Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Volume 26, Issue 2

doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2019.26205

Gap Analysis for Future Agricultural Education Research in , Swaziland

Alfred F. Tsikati Marietta P. Dlamini Musa A. Dube

Abstract From the late 1970s to the early 1980s, agriculture educators began to use research as a way of verifying, creating, disseminating and applying new knowledge. However, existing literature is inconclusive on research themes covered and yet to be covered in Agricultural Education in Eswatini. Thus, this study sought to identify themes and gaps for future research in Agricultural Education in Eswatini. This was a qualitative study employing desk review in data collection. Trustworthiness of the content analysis guide was ensured through the use of experts from the Department of Agricultural Education and Extension (AEE) at the University of Eswatini (UNESWA). Data analysis was performed using frequencies and percentages. Findings of the study revealed that in Agricultural Education, gaps existed in the following thematic areas: primary themes - programme delivery methodologies and curriculum programme planning; and secondary themes- creative thinking and problem-solving; innovative instructional technologies; teaching basic and academic skills; professional staff development; educational methodologies for teaching and learning; professional preparation and competence; and needs of future agricultural workforce. The study concluded that research conducted in Agricultural Education in Eswatini is imbalanced in both primary and secondary research themes. Therefore, the Department of AEE at UNESWA must establish a research agenda to ensure that the research conducted is thematically balanced.

Keywords: Agricultural Education, primary themes, research project, research thematic areas, secondary themes, University of Eswatini

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Introduction 1). Since the 1990s, rapid growth in research Agricultural Education is relatively a and publishing activities in Agricultural young discipline that emerged in the early Education has resulted in a plethora of 1900s (Williams, 1991). In Africa, Agricultural Education literature Agricultural Education emerged in the (Radhakrishna & Jackson, 1992b). Thus, 1920s (Paterson & Arends, 2004) and in Myers and Dyer (2004) concluded that the Eswatini emerged in 1973 (Gooday, 1974). institutional demands of research, teaching, Late in the 1970s to the early 1980s, extension, and service, faculty often allow agricultural educators started believing in one area to suffer to meet the expectations of both knowledge and facts coming from another. If research suffers, then every empirical investigation. Agricultural aspect of the Agricultural Education Education research became a way of discipline suffers. Moore (1987) found that verifying existing knowledge; creating new some thematic areas in Agricultural knowledge; and for disseminating and Education doctoral research had been well applying that knowledge. The current focus researched while others had not; thus of Agricultural Education across the globe is concluded that research in Agricultural on research. Generally, the future of Education lacked focus. Agricultural Education depends on the Ball and Knobloch (2005) asserted development and application of new that it is critical for practitioners to examine knowledge through research (Silva-Guerrero the knowledge base of the field to allow the & Sutphin, 1990). It further depends upon profession to reflect upon actions and many variables; and one of them of which is ultimately improve the discipline. Newcomb acquisition and application of new (1993) pointed at the need for Agricultural knowledge generated from research (Dyer, Education research to become more focused, Haase-Wittler & Washburn, 2003). coordinated and conducted passionately. In the past, it has been difficult to Shinn, Briers and Baker (2008)’s expression appraise the impact of Agricultural of the need to focus the Agricultural Education research, and it was equally Education discipline, examine its knowledge difficult to perceive its potential (Williams, base, and review its literature is a call to use 1991). Generally, Agricultural Education a holistic approach to examine research in research has been described as too shallow Agricultural Education. to develop essential understanding; focused Few specific calls in Agricultural on ancillary areas, and often unrelated to Education have been made to examine the what is already known (Mannebach, 1981; essence of its research; yet, there is a need to Miller & Warmbrod, 1982; Warmbrod, understand where the discipline has been 1987; Newcomb, 1978). In Thailand, and to allow the profession to better Traimongkolkul and Tanpichai (2005) found understand where to focus research efforts in that Agricultural Education was not focused, the future. A need arose to re-examine thus recommended that a national forum be Agricultural Education in a future that has formed to revitalise the total system of already happened (Edgar, Edgar, Briers & Agricultural Education. Rutherford, 2008). Edgar et al. (2008) posed Moore (2006) posited that it is clear this question: How can we be sure where we that agricultural educators are not “driving” are headed with our research; if the direction the profession; they spend their time is not adequate and appropriate; and if we “dabbling in esoteric research that does not are unclear as to where we have been? have much relevance to the real world” (p.

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A need also exists to analyse the 1989; Silva-Guerrero & Sutphin,1990). dimensions of Agricultural Education in Tsikati, Dlamini and Dube (2019) found that holistically and suggest strategies to focus research conducted by post-graduate the discipline and prepare it for the future. students in Eswatini covered mainly Understanding research occurring in programme relevance and effectiveness, and Agricultural Education can assist the knowledge base for teaching and learning. discipline and other integrated Contrary, some authors reported that specialisations to more fully focus literary Agricultural Education research was lacking contexts and further strengthen the regarding the following primary themes: discipline. Edgar et al. (2008) argued that planning learning experiences (Mathonsi, lack of understanding the depth and type of 2000); evaluation (Mathonsi, 2000); research occurring in Agricultural Education effective instructional structures (Miller & meant that researchers in the discipline were Madou-Bangurah, 1993); educational unable to determine what futuristic research programme and effectiveness (Buriak & should be done. Structuring and identifying Shinn, 1989); and efficient information a research agenda can be valuable for: (i) delivery systems (Buriak & Shinn, 1989). maintaining compatibility with the national Tsikati, et al. (2019) found that curriculum priorities of the educational system; (ii) programme planning and delivery guiding research investments and (iii) methodology primary themes were under- communicating priorities to agencies and researched by post-graduate students in organisations which have national Eswatini. responsibilities to plan and budget for Regarding secondary themes, some research (Buriak & Shinn, 1993). Buriak and scholars reported that the following were Shinn further asserted that a need was covered in Agricultural Education research: apparent for “researching to research.” This philosophical concerns and policy related was a line of inquiry to focus the profession issues (AAAE, 2005; Crunkilton, 1988 ); on salient problems that are significant to analysis of innovations (AAAE, 2005); the future of Agricultural Education. creative thinking and problem solving (Luft, Existing literature reveals that some scholars 2002; Silva-Guerrero & Sutphin,1990); found that the following primary themes faculty development (Edgar et al., 2008; were covered in the research conducted in Radhakrishna & Mbaga, 1995); evaluation Agricultural Education: programme of teaching programme (Radhakrishna & relevance and effectiveness (American Mbaga, 1995; Silva-Guerrero & Association for Agricultural Education Sutphin,1990); recruitment (Radhakrishna & [AAAE], 2005); programme evaluation Mbaga, 1995); innovative instructional (AAAE, 2005; Edgar, Briers & Rutherford technology (Silva-Guerrero & 2008); instructional programme delivery Sutphin,1990); educational methodologies in approaches (Edgar et al., 2008; teaching and learning (Silva-Guerrero & Radhakrishna & Mbaga, 1995); programme Sutphin,1990); instructional resources development and improvement (Crunkilton, 1988); and individual (Radhakrishna & Mbaga,1995; Schmidt, achievement – basic skill development Lynch & Frantz, 1988); curriculum and (Crunkilton, 1988). Tsikati et al. (2019) instructional development (Crunkilton, found that faculty and staff development, 1988; Moore, 1987; Silva-Guerrero & evaluation of teaching or programmes, and Sutphin, 1990); evaluation of agriculture individual achievement were the most teaching and teachers (Buriak & Shinn,

66 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 researched secondary themes in Agricultural to focus on areas that have not been Education. adequately researched. Secondary themes reported to have been under-researched in Agricultural Purpose & Objectives Education were: teaching competence of The purpose of the study was to high school and university faculty (Buriak & identify themes and gaps for future research Shinn, 1989); teaching and learning in Agricultural Education in Eswatini. The (Mathonsi, 2000); education technology objectives of the study were to: (Buriak & Shinn, 1989; Miller & Madou- 1. Identify research themes covered by Bangurah, 1993); evaluation of teaching or agricultural education students’ programmes (Miller & Madou-Bangurah, research conducted at UNESWA; 1993); and effectiveness of instructional and strategies and learning characteristics 2. Determine research gaps that exist in (Buriak & Shinn, 1989). Also, Tsikati et al. agricultural education students’ (2019) reported that the following secondary research conducted at UNESWA. themes were under-research in post-graduate theses in Eswatini: educational Theoretical & Conceptual Framework methodologies for teaching and learning; The study was framed using the innovative instructional technologies; dimensions articulated by Buriak and Shinn history, philosophy, future and policy in (1989) in Agricultural Education research Agricultural Education; teaching basic and (see Figure 1). The figure presents the academic skills; and creative thinking and research areas that should be covered in problem-solving. Agricultural Education. The innermost In Eswatini, students enrolled for a circle represents the mission of Agricultural in Agricultural Education. The second circle presents the Education at UNESWA are required to Agricultural Education research problem undertake research projects. Studies areas grouped into four research problem conducted on focusing research themes and areas. Finally, the outermost circle gap analyses for future Agricultural represents the research activities for each Education research in Eswatini are problem area in Agricultural Education. inconclusive. The researchers observed that The problem research areas were treated as generally, research projects conducted to the primary research themes in this study. synthesise and analyse research output in Thus, the primary research themes are: (i) Agricultural Education at the University of knowledge base for teaching and learning; Eswatini did not identify gaps to which (ii) curriculum programme planning; (iii) future research could be focused. Thus, a delivery methodologies; and (iv) great need existed to identify research gaps programme relevance and effectiveness. for future Agricultural Education research The research activities were treated priorities in Eswatini. The future of as secondary themes in the study. Thus, each Agricultural Education in Eswatini depends primary theme has secondary themes. on the development and application of new Buriak and Shinn (1993) revealed that the knowledge through appropriate and relevant knowledge base for teaching and learning research. Agricultural educators will be able has the following secondary themes: to target specific areas as they build the creative thinking and problem solving, Agricultural Education discipline. Also, individual achievement, and professional Agricultural education students will be able preparation and competence. Curriculum

67 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 programme planning entails teaching basic Finally, programme relevance and and academic skills; and needs of future effectiveness involves the history, agricultural workforce. Then, delivery philosophy, future, and policy in methodologies relate to educational Agricultural Education; faculty and staff methodologies for teaching and learning; development, and evaluation of teaching or and innovative instructional technologies. programmes.

Figure 1. Theoretical framework (Buriak & Shinn, 1993).

Moore (1987) recommended that in Agricultural Education (Silva-Guerrero & research in Agricultural Education should be Sutphin, 1990). balanced across the themes; Eswatini is no exception. In this study, research thematic Methodology gaps were established by comparing the The study was qualitative and a researched thematic areas in Agricultural census employing desk review in data Education undergraduate research projects at collection of Agricultural Education under- the University of Eswatini against the graduate research projects (n=370) thematic areas [primary and secondary] completed from 2008 to 2017. Research adapted from the study by Buriak and Shinn projects were considered to be in (1989). Gaps that existed in the research Agricultural Education if they related to the output were also reported by Edgar, et al. teaching of agriculture [both education and (2008a). The gap is a pointer to the research extension]. The researchers sought areas or topics that are yet to be researched permission in writing to collect data from

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UNESWA Library and permission was in to one primary theme and one secondary granted by the Senior Assistant Librarian at theme. Luyengo Campus at the University of The research projects were analysed Eswatini. A total of 206 research projects manually, using tally marks which were found to be focused in Agricultural converted into frequencies and percentages. Education were analysed. The structural dimensions for research in Trustworthiness and rigour were Agricultural Education postulated by Buriak addressed using credibility, transferability, and Shinn (1993) were used to identify the dependability and confirmability. Two research themes and gaps in agricultural experts from the Department of Agricultural education students’ research. Education at UNESWA reviewed the content analysis guide used for data Findings & Discussion collection to address issues of credibility. The experts added items and removed some Research Themes in Agricultural from the content analysis guide. For Education instance, the researchers removed items on Table 1 presents the number of inferential analysis such as t-test and research projects covered by each of the analysis of variance as suggested by the primary research themes expressed in experts as they felt the study was getting percentages. The findings revealed that wide open. Dependability was ensured by a programme relevance and effectiveness detailed description of the implementation (n=103, 50.0%) was the main primary of the research methodology. Transferability research theme covered by Agricultural was ensured by providing sufficient Education students’ research at UNESWA. contextual information about students’ The second primary theme that is commonly research conducted at UNESWA and thick addressed by Agricultural Education description of the thematic research areas in students’ research was knowledge base for Agricultural Education. Finally, teaching and learning is (n=59, 28.6%). confirmability was assured through audit Similarly, existing literature indicates that in trails. The content analysis guide was United States of America, programme divided into four primary themes; which relevance and effectiveness is the primary were sub-divided into secondary themes. theme that was well researched (AAAE, Each primary theme had check boxes where 2005; Edgar et al., 2008). Radhakrishna and the researchers ticked to indicate for the Mbaga (1995) and Schmidt, Lynch and primary and secondary themes. Each Frantz (1988) found that programme research project was carefully assessed and development and improvement were also categorized into the appropriate primary and well covered. Tsikati, et al. (2019) found secondary theme. Both primary and that research conducted by post-graduate secondary themes were mutually exclusive: students covered mainly programme that is, each research project was classified relevance and effectiveness, and knowledge base for teaching and learning.

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Table 1 Primary Research Themes Addressed by Students’ Research Projects in Agricultural Education at the University of Eswatini Primary themes f % Programme relevance and effectiveness 103 50 Knowledge base for teaching and learning 59 28.6 Curriculum programme planning 24 11.7 Delivery methodologies 20 9.7 Total 206 100

Data in Table 2 present the number Education (n=35, 17.0%). Existing literature of secondary research themes addressed by reveals that the following secondary themes students in Agricultural Education at were covered in agricultural education UNESWA expressed in percentages. The research: philosophical concerns and policy table depicts that the most commonly related issues (AAAE, 2005; Crunkilton, addressed secondary research theme by 1988); evaluation of teaching programme students’ research in Agricultural Education (Radhakrishna & Mbaga, 1995; Silva- at the University of Eswatini is evaluation of Guerrero & Sutphin, 1990); and individual the programme (n=53, 25.9%). Other achievement (Crunkilton, 1988). Tsikati et secondary research themes that were al. (2019) found that evaluation of teaching adequately addressed by students’ projects or programmes and individual achievement in Agricultural Education were: student were the most researched secondary themes achievement (n=37, 18.0%) and history, in Agricultural Education by post-graduates philosophy, future and policy in Agricultural students at UNESWA.

Table 2 Secondary Research Themes Addressed by Students in Agricultural Education at the University of Eswatini Secondary themes f % Knowledge base for teaching and learning Professional preparation and competence 21 10.2 Individual achievement 37 18.0 Creative thinking and problem solving 1 0.0 Curriculum planning Needs for future agricultural workforce 19 9.2 Teaching basic and academic skills 5 2.4 Delivery methodologies Educational methodologies for teaching and learning 16 7.8 Innovative instructional technologies 4 1.9 Programme relevance and effectiveness Evaluation of teaching or programmes 53 25.9 History, philosophy, future and policy in Agricultural 35 17.0 Education Faculty and staff development 15 7.3 Total 206 100

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Gaps in Agricultural Education innovative instructional technologies; and Table 1 depicts that the least covered creative thinking and problem-solving as primary research themes revealing gaps are most under-researched secondary themes in programme delivery methodologies (n=20, post-graduate students’ theses in Eswatini. 9.7%) and curriculum programme planning (n=24, 11.7%). Williams (1991) attributed Conclusions, Implications & the imbalance in the research conducted in Recommendations Agricultural Education to the fact that it is A primary conclusion drawn from generally a young discipline. Agricultural this study is that research conducted by Education is also a young discipline in Agricultural Education undergraduate Africa (Paterson & Arends, 2004) and in students in Eswatini in both primary and Eswatini (Gooday, 1974). The findings of secondary research themes is imbalanced. this study are consistent with the salient Gaps in the research themes as adapted from literature regarding the following secondary Buriak and Shinn (1989) used as theoretical themes: planning learning experiences framework of the study were evident in the (Mathonsi, 2000); educational programme following primary themes: programme and effectiveness (Buriak & Shinn, 1989); delivery methodologies and curriculum and efficient information delivery systems programme planning. Secondary themes (Buriak & Shinn, 1989). Similarly, Tsikati, which lacked research were: creative et al. (2019) found that the most under- thinking and problem-solving; innovative researched primary themes by post-graduate instructional technologies; teaching basic students in Eswatini were: curriculum and academic skills; professional staff programme planning and delivery development; educational methodologies for methodology. teaching and learning; professional Table 2 also revealed research gaps preparation and competence; and needs of in the following secondary themes: creative future agricultural workforce. thinking and problem-solving (n=1, 0%); The implication of the findings is innovative instructional technologies (n=4, that a need exists for periodic assessment of 1.9%); teaching basic and academic skills institutional research to determine gaps in (n=5, 2.4%); professional staff development research to ensure that research is directed to (n=15, 7.3%); educational methodologies the targeted thematic areas. The periodic for teaching and learning (n=16, 7.8%); assessment of institutional research can also needs of future agricultural workforce help in directing limited resources and time (n=19, 9.2%) and professional preparation to address most needed research. The and competence (n=21, 10.2%). The findings of the study also imply that the findings of the study on under-researched future of Agricultural Education including secondary themes are consistent with Eswatini depends on the development and literature on: teaching competence of high application of new knowledge generated school and university faculty (Buriak & through the thematic research areas (Dyer, Shinn, 1989); teaching and learning Haase-Wittler & Washburn, 2003; Silva- (Mathonsi, 2000); and educational Guerrero & Sutphin, 1990). Moore (2006) technology (Buriak & Shinn, 1989; Miller & noted that some agricultural educators spend Madou-Bangurah, 1993). Similarly, Tsikati their time “dabbling in esoteric research et al. (2019) reported educational that does not have much relevance to the methodologies for teaching and learning; real world” (p. 1). Also, Agricultural

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Education research has been cited as too methodologies used in teaching and shallow to develop essential understanding, learning and the curriculum in focused on ancillary areas, and often education will be stagnated. unrelated to what is already known (Silva- 4. The Department of Agricultural Guerrero & Sutphin, 1990). The study Education and Extension at the unveils the need for more focused and University of Eswatini must establish coordinated student projects in Agricultural a research agenda to ensure balanced Education. A need also arose to understand research in Agricultural Education. where the discipline has been, to allow the The research agenda should indicate profession to better understand where to and emphasize the status of research focus research efforts in the future. Edgar et to be conducted on the pertinent al. (2008) argued that there was a need to re- thematic areas. Also, the researchers examine Agricultural Education in a future should collaborate with Agricultural that has already happened. In Eswatini, Education stakeholders in identifying focusing and directing Agricultural priority research thematic areas. This Education research is imperative for its initiative will ensure adequate proper growth as the discipline is still young coverage of all relevant research (Gooday, 1974). The use of the dimensions themes. Similarly, other countries by Buriak and Shinn (1989) to establish having Agricultural Education can gaps in thematic areas researched in also develop their own research Agricultural Education student projects in agenda if they do not already have it. Eswatini implies that the global community of researchers must also embrace. Based on the findings of the study References the following recommendations were made: American Association for Agricultural 1. A need to periodically (e.g. every 5 Education. (2005). Editorial policy. years) analyze research based on the Journal of Agricultural Education, themes that are covered in 46(1), 91. Agricultural Education is evident. Ball, A. L., & Knobloch, N. A. (2005). A This will ensure that the research document analysis of the conducted in the discipline is well pedagogical knowledge espoused in coordinated and directed. agriculture teaching method courses. 2. Researchers in Agricultural Journal of Agricultural Education, Education in Eswatini need to exert 46(2), 47-57. more effort towards research on Buriak, P. & Shinn, G. C. (1989). Mission, thinking or problem-solving skills initiatives, and obstacles to research and innovative instructional in Agricultural Education: A national technologies as they are important Delphi using external decision contemporary issues. makers. Journal of Agricultural 3. Researchers in Agricultural Education, 2(4), 14-23. Education in Eswatini also need to Buriak, P. & Shinn, G. C. (1993). focus their research on programme Structuring research for agricultural delivery methodologies and education: A national Delphi curriculum programme planning. If involving internal experts. Journal of research conducted in these themes Agricultural Education, 34(2), 31- continue to be lacking; the 36.

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