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Jamaica Brasileira: the Politics of Reggae in São

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Jamaica Brasileira: the Politics of Reggae in São JAMAICA BRASILEIRA: THE POLITICS OF REGGAE IN SÃO LUÍS, BRAZIL, 1968-2010 by Kavin Dayanandan Paulraj B.A. in History, Pomona College, 2003 M.A. in History, University of Pittsburgh, 2006 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh 2013 UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH DIETRICH SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES This dissertation was presented By Kavin Dayanandan Paulraj It was defended on March 18, 2013 and approved by Lara Putnam, Associate Professor, History Andrew N. Weintraub, Professor and Interim Chair, Music Alejandro de la Fuente, UCIS Research Professor, History George Reid Andrews, Distinguished Professor and Chair, History Dissertation Advisor: Lara Putnam, Associate Professor, History ii Copyright © by Kavin Dayanandan Paulraj 2013 iii JAMAICA BRASILEIRA: THE POLITICS OF REGGAE IN SÃO LUÍS, BRAZIL, 1968-2010 Kavin Dayanandan Paulraj, Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 2013 Residents of São Luís like to say that reggae music reached their island city in Maranhão state in northeast Brazil “through the back door,” into makeshift venues deep in urban slums. In time, audiences in São Luís cultivated a cosmopolitan music scene and an innovative cultural industry that earned their city the title of Jamaica Brasileira, or the Brazilian Jamaica. Based on interviews, archival research, participant-observation, and material sources including musical records, this dissertation explores how and why reggae developed local roots in São Luís and its subsequent role in local socio-economic and political developments. This study finds that Jamaican rhythms of the late 1960s and 1970s arrived primarily through the global music industry via the economic metropoles of the north Atlantic and southeast Brazil alongside other popular international styles. However, as audiences experimented by dancing in couples, they drew upon a range of Caribbean styles including merengue, cumbia, and boleros that had arrived through maritime trade in the mid-20th century. Meanwhile, electrical engineers and entrepreneurs in São Luís independently developed audio arrays known as sound systems resembling similar institutions in Jamaica; these sound systems in turn spurred the growth of the Jamaican-based music scene in conjunction with audiences. Beginning in 1990, people from São Luís made direct contact with Jamaica, initiating a new movement of people, material goods, and culture. iv The working-class music scene of São Luís also played a crucial role in negotiations between popular sectors, elites, and police during the military dictatorship, and reggae was even briefly criminalized in the public eye by association with violence, poverty, and marijuana. However, activists in the local black movement defended reggae and began to see the music as a primary weapon in their struggle for black liberation, leading to vigorous debates about nation, region, and culture. As the reggae scene moved from the informal to the formal sector, its sheer economic clout transformed the socio-cultural landscape of São Luís. Sound system owners also mobilized their audience bases into voting blocs, resulting in the election of one “reggae politician” to federal congress through a new complex of political-cultural patronage. v TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE ................................................................................................................................... i ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... iv LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ x LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... xi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................... xii 1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1 The Setting: São Luís do Maranhão ...................................................................... 4 1.2 Race, Place, and Culture: Popular Music Formations in Brazil and Jamaica ..... 10 1.3 International Commercial and Cultural Flows .................................................... 21 1.4 Negotiating Crime and Politics, from Dictatorship to Democracy ..................... 28 1.5 Sources and Methods .......................................................................................... 42 2.0 “INNA MARANHÃO STYLE”: CARIBBEAN MUSIC IN THE FORMATION OF CULTURE IN SÃO LUÍS, 1945-1986 ......................................................................................... 46 2.1 Caribbean Routes to Pará and Maranhão, 1945-1968 ......................................... 50 2.2 The Scene: Popular Festive Spaces, Sound Systems, Early Nightclubs ............. 58 2.3 Caribbean Music in São Luís I: The Jimmy Cliff Phenomenon, 1968-1976 ...... 68 2.4 Caribbean Music in São Luís II: Exclusivity and Expansion, 1976-1985 .......... 78 2.5 Dance ................................................................................................................... 93 vi 2.6 Reggae on the Radio, 1985-1986 ........................................................................ 98 2.7 Comparisons: Jamaica, Brazil, Bahia, Maranhão ............................................. 102 2.8 Conclusion: Foundation Stories and Routes to the Caribbean .......................... 106 3.0 DIAMBEIRO! MARGINAL!: CRIMINALITY AND POPULAR MUSIC UNDER DICTATORSHIP, 1968-1989 .................................................................................................... 110 3.1 The City and its Fears I: The Periphery ............................................................ 115 3.2 The City and its Fears II: The Devil Weed ....................................................... 122 3.3 Club Pop Som: Negotiating Violence in Popular Nightclubs ........................... 128 3.4 Club Espaço Aberto: The Media Assault .......................................................... 135 3.5 The Defenders ................................................................................................... 142 3.6 The Attackers .................................................................................................... 149 3.7 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 155 4.0 JAMAICA BRASILEIRA: CONNECTIONS TO JAMAICA AND DEBATES OVER RACE AND CULTURE, 1985-1996 ......................................................................................... 156 4.1 Debates over Jamaica Brasileira I: Views from the Southeast.......................... 157 4.2 Connection to Jamaica I: The Concerts............................................................. 161 4.3 Connection to Jamaica II: Voyages, Records, Artifacts ................................... 168 4.4 Debates over Jamaica Brasileira II: Musical Syncretisms ................................ 175 4.5 Debates over Jamaica Brasileira III: Black Activists vs. the Lettered Elite ..... 180 4.6 Debates over Jamaica Brasileira IV: Maranhense Culture Wars ...................... 190 vii 4.7 The Limits of Jamaica Brasileira I: The Rastas ................................................ 196 4.8 The Limits of Jamaica Brasileira II: Urban Growth and Segregation............... 199 5.0 “SERIOUS REGGAE BUSINESS”: POLITICIANS AND MUSIC UNDER DEMOCRACY, 1990-2010 ........................................................................................................ 208 5.1 The Top-Down Political Tradition in Maranhão............................................... 211 5.2 Reggae and Populism I: The Early Campaigns, 1990-94 ................................. 221 5.3 Reggae and Populism II: The Competition for Resources, 1993-1997............. 226 5.4 Changes in the Industry I: The Rise of Pinto da Itamaraty ............................... 230 5.5 Reggae and Populism III: The Consolidation of Pinto ..................................... 239 5.6 Changes in the Industry II: Liberationist Political Projects?............................. 249 5.7 Conclusion: Patronage, Populism, and the Music Industry in Brazil................ 254 6.0 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................ 258 7.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................ 262 7.1 INTERVIEWS .................................................................................................. 262 7.1.1 Interviews by author .................................................................................... 262 7.1.2 Conversations with author ........................................................................... 263 7.2 ARCHIVES ....................................................................................................... 264 7.2.1 Archives ...................................................................................................... 264 7.2.2 Personal Collections .................................................................................... 264 7.3 NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS ............................................................ 265 viii 7.4 MISCELLANEOUS PRIMARY SOURCES ..................................................
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