Doctor of Philosophy in English

Thematising Globalization: Select Indian English Fiction After 2000

Thesis

SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF

Doctor of Philosophy In English

Rahul Singhal

Under the Supervision of

Professor Mohammad Asim Siddiqui

Department of English ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH-202002 (INDIA)

Mohammad Asim Siddiqui DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY Professor Phone: 0091-571-2700920-922 Email: [email protected] E-mail:[email protected]

D ated: ……………….

- CCeerrttiiffiiccaatt ee

Certified that the thesis entitled “Thematising Globalization: Select Indian English Fiction After 2000” submitted by Mr. Rahul Singhal is an original investigation, to the best of my knowledge. It has not been submitted before to this university or any other university.

Prof. Mohammad Asim Siddiqui Supervisor

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University ANNEXURE-I

CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I, Mr. Rahul Singhal, Department of English, certify that the work embodied in this Ph.D. thesis is my own bonafide work carried out by me under the supervision of Prof. Mohammad Asim Siddiqui (Professor) at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. The matter embodied in this Ph.D. thesis has not been submitted for the award of any other degree. I declare that I have faithfully acknowledged, given credit to and referred to the researchers wherever their works have been cited in the text and the body of the thesis. I further certify that I have not wilfully lifted up some other’s work, para, text, data, result, etc., reported in the journals, books, magazines, reports, dissertations, thesis, etc., or available on web-sites and included them in this Ph.D. thesis and cited as my own work.

Date: RAHUL SINGHAL

…………………………………………………………………………………………..

CERTIFICATE FROM THE SUPERVISOR

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my knowledge.

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

Mohammad Asim Siddiqui (Professor) Department of English Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh-202002

(Signature of the Chairperson)

Annexure-II

Course Work/ Comprehensive Examination and Pre- submission Seminar Completion Certificate

This is to certify that Mr. Rahul Singhal, has satisfactorily completed the course work/comprehensive examination, pre-submission seminar requirement and he has published two papers based on the thesis which is part of his Ph.D. programme.

Date………

Chairperson Department of English Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh, U. P., 202002 (India)

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

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Annexure-III Copyright Transfer Certificate

Title of the Thesis: Thematising Globalization: Select Indian English Fiction After 2000

Candidate’s Name: RAHUL SINGHAL

Copyright Transfer The undersigned hereby assigns to the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh copyright that may exist in and for the above thesis submitted for the award of the Ph.D. degree.

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Acknowledgements

It has been, without doubt, such a long journey, and it wouldn’t have been possible without the support and ‘Affection’ of a lot of people; from known faces to unknown too, from living things to non-living things too. The epiphanic moments are somewhere quite an important part of such long-short journeys and never dependent on known and unknown. These flashes are significant illuminating lights for any research.

Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Mohammad Asim Siddiqui for the continuous support, patience, motivation, and for a certain distinctive sense of calmness which certainly helped me in writing, asking questions, being reflective and seeking answers beyond the Text and the tick and tock of the clock.

Besides my supervisor, I would like to thank and will remain indebted to Prof. Mohd. Rizwan Khan, Chairperson, Department of English, AMU, for extending all the possible official help to me.

I am also grateful to Mr. Khan Parvaiz Rafi, Incharge of the Seminar Library, and Staff Members of the Department of English, Aligarh Muslim University.

I am especially indebted to the staff of Maulana Azad Library, AMU, Aligarh, and Nehru Memorial Library, New Delhi.

I express my heartfelt gratitude to the canteen staff of Maulana Azad Library, AMU, Aligarh,Maulana for feeding Azad me. Library, Aligarh Muslim University

Last but not least, a special thanks to all those people who make me what I am today.

Rahul Singhal CONTENT Page No. Chapter 1 Introduction 1-23

1.1 ‘Why’ This Topic 2 1.2 Aim of This Study 3 1.3 Hypotheses 3 1.4 Organization of the Study 4 1.5 Research Methodology 5 1.6 Review of Literature 5 Works Cited 21 Chapter 2 Globalization: A Conceptual, Historical, 24-54 And Institutional Analysis

2.1 Introduction 24 2.2 Timeline of Globalization 26 2.3 Features of Globalization 32 2.3.1 Acceleration 32 2.3.2 Disembedding 33 2.3.3 Interconnectedness 35 2.3.4 Standardisation 36 2.3.5 Vulnerability and Risk 37 2.4 Of Anti-globalization Movements: Making, 39 Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Unmaking, and Remaking Globalization 2.4.1 The Contemporary Debate 45 2.4.1.1 Post 9/11 45 2.4.1.2 Post Brexit and 11/9 48 Works Cited 52

Chapter 3 Development, Postmodernism, Postcolonialism 55-98 And Globalization

3.1 Globalization and Organized Violence 55 3.1.1 Americanization 62 3.1.2 Development, Imperialism, and Globalization 69 3.1.3 Imperialism and Globalization 77 3.2 Postcolonialism and Globalization 81 3.3 Postmodernism and Globalization 91 WORKS CITED 97 Chapter 4 Globalisation and the Publishing Industry in India 99-127

4.1 Introduction 99 4.2 Publishing Industry 101 4.3 Self Publishing and Internet Novel 107 4.4 Publishing Industry in India 111 4.5 Age of Corporatized Publishing 117 Works Cited 126 Chapter 5 Globalisation Thematized: Select Indian English 128-163 Fiction 5.1 Introduction 128 5.2 Globalised literature and Literary Globalisation 129 5.3 Fictions of Globalisation 133 Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 5.3.1 Infrastructure Fictions 133 5.3.2 Dystopian Fictions 144 5.3.3 Casteist Contemporary 150 5.3.4 Globalization and The Inheritance of Loss 158 Works Cited 162 Chapter 6 Conclusion 164-167 Bibliography 168-177 Chapter 1 Introduction

INTRODUCTION

Globalization has transformed and reformed the world via touching almost each and every aspect associated with a nation-state, be it economics, culture, education, lifestyle and attitudes of the people. Globalization supported via technological revolution has created a newer and smaller world resulting in redefining of the boundaries and the meaning of the word ‘Life’.

Today globalization theorists talk about different phases of globalization. Early periods of conquest and voyages are co phases in the long narratives of globalization. Most commentators, however, consider the revolution in Information technology as a major trigger for the forces of globalization. Consequently early 90s and the period after 2000 have been marked by significant changes in the world. Not only have national boundaries blurred, but we also have the phenomenon of cultural boundaries breaking down. Globalization has opened new discourses of culture and identity.

The year 2000 is important because it was a year when the world faced Y2K crisis. This crisis was adequately handled, among others, by Indian engineers. In fact, Indian presence has been becoming more and more emphatic following the year 2000. Today we have a new phenomenon of reverse brain drain. Many Indians who have distinguished themselves in different fields have come back to India not only for greener pastures back home but also for sorting issues of identity. Now it is no longer necessary to migrate since the world has come at your doorstep, maybe a click away.

Globalization has greatly influenced the publishing industry. It has opened avenuesMaulana for new writers. Azad It Library,has given strength Aligarh to theMuslim work of Universityolder writers, and books are now reaching to a bigger readership. Old books are being republished. The definition of the classic has changed. And thanks to the forces of globalization Indian English Fiction is witnessing a surge. Probably more novels are written, published and marketed in India than ever before. If globalization has reinvigorated publishing industry, it has also dictated the choice of subjects, the notion of identity and the forms of literature.

Henceforth, this study aims to take up the impact of globalization on Indian English fiction written after 2000 in India. The study also intends to discuss the

Chapter 1 Introduction phenomenon and its impact on the publishing industry. Additionally, the discourse on globalization consists of not only modernization theories, but also dependency theories, a lot of them sharing ground with postcolonial and postmodern theories. The study intends to study this common ground between development theories, postcolonial theories, postmodern theories and globalization theories. Furthermore, this study also seeks to chronicle the thematisation of different strands of globalization in select Indian English Fiction after 2000.

Furthermore, the relationship between globalization and literature is not restricted to the thematisation of different strands of globalisation in the varied works with literary value, rather, as the currency of literature began to be used by the social and political scientists to elucidate their conceptual positions, the literary text and its contents became much more significant than their specific references and content.

The each and every depiction of globalisation in literature contributes towards the various narratives of globalisation, which help to grasp a phenomenon as huge as globalisation. It is in this backdrop; this study aims to flesh the thematisation of globalisation in select Indian English novels, especially written in the twenty-first century. The study aims not to give much importance to ontological difference and cultural hybridity, rather to the structural and material differences and experiences as portrayed in the select Indian English novels in the understanding of the experiences of globality.

1.1 ‘Why’ This Topic

• Globalization, after the fall of the Berlin Wall, has dictated almost every aspect of our lives, be it social, political, economic or cultural. It has also Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University impacted academic disciplines like social sciences, literary and English studies in varying capacities. A phenomenon with such huge capacity does warrant our critical attention and understanding. Thus not only helping us in the comprehension of our immediate and distant environment but also mediating us to locate ourselves in the matrix of global change and globality.

• In the arena of literary studies, globalization becomes important because:

a) Literary texts have more than often thematized globalisation.

Chapter 1 Introduction

b) The thematisation of globalisation and its reflections and critical interpretation in literary texts have become a tool to support conceptual positions and arguments by political and social scientists, thus making the understanding of globalisation via its ‘multiple narratives’ in literature indispensable.

c) Literary theory and other familiar developed fields of literary studies provide us with the fruitful ground to draw in discussions on globalisation, for example, postmodernism and postcolonialism.

d) Globalisation has had and still has a deep impact on the publishing industry, and consumption of literature outside the academic arena. But this impact also has considerable knock-on effects on literature and literary studies which demands scholarly attention.

1.2 Aim of This Study

• To study the impact of globalisation on fiction written in English after 2000 in India via select few texts.

• To discuss the globalisation and its impact on the publishing industry.

• The aim is to study the discourse on globalisation which consists of not only modernisation, dependency, and world system theories but the sharing of common ground with postcolonialism and postmodernism is also part of this research.

1.3 Hypotheses Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University • There is some common ground between globalisation, postcolonialism and postmodernism.

• Globalisation has led to varied changes in the publishing industry and in the way literature is produced, disseminated and consumed.

• The selected texts can be considered as narratives of globalization in varying degrees.

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.4 Organization of the Study

• The study is divided into six chapters.

• Chapter 1 Introduction deals with the aim, hypotheses, organisation, and review of literature and research methodology and provides a platform for the opening arguments.

• Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis detail the analysis of the ‘globalisation’ from various angles in order to provide with a working definition, form, and structure of globalization for the succeeding chapters.

• Chapter 3 Development, Postcolonialism, Postmodernism and Globalisation aims to attempt a deconstructive analysis of the globalisation. It not only tries to problematize the word ‘development’ but also traces its point of emanation. It also seeks to underscore the fact that organized violence since centuries has immensely contributed in the extension of the globalisation across the globe. The chapter further investigates the role of ‘West’ and the common ground between postcolonialism, postmodernism and globalisation.

• Chapter 4 Globalisation and Publishing Industry turns towards the trajectory of literature, and Indian English fiction. It fleshes out the influence of globalisation on the publishing industry, which is without doubt both positive and negative in nature. The chapter briefly discusses Indian publishing history and also highlights the contemporary age of corporatized publishing. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University • Chapter 5 Globalisation Thematized: Select Indian English Fiction attempts to understand the relationship between globalisation and literature. It achieves the same with the help of select few texts. The chapter selects texts on the basis of various strands of globalisation in order to facilitate the material understanding of the globalisation

• Chapter 6 Conclusion provides with a succinct description of the final result of all the aforementioned chapters.

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.5 Research Methodology

• Eclectic Approach has been chosen on the basis of the interdisciplinary nature of the method by which the selected texts are studied and explored, as they contain a number of theories, styles and ideas.

• Theoretical framework provided by postcolonialism and postmodernism.

• Multi-layer evaluation of the texts from two perspectives – identifying different strands of globalisation which have been thematized in globalisation. Secondly, it is also noted that some parts of the selected texts are developed into platforms which could evoke, support and interpret various social, political, literary, and cultural aspects of globalization.

1.6 Review of Literature

What are you reading?: The World Market and Indian Literary Production (2012) by Pavithra Narayanan focuses on the multiple and varied aspects that govern a text and its place in the Indian literary production. In a very succinct way, it takes into account a myriad of factors that are bound to affect the publishing industry. Thus when a text is introduced or rather produced in the publishing industry, the response by the literary audience is also not isolated. Therefore the reception too is administered by a variety of socio-economic, political and cultural elements.

The hegemonic structures which are propagated by the phenomenon of global capitalism are not a misnomer for all the readers, authors and publishers. One can observe Narayanan’s subtle and rich critique of the facets which underline the production of narratives in a globalised, multicultural market. The book in certain Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University ways aims to put social inequities as a major highlight when it comes to literary production and how this impacts the multiple stakeholders in the global publishing world.

A major tool used by the writer is to deconstruct postcolonial writing, and in the process, the dynamic relationship between marginalization, minoritization and academic theory is put across. The writer also puts into free play, the choices then which are available to writers in the context of economic policies and hegemonic academic practices. Hence the book not only unpacks the unseen and unheard in the

Chapter 1 Introduction publishing world; it also addresses the ideological presuppositions harbored by scholars of postcolonial studies.

In a nutshell, academic imperialism which puts across dominating ideas and thoughts as the cultural-political ‘norm’ is again a byproduct of globalization. The way the book tries to undermine such elitist strategies adopted by academicians make it a universal read where not only scholars of literary theory, cultural theory and globalised studies find it an indispensable read but for a lay reader, it also becomes an opportunity to dive into the plethora of questions that the ‘text’ raises.

The oft-quoted yet often an unnoticed connection between literature and globalization is taken up by Suman Gupta in his seminal piece of work, Globalization and Literature (2009). Globalization as a process, product and phenomenon is not limited to a particular structured time frame; its effects can be seen on a variety of disciplines. This multidisciplinary approach which leads to a variety of perspectives on literary theory and globalised theory is what Gupta is vested in. In the globalised cultural and literary market, she opines that it is imperative to critically examine the dynamic relationship between text, context and the reception of both by the audience and the production industry.

The outlook one may have when one views the thematisation of globalization in literary works can be a bit skewed. This is where Suman Gupta tries to bring on the academic table the finer nuances which are produced when globalization comes into play in a literary narrative. The various slips between the cracks are what one gets to explore through Gupta’s intellectual discourse. It is also interesting to view through a critical lens how anti-globalization movements not only provide dissenting arguments but also in theMaulana context of digitization Azad Library, what it m Aligarheans to be Muslima partisan ofUniversity such protests.

Globalization of literature is not just about seeing a text as a commercial product. It has to be viewed as an experience which is in a constant remoulding mode. Thereby concepts of text, editing, postmodern theories, globalised studies, and postcolonial narratives become the various pieces which provide a multi-dimensional structure to the kaleidoscope of globalization. Needless to say, what we see through this kaleidoscope are moments which are the resultant of a globalised experience. A literary text hence becomes a form emanating out from such diverging and converging

Chapter 1 Introduction arguments which in turn factors the underlining of the relationship that exists between globalization and literature.

In Fictions of Globalization: Consumption, the Market and the Contemporary American Novel (2006), James Annesley provides a narratorial discourse on how the process of globalization is intertwined with the production of the novel in the larger American literary market. The main aim is an attempt to provide a critique on the study of contemporary literature and interspersed with these critical underpinnings is the important idea of how social and economic contexts manoeuvre our understanding of a literary text.

Annesley also drives home the point that in a literary production market the consumption of text is not and cannot happen in a vacuum. Thus the book offers a wonderful insight into the multitude of factors that govern the exchange between commercial production and creative expression which typifies modern American culture. It also goes beyond a simplistic depiction of existing forces, as one observes Annesley’s views on literal and cultural production in a growing modern, globalised and consumerist society. Hence the ‘fictions of globalization’ provide food for thought to the readers by portraying the ‘realities’ that exist and often go unobserved.

As the title of the book Fear of Small Numbers (2006) suggests, the society that an individual is a part of is an interesting case study when it comes to the unpredictable relationship between the minorities and the majorities. Appadurai exclaims that the violence within the context of globalization is an important issue to be addressed. The constant urge to be in the majority leads to the fear of being in small numbers. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University However Fear of Small Numbers is not just a direct and simplistic take on how the spread of violence is the outcome of ethnic mass cleansing combined with political backlashes. Its major goal is to show the established association amongst various factors that play an important role to induce the fear of being marginalized or rendered as being redundant.

Hence, Appadurai provides a historical timeline to the era of intense globalization starting from the early 1900s which saw culturally motivated violence in Eastern Europe, Rwanda and India to what we now are experiencing, that is, “war on

Chapter 1 Introduction terror”. The uncertainty of how a particular nation-state thinks, reacts and proliferate ideas about minorities is the major crux of Appadurai’s narrative. Thus providing the readers with an astute understanding of the major sources and resources of global violence and how the minority and majority groups relate to cultural differences.

An account of how the Indian Novel in English came into being is the major contribution of A History of the Indian Novel in English (2015) in the literary framework. It not only talks about the historical circumstances that affected English literature being introduced in India but the oft-discussed the notion of what constitutes an ‘Indianized’ way of writing. The timeframe taken is quite vast as it tries to trace the novel’s development right from its inception to the present day

An insightful and appealing analysis is adopted by Ulka Anjaria to highlight English as a language which was and continues to be used and appropriated by the writers to cater to an Indian audience and in the process make the narrative Indian as well. Hence pertinent questions like what constitutes Indianess and how a particular piece of text along with its writer appropriates a particular language is the major highlight of the book. The readers are provided with a dissenting discourse on how cultural hegemony works and finds a place in History and a literary narrative.

Alex Tickell’s interest in South Asia’s contemporary literary, cultural, and political scene finds a creative unleash in his pioneering collection, South Asian Fiction in English: Contemporary Transformations (2016). A wide array of subjects in contemporary Indian Literature ranging from graphic narratives, short stories to more contemporary and transformative aspects such as fiction based on the ramifications of Diaspora, borders and marginalized communities lends its way in Tickell’s narrative.Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

Tickell also tries to put an interesting contestation between the unofficial and less publicized works from writers of Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka with the well known and firmly established canon of contemporary English literature. This provides more meaningful contexts to one understanding of must disciplinary stances in World literature. Tickell makes it possible as the designated and well-imagined boundaries of World Literature are pushed into the continuum of postcolonial studies as the newer and more nuanced forms of literature find a place in the literary space. Thus the constant flux of ideas, opinions and plurality of perspectives which underline

Chapter 1 Introduction global literature is brought onto the surface by the writer through this incisive and analytical study.

In a very perceptive way Thomas Hylland Eriksen’s Globalization: The Key Concepts (2007), becomes both a beginners guide and a nuanced study of the key terms related to the idea of globalization. It not only provides the readers with a discerning insight into the vast arena of globalization but also how the so-called mundane aspects of society such as trade, travel, production, media and politics are important stakeholders when it comes to the theoretical understating of the process. This is fundamental in our understanding of how identities are created, received and interpreted in a globalised world.

The engaging book becomes gospel in the hands of readers as the major debates, arguments and controversies surrounding globalization finds a place in the narrative space. In fact, Erikson in many ways takes a leap forward as he aims to show globalization as a double process wherein both horizontal and vertical integration is part and parcel of our understanding of the same. He also opines through essays, international case studies and discussion studies how basic and fundamental processes have repercussions on both the individual and society.

What it takes to keep a native under control and in constant fear is Frantz Fanon’s The Wretched of the Earth (2001) accounts in its scathing narrative. Both the physiological ramifications related to violence and aggression of the colonizer and the psychological after-effects pertaining to mental turmoil and chaos are part of the narrative that makes a native a wretched creature of the Earth.

Fanon leaves no stone unturned to critique the history of imperial cultural Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University hegemony which is maintained through the consent of the dominated class assuring the intellectual and material supremacy of the ruling class. He very accurately opines the role of violence in maintaining ideological supremacy and brings in to play the vicious cycle of being colonized and powerless at the hands of a colonizer. The delineation of the role of an intellectual in a revolution is also clearly demarcated by Fanon, and thus the book becomes an indispensable read to world leaders, critics and students to be cognizant of the plagues of colonization that the world is impacted by even today. Thereby building an international consciousness to the issue of colonization and racism.

Chapter 1 Introduction

The Pulitzer Prize-winning foreign affairs columnist for the New York Times, Thomas L. Friedman puts across an absorbing and engaging read as he divulges interesting details that delineate a global market place in his book The Lexus and the Olive Tree: Understanding Globalization (1999). He talks about the commonplace factors such as technology, capital and the cultural influx of information and how these lead to an inventive and detailed analysis of global forces and local cultures.

Friedman adopts a vivid approach when it comes to presenting details about indigenous and ancient cultural mores and traditions in a world that is governed with both geographical and geopolitical boundaries. He also makes a detailed investigation and firmly concludes that a pertinent balance between progress and preservation is of paramount importance as this will lead to a better future for all the societies affected by the power structures of globalization. Hence, the justification of the title which means striking a balance between the Lexus and the Olive Tree. The desire to retain identity with the prospect of achieving prosperity in a modernized world forms the background of the reading as Friedman takes into consideration his own extensive travelogues.

Thomas L. Friedman’s The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century (2007) is in more than many ways a breakthrough study that views the success of globalization through a critical lens. As the revolutionary title suggests a flatness of the world, Freidman talks about how in a global-consumerist and utilitarian world, individuals are in a competitive race to outdo each other. This also has larger implications on issues related to nation states as we see complex foreign policies and economic treaties come into playing a role in the flattening of the world. The twenty- first century that is marked by an abundance of outsourcing, overt emphasis on Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University technological infrastructure is just a microcosmic part of globalization.

Freidman quite succinctly opines that the paradoxical nature of globalization allows both the cultural exchange and expansion of resources is with the idea of keeping pace with the new advancements that make the world a little too smaller. This intertwining of contrasting ideas is an important point for cultural theorists, practitioners and literary scholars to understand as only then can a cohesive overview of the global world can make sense to us in an ever-shrinking world of ever

Chapter 1 Introduction developing resources where individuals have gone digital, mobile, personal and virtual.

Toral Jatin Gajarawala in his work Untouchable Fictions: Literary Realism and the Crisis of Caste (2013) very minutely observes and depicts how larger political and social discourses are blended with traditional religious myths and terms which are familiar to the literary parlance. The emergence of Dalit fiction throws light on the dark political nature of casteism and how various ideological presuppositions spread their tentacles over the literary, canonical framework to define their superior hegemonic status. Within this particular context, Gajarawala’s provides a dialectical study of seminal works of writers like Premchand, Mulk Raj Anand and V.S Naipaul, and the impact of the same on cultural production of Third World Literature in the 21st century.

Untouchable Fictions: Literary Realism and the Crisis of Caste thus aims to provide a literary, historical background to fictions of the untouchables and unravels certain metaphoric fragmentations leading to the loss of a sense of identity amongst these communities. Hence the text becomes a crucial study of Dalit fiction and what imprints does it leave on a narrative exchange. This dialogue thus becomes an important precursor to tackle and face the challenges or what Gajarawala says the “crisis of caste’’ politics in a space that is marked by postcolonial theory and cultural studies.

Very often referred to as a first-hand resource material to understand theories circumventing around the phenomenon called globalization, The Globalization and Development: Perspectives on Development and Global Change (2007) coherently puts acrossMaulana multiple Azad empirical Library, developments Aligarh related Muslim to the study University of globalization. The various essays, texts and articles become a principal element of the text as they all converge together to capture the social changes and multicultural exchanges which are a part of the Third World.

The writers painstakingly draw a lot of inferences from India and China to put into focus the Great Recession of the Global North. They take into account factors like global inequity and uneven economic development, international migration including the space provided to women, the interplay of cities with agriculture, environment, and climate change. Hence the Reader with is brilliant annotations,

Chapter 1 Introduction concise definitions of critical terms and concepts, readable articles and book selections on recent developments becomes an indispensable tool in the hands of a theorist, scholar or critic to get a tenacious grip on the profusion of ideas, thoughts and perspectives that entails globalization.

Globalization / Anti-Globalization: Beyond the Great Divide (2007) aims to provide answers to a baffled mind dealing with the consequences of globalization. The context taken is that of the aftermath of 9/11 and the war in Iraq which gave way to a terrorized global order and a subsequent militarized globalization. Thus a poignant question is raised by the theorists, that is, whether it’s time to reclaim and tame globalization? (Quite similar to Shakespeare does in the play, The Taming of the Shrew). This is, of course, keeping in mind the new socio-economic world order wherein global markets, state power and hierarchical power structures have a huge role to play in dismantling national culture.

Held and McGrew proclaim that such a dissection of globalization is completely flawed as it fails to keep in its purview larger determining constituents such as patterns of governance, organized violence, the economy, culture and environmental degradation. The book thus maps out ideas and theories surrounding the contentious politics of globalization. The description of the current global order is what the writers are interested in, and therefore the book becomes an important tool to survey the continuing importance of globalization.

Robert J. C. Young’s, Postcolonialism: A Very Short Introduction (2003) is a crucial text which keeps the readers abreast of the not only the salient features regarding the theory of postcolonialism, its history and central debates but also becomes an indispensableMaulana Azadoar to make Library, the readers Aligarh glide skillfully Muslim into University the depths of a theory which is as wide as an infinite ocean. The theory itself has manifested itself into multifarious notions of political, social and cultural effects of decolonization. Hence Young looks into the narratives dwellings of eminent postcolonial theorists and writers such as Homi Bhabha, Edward Said, Frantz Fanon, and Gayatri Spivak to make the reading lucid and universal. In fact one also observes intermingling of narrative discourses of Gabriel Garcia Marquez and Salman Rushdie, and this provides a vivid detailing of theory in innovative fiction. Thus, Postcolonialism: A Very Short Introduction becomes a user-friendly and easily accessible handbook for

Chapter 1 Introduction understanding the subtle nuances of theory and its reverberations on both life and fiction.

When one wants to ascertain the multifold meanings, connotations and interpretations related to the impact of globalization, then Critical Development Theory: Contributions to a New Paradigm (1999) comes as a repository of knowledge and comments on the expansive phenomenon. The last leg of the century has seen a massive sweep in terms of looking at gender variations, cultural, socio-political factors governing an individual and society. There has been an ever developing awareness about major issues which are a part of a larger globalised world. Be it meanings of globalization, its different dimensions and their social consequences or its impact on fact, fiction and the virtual, one can observe these critical developments in the world that we are a part of. Hence, we see Munck and Hearn taking inventive approaches and methods to make the readers re-engage with the current reality and relearn aspects which are a supposed part of that reality. Thus the text truly serves to contribute in making a new paradigm shift.

The main goal of Nobel Prize laureate Joseph E. Stiglitz in Making Globalization Work (2006) is to make the readers aware of the economic precedence of globalization. “Globalization had succeeded in unifying people from around the world — against globalization”- Stiglitz opines and thus makes a relevant point that as far as globalization is concerned, it is just not about development and blurring of boundaries. In fact when one probes a little deeper, therein comes on to the surface various issues of considerable magnitude related to the environment, sustainable development in the larger context of “Americanization”.

MaulanaStiglitz time Azad and again Library, points to Aligarh the fact that Muslim economic University interdependence which is a definite marker of globalization has made the world come together as a singular community but has also opened multidimensional thoughts to view the world as a globalised society which is based on the essential watermarks of equality, justness and sustainability. Thus the text becomes an intellectually arousing narrative to gain insight into these pertinent and imminent debates surrounding globalization.

The Nobel Prize-winning economist Joseph E. Stiglitz provides a scathing critique of America’s economic policy system and how it has mainly resulted in the skewed relationship between development and progress. It has led to the widening of

Chapter 1 Introduction the gap between the haves and the have-nots and thus The Price of Inequality: How Today’s Divided Society Endangers Our Future (2013) offers to provide the reader with the glaring picture of the World’s Market.

Stiglitz also makes a valid connection between economic equality and systems of justice and opines that they are mutually dependent on each other. Within the era of globalization where there is a continuous ushering of true and dynamic capitalism, it is important for the citizens to understand the effects of economic and national policies. Thus the economist also puts forth a visionary model for a fair and moralistic future wherein politics should not have a say when it comes to economic equalities and access to opportunities.

Globalization as an amalgamation of economic, political, cultural, ideological, and environmental processes is a self-inviting term. To understand and get a holistic and wholesome view on the same one needs to consider the interrelationships between globalization and individual and collective identities. Keeping this perspective in mind, Manfred B. Steger’s Globalization: A Very Short Introduction (2009) serves as an inquiry narrative which explores why people strive to promote their cultures, languages and identities, and how the forces of globalization shape and are shaped by identities and cultures. Putting globalization into neat watertight compartments of good and bad is a complete misnomer. These distinct binaries cannot be applied to this term which in its magnitude is insurmountable to grasp. Thus the blurring of boundaries is inevitable. In this connection, one can look into answers, opinions, perspectives which Manfred B. Steger’s Globalization: A Very Short Introduction offers to individuals like scholars, theorists and practitioners.

In PostliberalizationMaulana Azad Indian Library, Novels in EnglishAligarh (2013) Muslim, Aysha University I. Vishwamohan explores the various critical nuances that surround theory and makes a detailed analysis of the conditions of production and consumption of postcolonial Indian writing in English. Through theoretical underpinnings, the critical handbook aims to provide a meticulous and methodical approach to the study of Indian novelists. The novels which weave, produce, and disseminate contemporary Indian Writing in English in the global marketplace is what the writer is deeply interested in. The use of the term post liberalization is also an important part of the narrative process which seeks to establish a close connection between politics of global reception and critical

Chapter 1 Introduction appreciation by a larger audience. Thus the writer makes it very clear that the way one views the novel as a commodity for consumption in the global market also becomes a significant indicator of its global reception.

In Writing India Anew: Indian English Fiction 2000-2010 (2013) one can note the undercutting of the now understood simplified notion of how the ‘empire writes back’ as through the writings of prominent scholars such as Rimi B. Chatterjee, Bill Ashcroft and Shirley Chew, the book proposes a variety of explorations when it comes to analyzing postcolonial writings. Sen and Roy give the readers a multifaceted approach to view India and in fact in many ways also invest a lot of narrative space in re-mapping of mythology and history to reassessing the globalised India of today. As the title suggests, this fresh and innovative approach to view the nation through the critical lens of postcolonial writing and Indian English fiction typically ranging from the first decade of the twenty-first century lends itself to a plurality of perspectives. This basically means that now in a globalised context one cannot simply render or disregard such writings as simplistic national allegories; in fact, they bring in to the academic milieu varied and new corpus of contemporary Anglophone literature.

In the research paper “Breaking out of the Rooster Coop: Violent Crime in Aravind Adiga’s White Tiger and Richard Wright’s Native Son” (2011), Sara D. Schotland through the method of contrastive analysis shows the similarities between the two protagonists, apart from this Schotland also makes an attempt to bring on to the surface themes like acute poverty, psychological hopelessness and the power dynamics which constitute an oppressor and an oppressed. The paper then becomes an interesting case in point to view both the novels’ narrative in understanding the functional role of violence and crimes in a fictional narrative. Thus in both Bigger and Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Balram that is, the protagonists in Aravind Adiga’s White Tiger and Richard Wright’s Native Son respectively, one sees an attempt to face headlong the dominant colonizer in order to find one’s place in a restricted marginalized community.

Postmodernism and the Other: The New Imperialism of Western Culture (1998) is rightly considered as a breakthrough study as it examines and explores postmodernism from a non-western perspective. Thereby clearly undercutting a Eurocentric way of looking at processes and theories, Sardar with utter vehemence calls it as a part of falsified perspectives. To come to this conclusion which for many

Chapter 1 Introduction official narratives and document makers may be controversial he makes a very meticulous study and assessment of all the subtle and direct characteristics of postmodernism. By calling it as the new Imperialism of Western culture, Sardar again minces no words to show that commonly held notions or rather presuppositions related to film, music, economic opportunities, religious ideologies all propagate a very biased and unilateral view of postmodernism. Through his study, Sardar aims to debunk the myths surrounding such falsehoods and shows the alternate real.ity which is supposedly kept shunned from the mainstream.

We see in Andre Schiffrin’s influential work, The Business of Books: How the International Conglomerates Took Over Publishing and Changed the Way We Read (2000), the readers are getting dual perspectives both as an insider and outsider of a conglomerate as Schiffrin views post-war American publishing. In a very nuanced and intricate study, he aims to show the power dynamics that exist in the publishing industry. As a stakeholder of the flourishing independent house, The New Press, the readers in Schiffrin’s narrative can easily sense collapsing standards of contemporary publishing. Through the interweaving of works of Studs Terkel, Noam Chomsky, Gunnar Myrdal, George Kennan, Juliet Mitchell, R. D. Laing, Eric Hobsbawm and E.P. Thompson we are made a witness to a text which is part memoir and part history, and thus the creative forces combine together with the certain artistic and aesthetic tendencies. This wonderful conglomeration makes the text a brilliant read and also provides an epigrammatic entry into the American publishing history.

The way one views and disseminates Literature is a critical standpoint in the history of globalization. It is often said that this process of globalization is not and cannot be oblivious to the larger channels of thoughts, history, socio-economic pulls Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University in society and geographical landscapes. Literature being on the other end of the spectrum and in its broadest sense means that it helps individuals to grow both personally and intellectually. It becomes an essential tool to critically comprehend the mores and ways of one’s culture and its functioning. Taking these opposite views into consideration, Connell, and Marsh explicitly state that for a cohesive and complete understanding of expansive fields and disciplines like communication, culture, politics one needs to redefine the way one views the relationship between globalization and literature. To add to the development of any region, person or country one has to understand the history, geography, culture, and social changes

Chapter 1 Introduction taking place. This is very clearly extrapolated in Liam Connell and Nicky Marsh’s Literature and Globalization: A Reader (2011). Drawing information and inferences from essays by leading critics including Arjun Appadurai, Jacques Derrida, Simon Gikandi, Ursula K. Heise, Graham Huggan, Franco Moretti, Bruce Robbins and Anna Tsing, the reader unpacks through the lens of literature and history, a minute and exhaustive study which enables scholars and critics to witness globalization and explore its significance for and impact on literary studies. The three sections of the reader offer a perceptive insight for the perspicacious readers and makes them aware or rather cognizant of the impact of globalization on literature and our understanding of the 'literary'.

For the unlocking and further extraction of detailed analysis of on specific literary trends in fictional writing especially brought in the publishing market in the twenty-first century, Prabhat K. Singh’s The Indian Novel of the New Millennium (2013) becomes the key. Singh quite aptly mentions in the acknowledgement that the book he is writing is essentially “For the lovers of the Indian English Novel.” As the title connotes, the new millennium writers such as Amitav Ghosh, Kiran Desai, Aravind Adiga, K. N. Daruwalla, Upamanyu Chatterjee, David Davidar, Esterine Kire Iralu, Siddharth Chowdhury and Chetan Bhagat have a significant say in defining the characteristics and ever-evolving features of the Indian English novel. This is quite commendable as Singh puts on the table an array of subjects such as narratives of female subjectivity, crime fiction, terror novels, science fiction, campus novels, animal novels, graphic novels, disability texts, LGBT voices, Dalit writing, slumdog narratives, eco-narratives, narratives of myth and fantasy, philosophical novels, historical novels, postcolonial and multicultural narratives, and Diaspora novels for the readersMaulana to consume Azad and Library, so that intellectual Aligarh hunger Muslim could Universitybe quickly assuaged.

With the advent of globalization and its ever-increasing spread and percolation in our lives, it is inevitable that one has to make way for newer vocabulary and parlance to make a coherent sense of global interconnectedness. Hence to understand this infiltration, George Ritzer in The Globalization of Nothing 2 (2007) successfully ran up the flagpole and needless to say witnessed many salutes. Thereby unusual and remarkable terms like “glocalization” and “grobalization” came into being giving us a bird’s eye view of how they also relate to McDonaldization- another dimension to consumer culture and branding.

Chapter 1 Introduction

The fact the Ritzer makes use of commonplace examples is quite appreciative as the text becomes a lucid reference guide to understand the globalization, consumerism, and the global economy related to the larger context of social change and theory. Critical questions are raised throughout, and the reader is compelled not only to seek answers to these questions but also to critically evaluate the questions as well as their answers.

The twenty-first century is marked by a looming question that relates to the global literary scenario, that is, Is it possible to have dialogues and conversations about the literature of globalization? The answers or responses to this interrogation are what the special issue of the South Atlantic Quarterly “Introduction: The Globalization of Fiction/ the Fiction of Globalization” (2001), tries to address and define. The writers make it very clear that the changes in a world affected by globalization are significant. As these changes have in a myriad way transformed the way we work, live and interact with narratives that surround our lives.

The issue also reveals that semblances of World Literature are not novice concepts. It marked its beginnings right from Marx, Engels and Goethe. Thus both globalization of fiction and fiction of globalization work on the lines of similitude wherein the existence of globalized literature has been a significant concept.

Simon Malpas’s The Postmodern (2005) is an investigative study that deals with the hybrid notion of postmodernity. When it comes to a wholesome understanding of the postmodern, we need to realize and recognize that the era lends itself to a profusion of ideas in areas of history, art, literature and culture. The most important aspect being, the concept of a fractured identity or seeing the sense of self not as a cohesiveMaulana whole. With Azad the adventLibrary, of postmodernity Aligarh Muslim in the Western University and developing worlds, it was made impossible to see one’s identity as a simple way of being that harbours collective consciousness. Instead a myriad of factors make the relationship between identity and self as something which is always in a state of the continuum. Thus being continually in a process wherein the boundaries between themselves and others and between the different parts of themselves are negotiated.

Malpas within this context brings into play multiple constructions of ideas that make the readers aware of the developments of postmodernism and not indulging in resisting them. The interplay between aspects of subjectivity, history and subsequent

Chapter 1 Introduction political colouring also has a major role to play when we seek to define or define postmodernism. He sees postmodernity as the end of traditional structures and institutions and one which gives way growth, exploration and development of multiple identities. Such an exhaustive study makes this a critical handbook approach the primary texts of postmodern theory and culture with confidence.

The cautionary undertone in the title of Anthony Giddens’ The Consequences of Modernity (1990) offers quite rightly certain exasperating interpretations associated with modernity. It is imperative to know that modernity as a concept might be the aftermath of postmodernism; however, the writer opines that we as individuals still do not inhabit a post-modern world. Thus an interesting interplay and interchange of ideas between postmodernism and modernity come into being. This becomes the crux of what Giddens offers in The Consequences of Modernity. Hence the dissolving of nations states or societies into networks and flows wherein the basic structures of power are governed by global citizens is what Giddens is vested in. A post-modern social universe may eventually come into being where one should see Modernity as an idea that is developing, a process of transition so it cannot be delinked from tradition or old practices. He very tactfully also calls modernity as a ‘double-edged phenomenon’ wherein one has to see the rewarding and the sombre aspects of the process to have an informed and judicious view about the power structures that exist in a post-modern world.

Nico Israel in his thought-provoking research paper “Globalization and Contemporary Literature” (2004), juxtaposes the implications of globalization with the multifold ramifications that come out of modernity. Israel gives a historical underpinning to the study wherein references to the fall of the Berlin Wall and end of Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University the Cold War make its way in the narrative. Such analogies are important to understand the debates over economic globalization and exploring globalization’s effects on and implications for contemporary literature. The oft-discussed themes of a hybrid sense of selves, multi-rootedness, subjective experiential reality of individuals are commonplace terms in the repertoire of a globalised vocabulary and thus important to be cognizant of when it comes to deriving or deducing meaning.

In Indian Writing in English and the Global Literary Market (2014), by Dwidedi and Lau critically examines the much sought after the relationship between

Chapter 1 Introduction the publishing industry and the global literary market. In a very interesting narrative, the writers express the fact that in order to be accepted, proliferated and demanded by the wider audience, one needs to appropriate language. Globalization is in many ways a free flow or influx of information leading to an exchange of ideas. Thus the advent of Indian Writing in English and the consequent birth of the novel. It is also important to understand, however, whether globalization is just about global interconnections? There are some significant changes in the capitalist system of production and communication, organization of labour and capital, technological innovations and cultural experiences which colour the production and consumption of the Indian novel in a global literary market. Thus the text carefully brings to the forefront how Indian Writing in English expropriates in certain ways its narrative to suit exoticized Orientalism and thus be a part of commodification.

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

Chapter 1 Introduction

WORKS CITED

Anjaria, Ulka. ed. A History of the Indian Novel in English. Delhi: Cambridge UP, 2015. Print.

Annesley, James. Fictions of Globalization: Consumption, the Market and the Contemporary American Novel. London: Continuum, 2006. Google Books. Web. 13 Oct. 2017.

Appadurai, Arjun. Fear of Small Numbers. Durham: Duke UP, 2006. Print

Connell Liam and Nicky Marsh. eds. Literature and Globalization: A Reader. New York: Routledge, 2011. Print.

Dwivedi , Om P. and Lisa Lau. eds. Indian Writing in English and the Global Literary Market. Hampshire: Palgarve Macmillian, 2014. Print.

Eriksen, Thomas H. Globalization: The Key Concepts. Oxford: Berg, 2007. Print.

Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. London: Penguin, 2001. Print.

Friedman, Thomas L. The Lexus and the Olive Tree: Understanding Globalization. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1999. Print.

Friedman, Thomas L. The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century. London: Penguin, 2007. Print.

Gajarawala, Toral J. Untouchable Fictions: Literary Realism and the Crisis of Caste. New York: Fordham UP, 2013. Ebook.

Giddens,Maulana Anthony. AzadThe Consequences Library, Aligarhof Modernity Muslim. California: University Stanford UP, 1990. Print.

Gupta, Suman. Globalization and Literature, Cambridge: Polity Press, 2009. Print.

Held, David and McGrew, Anthony. Globalization / Anti-Globalization: Beyond the Great Divide. Cambridge: Polity, 2007. Print.

Israel, Nico. “Globalization and Contemporary Literature.” Literature Compass 1.1 (Jan-2003-Dec. 2004): 1-5 Web. 12 June 2018.

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Malpas, Simon. The Postmodern. London: Routledge, 2005. Print.

Munck, Ronald and Denis O’Hearn. eds. Critical Development Theory: Contributions to a New Paradigm. London: Zed Books, 1999. Print.

Narayanan, Pavithra. What are you reading? The World Market and Indian Literary Production. New Delhi: Routledge, 2012. Print.

O’Brien, Susie and Szeman, Imre. “Introduction: The Globalization of Fiction/ the Fiction of Globalization.” The South Atlantic Quarterly 1.3 (Summer 2001): 603-626 Web. 10 Nov. 2018.

Ritzer, George. The Globalization of Nothing 2. New Delhi: Pine Forge Press, 2007. Print.

Roberts, J. Timmons and Amy B. Hite. eds. The Globalization and Development: Perspectives on Development and Global Change. Oxford: Blackwell, 2007. Print.

Sardar, Ziauddin. Postmodernism and the Other: The New Imperialism of Western Culture. London: Pluto Press, 1998. Print.

Schiffrin, Andre. The Business of Books: How the International Conglomerates Took Over Publishing and Changed the Way We Read. London and New York: Verso, 2000. Google Books. Web. 13 Jan. 2017.

Schotland, Sara D. “Breaking out of the Rooster Coop: Violent Crime in Araving Adiga’s White Tiger and Richard Wright’s Native Son.” Comparative Literature Studies 48.1 (2011): 1-19. Web. 15 Jan. 2018. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Sen Krishna and Roy Rituparna, eds. Writing India Anew: Indian English Fiction 2000-2010. Amsterdam: Amsterdam UP, 2013. Print.

Singh, Prabhat K. ed. The Indian Novel of the New Millennium. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2013. Print.

Steger, Manfred B. Globalization: A Very Short Introduction. New Delhi: Oxford UP. 2009. Print.

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Stiglitz, Joseph E. Making Globalization Work. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2006. Print.

Stiglitz, Joseph E. The Price of Inequality: How Today's Divided Society Endangers Our Future. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2013. Google Books. Web. 16 Apr. 2018.

Tickell, Alex. ed. South Asian Fiction in English: Contemporary Transformations. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016

Vishwamohan , Aysha I. ed. Postliberalization Indian Novels in English. London: Anthem Press, 2013. Print.

Young, Robert J. C. Postcolonialism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford UP, 2003. Print.

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis GLOBALIZATION: A CONCEPTUAL, HISTORICAL, AND INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS 2.1 Introduction

In the post-cold war era, globalization has gained unprecedented currency. Every aspect of life from social to cultural, economic to political and public to personal have been shaped, defined, and metamorphosed by globalization. Globalization as an idea, process, concept, theory, phenomenon and discourse is untameable in definition-like statements. This argument does not mean that globalization is not ‘Worldly’ in Saidian terms rather it is too worldly to be encapsulated in a few statements, paragraphs or pages. Secondly, being an uneven process not all aspects of globalization like political, economic, social and cultural affect people equally. Subsequently, globalization has been analysed and explained in a variety of ways thus often leading to contradictions or no single accepted definition of the process as such.

Manfred B. Steger, in his work Globalization: A Very Short Introduction (2009) uses the succinct ancient Buddhist parable of the blind scholars and elephant to explain the various aspects of globalization, like, political, cultural, environmental, ideological, economic, and religious. With each scholar touching only one body part of the elephant, blind scholars touch and feel various parts of the elephant like, tail, trunk, and argue their respective case as to what an elephant is like but at the end, all of them find themselves in complete disagreement and fail to define an elephant. This analogy flawlessly explains the untameable character of globalization and further supports the argument that no single definition or dimension can encapsulate the uneven process of globalization. The drawing of parallelsMaulana further explains Azad thatLibrary, subjective Aligarh experience Muslims of globalization University are inherently limited as such experiences fail to account for other truths or totality of truth.

On the other plane, globalization is like a snowball which goes on becoming bigger and bigger and eventually becomes too big to control until it runs over each and everything in its way. Any attempt to chain the running over of the snowball is bound to meet failure as that of Kubla Khan who tried in vain to build a pleasure dome. The failure is not on account of lack of human endeavour but rather because of the coming together

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis of binaries, and when binaries clash and strike, sparks are bound to fly. Kubla Khan in the poem by the same name tried to capture two binaries – life and death in his pleasure dome; globalization similarly creates binaries – one who become part of the snowball and help in making it enormous and other who are crushed beneath the weight of that snowball and are left out. The binaries thus created are not only an important feature of globalization they also define it, as Mary Kaldor defines globalization as a “complex, contradictory process that actually involves both globalization and localization, integration and fragmentation, homogenization and differentiation.” (Kaldor 44) In the same vein, there have been several attempts from the scholars of globalization to capture the concept, and process of globalization. Here are a few key definitions as a result of those fruitful attempts:

I define globalization this way: it is the inexorable integration of markets, nation- states, and technologies to a degree never witnessed before – in a way that is enabling individuals, corporations, and nation-states to reach around the world farther, faster, deeper, and cheaper than ever before, and in a way that is enabling the world to reach into individuals, corporations, and nation-states farther, faster, deeper than ever before. (Friedman, The Lexus 9)

Globalization refers to the expansion and intensification of social relations and consciousness across world-time and world-space. (Steger 15)

Globalization can be conceived as a process (or set of processes) which embodies a transformation in the spatial organization of social relations and transactions, expressed in transcontinental or interregional flows and networks of activity, Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University interaction and power. (qtd. in Michael 12)

Globalization is ‘the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa’. (Giddens 64)

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis

Globalization refers to "the compression of the world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole.” (Robertson Globalization: Social Theory 8)

Thus, to conjure up a definition, globalization can be defined as a dynamic and uneven process leading to acceleration, disembedding, interconnectedness, standardisation, and vulnerability in social, economic, political, and cultural relations across the world.

2.2 Timeline of Globalization

There have been many a question raised regarding the entry point of globalization in human history and the answer to this question primarily depends on the choice and ability of the answer seeker (a descriptive statement, not a value-based judgement) to look long back and read into the longer narrative of globalization which can be dated back to the prehistoric period (10000 BCE-3500 BCE) to present time, that is, 12000 years ago. The historical analysis of globalization becomes imperative also because globalization is ‘a dynamic process rather than a static condition’ which makes it important ‘to pay close attention to shifting perceptions of time and space’ (Steger 9). For this reason, globalization is a result and outcome of a long term process, and when we attach the word process with a term or phenomenon like globalization, it eventually means that it is a cumulative result of many a small process, step, innovation, resolution, and necessity. A cursory look at the important events from the prehistoric age to contemporary time can give us a fair idea as to how globalization has shaped and accelerated over the centuries.

The prehistoric period witnessed global dispersion of the human race across five continentsMaulana; humankind Azad learn tLibrary, to produce Aligarh food which Muslim led to the University formation of

. . . settled tribes, chiefdoms, and ultimately, powerful states based on agricultural food production. The decentralized, egalitarian nature of hunter and gatherer groups was replaced by centralised and highly stratified patriarchal social structures headed by chiefs and priests. . . (Steger 20).

In a nutshell, globalization in this period was severely restricted.

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis

The premodern period (3500BCE – 1500 BCE) was marked by far more sweeping innovations than the age before. This period was much more about the technological and geographical dominance of the Chinese Empire; from Chinese ships sailing through Indian Ocean to Africa for trade to the construction of irrigation systems, river transport systems, Great Wall of China, the Silk Route to the long list of technological innovations like hydraulic engineering, gunpowder, the compass, silk fabrics, paper, mechanical clocks, tapping of natural gas and many others. Major Trade networks developed and expanded on a large scale in this period. Codification of law and fixing of weights, measures, and values of coinage helped the same.

The invention of writing in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and central China, and the invention of the wheel were the other two biggest achievements of this age. The innovation of wheel inspired infrastructural developments like animal-drawn carts and roads for transportation and provided globalization with necessary impetus. Writing, on the other hand, led to formations of large states as it helped in the spread of ideas and innovations resulting in coordination of social activities. Another notable achievement of this age was formations of Empires, like, the Roman Empire, the Islamic Caliphates, the Indian Empires, the Byzantine Empire, and many others.

The early modern period or "proto-globalization" (1450 – 1750): If premodern period was all about Chinese Empire’s dominance, this age mostly was about Europe and its practices which aided and strengthened globalization. Europeans, after learning and getting benefits from the advancements and development in the pre-modern period, led to the innovation of printing, wind and water mills, postal systems, maritime technologies, andMaulana navigation Azad techniques. Library, At the Aligarhtheological Muslim level, ideas University of individualism and Reformation resulted in the decline of the power of the Catholic Church. Renaissance, European Enlightenment, Vasco da Gama’s voyage to Calicut and formation of East India Company were significant developments of this age. Because of European Enlightenment in the eighteenth century, the term ‘modernity’ became associated with it leading in the development of “. . . objective science, achieving a universal form of morality and law and liberating rational modes of thought and social

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis organization from the perceived irrationalities of myth, religion and political tyranny” (Steger 28).

Empowered by the “. . . values of individualism and unlimited material accumulation, European economic entrepreneur laid the foundation of what later scholars would call the ‘capitalist world system’” (Steger 28-29).

The modern period (1750-1970) is one of the most eventful periods in the history of globalization is best summed up in these lines from the song “The Times They Are A-changin'” (1964) by Bob Dylan

There's a battle outside ragin' It'll soon shake your windows And rattle your walls For the times they are a-changin'.

Globalization as a phenomenon was being recognised, defined and, theorised in this period. New terms like ‘the global village’ (the 1960s by Canadian media theorist Marshall McLuhan) were being coined to address the changing mass media situation (like the mass circulation of newspapers and magazines, film, and television) and the explosion of science and communication technology. In this period, globalization as a term was first theorized by Hegel and Kant in the 18th century as Thomas Hylland Eriksen says:

Perhaps the philosopher Hegel (1770-1831) was the first theorist of globalization, as he did not merely talk of connections between disparate areas and places but Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University about the emerging consciousness about such connections. Through his famous concept of the world spirit (Weltgeist) an abstract entity immanent in all people but unevenly developed, Hegel saw the possibility of imagining all of humanity as a kind of community. However, Hegel’s older contemporary Kant (1724-1804) had already developed, chiefly in his important essay on eternal peace (Kant2001 [1795]), the idea of cosmopolitanism that entailed equitable and respectful

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis

dialogue between the peoples of the world, regardless of their differences. (Eriksen 1)

Apart from Hegel and Kant, Marx and Engels also theorised about globalization in Communist Manifesto (1847):

The discovery of America prepared the way for mighty industry and its creation of a truly global market. The latter greatly expanded trade, navigation, and communication by land. These developments, in turn, caused the further expansion of industry. The growth of the industry, trade, navigation, and railroads also went hand in hand with the rise of the bourgeoisie and capital which pushed to the background the old social classes of the Middle Ages. . . . Chased around the globe by its burning desire for ever-expanding markets for its products, the bourgeoisie has no choice but to settle everywhere; cultivating everywhere; establish connections everywhere. . . . Rapidly improving the instruments of production, the bourgeoisie utilizes the incessantly easing modes of communication to pull all nations into civilization – even the most barbarian ones. . . . In a nutshell, it creates the world in its own image. (qtd. in Steger 32)

The colonial expansion, rapid industrialization, scientific discoveries like the telegraph, first transatlantic cable in 1866 and technological changes, for example, the arrival of the steamship in the nineteenth century enabled the world to come closer. Such was the scale of technological development that ‘even Karl Marx, writing in 1851, spellbound by The Great Exhibition in London’s Hyde Park said: “There is no more splendid time to enter the world than the present”. Ben Wilson’s Heyday: Britain and the Birth of the Modern Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University World (2016) provides a succinct account of the same.

Railways and airways were developed leading to the establishment of global infrastructure with accelerated transport at lower costs. Consequently, the world witnessed, a many-fold increase in population, urbanization, migration, liberalization of world trade, multinational banks, and increased the flow of capital and global pricing systems leading to international trade of commodities. First transborder commercial advertisement gets aired, packaged branded foods make their way into people’s lives, and

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis capitalism is at full throttle in the literal sense of the word before great depression in the 1930s. World War I and II are other more important events of this age with World War II being more of a global war in comparison to World War I which was mostly a European phenomenon. The explosion of two atomic bombs and Cuban Missile Crisis, on the other hand, posed a serious threat of global conflict with a danger of erasing life from the planet.

Lastly, this age witnessed the total collapse of human values in the wake of World Wars leading to existentialist crisis, the process of decolonization, failed prospect of united global democratic governance, and the cold war which divided the world into two: the ‘First World’ dominated by United States, ‘Second World’ dominated by Soviet Union.

The contemporary period (1970 – Present): Internet, end of cold war in 1989 resulting in the single global market, the introduction of World Wide Web, terrorism, and anti-globalization movements and protests are major highlights of this period. The period witnessed global interdependence, global exchanges, attempts at global governance and time and space compression with a need and desire to achieve more and more in the limited time. Multitasking, smartphones, e-commerce, uncountable Start-ups, electronically integrated global financial markets, virtual life on internet other than the real life, identity politics, outsourcing, online publishing and reading of texts on devices like Kindle , 3D printing and 24/7 news resulting in high wave of populism marked a enormous change in the daily life of the people.

It is a post-truth1 and globalised world. And soon in the wake of Brexit, 2016 Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University United States elections result and growing voices of protectionism, restricting immigration and walling the borders it can be post-globalised era by the end of the century; as Pankaj Mishra in an interview to Carlo Pizzati in The Hindu talks about his book Age of Anger: A History of the Present (2017):

1 According to Oxford dictionary post-truth relates to or denotes circumstances in which objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion than appeals to emotion and personal belief.

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis

. . . the foundational concepts of modernity themselves are deeply problematic – for instance, assuming that the people are one and indivisible when the people are always plural. . . we are witnessing an especially intense phase in the long, drawn-out endgame of modernity: its biggest-ever breakdown even as it becomes truly universal . . . The problems outlined by Rousseau - how can the modern individual liberated from old bonds use his freedom- has become a matter of life and death for many around the world. (Pizzati)

Even after a quarter century of the cold war the world is still best described as the post- cold war world, that is, the undefined period after the cold war still remains. In fact, we are chartering towards much more unpredictable and uncertain times. As Rakesh Sood says “It is neither the age of global hegemons nor the age of multipolarity, but rather the age of regional powers, each jostling to ensure its role in its region, often with shifting coalitions. The past is no longer a guide to help us peer into the future” (Sood

Thus, as pointed out at the beginning of this part, globalization can be regarded as a set of processes which has been unfolding for millennia or which began in the early modern period as Roland Robertson in his book, Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture (1992) demarcates globalization in five different periods: a germinal period (1400-1750), an incipient phase (1750-1875), a take-off phase (1875-1925), a struggle for hegemony (1925-69), and lastly, uncertainty (1969 – present).

Similarly, Thomas L. Friedman in his influential work, The World Is Flat (2005), divides globalization into three different phases, firstly, globalization 1.0, which deals with “countries and muscles” and “lasted from 1492 –when Columbus set sail, opening Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University trade between the Old World and the New World- until around 1800.” Consequently “the second great era, globalization 2.0, lasted roughly from 1800 to 2000, interrupted by the Great Depression and World Wars I and II.” (Friedman, The World 9). Lastly, globalization 3.0 which starts from 2000 is: “shrinking the world from a size small to a size tiny and flattening the playing field at the same time. And while the dynamic force in globalization 1.0 was countries globalizing, the dynamic force in globalization 2.0 was companies globalizing, the dynamic force in globalization 3.0 – the force that gives it its

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis unique character – is the newfound power for individuals to collaborate and compete globally” (Friedman, The World 10).

Hence, it’s entirely the choice of the reader where s/he wants to place the mark in history and treat it as a starting point. And the choice is dictated by the way one wants to define globalization.

2.3 Features of Globalization

2.3.1 Acceleration

“At a time when history still made its way slowly, the few events were easily remembered and woven into a backdrop, known to everyone, before which private life unfolded the gripping show of its adventures. Nowadays, time moves forward at a rapid pace. Forgotten overnight, a historic event glistens the next day like the morning dew and thus is no longer the backdrop to a narrator’s tale but rather an amazing adventure enacted against the background of the over-familiar banality of private life.

Since there is not a single historic event we can count on being commonly known, I must speak of events that took place a few years ago as if they were a thousand years old. . . ” (Kundera 10).

Spaces have shrunk; in fact, we are witnessing “. . . annihilation of space through time. . ” . Marshall McLuhan says, “During the mechanical ages we had extended our bodies in space. Today, after more than a century of electronic technology, we have extended our central nervous system itself in a global embrace, abolishing both space and time as far as our planetMaulana is concerned Azad” (qtd. Library, in Kern 229 Aligarh). Events Muslimaround us areUniversity unfolding faster than ever before bringing the world closer and closer. The technological advancements, especially in the field of Information Technology that took place in the last 250 years, have lent a greater amount of speed and acceleration than all other events of the periods above. Everything happens in a flash with a click or press of a button, every minute and hour is planned way in advance, people run out of patience on the slightest of delay in any service, ‘the future is discounted into the present’, by the time the moment for which we have longed arrives it glistens past in a flash, becoming ephemeral in nature leaving

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis us with no pure joy or sadness as another event from the future is already there in present demanding our attention leaving us with no time to rejoice or agonize.

As Paul Virilio, one of the important theorists of speed says, “We now live in an era with no delays” (Eriksen 37). And the delays are considered much more perilous by the global capitalist system (one of the driving forces of globalization) which relies on speed with regard to production, distribution and consumption of goods. In the words of David Harvey:

Given the pressures to accelerate turnover time (and to overcome spatial barriers), the commodification of images of the most ephemeral sort would seem to be a godsend from the standpoint of capital accumulation, particularly when other paths to relieve over-accumulation seems blocked. Ephemerality and instantaneous communicability over space then become virtues to be explored and appropriated by capitalists for their own purposes. (Harvey 288)

2.3.2 Disembedding

There will be time, there will be time To prepare a face to meet the faces that you meet; The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock (T.S.Eliot)

Disembedding as a process can be defined as what Jan Aart Scholte calls ‘deterritorialisation’ or ‘supraterritoriality’, that is, the location loses its importance, it does not matter even if you are fixed physically, you can still communicate and establish relationships (notMaulana only social) Azad with peopleLibrary, who areAligarh thousands Muslim of miles University away; social relations cease to be fixed in time and space. Global capitalist system makes use of disembedding to a great effect from labour contracts, to the availability of the finished goods all over the world irrespective of the national and international borders. Disembedding being a feature of modernity has been intensified by globalization as globalization uses the tools of modernity like industrialisation, individualism, militarization, and technology to intensify itself. In this respect “globalization entails a

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis reconfiguration of geography so that social space is no longer wholly mapped in terms of territorial places, territorial distances, and territorial borders” (Strandsbjerg 32).

Giddens defines disembedding as “‘the “lifting out” of social relations from local contexts of interaction and their restructuring across indefinite spans of time-space” (Giddens 21). Similarly, the concept of disembedding has striking parallels with Baudrillard’s concept of ‘simulacra’ – ‘representations that refer to other representations’. A clock is a simulation of time, and time is a simulation of ‘. . . an empty entity that can be filled with anything’. In this very sense, the above-quoted lines from a famous T.S. Eliot poem become important. The feature of disembedding enables glocalisation (Robertson’s term), that is, globalization + local or global + local equalling to ‘glocal’ where local is made global by subtracting embeddedness. Roland Robertson defines this as ‘. . . the interpenetration of the universalization of particularism and the particularization of universalism. . . ’ (Robertson, “The Universalism” 23).

The focal argument against disembedding is that it makes society much more fragmented, alienated, anonymous, and abstract (the process of abstraction started when writing was invented) with a comparison to concrete agricultural societies. A number of social thinkers have theorized the phenomenon of globalization and disembedding; Appadurai (1996) describes it as modernity at large, Paul Virilio sees the process of disembedding leading towards the death of civil society, Marc Auge in his essay ‘Non- Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity’ (1995) labels the current condition as ‘supermodernity’ (la surmodernite) lacking historically rooted place and particularity. Likewise, Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari in their book A Thousand PlateausMaulana (1987) presented Azad that Library, the process Aligarh of deterritorialisation Muslim University is always accompanied by reterritorialisation where older structures are dissolved to form new structures. The idea of the structure and the territory does not get dissolved, only the place and notion of fixed territory are changed to provide the maximum advantage of deregulation policies to global capital. For example, transnational corporations setting up their factories in countries where labour costs, tax rates, cost of raw material and regulation policies are in their favour.

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2.3.3 Interconnectedness

For want of a nail, the shoe was lost; For want of the shoe, the horse was lost; For want of the horse, the rider was lost; For want of the rider, the battle was lost; For want of the battle; the kingdom was lost; And all from the want of a horseshoe nail. (qtd. in Eriksen 70) The brief English rhyme makes an important point as to how a miniature change in one variable can have a significant effect on the outcome. It shows how closely knit, and interconnected things are. The same applies to our world which is much more interconnected and interdependent than ever in the wake of globalization. With the global spread of communication technology, capitalism, transnational media, internet, satellite television, cheap flights, cheap cell phones and phone calls, we have a complex web of connectedness leading to deterritorialisation and development of global governance model and a global economy. The incidents happening in one part of the world can have far bigger consequences in other parts of the world, for example, the Y2K crisis or an Indian national losing his job in India because of changes in business model of a US- based transnational business house, and the latest case being the immigration ban by the United States of America leading to insecurity and protests all over the world. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Charles Tilly in his book Big Structures, Large Processes, Huge Comparisons (1984) makes a noteworthy observation:

A sensible rule of thumb for connectedness might be that the action of power holders in one region of a network rapidly (say within a year) and visibly (say in changes actually reported by nearby observers) affect the welfare of at least a significant minority (say a tenth) of the population in another region of the network. Such a criterion indubitably makes our own world a single system; even

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in the absence of worldwide flows of capital, communications, and manufactured goods, shipments of grin and arms from region to region would suffice to establish the minimum connections. (Tilly 62)

2.3.4 Standardisation

“There are forces working in the world as never before in the history of mankind for standardization, for the regimentation of us all, or what I like to call making muffins of us, muffins all like every other muffin in the muffin tin.” (qtd. in Woo)

Standardisation aims at creating shared norms, practices, common denominators and shared temporalities thus making the world much more familiar. It helps in having assimilation and synchronisation and on the other hand, leads to the marginalisation of the local and the unique thus leading to shared temporality on one hand and obsolescence on the other. The goal of standardisation is to enhance trade, constructive communication, exchange and increased comparability across boundaries. The clock, money, global capitalism, consumerism, bar code, plastic card, transnational standardised commodities and services and English language are few everyday examples of global standards.

The practice of standardisation is not new; as stated above, there is a deep relation between globalization and modernity as “globalization distributes the institutional features of modernity across all cultures” (Tomlinson 161); in fact, globalization accelerates standardisation as it rides most of the important forms of standardisations requiredMaulana by modernity. Azad Formal Library, education Aligarh systems, monetaryMuslim economy, University political parties, the nationalistic character of official ideologies almost of all countries are few examples as given by Eriksen.

The obsolescence thus created by standardisation and globalization finds a lament in a popular BBC series called Disappearing Worlds. It talks about the obsolescence of many crafts, skills, values, languages, beliefs, cultures, practices, and unique ways of life and world-views. Similarly, the concerns regarding the speed at which the cultures are

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis rendered obsolete can be traced in Claude Levi-Strauss’s idea in Tristes Tropiques that modernization is rendering the life-world obsolete and in Malinowski’s complaint regarding the position of the ethnology as he says, “the sadly ludicrous, not to say tragic position, that at the very moment when it begins to put its workshop in order, to forge its proper tools, to start ready for work on its appointed task, the material of the study melts away with hopeless rapidity” (qtd. in Eriksen 56).

Concurrently, the uneven process of standardisation finds description in Benjamin Barber’s book Jihad vs McWorld (1995), which uses jihad as a metaphor for all counter movements and discourses and McWorld as ‘a product of popular culture driven by expansionist commerce’ and voices his concerns for the democracy and makes a scathing critique on the economic globalization, neoliberalism and standardized global media and tells his readers that “there is power not over oil, steel, and railroads – mere muscles of our industrial bodies – but over pictures, information and ideas – the very sinews of our postmodern world” (qtd. in Eriksen 60).

Likewise, George Ritzer voices concern over standardisation in his book Globalization of Nothing (2004) and says that there ‘is a gulf between those who emphasize the increasing grobal influence of capitalistic, Americanized, and McDonaldized interests and those who see the world growing increasingly pluralistic and indeterminate’ (Ritzer 2004:80). Grobal according to Ritzer means ‘generally centrally conceived, controlled, and comparatively devoid of distinctive substantive content’ (2004:3).

2.3.5 Vulnerability and Risk Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University We joined Europe to have free movements of goods. . . I did not join Europe to have free movements of terrorists, criminals, drugs, plant and animal diseases and rabies and illegal immigrants.

Margaret Thatcher (qtd. in Eriksen 123)

Nowhere while discussing the globalization of risk and vulnerability, we can assume that our earlier societies were risk-free societies. The risks and insecurities were there, but

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis they have increased manifolds owing to different manifestations of globalization. Increased risk to the condition of human existence in the aftermath of globalization has become one of the talking points of our contemporary times. We as citizens of the world are at much more risk than ever precisely because our societies are much more interconnected than ever and our conditions of existence are not only produced locally and at times are beyond our control.

Globalization works in two ways with regard to risk and vulnerability, firstly as a process and phenomenon it leads to globalization of existing risks, like, disease (AIDS, swine flu), terrorism (ISIS, 9/11), fundamentalism (destructive ideas and practices), and crime (drugs, weapons) among many others. Secondly, globalization creates new risks and vulnerable positions and situations for the denizens of this world, like, creation of policies in global governing bodies like IMF based on the ideology of financial community which is capitalistic in nature without a social face, unfair trade agreements between developing and developed nations, problem of ‘biopiracy’, lack of economic safety nets and reforms for developing nations, rampant urbanization and industrialization leading to problem of climate change (Anthropocene Epoch) as Before the Flood (2016) a documentary by Fisher Stevens which discusses catastrophic effects of climate change and questions humanity's ability to reverse the same makes a point in case, another important work in the same field is famous biologist James Lovelock’s The Revenge of Gaia. James in his work compares the present condition of global warming as ‘fever’ and goes on to explain the reasons for shrinking of glaciers and icebergs and what all bad consequences it will lead to if the temperature of earth rises by 5 °C.

ApartMaulana from the Azad above Library, mentioned Aligarhissues many Muslim other problems University created by globalization are related to political dimension like reconstructing world order towards cosmopolitan social democracy , cultural via standardization and ‘institutionalized construction of the individual’ (Robertson “The Universalism” 27) and social like, cuts in public expenditure on health and education leading to unemployment, inept organization of human affairs, and many others. The contemporary time can be best understood in the words of Thomas Hylland Eriksen:

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis

When contemporary social theorist speaks of our era as somehow more insecure than the past, this is roughly what they tend to have in mind. Zygmunt Bauman’s concept liquid modernity concerns the floating, shifting qualities of values and social structures in our era; Ulrich Beck’s risk society refers not to increased objective risks, but a heightened awareness of risks; and Anthony Giddens’s term post-traditional society (Giddens 1990) describes a society where a tradition can no longer be taken for granted, but must actively be defended vis-à-vis its alternatives, which now appear realistic. (Eriksen 123)

2.4 Of Anti-globalization Movements: Making, Unmaking, and Remaking Globalization

“Even though I am pro-globalization, I have to say thank God for the anti- globalization movement. They are putting important issues on the agenda.”

Amartya Sen

“The anti-globalization movement is the most significant proponent of globalization-but in the interest of people, not in the concentration of state - private power.”

Noam Chomsky

The genesis of anti-globalization movement is as hotly debated as the beginning of globalization in human history, some theorist view it as dating back to 500 years with revolts against European colonialism and U.S. imperialism and some see it as taking shape at the endMaulana of the last few Azad decade Library,s of the twentieth Aligarh century Muslim with firstUniversity ever anti- globalization protests being held in Seattle in November 1999 against World Trade Organization (WTO).

Since then the world has witnessed several anti-globalization protests against the lack of humane face in almost all of the globalization movements and policies. Anti- globalization movement is often called a movement of movements. In the words of Joseph Stiglitz:

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis

Globalization had succeeded in unifying people from around the world — against globalization. Factory workers in the United States saw their jobs being threatened by competition from China. Farmers in developing countries saw their jobs being threatened by the highly subsidized corn and other crops from the United States. Workers in Europe saw hard-fought-for job protections being assailed in the name of globalization. AIDS activists saw a new trade agreement raising the prices of drugs to levels that were unaffordable in much of the world. Environmentalists felt that globalization undermined their decade long struggle to establish regulations to preserve our natural heritage. Those who wanted to protect and develop their own cultural heritage saw too the intrusions of globalization. (Stiglitz, Making 7)

The anti-globalization movement is not wholly in favour of isolationism, protectionism and walling of borders rather it aims to fight ‘globalization from above’, that is, corporate globalization, ideology of financial community based on predatory capitalism, soft capital, and market fundamentalism, environmental degradation, neoliberalism, unsustainable and uneven development, globalization of war, inequality of power, wealth and knowledge, lack of transparency, unaccountability and discriminatory policies of IMF, World Bank, World Economic Forum and the G8. Joseph Stiglitz paints the picture rather much more clearly:

. . . a society more divided between the haves and the have-nots, . . . the rich live in gated communities, send their children to expensive schools, and have access to first-rate medical care. Meanwhile, the rest live in a world marked by insecurity, atMaulana best mediocre Azad education, Library, and inAligarh effect rationed Muslim health University care―they hope and pray they don't get seriously sick. At the bottom are millions of young people alienated and without hope. I have seen that picture in many developing countries; economists have given it a name, a dual economy, two societies living side by side, but hardly knowing each other, hardly imagining what life is like for the other. Whether we will fall to the depths of some countries, where the gates grow higher and the societies split farther and farther apart, I do not know. It is,

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis

however, the nightmare towards which we are slowly marching. (Stiglitz The Price 362)

The anti-globalization activists see their movement as ‘globalization from below’ where they aim for participatory democracy, grassroots partaking, protecting cultural diversity and global social justice. They do not shun globalization as a phenomenon; rather they use it for the larger benefit of the society and the human race. As Jeffrey D. Sachs remarks:

Before Seattle . . . meetings were occasions for unqualified praise of globalization . . . . Between the speeches and endless cocktail parties, there was little said about the world’s poor, the AIDS pandemic, dispossessed minorities, women without rights, and human-made environmental degradation. Since Seattle, the agenda of ending extreme poverty, extending human rights, and addressing environmental degradation has been back on the international agenda and has attracted global media attention, . . . (Sachs 356-57).

The problem with globalization is not in its form rather in the content with which it is filled. Globalization has done wonders for many countries in the world, for example, East Asian Countries. It has resulted in a reduction of poverty, globalization of knowledge, improved health, a globalized civil society and most importantly globalized protest movements. And the reason for the working of globalization for them was their control over the process of globalization; they did not let the “unholy trinity” or “iron triangle” of global financial institutions - the WTO, the World Bank, and the IMF to dictate them. They formed their own rules, regulations, policies and made globalization work for them. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University The problem starts when IMF, U.S. Treasury, World Bank and other global financial institutions start dictating their terms and pressurise developing nations to toe their line. But the argument remains; what’s wrong with the policies of these financial institutions? Here is an example, as given by Joseph E. Stiglitz:

The liberalization of capital markets has not brought growth: how can one build factories or create jobs with money that can come in and out of a country overnight? And it gets worse: Prudential behaviour requires countries to set aside

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis

reserves equal to the amount of short-term lending; so if a firm in a poor country borrows $100 million at, say, 20 per cent interests rates short-term from a bank in the United States, the government must set aside a corresponding amount. The reserves are typically held in US Treasury bills – a safe, liquid asset. In effect, the country is borrowing $100 million from the United States and lending $100 million to the United States. But when it borrows, it pays a high-interest rate, 20 per cent; when it lends, it receives a low-interest rate, around 4 per cent. This may be great for the United States, but it can hardly help the growth of the poor country. There is also a high opportunity cost of the reserves; the money could have been much better spent on building rural roads or constructing schools or health clinics. (Stiglitz, “Globalism’s Discontents” 298)

The above example is not the sole example of the manipulative design of global capitalistic financial institutions, there are many, from asking developing nations to abide by the demands of the free trade market: build offices instead of required infrastructure or schools, issue of intellectual property rights – biopiracy: patenting of traditional medicines by international drug companies thus depriving domestic firms of their knowledge, resource and forcing them in the oblivion, forcing developing nations to develop a taxation system which does not tax capital in order to enable capital to remain invested rather taxing middle classes and poor, removal of safety nets and subsidies to the already deprived agriculture sector, and many others.

The heart of the matter is that global financial institutions failed miserably in their task of regulating and governing globalization. Neither they had and nor do they have experienceMaulana and knowledge Azad regard Library,ing the Aligarh phenomenon Muslim as huge University as globalization and to make matters worse they allowed themselves to be played in the hand of capitalism. The situation above is like, chartering into unchartered territory with an erroneous map and an inexperienced accomplice.

Apart from the problems at the front of the economic dimension of the globalization the problems at the political front are galore and demand urgent attention and reinterpretation. The anti-globalization movement not only aims at highlighting the

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis bad practices and behaviour of the above-mentioned organisations it also holds the elected political set up accountable for the governance, solutions and transparency. The political community though now has become deterritorialised in terms of the impact of their decisions and policies, but their ‘. . . loyalty and identity remain stubbornly rooted in traditional ethnic, regional and national communities. (Held and McGrew, “Reconstructing World” 362).

Concurrently, with “a global shift in the organization of power and authority” (Held and McGrew, “Reconstructing World” 363) the role of political organisations in these globalised times where “governance is becoming increasingly a multilevel, intricately institutionalized and spatially dispersed activity. . . ” (Held and McGrew, “Reconstructing World” 361) does not remains limited to simply being a ‘discrete world or self enclosed political spaces;’ rather ‘they are enmeshed in complex structures of overlapping forces, relations and networks’ (Held and McGrew, “Reconstructing World” 362). The governing political community needs to understand these complex structures of overlapping forces, and changing dynamics of governance in the wake of globalization and put forth a framework which does not succumb with the pressure of global capitalist organisations and safeguards the interests of the local, be it social justice, education, healthcare, equality, or safety nets for the agrarian sector.

Furthermore, the argument that globalization has resulted in dilution of the power of the state does not hold much ground; in fact, globalization has expanded enormously the capacity for, and scope of, political activity and the exercise of political authority. Demonetisation by the Indian government in November 2016 is a classic example of the same. The powerMaulana of the nation Azad-state Library,in the wake Aligarh of the global Muslim flow of Universityweaponry, interconnectedness and far more accelerated communication networks have increased enormously. Imagine a situation where the state ceases all the money in our bank accounts. Armed with the technology, internet (social media), the feature of disembeddedness, and standardisation (mandatory to have Unique Identification Number) of globalization the nation-state can virtually erase a human from everywhere, as if the person never existed, not a single trace to be found, like a program “The Clean Slate” as illustrated in Hollywood film The Dark Knight Rises (2012). The plans of government

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis like Digital India, linking of bank accounts with Unique Identification Number, use of plastic money raise a serious question regarding the power they give to the nation-state over an individual. A simple response against this argument can be – Trust the State, and a fitting reply will be can the state be trusted, especially when History provides us with claims contrary to the response.

In order to have a solution or a framework to work with for all of the above questions and problems David Held and Anthony McGrew provide us with the progressive idea of ‘cosmopolitan social democracy’: Empowered with the virtues of social democracy and new context of political community as mentioned in above discussion, the project of cosmopolitan social democracy can be conceived as a basis for uniting around the promotion of the impartial administration of law at the international level; greater transparency, accountability and democracy in global governance; a deeper commitment to social justice in the pursuit of a more equitable distribution of the world’s resources and human security; the protection and reinvention of community at diverse levels(from the local to the global); and the regulation of the global economy through the public management of global financial and trade flows, the provision of global public goods, and the engagement of leading stakeholders in corporate governance. Concurrently, Jeffery D. Sachs propounds the idea of ‘Enlightened Globalization’:

. . . the anti-globalization movement should mobilize its vast commitment and moral force into a proglobalization movement on behalf of globalization that addresses the needs of the poorest of the poor, the global environment, and the spread of democracy. It is the kind of globalization championed by the EnlightenmentMaulana Azad – a globalization Library, ofAligarh democracies, Muslim multilateralism, University science and technology, and a global economic system designed to meet human needs. We could call this an Enlightened Globalization. (Sachs 358-59)

As stated in the very beginning of the chapter, globalization entails the creation of binaries because the process of globalization does not affect every individual in the same manner. The level with which an individual is affected depends upon the level of interconnectedness and closeness with the features of globalization. Therefore, it is

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis highly imperative to have a mechanism, a dynamics, a flexible structure in place which can regulate the benefits of globalization and enable the equitable distribution of the same to protect the world from getting divided into many parts. In this very regard, anti- globalization movements become fundamental for the success of globalization as they not only act as valid checkpoints; they also help in the evolution of the process.

2.4.1 The Contemporary Debate

The contemporary debate on globalization can be divided into two parts, one which began after the catastrophic events of 9/11 in the year 2001, and another after Brexit and U.S. Presidential election results on 11/9 in 2016. The commonality between these two ruptures is on the accounts of numbers, secondly, on the pronouncement of death of globalization and lastly on viewing globalization solely as an economic phenomenon.

2.4.1.1 Post 9/11

The discourse on globalization has witnessed all - from hyper-globalist voices to epitaphs and obituaries from the sceptics. In the aftermath of terrorist attacks of 9/11 the critics of globalization wrote of ‘sinking globalization’, ‘the era of globalization is over’, ‘the end of globalism’, ‘the age of globalization is finally over’, ‘globalization today has been oversold’: as a ‘description of social reality, as an explanation of social change, and as an ideology of social progress’ highlighting the ‘conceptual bankruptcy’ of globalization and drawing the conclusion that ‘globalization did not even exist’(Held and McGrew, Globalization 1). But in their analysis critics failed to see the event in the light of ‘clash of globalizations’ rather they pounced upon economic value based judgements which showed temporaryMaulana downfall Azadand wrote Library, epitaphs Aligarhfor globalization Muslim. On Universitythe contrary, with the rise and intensification of global economic flows after 9/11, globalization rather proved to be a resilient phenomenon than the sceptics imagined. A cursory glance at the empirical evidence provides important insights regarding the point in question:

In terms of trade 2004 witnessed the strongest growth in a decade and it reached historic levels of world GDP; foreign direct investment (FDI) flows also rebounded to levels of the early 1990s while flows to less-developed countries

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis

(LDCS) accelerated much faster than to GECD economies; in addition, financial flows increase and foreign exchange transactions reached a historic $1.9 trillion per day. Measured in terms of migration, communication, or even the arms trade there is little evidence of a rush to autarky or de-globalization. Overall the empirical evidence is indicative of the recovery from a cyclical downturn, which began well before September 11, and as world growth has improved so have the prospects of economic globalization.” (Held and McGrew, Globalization 4)

Secondly, there are several drivers of globalization which are likely to never witness bereavement, they have become too deeply entrenched in the modern world and can survive irrespective of the exact institutional form (of) globalization:

the changing infrastructure of global communications linked to the IT revolution; the development of global markets in goods and services, connected to the worldwide distribution of information; the new global division of labour driven by multinational corporations; the end of cold war and the diffusion of democratic and consumer value across many of the world’s regions (alongside some marked reactions to this); and the growth of migration and the movement of peoples, linked to shifts in patterns of economic demand, demography and environmental degradation. (Held and McGrew, Globalization 4)

Lastly, in terms of conceptual analysis “there is, then a distinct conceptual iconoclasm implicit in globalization” (Held and McGrew, Globalization 2) which challenges the theory of social sciences and if one tries to understand globalization with the use of same fundamental sociological concepts – concept of class, power, nation-state and so forth Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University then there should be no astonishment on the declarations questioning existence of globalization.

Globalization is not simply epiphenomenal as put forward by critics, that is, simply caused by particular social, economic or political forces, rather it has ‘systematic or emergent properties which make it causally significant’ (Held and McGrew, Globalization 6). Additionally, globalization challenges the “core organizing principles of modern social science-namely the state, society, political community, the economy –

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis and the classical inheritance of modern social theory which takes these for granted as the metrics or focus of social explanation –sometimes referred to as methodological nationalism” (Held and McGrew, Globalization 5). Likewise, according to Rosenau in the inaugural edition of the journal Globalizations, “social scientists, like the people they study, are prone to habitual modes of behaviour, and thus are more likely to cast their inquiries into habitual frameworks that are taken for granted than to treat their organizing principles as problematic.” (qtd in Held and McGrew, Globalization 5) The reason for revision in extant social theory is provided by Held and McGrew:

Recursive patterns of worldwide interconnectedness challenge the very principle of the bounded society and the presumption that its dynamics and development can be comprehended principally by reference to endogenous social forces. By eroding the distinctions between the domestic and the international, endogenous and exogenous, internal and external, the idea of globalization directly challenges the ‘methodological nationalism’ which finds it’s most acute expression in classical social theory. It implies, as Scholte and others conclude, the need for ‘a paradigm shift in social analysis’ in order that the emerging condition of globality- the growing awareness of the world as a shared social space- can be explained and understood in all its complexity. (Held and McGrew, Globalization 5)

The problem does not lie with the globalization as a phenomenon, concept and process rather in the way that process is shaped and carried out and how ‘zombie categories’2 of social sciences are used to study and understand the concept. John Urry articulates it rather much moreMaulana pithily: Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

The study of the global disrupts many conventional debates and should not be viewed as merely an extra level or domain that can be ‘added’ to existing sociological analyses that can carry on regardless. ‘Sociology’ will not be able to

2 Zombie categories are living dead categories, which blind the social sciences to the rapidly changing realities inside the nation-state containers and outside as well. (see Tomlinson 149)

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis

sustain itself as a specific and coherent discourse focused upon the study of given, bounded or ‘organized’ capitalist societies. It is irreversibly changed. (qtd. in Tomlinson 149)

2.4.1.2 Post Brexit and 11/9

Trump’s election is an unmistakable rejection of a political establishment and an economic system that simply isn’t working for most people. It is one that has delivered escalating inequality and stagnating or falling living standards for the majority, both in the U.S. and Britain. (qtd. in Ram)

Pursuing protectionism is just locking oneself in a dark room. While wind and rain may be kept outside, so are light and air. (“Xi Jinping”)

Articulating a vision that does not involve going against your neighbour will be the challenge for 2017. (qtd. in Ram)

The second part of the debate can be looked from two viewpoints – one that of the working and middle class who was promised greater social and economic opportunities, like equality, financial security, progress, global citizenship and better lifestyle but now find themselves in complete disarray leading to the growing disenchantment and resentment with the unregulated globalization and with the idea of liberal modernity (Britain’s exit from the European Union – Brexit and the United States Presidential election results being a case in point?). Second, that of the global leaders who failed to regulate globalization and now in order to hide their inefficiency and to run from accountability do not miss a single opportunity of blaming globalization (except Chinese Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University President Xi Jinping) for all the ills of modern society – from Syrian refugee crisis to 2008 global financial crisis and resort towards use of “. . . misplaced xenophobia to find a scapegoat for economic woes”. (qtd. in Ram)

The voices for nationalism and protectionism, localism and ethnicity, borders and boundaries, appear to grow much louder than ever before. With anti-globalization movements (See section 2.4) bringing in far less than expected results the denizens of the world took upon themselves to look for alternatives and usher in change. But the question

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis is- are there any alternatives other than taking the support of the crutches of nationalism, and protectionism? Is there any line of thinking which can stand “without the crutch of ideology?” (Pizzati) What if, say after a decade the current political order harping on nationalism and localism is not able to produce the result as desired by the masses? What will be the alternative then?

The global leadership other than working towards radical de-globalization: the disintegration and demise of globalism, has failed to look for solutions to make globalization more inclusive and more sustainable. A World Economic Forum study says that within advanced economies, median per capita income fell on average 2.4% over the past five years, explaining the dissatisfaction across the west. An Oxfam report said that eight men own the same wealth as the poorest half of the world’s population. The consultancy Edelman found a public that confidence in institutions including in governments, business, the media and NGOs is slumping across the rich world. (“In Davos”)

The first two reports in question highlight non-inclusive, unregulated economic progress ushered in by globalization giving no space for the second opinion on the fact that existing global institutions are inadequate and should be more representative, and transparent (See Section 2.4), and are formulated around opaque economic and political policies and programs with near to zero accountability. Still, the aim of global leadership is not towards an ‘enlightened globalization’, reform of global economic governance structures rather towards reversing the process which is bound to meet failure. As Rakesh Sood says: Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Navigation requires reference to a fixed point, a North Star, but in today’s policy world with all the major powers playing a hedging game, even as the existing institutions fall short of coping with the challenges posed by the world in transition, there is no pole. Every major power is dissatisfied with the status quo, but no major power or even a coalition of major powers is able to define, let alone seek to establish a new status quo. (Sood)

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis

Apart from the vacuum in global leadership leading to unregulated globalization, the current times also demand active participation from the masses and that participation is an interpretation of the events in the global world based on the use of reasoned critical thinking. As Tabish Khair elaborates:

Reasoned thinking is not the same as Cartesian Reason. For Descartes and Enlightenment thinkers influenced by him, Reason – best written with a capital R – was an unconscious or conscious substitute for God. That is why it was so easy for Christian Evangelicals to combine Reason with Christianity in the 18th and 19th centuries . . . But this God-like Reason is not the same as reasoned critical thinking, though its instruments are similar. God-like Reason is unchanging, universal, all-seeing, absolute, (and) singular. Reasoned thinking is situational, historical, dialogically objective, and it can offer more than one conclusion. It is not relativist, but is always contextual. What reasoned thinking requires is an equal discourse in language, despite the slipperiness of language, about a world that is mutually experienced, despite the subjectivity of experience. (Khair)

For example, the statue of Fearless Girl placed at Wall Street in New York, was defined as a symbolic gesture to promote workplace gender diversity, but we need not necessarily see the reality as shown to us especially after knowing the fact that in today’s world nothing is unmediated. It is the world of simulation and simulacra as defined by Jean Baudrillard. For me, the Fearless Girl statue symbolises the urgency of the contemporary times to take a firm stand and the courage to stand against discriminatory policies of unregulated capitalism and against the global power of few policymakers who are hell-Maulanabent on kicking Azad out theLibrary, ladder of Aligarh globalization Muslim after reaping University most of its benefits without paying the requisite cost.

The abovementioned discussion on globalization views globalization from the point of ‘historical (tracing the history)’, ‘theoretical’ (features of globalization, and conceptualization) and ‘institutional’ (dimensions of globalization: economic, cultural, political, and social) analysis and not in terms of ‘deconstructive’ (from Marxism to postmodernism) (Held and McGrew, Globalization 5) analysis. Globalization and its

Chapter 2 Globalization: a Conceptual, Historical, and Institutional Analysis deconstructive breakdown which includes its overlapping with postmodern and postcolonial theory will be viewed in chapter number 3. The aim here is to provide with a working definition, form, and structure of globalization for the succeeding chapters.

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

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