”.

The research was intended initially to uncover the possible diseases that might have plagued Henry VIII's body but Salardini and his team were surprised to discover that “the picture was so consistent with the sequel of chronic concussion; intellectual honesty would dictate writing about traumatic brain injury in Henry”. Opting for a neurological approach, the researchers declared:

Gathered data about the patient and localized most of the symptoms to the

front subcortical circuitry [neural pathways that affect memory, organization

and behavioral control] and the pituitary [the gland that controls hormones].

An anatomical and pathologically consistent medical timeline emerged which I

think should be the strongest evidence in support of the concussion, short of

miraculously finding [Henry VIII’s] preserved brain in a jar.

After close inspection, they concluded that Henry VIII’s behavioral shift could only account to a brain injury, as they said:

Traumatic brain injury could have caused diffuse axonal injury [a common

brain injury in which the wires that connect the cells in the brain become

damaged] which led to a change in the psychological makeup of Henry, and

traumatic brain injury may have contributed to his other medical issues by

causing pituitary dysfunction and endocrinopathies [hormone problems]. We

know of at least three major head injuries in Henry’s life. He may have had

headaches and more subtle changes to his personality after his first head injury

[in March 1524, when the king was unseated after a jousting lance entered his

open visor], but there is a marked stepwise change in him after 1536. It is

entirely plausible, though perhaps not provable, that repeated traumatic brain 37

injury lead to changes in Henry’s personality.” Ikram, Muhammad Qaiser, et

al. “The Head That Wears the Crown: Henry VIII and Traumatic Brain Injury.

Salardini's team had inspected Henry VIII’s memory problems, headaches, insomnia and lack of impulse control to further prove that he had indeed endured a brain injury. While examining his memory loss they have declared:

In July 1536, Henry’s son and possible heir Henry FitzRoy, Duke of Richmond

and Somerset, died of tuberculosis. He was buried in near-secret in the

presence of his father-in-law the Duke of Norfolk, and two other personages,

by the king’s own instructions. Yet in a few days Henry appears to have

forgotten his own role in the funeral and was accusing the Duke of Norfolk of

inappropriate behaviour towards FitzRoy. There is another illustrative episode

which occurred in 1546: the king loved religious debates and during one

acrimonious argument between Catherine Parr and [bishop and statesman]

Stephen Gardiner he unreasonably ordered the transportation of the queen to

the Tower of London. The next day [Henry] appears to have forgotten about

the incident and was consoling his distraught wife. When the soldiers arrived

to take her away, he could not remember the original orders he had given and

had to be prompted to remember the episode. When he remembered he flew

into another fit of rage.” Ikram, Muhammad Qaiser, et al. “The Head That

Wears the Crown: Henry VIII and Traumatic Brain Injury.

When it comes to the monarch's altered behavior, the researchers claim that:

The irascibility and changeability of Henry was a source of constant anxiety

for Tudor courtiers. Several ambassadors noted the unpredictability of Henry,

who was often furious for reasons not immediately obvious to his ministers

and advisers. Henry was also known to suffer from bouts of ‘mal d’esprit’ or 38

depression with ‘self-pity and more than traces of gloom.” Ikram, Muhammad

Qaiser, et al. “The Head That Wears the Crown: Henry VIII and Traumatic

Brain Injury.

When it comes to Henry VIII’s impotence rumors started to come to light first through

Anne Boleyn and her brother George Boleyn. According to Chapuys, the imperial ambassador for the Holy Roman Empire, Anne and George Boleyn were accused of ridiculing the king.

Anne presumably had told her sister-in-law that Henry ‘was not adept in the matter of coupling with a woman and that he had neither vertu [skill] nor puissance [vigour]’. Dr

Salardini further elaborate on Henry VIII’s impotency by saying:

The inability of Henry to consummate his marriage to Anne of Cleves in 1540.

Various excuses were made from ‘misliking of her body for the hanging of her

breast and the looseness of her flesh’, to the charge that the king was duped by

an unnecessarily complimentary portrait of Anne.” Impotence and weight gain,

also fit with a growth hormone and sex hormone deficiency which is a known,

but less common, manifestation of traumatic brain injury.” Ikram, Muhammad

Qaiser, et al. “The Head That Wears the Crown: Henry VIII and Traumatic

Brain Injury.

The research further proves that Henry VIII had indeed suffered from a brain injury.

His behavioral shift was clearly noted by many in court, but it is thanks to modern technology and developments in medicine that we now know that that drastic shift is the outcome of a head trauma. According to Jill Seladi-Schulman, a freelance writer from Atlanta with a PhD in Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, the frontal lobe is the largest part of the brain that is responsible for various functions such as attention, memory control, reasoning, judgement, planning, problem solving, regulation of emotions and mood, personality expression, impulse control, and controlling social behaviors. 39

Jill explains that a damage to the frontal lobe could transpire to vast issues since it is the fundamental part of the brain and it is responsible for many crucial functions. She notes that some evidential symptoms of an injured frontal lobe could range from loss of movement, inability to complete tasks, trouble with speech, poor planning, persistence with one behavior of way of thinking, difficulties at reasoning, problem solving and judgement, problems maintaining attention, and mood swings. Schulman discusses other symptoms that are apparent in Henry VIII after his second Jousting accident which are a decrease in motivation, an inability to initiate interactions and activities, a drastic change in personality or behavior such as apathy, irritability, and an unacceptable social behavior, and a poor impulse control or a lack of inhibition.

Another more recent account that highlights the consequences of an injured frontal lobe is the case of Phineas Gage, an American railroad construction worker, who suffered from an atrocious accident on September 13, 1848 in which a large iron rod was driven through his head. According to J. M. Harlow, an American physician who is best known for his work on brain injury survivor Phineas Gage, a damage to a certain part of the brain could result in certain personality changes. Harlow described the pre accident Gage as hard working, sensible, ‘a great favorite’ with the workers under his charge, and ‘he most efficient and capable foreman in their employ’ according to his employers; although after his accident they had a shift in perception ‘considered the change in his mind so marked that they could not give him his place again’. Harlow notes that:

The equilibrium or balance, so to speak, between his intellectual faculties and

animal propensities, seems to have been destroyed. He is fitful, irreverent,

indulging at times in the grossest profanity (which was not previously his

custom), manifesting but little deference for his fellows, impatient of restraint

or advice when it conflicts with his desires, at times pertinaciously obstinate, 40

yet capricious and vacillating, devising many plans of future operations, which

are no sooner arranged than they are abandoned in turn for others appearing

more feasible. A child in his intellectual capacity and manifestations, he has

the animal passions of a strong man. Previous to his injury, although untrained

in the schools, he possessed a well-balanced mind, and was looked upon by

those who knew him as a shrewd, smart business man, very energetic and

persistent in executing all his plans of operation. In this regard his mind was

radically changed, so decidedly that his friends and acquaintances said he was

‘no longer Gage. (Harlow 327-47)

In his work, Harlow highlighted the effects of an injured brain on personality and behavior. His study case, which was Gage’s case, was probably a revolution at the time and was the first account that linked brain function to demeanor and character traits. Harlow’s work paved the way to excessive research concerning the effects of the frontal lobe of the brain. Although physicians could not draw back such conclusions back at the 16th century; modern medical discoveries further solidifies the reasoning behind the sudden change in

Henry VIII after his jousting accident.

It is somehow ironic how Anne Boleyn’s faith was decided the moment Henry fell of his horse on 24 January 1536. From that point on, Henry would be plagued by paranoia, rage, and an irrational impulse that would eventually lead him to believe various speculation about his second wife Anne and the validity of their marriage. Henry would come to believe that his wife had slept with more than a hundred men, that she bewitched him, and that she might be an alley of France sent to derail him from the path of righteousness. Anne Boleyn could not have known that the man she loved had endured something that is not that far from a lobotomy, that the Henry she once loved is now gone once and for all. Her fate would now be 41

decided according to one of her husband’s whims; whims he would continue to sport from that point on in his life.

II/ The Political Chios in Henry VIII’s Reign:

1. Trouble at Paradise:

As the year, 1535 ended, Anne Boleyn was holding on to the hope of a coming prince by springtime of the following year. Despite the overall merry attitude that Henry VIII and

Anne Boleyn held on to, a constant threat was lurking. The challenges that faced them from the get go were still very prominent and imposed a real terror to Henry. Several remarks were made by the French and imperial ambassadors as they noted the uprising and lingering resentment towards Henry, his wife, and their latest policies. Henry had feared a civil war and a war with Spain; many were still questioning the validity of his marriage to Anne and he still does not have a solid foothold that manifested in a male heir.

Mary, Katherine of Aragon and Henry VIII’s only surviving child, had relished in support from different alias such as George Neville, Lord Abergavenny who was considered as her strongest sympathizer. While the small summer court was at Hampshire, a group of wives of a number of London citizens, aided by some ladies of the royal household, held a public demonstration at Greenwich in support of Mary. Two surprising ladies among the ringleaders that ended up in the Tower were Anne’s aunt, Lady William Howard, and her sister-in-law Jane, Lady Rochford, George Boleyn’s wife, who did not share her husband’s enthusiasm for his sister’s cause. The incident was overlooked but Anne had ringed in

Henry’s ear that he should put an end to the threat that Mary imposed. The King had begun to threaten that if the persistence towards Mary’s cause continued, she would be sent to the

Tower too (Friedmann 233). 42

In October of that year and behind Henry’s back, Katherine of Aragon had wrote her nephew Charles V. She invited him to intervene on her behalf since her submission gained her nothing in return. On the other hand, the country was in massive fear of a religious change and an approaching civil war. Stories of heretical preaching were surfacing; so royal commissioners were surveying the Church’s estates. They left no stone unturned, their investigation ran from the wealthiest to the poorest parish. Cromwell’s deputies had visited the monasteries to try to reinforce disturbing royal injunctions and to confiscate long- venerated relics. On Wednesday, 1 December, the restrictions put on the clergy were creating a tantrum; especially after the new taxes that consisted of paying 10 percent per annum on clerical incomes leaving small religious houses struggling to survive (Mattingly 302).

The dissolution of monasteries which is believed to be Anne Boleyn’s idea; that was then set in motion by Thomas Cromwell to reinforce the King’s supremacy and insure that all property would be transferred to the Crown. The royal commissioners seized everything from land to the Church plate, jewels, gold crosses, and even bells. Silver items such as chalices were replaced with ones made of tin; some of these items were gifts donated by the local families on thanksgiving in the memory of a family member or simply to give thanks to the

Lord. The people and the clergy perceived this act as an insult to their faith and an attempt of the new King and Queen to diminish their spirit (Gasquet 202).

Rumors about war with the emperor were circling amongst the London merchant community. Their fear was that the war would result in the loss of England’s vital markets in the Low Countries and Germany. The Baltic with its grain reserves was deemed to close due to the friction between Henry VIII and the Hanse Merchants; which now more than ever imposed a problem since the lack of fine harvest weather lasted for weeks back home. Half of the crops had been lost; it was perceived as the worst harvest season in eight years and the forth worst since Henry’s reign. The threat of famine wad now on high alert, which made it 43

impossible to levy the taxes granted by parliament. Plague was another reoccurring issue, and it helped matters not that the King’s preachers were excessively reciting the text ‘whom the

Lord loveth he chasteneth’; ordinary Englishman were quick to point fingers at the King and his new beloved wife that stirred him away from God’s favor and grace (Friedmann 121).

Abroad, the political situation was getting worse by the minute. Charles V’s astonishing victory at Tunis had ensured his freedom from Mediterranean distractions so now he could easily intervene against Henry VIII if he wanted to. The Pope had also responded to the execution of Bishop Fisher by excommunicating Henry. On 22 June 1535, John Fisher,

Bishop of Rochester who was considered a martyr of the Catholic faith, was beheaded for treason after refusing to take the oath of succession and accepting Henry VIII as the supreme head of the Church of England. He was found guilty of treason after saying “that the King was not, nor could be, by the Law of God, Supreme Head in earth of the Church of England”; his words were heard by Cromwell’s right hand, Richard Rich, and were later used as evidence against him. The Pope made him Cardinal-Priest6 of San Vitale; as an attempt to save his life, which further roughed Henry’s feathers (Rex 125).

The French took advantage of the fact that England was having a difficult political time so they upped the price of their support by requesting a marriage between the dauphin and Mary. On 1 November, the unexpected death of the duke of Milan without any heirs had reopened an issue that both Francis and Charles were arguing over since 1515. A quarrel between France and Spain might seem as a strike in Henry’s favor but in reality it could lead to Francis now finally asking for the support he was promised by England to rage a war against Charles; which would further create a friction between Henry and his first wife’s nephew. This friction could result in a war between England and Spain and further harm

6 A member of the College of Cardinals. 44

England’s relation with the Low Countries. Meanwhile the Pope was aiming to assert a coalition to punish Henry; by negotiating a settlement between the Empire and France that would result in a joint descent on England (Ives 446).

Henry VIII was under the pressure of the possible entanglement with Francis I and his constant fear of isolation and invasion. The confusions and readiness of each party to take actions that would ensure its prosperity no matter what, made it the more stressful for Henry.

The universal passion for disinformation and the existence of divided counsels within each country made matters worse. In France, a war and a peace party emerged and in England, two policies were opposed on either to further rely on France or to seek to reconcile with the emperor. Despite Anne Boleyn’s attempts to reinforce Henry’s faith in his allies and her allies in France, Henry could never fully trust Francis because he insisted to maintain strong relations with the Pope and refused to follow England’s path of royal supremacy (Ives 446).

Tension could be felt throughout the court of Henry VIII. In October, Anne was severely anxious to ensure a match between Elizabeth and the dauphin that she kept on persisting with the French envoys. In November, a sigh of relief and celebrations all through

London marked Francis I’s recovery from a terrible illness. On the other hand, Cromwell was doing his best to ensure a reconciliation with the emperor, even though he was well aware that

Charles V was unhappy with the treatment his aunt, Katherine of Aragon, and her daughter,

Mary, had endured. Henry could not discuss the emperor with Chapuys without being really triggered and losing his temper due to his hatred towards Queen Anne (Ives 447).

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2. An External Influence:

Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex and a member of the Order of the Garter and the

Privy Council, was an English Lawyer and statesman7. He was a newcomer to court with a hidden agenda that transpired in English reform. Cromwell sought to help the King with his great matter, which entailed divorcing his first wife Katherine of Aragon so he could marry

Anne Boleyn. Cromwell and Anne became allies for their mutual goals and personal beliefs; they were both reforms that wanted to achieve their visions of a protestant England. Cromwell knew that the only way to get in favor with the King was through Anne herself. After managing to aid Henry in his great matter, he served as his chief minister.

With time, it became apparent that the alliance between Anne Boleyn and Cromwell was merely an alliance of convenience. It was clear that they differed immensely in their ideologies; even though they both shared a passion for reform they disagreed in their methods to obtaining it. Anne had taken offence in the way Cromwell had been transferring all of the wealth of the dissolved monasteries into the Crown. She wanted the money to go to charitable causes instead of being stored away to help rage wars and ensure political power. The Queen had disputed with him on numerous occasions about the way he handles the dissolved monasteries; she believed that instead of burning them, they should be put to better use by turning them to schools or small colleges (Warnicke 220).

Anne and Cromwell soon started to develop a huge dislike for each other. She despised his character and morals or actually his lack of any, while he disliked her outspoken and independent nature. According to Eustace Chapuys, the Queen and Cromwell had very public disputes. He reported that one time Anne had told her former ally ‘in no uncertain

7 A term that refers to a political man in middle ages. 46

terms that she would like to see his head off his shoulders’. Chapuys had warned him that

Anne would see to reassure his demise as she did in the case of Wolsey although Cromwell had assured him ‘I trust so much on my master [Henry], that I fancy she [Anne] cannot do me any harm’. Cromwell grew tired of Anne Boleyn’s interference in the matters of the state; he did not appreciate the fact that a woman was dictating his every move. He had reinforced her cause as long as it reinforced his; but their now emerging conflict of interests was getting on his nerves (Ives 483-87).

Cromwell was a good politician. He knew he could not strike at Anne while she was in the King’s favor. He had strategically waited for the right moment to strike her down; as he had started to notice that Henry grew tired of her absurd behavior. Henry VIII, as most men of his time did not appreciate an opinionated wife that delved in matters that did not concern her.

A woman’s role consisted of pleasing her husband, taking care of her household and baring children; even a Queen was not supposed to stretch far from that trope. Anne, however, was no conventional bride; and what initially appealed to Henry about her character now plagued his vision of her.

On 29 January 1536, Cromwell had received his golden ticket. Anne had miscarried a fourteen weeks old fetus that was believed to be a boy. Henry’s frustration gave him the perfect opportunity to spin the narrative on Anne and turn his gaze to a new bride. On 1 April,

Chapuys had informed Charles V that he had heard ‘that this King’s mistress and Secretary

Cromwell were on bad terms just now’. By then, rumors started spreading about a new marriage for the King and that Cromwell was the one responsible for arranging it. After hearing the rumors, Anne had clearly feared for her life and the life of her daughter; she knew that Cromwell was plotting her demise so she pleaded to her almoner, John Skip, to attack swiftly Cromwell at his sermon. The day of sermon, Skip preached as the King and his court listened; he was reported to have said the following: 47

The preacher insisted on the strict following of God’s Word:—that Christ

chose ignorant followers, to teach men that nobility standeth not in worth but

grace; and he cited the example of Solomon to show that he lost his true

nobility towards the end of his life, by taking new wives and concubines. He

insisted on the need of a King being wise in himself, and resisting evil

counsellors who tempted him to ignoble actions, by the history of Rehoboam;

observing that if a stranger visited this realm, and saw those who were called

noble, he would conceive that all true nobility was banished from England. He

warned them against rebuking the clergy, even if they were sinful, as rebukers

were often rebuked, like Nebuchadnezzar, who was God’s instrument to

punish the Jews, “and yet was damned for his labour.” Against evil councillors,

who suggested alteration in established customs, he instanced the history of

Haman and Ahasuerus. He then explained and defended the ancient

ceremonies of the Church (as above). He concluded with a complaint on the

moderation of the High Court of Parliament. (Ives 309)

After the Skip’s enticing sermon, Cromwell was then more eager than ever to get rid of Anne. He knew however that the Boleyn faction imposed a real threat and that Anne still had allies that were members of the King’s Privy Council and that were willing to vouch for her. It is unlikely if his attempt to bring her down were reinforced by Henry or not, but

Cromwell knew that in order to catch Anne at fault, serious actions needed to take place. He had placed species on the Queen that were already her ladies in waiting, that was how he got a hold of what Anne said to Henry Norris about him wishing to have her if something would’ve happen to the King (as we dissected in the first Chapter). Although Cromwell might have been the bird buzzing at Henry’s ears, nothing happens at the English court without Henry’s consent. The secretary must have had an order to keep a closer look on Anne Boleyn and find 48

the King his loophole so he could get out of his marriage to which he gladly obliged (Denny

367).

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Conclusion:

Henry VIII’s love for Anne Boleyn made him challenge the norms and a nation to claim her. She probably would have been marginalized by history if it were not for him. It might come as a shock for some that the man that managed to raise Anne to the status of a

Queen, challenge the Pope and the Holy Roman Church, risk a war with Spain, and discarded his obedient first Queen and child, would be the one to plot or at least take part in her downfall. Whether Henry VIII was in his right senses and under no influence or had what is close to a lobotomy and other influences, Anne still had encountered her unfortunate fate. The man that once did everything in his power to retrieve her as his bride had disowned her. Anne would be beheaded and Henry would be married to another less than two weeks later.

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Chapter III: Anne Boleyn, a Feminist in the 16th Century?

Introduction:

In 16th century England, gender equality was foreign term to most. The concept of organized feminism did not emerge until mid-19th Century. A feminist is often defined as ‘a person who believes in the social, economic and political equality of the sexes’ (Adichie)8.

Historians often find difficult to label females that had feminist tendencies before the first- wave of feminism; that is why they coined the term “proto-feminist”. The term is used to refer to individuals who had a role to play in the movement before it even began. Throughout her short reign, Anne Boleyn paved the way to questioning gender roles and defied16th century social and political norms. She challenged the predominant males of her time and had a tremendous impact on the Reformation movement.

Anne Boleyn’s character and achievements are heavily overshadowed by her turbulent love affair with Henry VIII and her tragic death. Even though Anne was one of the most influential Queens of the16th Century, scholars often marginalize her. Anne Boleyn was the reason behind the most revolutionary instances of 16th century Europe and especially

England. She had made great contributions to Tudor society and showcased a vivid and colorful persona that still echo throughout history. In this chapter, I aim at shedding the light at Anne Boleyn as a thinking woman and probable proto-feminist using the analytical method.

8 Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie is a Nigerian writer and a feminist whose works range from novels to short stories to nonfiction.

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Through analyzing both primary and secondary sources, I aspire to uncover what shaped

Anne’s way of thinking and to see whether she acted on her beliefs and established herself as a leading figure in the querelle des femmes.

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I/ A European Education:

Anne Boleyn had an audacious character that was the initial arrow that struck Henry

VIII’s heart. She was unique and ahead of her time in both her looks and her way of thinking.

A big influence on Anne’s witty and charming personality has to be her time in France. Anne

Boleyn had the aura of an exotic beauty once she returned to England and was introduced to court. Everyone including Henry could see that she was a breath of fresh air at the Tudors court. She exuded such elegance and grace that was mesmerizing to behold. Anne was much different from the usual blonde English roses of court; she was a brunette9 with striking dark eyes and long luscious hair. Her unusual French fashion made her stand out even more and establish herself as a glamourous lady at court.

Anne Boleyn had her début at the English court in March 1522. She graced everyone with an exquisite performance in a pageant called the assault on ‘the Chateau Vert’. Anne portrayed the role of a chivalric quality, which was perseverance. Anne Boleyn would ironically lead a life of perseverance and be a model for grace under pressure throughout history. This occasion allowed Anne to showcase all she had learned and acquired in her years abroad. She would leave a lasting impression on every soul that witnessed that spectacle. Her sophistication left De Carles in awe as he wrote of her after her death:

To France, which brought her such fortune,

Ah! What honour, What a debt

She owed to the skill

Of those from whom she had learned such accomplishments,

9 A brown haired woman. 53

Which have since made her queen of her own people.

She was happy, but how more happy

If she had trodden the way of virtue,

And had kept to the direction of the way

Which her honourable mistress had shown her. (Ives 79)

Clearly, her French Education heavily influenced Anne’s demeanor, as De Carles had implied. He had declared at the time that ‘no one would ever have taken her to be English by her manners, but a native-born Frenchwoman’ (Singer 423).

1. Une Demoiselle D’honneur:

Around 1513, Anne Boleyn would take her first and longest oversees journey. She would go through the hills of Kent, down to the sea at Dover and finally reaching the

Channel. Anne was escorted by Claude Bouton, a Flemish nobleman, to go abroad in order to

‘be finished’ in the Habsburg court at Mechelen in Brabant. She was to join the court of

Margaret of Austria, Queen Regent of the Low Countries, as one of the archduchess’s maids of honor. Margaret’s court was the epitome of aristocratic behavior; that even Henry VIII had sent two of his favorites, William Sidney and Edward Guildford, to learn ‘the right way of doing things’ (De Boom 118).

Thomas Boleyn had an inkling that his daughter would one day be of a great position that could help advance the family. He saw potential in her, and evidently knew that her wit and young age would be of great service to her when trying to learn French. The King’s wife,

Catherine of Aragon, was sister-in-law to the Queen Regent. She learnt French due to the help of Margaret to aid her not so good English. Thomas had hoped that in learning French, which was the language de rigueur, and courtly manners, Anne would be able to secure a position 54

back home alongside Queen Catherine as one of her ladies in waiting. Anne’s father had diplomatic relations with the Archduchess Margaret; she obviously took to his liking as she generously taken Anne as one of her eighteen filles d’honneur (Ives 40).

Margaret’s first impression of Anne Boleyn was good, as she wrote to her father saying:

I have received your letter by Esquire [Claude] Bouton who has presented

your daughter to me, who is very welcome, and I am confident of being able to

deal with her in a way which will give you satisfaction, so that on your return

the two of us will need no intermediary other than she. I find her so bright and

pleasant for her young age that I am more beholden to you for sending her to

me than you are to me. (Paget 54)

Anne had a tutor, Symonnet, who was assigned by the Queen Regent to teach her proper

French. Anne’s first letter to her father shows her enthusiasm to learn from Margaret and fulfill her father’s wishes, as she wrote:

Sir, – I understand by your letter that you desire that I shall be a worthy

woman when I come to the Court and you inform me that the Queen will take

the trouble to converse with me, which rejoices me much to think of talking

with a person so wise and worthy. This will make me have greater desire to

continue speaking French well and also spell, especially because you have

enjoined it on me, and with my own hand I inform you that I will observe it the

best I can. Sir, I beg you to excuse me if my letter is badly written, for I assure

you that the orthography is from my own understanding alone, while the others

were only written by my hand, and Semmonet tells me the letter but waits so

that I may do it myself…Written at Veure by Your very humble and very

obedient daughter, Anna de Boullan. (Norton 25) 55

Alongside learning French, Anne had to know the etiquette of the sophisticated society. Une fille d’honneur was to follow the commands of la dame d’honneur, which was Margaret of

Austria. She was to serve as an attendant to the duchess and to mingle in the close-nit society of the court. A court without women was doomed to be a dreadful place, so Anne had to take part in courtly entertainment; a skill she will later harness to her advantage.

Anne Boleyn would learn most of her courtly skills under the wing of Margaret of

Austria. A Princely court had plenty of leisure; it consisted of many entertaining festivities such as dances, hunts and tournaments. Such a joyous place would appear to demand no responsibility, but in fact, too much pleasure could result in a chaos; this is why courtly entertainment was treated as a delicate matter that needed constant supervision. One of the main courtly skills was dance. Anne Boleyn had to take part in dances, as it was one of her obligations. The Burgundian ducal court set the trend for the rest of the polite societies of

Europe with arranging splendid pageants and formal entertainments. Anne was immersed into a lavish world where she had to master different types of dancing such as the bass dance (Ives

42).

Courtly love was the primary language of court. It was at its peak in southern France, and the court of Margaret was no exception. Composite art forms emerged, containing drama, music, dance, and revolving around one theme. The themes ranged from imprisoned maidens, knights and exotic foreigners to mythical creatures, wild men and castles. Margaret was an expert at courtly love and court entertainment; she had appeared once, in 1504, as the Queen of the Amazons with a naked sword in her hand. Anne Boleyn had clearly learned from the best, she would soon be the life of the party, and master the skill of courtly love to such a great extent that was able to bring one of the most vicious rulers (Henry VIII) at the time to his knees (Weir “The Lady in the Tower” 200). 56

Margaret was a great mentor to Anne; she showed her ladies decorum and forbid gossip and discretions with the gentlemen of the court. She had offered her maids of honor words of wisdom, as she wrote:

Trust in those who offer you service, and in the end my maidens, you will find

yourselves in the ranks of those who have been deceived. They, for their sweet

speeches, choose words softer than the softest of virgins; trust in them? In their

hearts they nurture much cunning in order to deceive, and once they have their

way thus, everything is forgotten. Trust in them? Fine words are the coin to

pay back those presumptuous minions who ape the lover by fine looks and

such like. Not for a moment but instantly give to them their pay – fine words!

Word for word, that is justice, one for one, two for two. They are gracious so

to converse, respond yourself graciously – with fine words! (Ives 44)

Anne would carry Margaret’s words with her throughout her life; they would aid in her rise and fail to prevent her demise. The Low Countries were second best to the French when it came to the ways of the polite court. An environment filled with paintings, books and music; helped sculpt Anne Boleyn’s character to a vivid, smart, and tasteful lady that would soon take Henry VIII’s court by storm.

2. Influential European Female Figures:

We realize that the term feminism was only coined in recent times, but the concept had existed way beforehand. Women had always questioned their rights and position in society; they had often rebelled against the norms whether that was verbally or in other forms.

Scholars to reflect the livelihood of the 16th century, European female thinkers often use the term ‘Renaissance feminism’. Contrary to popular belief, 16th century women did argue the 57

concept of equality between the sexes, and such debates were very common at the times. In early 15th century Italy, ‘Renaissance feminism’ was very apparent in literary works. Both male and female authors and thinkers argued that women had contributed greatly to societies therefore they should not me marginalized but instead they should be included in universities, politics, and even owning properties.

The 16th century was a pivotal time for European female rulers and leaders. Women had lavished in power and helped sculpt politics, culture, and get rid of outdated oppressing ideas. Anne Boleyn had spent the better of ten years of her impressionable teenage years in this colorful society, where she was exposed to all types of debates and enjoyed the company of delightful old female icons. Anne would spent the rest of her life struggling with her proto- feminist tendencies while challenging the norms of the Tudor times and male dominance until she was finally struck down for it once and for all.

Margaret of Austria:

Margaret had been sent to France by the age of three, she was to become the future wife of Charles VIII. She had a formal French education where she learned how to dance, draw, sing and play several musical instruments. Margaret had also learned French and wrote exceptionally fluent verses, she loved French books end immersed herself into reading from a very young age. After being dumped by Charles VIII, Margaret would find herself back home but she took the French essence with her. She would carry on her education and indulge in different art forms such as illuminated manuscripts and chapel music. Anne Boleyn had absorbed all of the knowledge that comes with being one of Margaret’s maids of honor, she was taught by an influential woman that had an epic taste in the finer things in life (Ives 46). 58

Margaret of Austria’s library had amazing gems since she was an avid reader throughout her life. One of those gems would be the revolutionary French poet Christine de

Pizan (1364-1430). She was the first female writer in Europe, and had works that were outrageous for the times. Christine dared to question female roles in male-dominated societies, and went as far as to slander Jean de Meun’s popular poem Romance of the Rose.

Christine criticized Jean’s notions on courtly love and his depiction of women as seductresses only, a notion that Anne Boleyn would eventually be tied to throughout history. Anne would have become acquainted with Christine’s works from an early age, writings that molded her way of thinking in an abnormal way for the times (Weir “The Lady in the Tower” 180).

One of Christine de Pizan’s most revolutionary works is The Book of the City of

Ladies, it was the first ever book written by a woman on women. The book is considered one of the earliest accounts of feminist literature. In it, Christine mentions various influential women throughout history; they are all living in the city of ladies. She uses these women as the core of her city’s buildings, insinuating that women are avid participants in society and that things would crumble if it were not for them. Through the book, Christine challenges the prominent perceptions of the time; she argues that women are more than enough and could stand as equals to men. She also rejects misogynist and stereotypical ideas that are imposed by men, and blame them for hindering women’s full potential (Prudence 610).

She wrote that “not all men share the opinion that it is bad for women to be educated”, she added “but it is very true that many foolish men have claimed this because it displeased them that women knew more than they did”. In a time when women were deemed inferior to men in every sense, Christine’s notion that women were the clever sex is considered shocking, she argued:

Just as women’s bodies are softer than men’s, so their understanding is

sharper. If it were customary to send girls to school and teach them the same 59

subjects as are taught to boys, they would learn just as fully and would

understand the subtleties of all arts and sciences. As for those who state that it

is thanks to a woman, the lady Eve, that man was expelled from paradise, my

answer would be that man has gained far more through Mary than he ever lost

through Eve. (de Pizan 211)

Unlike most women of her times, Christine didn’t rejoice in the ideal of marriage: “How many women are there who, because of their husbands’ harshness, spend their weary lives in the bond of marriage in greater suffering than if they were slaves among the Saracens?”.

Margaret of Austria’s admiration for Christine’s work was bound to be due to her notions concerning noble women, as she wrote:

The wives of powerful noblemen must be highly knowledgeable about

government, and wise – in fact, far wiser than most other such women in

power. The knowledge of a noblewoman must be so comprehensive that she

can understand everything. Moreover, she must have the courage of a man. (de

Pizan 273)

Throughout her reign, Anne Boleyn would show significant interest in politics, religious reforms, education and different governmental affairs. She would be sharp and initiative, something that she probably learnt from being exposed to Christine de Pizan’s work. In 513, Anne was at Tournai where Margaret of Austria was gifted with a set of tapestries woven with scenes from the The Book of the City of Ladies by the city fathers.

Influential works that urged for female education and challenged the notion of marriage were always present at Margaret’s household where Anne Boleyn was in training. Those reform ideals manifested in Anne’s independent and inspiring character; they might have leant her the title of a proto-feminist now, but at the times, they had cost her her head (Weir “The Lady in the Tower” 189). 60

Marguerite de Navarre:

In 1515, Anne Boleyn had become one of the maidens of Queen Claude, the wife of

Francis I of France. She had served her for the total of seven years; meaning that she would have stayed in France until 1522. Many historians had argued that in such a long period of service, Anne was bound to encounter Francis I’s sister, Marguerite de Navarre. Scholar

Herbert of Cherbury noted that Anne had served in the household of ‘the Duchess of Alençon, sister to Francis’ (Herbert 399). Another person that supports the notion that Anne Boleyn had been in contact with Marguerite, is Pierre de Bourdeille also known as Brantôme. Pierre was a

French historian, soldier, and biographer that had spent his childhood at the household of

Marguerite de Navarre. He must have heard of Anne Boleyn there, since he later on wrote of her in his book Lives of Fair and Gallant Ladies that was out in 1589, he wrote:

The fairest and most bewitching of all the lovely dames. When she sang, like a

second Orpheus, she would have made bears and wolves attentive. She danced

the English dances, leaping and gliding with infinite grace and agility. She

invented many new figures and steps, which are yet known by her name; she

dressed with marvellous taste and devised new modes which were copied by

all the fashionable ladies at court; but none wore them with her gracefulness, in

which she rivalled Venus. (Brantôme 203)

Marguerite de Navarre was one of the most influential women in France at the time.

Many scholars called her ‘the first modern woman’ and ‘the mother of the French

Renaissance’ due to her writings. Marguerite spoke seven languages in total and communicated with many humanists such as Erasmus, who had also been presented at the court of Margaret of Austria on many occasions. Marguerite spent most of her life at the 61

French court even after her marriage; she indulged in different art forms and immersed herself in her education. She was respected and admired by almost everyone even male thinkers and writers, such as Erasmus, praised her often in their works, he wrote to her saying:

For a long time I have cherished all the many excellent gifts that God bestowed

upon you; prudence worthy of a philosopher; chastity; moderation; piety; an

invincible strength of soul, and a marvelous contempt for all the vanities of this

world. Who could keep from admiring, in a great king's sister, such qualities as

these, so rare even among the priests and monks. (Cholakian 21)

Marguerite had spoken of the prevalent issues of inequality between the sexes in her writings. Her most notable work the Heptameron, a collection of 72 short stories, had feminist tendencies and touched on chauvinistic views. She had also been a reformer, her poem Miroir de l'âme pécheresse was a conversation between the soul of a woman and Christ.

Marguerite’s works were often passed on at the court of England, which only further solidifies the notion that Anne Boleyn must have been the one exposing the court to the works of reformers as she had done with Henry VIII. Another sign that further showcase that Anne

Boleyn must have had a connection to Marguerite and she might have been handed an abstract of her poem Miroir de l'âme pécheresse, is that it was later on translated to English by her daughter Elizabeth I.

Elizabeth I had translated the poem to the Mirror of the Sinful Soul at the age of eleven years old. She presented it to her stepmother Katherine Parr, as she wrote:

Jesus, true fisher thou of souls!

My only Saviour, only advocate!

Since thou God's righteousness hast satisfied,

I fear no more to fail at heaven's gate.

My Spouse bears all my sins, though great they be, 62

And all his merits places upon me...

Come, Saviour, make thy mercies known...

Jesus for me was crucified:

For me the bitter death endured,

For me eternal life procured.

...

Satan, where is now thy tower?

Sin, all withered is thy power.

Pain or death no more I fear,

While Jesus Christ is with me here.

Of myself no strength have I,

But God, my shield, is ever nigh.

...

Not hell's black depth, nor heaven's vast height,

Nor sin with which I wage continual fight,

Me for a single day can move,

O holy Father, from thy perfect love.

...

How beautiful is death,

That brings to weary me the hour of rest!

Oh! hear my cry and hasten, Lord, to me,

And put an end to all my misery. (D’Aubigne 168)

Marguerite served as a mediator between Roman Catholics and Protestants. She was also often asked to aid in increasing spiritual literacy and its availability amongst women (Dentiere

53). 63

Anne Boleyn would grow to be one of the most influential figures of the English

Reformation. Not only that, but she would also root for many important causes and leaving a lasting footprint in history as an inspiring lady. It would come as no surprise that Anne grew to become both a thinker and a doer since she was in the company of some of Europe’s most inspiring leading ladies; women that helped shape her into the Queen that she one day will be.

Anne Boleyn developed critical thinking from a young age due to being surrounded be notions that challenge the norms and question women’s roles in society. A way of thinking that would not be very welcomed by many males including her beloved husband and would result in them wanting to be rid of her at any cost.

64

II/ Anne Boleyn, a Feminist?

Anne Boleyn might not have been a feminist in the true sense of the word, but she was a woman ahead of her time. She had challenged the norms and rose to power in a world where men where the only ones that lavished in it. Anne had made it her mission to make an everlasting change; she was not going to settle for the role of an obedient wife and a mother.

Granted that eventually made her lose her position and life, but she was set on being everything or nothing. As we have seen in the first chapter, in Anne’s final testimony she had admitted to being jealous of her husband as she had said ‘I confess I have had jealous fancies and suspicions of him, which I had not discretion enough, and wisdom, to conceal at all times’. She clearly wished she could enjoy the same privileges as her husband and be able to have a say in important matters.

Anne had often quarreled with Henry on matters that were out of the league of women at that time. Her opinionated nature had turned from being something he admired her for to something he despised her for heavily. Although she was often faced by oppressive men that did not appreciate her meddling in state affairs, she still managed to make extraordinary things; things that she will forever be remembered by. Her bravery and dedication to her cause make her a woman worthy of noting. Anne Boleyn is more than just another one of

Henry VIII’s wives; she is her own woman and a major inspiring and influential figure.

1. An Advent of Reform:

Many speculators suggest that Anne Boleyn’s interest in reform only stems from her desperate need for a loophole after the Pope refused to grant Henry VIII an annulment; although Anne Boleyn’s early European education suggests otherwise. Anne had been 65

exposed to French reform from an early age, an age where most children are bound to be very impressionable. She had become familiar with many aristocratic women seeking spiritual fulfillment, and certainly had listened to many sermons from reformist clerics. Anne must have been present at the evangelists preaching of Michel d’Arande in 1521; a preacher that

Marguerite wrote of saying: “The spirit which Our Lord caused to speak through his mouth will have struck the souls of those open to receive his word and to hear the truth”. We could argue then that Anne might have had a spiritual awakening during her time in France and developed a true interest and passion in the Anglican cause (Ives 426).

Anne Boleyn was the first to note a monarch’s freedom to take initiative in religious change by exposing Henry VIII to William Tyndale’s book The Obedience of the Christian

Man. Tyndale’s book was deemed as a heretical material, it had notions that all Christian

Kings were accountable only to God and not to the Pope; after reading it, Henry VIII had remarked, “This Book is for me and all Kings to read”. Anne would further support religious reform long after she became Queen. She had a huge influence on the Church as had been noted by Alexander Ales, while conversing with Elizabeth I, ‘the evangelical bishops whom your most holly mother had appointed from among those scholars who favored the purer doctrine of the gospel’. Anne Boleyn was in charge of most of Church’s appointments that were crucial to the future of the Reformation. By the end of the reign, most reforming bishops in office were those previously appointed by Anne herself (Cal. S. P. Span 866).

Anne Boleyn was behind many campaigns to impose new injunctions on the monastic houses, which were set in motion by Cromwell in the summer of 1535. Anne was also very eager to disseminate the Bible in the vernacular; she had an English version on display in her household that she encouraged everyone to read. Anne Boleyn was often sought after by other reformers such as Thomas Alwaye to offer them protection from the bishops after smuggling heretical materials. She defied established ecclesiastical authority by giving a way to illegal 66

trades in Bibles and prohibited books. She often sent William Lok, her mercer, to run errands for her while he was on a trip to the Low Countries; as his daughter noted ‘Queen Anne

Boleyn that was mother to our late Queen Elizabeth caused him to get her the gospels and epistles written in parchment in French, together with the psalms’. Anne was also behind the licensing of a Southwark printer from the Low Countries to produce the Coverdale text in

England to avoid the dangerous consequences that foreign books caused (Ives 418).

2. A Christian Humanist:

Anne Boleyn was a model Christian; after her anointment, she made sure to offer relief to the poor, needy, and impotent householders with larger families. She increased the sum of purses at the royal Maundy, and had also instructed her ladies to sow clothes that were later distributed to the poor plus a shilling a head. Anne had consulted with the local priests to offer pregnant women a pair of sheets and two shillings; she urged them as well to report any individual case of misfortune. George Wyatt reported that Anne’s charity amounted to £1500 a year (Wyatt 443). In 1535, William Marshall presented the Queen with The Form and

Manner of Subvention for Poor People, devised and practiced in the city of Ypres; which was an account of recent policies set by the city fathers (Ives 435). He noted:

My very mind, intent and meaning is (by putting of this honourable and

charitable provision in mind) to occasion your grace (which at all times is

ready to further all goodness) to be a mediatrix and mean unto our most dread

sovereign lord ... for the stablishing and practising of the same (if it shall seem

so worthy) or of some other, as good or better, such as by his majesty or his

most honourable council shall be devised. (Elton 62) 67

Anne Boleyn was inspired by the later document, as she took it upon herself to converse with

Parliament and propose radical actions to reduce the rate of poverty. The bill was later approved by Parliament in 1536 (Elton 123).

Anne Boleyn was also involved in improving and supporting Education. She as other

Anglicans believed that Education and scholarship were the beacon of light to aid parish poverty and salvage societies. Anne was a generous patron of students. In early 1530, she had intervened to ensure the return of John Eldmer to Cambridge after he lost the contest to become abbot of St Mary’s, York (Russell 126). Anne had also offered support to scholars studying abroad as she did with John Beckynsaw. She had given him £40 a year to study abroad and eventually teach Greek at Paris. According to William Latymer, Anne Boleyn’s

Chaplain, when Thomas Winter, Wolsey’s bastard son, had returned to court from Padua broke to try to appeal to Cromwell for help; he advised him to seek the Queen’s help. After pleading to Anne, she wrote to assure him ‘I am aware, my dear Winter, that you are beloved by the King and have many friends who wish you well. Reckon me among the number’ (Ives

438).

Anne Boleyn had aimed at improving learning institutions; she had contributed with

£80 annually to both Oxford and Cambridge. Anne had convinced Henry VIII to secure the dispensation of both universities from the latest clerical tax, the tenth, and from clerical subsidies. She had also appointed Matthew Parker to reform the collegiate church of Stroke by Clare near Sudbury (Strype 18). The reforms consisted of regular preaching, appointing a lecturer on the Bible to teach four days a week in both English and Latin, setting a new grammatical school with a master and facilities for both fee-paying and free pupils, and lastly ten choral scholarships which would lead to a six-year bursary at Cambridge. The Queen intervened in the headship of Eton as well, as she had appointed Nicolas Bourbon, Thomas

Harvey, Henry Norris, Henry Dudkey and her nephew, Henry Carey as he has written: 68

You, Oh queen, gave me the boys to

educate,

I try to keep each one faithful to his

duty.

May Christ grant that I may be equal

to the task,

Shaping vessels worthy of a heavenly house. (Ives 438)

69

Conclusion:

Anne Boleyn is often seen as a vixen, a tempestuous woman that stole the heart of

Henry VIII and became Queen without merit. She was and still is being objectified to nothing more than a sexual temptress that was used by her father and uncle to get in favor with the

King. We only see her as one-dimensional; she is either a whore or a saint, vindictive or pious, ambitious or naïve. In reality, Anne was a complex human being that had both light and shade in her essence. She was just a woman with beliefs, thoughts, insecurities and dreams; trying to find her calling in a world that looked very gloomy for women at the time.

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General Conclusion:

After conducting this study via extensive research and analysis of both primary and secondary sources, I have come to realize that Anne Boleyn’s downfall was indeed the result of many hidden aspects. One of those aspects was the unfortunate incident that her husband,

Henry VIII, had endured and that had an apparent effect on his frontal lobe, which in turn messed up his judgement. Another one lays in the critical political climate of Henry VIII’s reign which made even the more under pressure and susceptible to make rash decisions concerning his wife. Through my work, I have come to conclude that others such as Henry

VIII’s secretary, Thomas Cromwell, and the Seymours were plotting a Coup to strike Anne

Boleyn down; as well as influencing the King’s judgement.

Finally, and through my study, I have found that Anne Boleyn’s early years in Europe and the influential female figures she met while being there, are what shaped her way of thinking and molded her to be a woman that challenged the norms of her time. I have also conducted that Anne Boleyn was in fact a proto-feminist, which was apparent in her progressive way of thinking and her contributions to the Reformation movement and female education. As well as discovering, that her feminist tendencies are what made her the black sheep at court and resulted in her having many enemies, such as secretary Thomas Cromwell, that wanted nothing more than to see her crumble and face her death.

“Le temps viendra , Je Anne Boleyn” ,those are the words that Anne Boleyn wrote in her book of hours. Words that showcase that she firmly believed that she was destined for greatness. Anne Boleyn is a woman that is still highly controversial to this day; some like to glorify her as a Martyr of the Anglican faith while others choose to perceive her as a vixen. I believe that Anne is both of those things; in fact, she has a bit of everything. She is both pious 71

and sexual, religious and ambitious, a naïve woman in love and a master mind. Anne Boleyn is just like the rest of us; a complex human being that was trying to coexist, love, live, and achieve something meaningful in this life. When it comes to Anne, many bias opinions seem to surface; she tends to stir a lot of tension, which makes looking at her in a non-subjective light very challenging.

One of my favorite quotes is “don’t ask yourself what the world needs; ask what makes you feel alive and go do it. Because what the world needs is more people who have come alive”. Anne Boleyn had inspired in more ways that I could ever put to words; her vivid spirit, bravery and grace are traits that I always try to cultivate in myself. With this study, I hope to bring peace to the memory of Anne Boleyn who was a woman, a mother, and a fighter. It will be an objective blue print that maps out the turbulent ending that Anne Boleyn had endured. This study seeks to enlighten a chapter of the life of a woman that is very inspiring and mesmerizing, a woman that stood her ground in a 16th century society that is only pro males, and gave birth to one of England’s greatest monarchs Elizabeth I.

72

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