Andrew Canfield - Art of Ancient Notes (Early, High and Late Empire)

Early Empire

- Murder of Julius Caesar on Ides of March 44 BCE caused Roman civil unrest

- Octavian (Augustus) beat Mark Antony and Queen Cleopatra

- Mark Antony and Queen Cleopatra commit suicide, and in 30 BCE Egypt becomes part of the

- The Pax Romana: the peace Augustus made that lasted for two centuries; brought about artistic growth

- Art used for propaganda and to influence public opinion

Early Empire under Augustus and the Julio-Claudians (27 BCE - 68 CE)

- Augustus calls on Roman artists to produce images of a young head of state (before it was old heads of state)

- Augustus' images made in the likeness of a godlike leader

- *Portrait of Augustus as general: locaated at wife Livia's villa at Primaporta

Significance: based closely on Polykleitos' Doryphoros + similar to Polykleitan style + designed to carry a political message

- *Portrait bust of Livia: marble portrait

Significance: imperial women of the Augustna age shared the emperor's eternal youthfulness + unblemished image is like Classical Greek goddesses

-* Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace): a shrine celebrating Augustus' establishment of peace

Significance: Connection b/w emperor and the relief of Aeneas in the altar was a key element of Augustus' political ideology for his new Golden Age + the second panel depicting a woman is symbolized as fruits of the Pax Augusta + portrayal of windblown clothes during breezes + third panel has procession frieze of the Parthenon

- *: Augustus constructed new forum next to Julius Caesar's forum; both made of white Carrara marble; reference to Periclean Athens

- *Maison Carree: temple at Nimes, France

Significance: the style in this temple is similar to Augustan style used in the Forum of Augustus

- *Point-du-Gard: aqueduct-bridge in Nimes, France

Significance: maintained height of water channel + the placement of larger and smaller revealed that Roman engineer had a keen aesthetic and practical sense

- *: water gate in Rome,

Significance: example of Roman rusticated (rough) masonry style - blocks combined smooth/rusticated surfaces - has attic (uppermost story) that hides the conduits of the aqueduct

- *Nero's Golden House: Nero's new palace after old one was destroyed by fire

Significance: the octagonal hall's shape design is entirely made out of concrete + showed potential of concrete

Early Empire under The Flavians (69 - 96 CE)

- Nero is out of power by this time b/c of suicide

- (family name Flavius) and his two sons and Domitian ruled Rome

- *Colossus and : mark of the Flavians in the capital; the name is from its location next to the Colossus of Nero

Significance: represents Rome for most people + concrete "skeleton" architectural style + use of engaged columns/lintel to frame openings is similar to Etruscan Porta Marzia at Perugia (Romans use this scheme commonly) + also had Roman practice of framing an w/ applied Greek order added variety to the surface - *Portrait of Vespasian: bust portrait of Vespasian

Signficance: reflected Vespasian's simpler tase + revived verism by not making himself a youthful god but old + had political statement proclaiming traditional Republican values

- *Portrait bust of a Flavian woman: bust of elegant Flavian woman

Significance: portraits of people of all ages exist in Flavian period - unlike the Republic where only elders were depicted + purpose was to project idealized beauty through current fashion instead of reference to images of Greek goddesses (the current fashion is curled hair)

- *: an arch erected in Titus's honors

Significance: it is a triumphal arch (that commemorates many events including victories to the building of roads and buildings) + contained one passageway, and had a Composite (combination of Ionic volutes/Corinthian acanthus leaves) type of capital + reliefs depicting Victories (winged women) fill the spandrels (area b/w arch's curve and the framing columns and entablature) + contains two relief panels inside

- *The Spoils of Jerusalem: one of two relief panels inside the Arch of Titus depicting Roman soldiers carrying the spoils (including the menorah) from the Temple of Jerusalem

Significance: the relief uses deep carving that produces shadows + different placement of relief figures (some in the wall, some protruding out) + play of light and shade enhances sense of movement i nthe relief

- *Titus in Triumph: the second of the two relief panels inside the Arch of Titus depicting Titus in his chariot

Signficance: The panel is the first known instance of divine beings interacting w/ humans on an official Roman historical relief

High Empire

- Roman empire at its peak in the second century CE under , Hadrian, and the Antonines

High Empire under the rule of Trajan (98 - 117 CE)

- Domitian is assassinated b/c of extravagant lifestyle/ego

- Senate then choose Nerva as emperor; Nerva establishes a pattern of successors before his death

- Nerva chooses Trajan as successor and next emperor

- Trajan: the first Spanish emperor/ first non-Italian to rule Rome

- Trajan brings Roman rule to farther areas and institutes social programs for people's welfare

- Trajan is granted title of Optimus (the Best)

- *Plan of : Trajan finds a new colony for army veterans at Timgad

Significance: center of Roman authority + key to Romanization of provinces + planned w/ precision, resembling w/ Roman military castrum (camp) + Roman plan is a modification of Hippodamian plan of Greek cities

- *Rome's Greatest Forum: Forum of Trajan twice the size of Augustus' forum; made by Apollodorus of Damascus, Trajan's chief military engineer

Significance: glorified Trajan's victories + had huge , not temple in the open square

- *Column of Trajan: commemorative column in Forum of Trajan

Significance: showed dedication to Trajan himself in the Forum

- *: basilica in Forum of Trajan

Significance: had apses (semicircular recesses) on each short end + entrance was on long side facing the Forum unlike Christian and Pompeian + early Christian architectures embraced feature of the clerestory at the Basilica Ulpia for the design of the first churches

- *Trajan's Columnar Tomb: Tomb below Column of Trajan

Significance: the square base of the column serves as Trajan and his wife Plotina's tomb

- *Markets of Trajan: built by Apollodorus of Damascus; Market that housed both shops and offices Significance: the transformation of a natural slope into a complex was possible only by concrete + basic unit was taberna (a single-room shoped covered by barrel vault)

- *Arch of Trajan: arch honoring Trajan

Significance: relief panels cover both facades of Trajanic arch, giving it a billboard-like function + scenes depicting the ruler of Rome as a divine ruler in the company of the gods became the norm in official

- *Funerary relief of a circus official (of ): shows circus official's life overlooking Circus Maximus (circus restored by Trajan)

Significance: shows how different art is when produced for working class and not for aristocratic families + example of continuous narration: same figure appears more than once in the same space at different stages of a story + rules of classical design ignored in this piece

Hadrian (117 - 138 CE)

- Hadrian is Trajan's successor and fellow Spaniard

- *Portrait bust of Hadrian as general: bronze portrait of Hadrian wearing cuirass

Signficance: closely resembles Kresilas' portrait of Pericles + showed beard which was norm for Roman emperors

- *Pantheon: temple of all the gods located in Rome, Italy

Significance: revealed full potential of concrete + different design - based on intersection of two circles, both simple and difficult + dome·s weight was lessened through use of coffers (sunken decorative panels) + symbolism of orb as earth and dome as the vault of the heavens

- *Canopus and Serapeum at Hadrian·s Villa in Tivoli, Italy: one of Hadrian·s architectural project of a construction of pool and grotto (respectively)

Significance: grotto is made of concrete + has dome that Hadrian probably designed himself + Greek columns and marble statues circle the pool + Corinthian colonnade has arcuated (curved or arched) lintels unlike traditional Greek lintels + shows respect for both Grek architecture and willingness to break Greek design - *Roman ¶Baroque· Tomb in a Mountain: Tomb name is ´Al Khaznehµ AKA the ´Treasuryµ

Significance: one of many tomb facades cut into rock of mountains + basic Greek architecture, but the method of creation is Roman

Ostia

- *Insula: Insula is a multistory apartment block in Rome

Significance: average Romans· home + did not have space or light of domes + some had toilets + brick facades were not concealed and brick was exposed

- *Room IV of Insula of the Painted Vaults: frescoed groin vaults located in Ostia, Italy

Significance: typical of painted ceiling design in second/third centuries CE + one of few preserved painted ceilings after eruption of Mt. Vesuvius

- *Baths of Neptune: black-and-white mosaic in the floor showing four seahorses pulling Neptune across the sea

Significance: artist rejected polychrome (usage of many colors) modeling of figures in Pompeian mosaics and instead used simple black silhouettes + looked as surface decorations and not 3-D windows

- *Workers· Tombs: Tombs of worker class contain reliefs of working people

Significance: scenes of daily life appear on Roman funerary reliefs all over Europe

The Antonines (138 ² 192 CE)

- Hadrian adopts 51 yr old as successor

- Antoninus adopts and as successors ² Aurelius and Verus become first Roman coemperors after Antoninus· death - *Apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina, pedestal of the : memorial column of Antoninus Pius erected by Marcus and Lucius after Antoninus· death; pedestal has a relief showing a potheosis (ascent to the heavens) of Antoninus and his Faustina; the sides of the relief have two reliefs of the decursio (ritual circling of the imperial funerary pyre)

Significance: apotheosis relief is in classical tradition w/ elegant and proportional figures and singleground lines + first time that wife and husband ascend together in an elite setting + decursio relief is nonclassical & have chunky figures & the panel was not considered as a window into the world & the ground is considered the whole surface of the relief - *Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius: larger-than-life size gilded-bronze equestrian statue

Significance: inspired many Renaissance sculptors to portray their patrons on horseback + expresses Roman emperor·s majesty and authority

- *Portrait of Marcus Aurelius: detail of a panel from a lost arch; portrait of aged emperor Marcus Aurelius

Significance: First portrait of aged emperor in which the emperor appears tired, sad, and worried + major turning point in history of ancient art ² marked beginning of the end of classical art·s domination in the Greco-Roman world

- Romans begin to favor burial over cremation; influenced Christianity and made belief of afterlife for a human body

- Ash urns are common; rising demand for sarcophagi - *Sarcophagus with the myth of Orestes: early example of Greek mythology as a subject on a sarcophagus

Significance: Orestes· mythological presence in the sarcophagi

- Repetition of sarcophagus compositions indicates that sculptors had access to pattern books

- Western sarcophagi have reliefs only on front and sides, while Eastern sarcophagi have reliefs on all four sides

- *Asiatic Sarcophagus w/ Kline (bed) portrait of a woman: example of sarcophagus of the Eastern type; shows woman resting on kline (bed)

Significance: decoration of images with Greek gods/heroes is Asiatic but the lid portrait is a feature of Western Roman coffins + winged infant god holds a torch, reference to death of a woman who was as beautiful as his mother, Venus - *Mummy Portrait of a Man: portrait of man with long curly hair and beard Significance: shows painter·s use of brush, shading, and his portrayal of the subject·s calm mood

Late Empire

- Marcus· son Commodus succeeded but was assassinated and brought an end to Antonine dynasty

- Late Empire: era where pagan ancient world became Christian Middle Ages

The Severans (193 ² 235 CE)

- Septimius Severus: African emperor - *Painted portrait of Septimius and his family: Significance: only surviving painted likeness of any Roman emperor + gray hair indicated aging & face of emperor·s younger son Geta erased ² the tondo (circular format) portrait is dedicated to the damnation of Roman rulers (Geta·s brother Caracalla killed his brother Geta and erased his image) - *Portrait of Caracalla: Caracalla killed his brother Geta and is son of Septimius Significance: Emperor Caracalla had well textured short hair and a suspicious facial expression

- *Chariot procession of Septimius Serverus: relief from the Arch of Septimius depicting Septimius and his two sons

Significance: gives no sense of rushing motion + frontality + floating figures + style used is called ´Late Antique Styleµ b/c of abstract style

- *: bathing complex made to win the public·s favor Significance: had stuccoed vaults, mosaic floors, marble walls, and statues in the complex, as well as aqueduct and hot air furnaces

The Soldier Emperors (235 ² 284 CE)

- Severan dynasty ended when Severus Alexander was muredered - constructs new defensive wall circuit for capital - *Portrait bust of Trajan Decius: sculpted portrait of Trajan Decius known for his persecution of Christians Significance: portrayed as old man with bags under his eyes and sad expression ² reveals sad soul of the man and of the times - *Heroic portrait of Trebonianus Gallus: bronze portrait of Decius· successor Trebonianus Gallus

Significance: appears in heroic nudity + represented emperor as also a soldier w/ big legs and trunk

- *Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus: sarcophagus portraying battle of Romans and barbarians Significance: chaotic scene of writhing soldier figures battling + it is dedicated to Mithras, the Persian god of light and truth b/c the general has Mithras· emblem

- *Sarcophagus of a Philosopher: Romans become interested in philosophy b/c of wartime; deceased is a philosopher surrounded by others

Significance: popular for Christian burials + ¶wise-man motif· was used to portray deceased but to show Christ surrounded by his apostles ² composition w/ central figure and other figures looking towards it - *Restored view and plan of Temple of Venus: Stone temple formed around the cella

Significance: nonclassical architecture & first architecture that has five- sided Corinthian capitals with pentagonal bases

Diocletian and the Tetrarchy (284 ² 306 CE)

- Emperor Diocletian establish tetarchy (rule by four) with other three tetrarchs

- *Portraits of the Four Tetrarchs: Four tetrarchs portrayed together

Significance: Artist did not catch individual appearance but portrayed four equal people in power + clothing is similar and bodies are shapeless + formal rigidity of human body as opposed to realistic/idealistic body

- *Palace of Diocletian: well-protected suburban palace Significance: design·s central axis was emphasized + tomb in the palace was popular as a church and mausoleum

Constantine (306 ² 337 CE)

- Constantine I ends persecution of Christians

- Constantine executes Licinius - Constantinian art: transition from classical to medieval world - * (south side): triple-passageway arch Significance: largest in Rome since end of Severan dyasty + arch reuses columns and decorations from earlier monuments + monuments were from earlier good emperors to give off good impression for Constantine - *Arch of Constantine (north frieze): detail of relief with emperor shown with attendants Significance: rigid formality of crowd surrounding Constantine + reused classical style but rejected norms of classical design

- *Portrait of Constantine: marble portrait of Constantine·s head Significance: held orb as symbol of global power ² has look of authority, not of nervousness like the Soldier Emperor·s Era

- *Basilica Nova: ´New Basilicaµ in Rome

Significance: construction of buildings such as great market hall applied to the Roman basilica ² has groin vaults, lighting system

- *Aula Palatina: a palace complex that has abasilica-like audience hall; main hall deivided by triumphal arch (arch that represents victory) Significance: brick exterior characterized much of later Roman and early Christian architecture + use of lead framed panes of glass to give life and movement to surfaces

- *Coins with Portraits of Constantine: Two portraits of Cosntantine stamped on Roman coins

Significance: first coin is of Constantine portrayed like an old tetrarch (and therefore unidentifiable) + second coin is after Constantine·s war victories: the coin has Constantine look eternally youthful + showed ability of Roman emperors to choose any official image that suited their needs + second coin belongs to both classical and medieval world ² has Roman shield and a Cross together