Influences of Russian Culture on ’s Urban Planning from 1898 to 1931 and Conservation Recommendations

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Geng, Shiran, Chau, Hing-Wah, Wang, Tian and Yan, Se (2021) Influences of Russian Culture on Harbin’s Urban Planning from 1898 to 1931 and Conservation Recommendations. Journal of Chinese Architecture and Urbanism, 3 (1). pp. 1-25. ISSN 2717-5626

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Journal of Chinese Architecture and Urbanism

2021 Volume 3 Issue 1: 1-25 Research Article

Influences of Russian Culture on Harbin’s Urban Planning from 1898 to 1931 and Conservation Recommendations

Shiran Geng1, Hing-Wah Chau1, Tian Wang2,3, Se Yan4

1College of Engineering and Science (Built Environment Group), Victoria University, Victoria, Australia 2School of Architecture, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, , 3Key Laboratory of Cold Region Urban and Rural Human Settlement Environment Science and Technology, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, China 4Faculty of Architecture, Building and Urban Planning, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Corresponding author: Shiran Geng, College of Engineering and Science (Built Environment Group), Victoria University, Victoria, Australia. Email: [email protected]

Citation: Geng S, Chau H-W, Wang T, et al., 2021, Influences of Russian Culture on Harbin’s Urban Planning from 1898 to 1931 and Conservation Recommendations. Journal of Chinese Architecture and Urbanism, 3(1): 1030. http://dx.doi.org/10.36922/jcau.v3i1.1030

ABSTRACT

Harbin, located in , is the provincial capital of Heilongjiang province, the People’s Republic of China. The city was one of the most crucial junction cities on the built in the early 1900s, which connected Russia and China. Russian migrants had a significant impact on the rapid urbanisation and industrialisation of Harbin and Russian features can be identified from Harbin’s urban planning, which is unique to other major Chinese cities. However, there is limited research on Russian influence on Harbin’s urban development during the Russian colonial period from 1898 to 1931, which is the focus of this (abstract continued next page)

Keywords: Russian colonisation, colonial city urban planning, heritage conservation, garden city, Harbin urban planning

This article belongs to the Special Issue: Influential theories and works for contemporary Chinese urban planning and design (1920-2020)

Copyright: © 2021 Geng, et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Attribution-Non- Commercial 4.0 International 4.0 (CC BY-NC 4.0), which permits all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited.

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(abstract continued from previous page) paper. Field observation, map analysis, and desktop research were conducted to collect qualitative data. This study addresses the importance of Russian colonial impact on Harbin’s urban planning and the heritage conservation of the city’s historical urban fabric. Findings of this research can help researchers and local authorities understand the uniqueness and value of Russian inspired city planning. It will also be beneficial to the development of appropriate conservation guidelines which are applicable to Harbin and to other Chinese cities previously under colonial influence.

1. INTRODUCTION Harbin can also be transferable and valuable Harbin is a north-eastern Chinese city to other colonial cities in China. colonised by Russia from 1898 to 1931 prior to the Japanese invasion. Due to the 2. METHODS construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway Through a review of existing literature and (CER), the city quickly became renowned as archive collections, map analysis and field an international trading centre in the early observation, the authors of this paper 20th century, and the urbanisation process conducted a case study of four districts in consequently proceeded rapidly [1]. The city Harbin, namely Nangang, Daoli, Xiangfang, has a complex and rich cultural background and Daowai. The three research methods under the sway of various foreign countries. provided qualitative data that allowed this These cultural influences have left a mark in study to scrutinise the selected districts Harbin’s city development, which remains a insightfully from multiple perspectives. The unique and fascinating historical authors first conducted literature review by phenomenon. Today, Harbin is still famous accessing numerous existing literature and for its European-style urban layout and archive collections. Existing literature architecture. Although some old buildings in facilitated the collection of key information Harbin were demolished throughout the past on Harbin’s urban development history and 100 years, most of the surviving historical the identification of a research gap. Valuable buildings have now been declared as national historical photos and maps were found in the heritage and are well protected [2]. This Urban Planning Bureau of Harbin research aims to unveil Russian culture’s Municipality and Urban Planning Society of impact on Harbin’s urban fabric from 1898 to Harbin Municipality’s archive collections. 1931. Field observation, map analysis, and Historical maps of each , found during desktop research were conducted to collect the review of existing literature and archive qualitative data for analysis. The study first collections, were chronographically sorted reviews Harbin’s historical urban and evaluated. By doing so, the authors development before evaluating European effectively identified the evolvement of planning theories that have impacted Harbin’s urban fabric. These maps were also Russian’s planning strategy in Harbin. compared with contemporaneous maps of Through analysis and on-site observation, other cities that resemble similar planning three existing conservation issues are strategies. The authors then annotated and concluded before providing labelled the maps to illustrate similarities and recommendations. By understanding differences drawn from the analysis. Field Harbin’s urban planning under Russian observation was conducted in January 2021 impact and preservation possibilities, this which concentrated on the existing historical study aims to facilitate authorities to develop urban fabrics in Harbin. was appropriate conservation guidelines. Lessons a key observation site since it recently became learnt from the heritage conversation in a conservation focus of the local government.

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Observation points scattered along streets engineers and architects, notably Vladimir intersected with Jingyu Street, where the Planson, A.K. Levteev and I.I. Oblomievskii, inherited urban fabric remained mostly who were already well regarded from projects untouched. The preservation of historical in Vladivostok, Port Arthur (now Lüshun), courtyard houses, the renovation of Dalny (Dalian), and other waypoints on shopfronts, the demolition of certain areas Russia’s eastward march [6,7]. Studies also and replacing buildouts were focal points of show that many Russian architects and the observation. Qualitative data were planners who participated in Harbin’s collected through photographs and field notes development received training in Europe [8]. taken on site. They explored new modes of urban planning and architectural expression in Harbin on the 3. HISTORY OF HARBIN’S frontier [9]. ‘True Russian spirits’ of the URBANISATION planning and architectural team directly The urbanisation of Harbin commenced when affected the city’s urban layout and the construction of the CER started in 1898 [1]. architectural styles [3,10]. Harbin’s initial plan The CER T-shaped system linked Chita and was determined by a combination of natural Vladivostok in Russia to Dalian and Port and human factors – the navigable Songhua Arthur in China. Three branches of the T- River defined the northern boundary to the shape intersected at one point, later known as south of which the two major railway lines Harbin. The strategic location of Harbin at the congregated. The railway lines cut the city confluence of the Sungari River (also known into three uneven wedges, demarcating some as the ) and the CER later made of the settlements. On these wedges, four it a convenient international transport and districts, namely Xiangfang, Nangang, Daoli, commercial hub. The Russian government and Daowai, each had different functional therefore assigned administrative team from purposes and subsequently laid the St. Peterburg to establish the Chinese Eastern foundation of the city’s urban development. Railway Management Bureau (CERMB) as In addition to basic infrastructure, the colony authority in Harbin [3]. CERMB residential and commercial development, acted as an administrator of not only the CER CERMB was also instrumental in setting up but also the urban development of Harbin. and encouraging social, educational, cultural, Railway engineers, civil engineers, architects, and religious activities in Harbin. At the start planners, other railway professionals and of the urbanisation process, these four family members of the team came to Harbin districts were developed separately without under CERMB’s supervision [4]. Unlike the much connection [11]. However, as the railway spontaneous and commercial treaty ports of opened, Harbin started to attract migrants and China, Harbin and Dalian were the first two visitors worldwide and became a well-known cities in modern Chinese history that were trading centre between China and the Western under a comprehensive urban planning almost world. Consequently, all four districts began from scratch. Factories, telegraph facilities, to expand and gradually merged together [4]. radio stations, weather stations, hotels, ports and water systems had to be planned to 3.1 accommodate the influx of migrants. The first group of Russian representatives to CERMB first established its office buildings Harbin included government employees and in Tianjiashaoguo (part of Xiangfang district engineers working for the CER project. They now) and temporarily located there while first resided in Tianjiashaoguo (now plotting other parts of Harbin [5]. Xiangfang district) in 1898. This part of From 1898 to 1931, Harbin’s initial Harbin was named by Russians as Strayi and urban planning was completed under often called ‘Old Harbin’ or ‘Old Town,' as it CERMB’s supervision. Most of the initial was the first part of Harbin that Russians planning was done by a team of Russian resided [5]. A Russian community was

Inno Science Press 3 Russian Influence on Harbin’s Urban Planning before 1931 Geng, et al. gradually developed in Xiangfang, where church in Harbin, social clubs, barber shops, infrastructures and a number of supportive cafés, restaurants, and schools for CER facilities were built, including a Russo- employees’ children [Figure 1]. Chinese bank, the first Eastern orthodox

Figure 1. Photos of Xiangfang Old Town in 1899. (a) Weather Station in Xiangfang. (b) Old Harbin Station. (c) First Official Building of CERMB in Xiangfang. (d) First Orthodox Church in Harbin. Source: Urban Planning Bureau of Harbin Municipality and Urban Planning Society of Harbin Municipality, 2002

Referring to the Harbin map in 1924 key reasons [3]. Firstly, part of the main [Figure 2], Xiangfang district was carefully railway line passed through Nangang. For the planned with a strict grid. ease of transporting railway construction Unlike Nangang and Daoli districts, Xiangfa materials, a new station, named ‘Harbin ng district was not redeveloped again until the Station’ was designed in Nangang to Chinese government took back Harbin’s accommodate these needs [12]. The administrative rights. Many Russians moved construction of Harbin Station commenced as to live in Nangang and Daoli after they were soon as Russians arrived at Xiangfang in developed, causing Xiangfang’s primacy to 1898 and was completed around 1904 [Figure gradually fade and it slowly transformed into 3]. The new train station became a prominent a basecamp for the Russian army after 1904 landmark of Nangang. [5]. Most of the Russian historical buildings Secondly, Nangang district is located on a in Xiangfang have been demolished during hill higher than the rest of Harbin. Due to such years of redevelopment. The original layout attractive topography and its prominent of Xiangfang developed in 1898 has also location, CERMB decided to have their changed significantly, and the initial grid is administrative offices, related governmental hardly visible in Harbin’s map today [11]. departments and residential developments for their railway employees in Nangang [8]. 3.2 Nangang District Subsequently, this district was mainly Nangang and Daoli districts are the next two occupied by Russians who had the urban districts in Harbin administrative power over Harbin. After after Xiangfang. Nangang was named by China took back Harbin’s administrative Russians as Novyi Gorod and was also called rights in 1946, most government departments, ‘New Town’. It was planned to be the central universities, and schools remain in Nangang administrative district from 1901 due to two [13]. Dazhi Street and Chezhan Street (now

Inno Science Press 4 Russian Influence on Harbin’s Urban Planning before 1931 Geng, et al. renamed as Hongjun Street) are the two main The south-western part, together streets in Nangang district. These two roads with Xiangfang district, was mostly for the intersect at a square with a church in the Russian army, whereas the north-western part middle (original St. Nicholas Church), which of Nangang, connecting to , was served as a critical landmark occupied by many consulates and commercial of Nangang district [Figure 3]. These two developments. Zhao et al. (2016) concluded main streets subdivide Nangang into four that Nangang follows an orthogonal functional zones [Figure 2]. The north-eastern geometry of street grids that collided with part was a general residential area, while the radial planning [5]. This urban layout can be south-eastern part of Nangang had museums observed in Harbin’s map in 1910 [Figure 2] and residential blocks for CERMB employees. and is further discussed in Section 3.

Figure 2. Map of Harbin 1920. Source: Urban Planning Bureau of Harbin Municipality and Urban Planning Society of Harbin Municipality, 2002

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Figure 3. Photos of Nangang New Town. (a) New Harbin Station 1904. (b) Dazhi Street Scenery. (c) Hongjun Street Scenery. (d) Intersection of Dazhi and Hongjun Street – St. Nicholas Church. Source: Urban Planning Bureau of Harbin Municipality and Urban Planning Society of Harbin Municipality, 2002

3.3 Daoli District (known as Pristan or the Wharf) began to While Nangang district was being planned develop as people gathered at the riverbank and developed by CERMB as the central for commercial activities and it soon became administrative zone, many railway the centre for trade and commerce [15]. construction materials and goods for building CERMB planned Daoli district Harbin were shipped and imported predominantly using the grid plan [Figure 4]. via Songhua River [14]. CERMB constructed In Daoli district, the Central Street has been dams and storage spaces for goods and one of Harbin’s major commercial streets construction materials around the riverbank since it was developed [16]. [Figure 4]. Subsequently, Daoli district

Figure 4. Photos of Daoli. (a) Songhua Riverbank – Shipping and Distribution Port 1899. (b) Grid Pattern in Daoli Bird Eye View in 1920s. (c) Central Street Bird Eye View in 1920s. (d) Central Street Scene in 1920s. Source: Urban Planning Bureau of Harbin Municipality and Urban Planning Society of Harbin Municipality, 2002

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Daoli district played a different role decorative columns, parapets and lavish from Nangang district throughout Harbin’s looking ornaments can be observed along development. The new route to Europe has Jingyu Street in Daowai [Figure 6]. A attracted more Chinese and Westerners to Japanese scholar, Nishizawa first described visit the city and has accelerated the this eclecticism architecture influenced by development of the City. Daoli district, as a Baroque style as ‘Chinese Baroque’ trading and commercial centre, has [19]. Daowai district now has 145 dwellings accumulated stores, restaurants, taverns, bars, (with courtyard) of ‘Chinese Baroque’ style warehouses, and finance agencies, including which are listed as heritage protected Harbin Stock Exchange and Commercial buildings [20]. The entire area of ‘Chinese Club [15]. The Russian community opened Baroque’ dwellings is also listed as a shops on this street as the CER’s construction historical district in Harbin. was completed [Figure 4], and the architectural styles of the Central Street are 4. EUROPEAN PLANNING primarily inspired by Western designs, STRATEGIES IN HARBIN FROM including Art Nouveau, Baroque, and other 1898 TO 1931 eclecticism styles [Figure 4]. The Central Russian authorities applied various planning Street was approximately 24 m in width, with strategies in Harbin, most of which were wide pedestrian walkways and was 1,450 m inspired by Europeans. Hence, it is vital to in length starting from the riverbank. The understand these strategies before drawing Central Street had a strong European similarities and differences between Harbin architectural appeal, and buildings on both and the West. Daowai district was not sides of the street were between 13 m to 24 m directly planned under Russians, which will in height [17]. be discussed in Section 4.

3.4 Daowai District 4.1 Grid pattern in Europe The construction of CER attracted successive The grid pattern is a type of city plan formed waves of Chinese labourers from by streets running perpendicular to each other. neighbouring provinces, namely Shandong Such urban form was found in ancient Greece and Henan [3]. Due to the influx of migrants, a and Rome [21]. As seen in the early grid cities new neighbourhood next to Daoli – such as Olynthus, it is common for these cities Fujiadian (now Daowai district) became a to have small blocks with narrow street hotspot for these new migrants, whereas the frontages, which cater for walking and riding other three districts (Nangang, Daoli, and [22]. In 1835, Haussmann proposed to Xiangfang) were predominantly occupied by demolish certain parts of Paris to release foreigners. Zhengyang Street (now Jingyu space for wide avenues and green spaces. Street) became the centre of Daowai district’s Haussmann’s planning ideas emphasised the commercial activities and studies indicate that network of avenues, green spaces, the Daowai district underwent an organic annexation of suburbs and adequate development [18]. The master plans of Harbin infrastructure, which significantly affected in 1902 and 1917 [Figure 5] indicate that the many other cities in the late 19th century [18]. Russians focused on the urban planning The Barcelona plan (1858) by Ildefonso of Xiangfang, Nangang, and Daoli, but not Cerda was an example as a prototype of such Daowai. The lack of official coordination for urban extensions like the new grid city of Daowai does not imply that this district was Paris [Figure 7]. Barcelona is divided into not affected by Russian influence. Contrarily, street blocks for providing greenery, sunlight architecture in Daowai was heavily affected and ventilation. One significant feature of by Baroque style, which was a popular style Barcelona’s planning was that a few notable among shops that were designed and built by wide boulevards formed a diagonal Russians. Baroque elements such as intersection with the centre being a large

Inno Science Press 7 Russian Influence on Harbin’s Urban Planning before 1931 Geng, et al. green space across the city grid [23]. Grid strategy in Russia before the Garden City pattern was also the most common planning Movement.

Figure 5. Master Plans of Harbin 1902 and 1917. Source: Kradin et al., Harbin-An Ideal City of Russian’s Dream, 2007

Figure 6. Jingyu Street in Daowai. (a) Bird Eye view in 1920s. (b) Street Scene 1920s. Source: Urban Planning Bureau of Harbin Municipality and Urban Planning Society of Harbin Municipality, 2002

4.2 Grid pattern in Harbin as green spaces or civic buildings, to create a Grid pattern can be observed mainly in grand and dignified appearance. For instance, Nangang District and Daoli District. When two wide boulevards, namely Dazhi Street comparing an early map of Harbin’s New and Hongjun Street (now Zhongshan Street), Town (Nangang) in 1910 and Barcelona’s are the north-south and east-west axes, and a map [Figure 7], many similarities can be square with St Nicholas Church was built at observed, including wide boulevards with the intersection point as Nangang’s landmark diagonal and axial relationships, symmetrical [Figure 3]. The grandeur of civic buildings balance and emphasis on order. In both was best exemplified by the CERMB cities, streets were arranged in a regular and Headquarters, which was designed by the St. grid orderly pattern, with a combination of Peterburg architect, D.A. Kryzhanovsky. rectangular, diagonal and curved routes CERMB Headquarters stretched 170 m along converging or radiating from major sites, such Dazhi Street and annexed 22,300 sqm of

Inno Science Press 8 Russian Influence on Harbin’s Urban Planning before 1931 Geng, et al. space [24]. Haussmann’s Paris Renovation also [Figure 8]. For Daoli District, a main concern reflected similar planning strategy, in which was to ease the transportation of goods from square, fountain, church, and greenery spaces the river before the railway was constructed acted as boulevards’ intersection [18]. [15]. The Central Street serves as the arterial The grid plan is visible in the east part of thoroughfare intersecting with secondary Nangang District and in Daoli District streets on both sides.

Figure 7. Master Plan of Barcelona by Cerda 1859 and Map of Nangang 1910. Source: Archivo Historico Municipal de Barcelona, 2020 & Urban Planning Bureau of Harbin Municipality and Urban Planning Society of Harbin Municipality, 2002

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International Federation for Housing and Planning (IFHP) was founded by Howard in 1913 as a knowledge-sharing network to promote the garden city concept [29]. Reports on Early IFHP meetings in Garden Cities and Town Planning Magazine indicate that Russian garden city activists represented the second largest national faction in the organisation after Germany [30]. Among all the supporters, Dmitri Protopopov and Alexander Bloch established the Obschestvo

Figure 8. Map of Daoli 1920. Source: Kradin et al., Gorodov-Sadov (Russian Associate of Harbin-An Ideal City of Russian’s Dream, 2007 Garden Cities, referred as RAGC) in St. Petersburg in 1913, which attracted many 4.3 Garden City Movement in Russia middle-class activists [29]. With Bloch’s In the Renaissance period, Leon Battista translation of Howard’s Garden Cities of Alberti proposed the concept of the ideal city Tomorrow in 1911, the garden city idea in his seminal book, On the Art of Building [25]. became even more widely known and Alberti’s ideal city emphasised the careful welcomed in Russia. However, during the setting of the size and direction of streets early 20th century, there was a limited ruled by perfect symmetry to achieve the ideal implementation of the garden city concept in perfection in geometry and aesthetics. Since Russia, such as a few Moscow-Kazan railway then, many planners in Europe, such as settlements close to Moscow, where Filarete, synthesised the notion of the ideal engineers and railway staff lived [31]. city by producing their best form of cities, and Prozorovskaya (now named Kratovo), 40 km iterations of similar planning principles were away from central Moscow, is the first garden reflected in many city plans [26]. Inspired by city in Russia designed by Vladimir the ideal city concept, Ebenezer Howard Semyonov, a Russian Architect, urban published the book, Garden Cities of To- planner and theorist, from 1912 to 1917 as a Morrow which gave rise to the Garden City residential area for the employees of the Movement and became one of the most Moscow-Kazan railway [32]. influential planning theories of the early 20th Semyonov was driven by the garden city century [27]. In the book, Howard’s critical development during his stay in London opinion towards the capitalist society of his between 1908 and 1912. Both Semyonov and time is reflected through the proposal of Protopopov attended the RIBA Town offering a new socialist way of living, where Planning Conference in 1910, which was negative impacts of industrial growth, such as primarily organised by Raymond Unwin to poor air and water quality, are reduced by showcase town planning’s emergence under integrating urban and rural land uses [28]. the garden city concept [33]. After his return to Greenbelts and greenery are proposed to act Moscow in 1912, Semyonov became a as buffers between industrial and residential leading member of RAGC [34]. Unwin’s zones. The garden city would provide cheap influence was apparent in Semyonov’s master housing and large plots of shared greenery plan for Prozorovskaya [33]. There is a striking while being completely self-sustained and resemblance between Prozorovskaya’s first self-governed by its residents [7]. With the master plan in 1912 and two of Unwin’s plans, proposed limited population in the concentric namely Letchworth’s Garden City in 1904 centre, communities were divided by and Hampstead Garden Suburbs in 1912 greenbelts and radial boulevards. [Figure 9]. In Letchworth’s Garden City plan, When the garden city idea became well radials extend from the central square with received across European supporters, the clusters of civic buildings demonstrating the

Inno Science Press 10 Russian Influence on Harbin’s Urban Planning before 1931 Geng, et al. transposition from Howard’s diagram. The Prozorovskaya [Figure 9] shows the relationship between the grand axis and the convergence of three key streets on a large central square is similar to that of the public open space [9]. The three key streets, as Prozorovskaya plan. The Hampstead Garden compositional axes, were wide, tree-lined Suburb in 1912, a more direct similarity boulevards. Due to the increased cost of between it and the Prozorovskaya plan can be building materials and labour, the observed [Figure 9]. Also, at the kite’s apex, construction of the Garden City of Unwin later proposed a formal square, which Prozorovskaya was paused and finally converging radials of the perimeter roads led. stopped completely after the outbreak of the Like Unwin’s plan of Letchworth and First World War in 1914. Hampstead, Semyonov’s plan of

Figure 9. Unwin and Semyonov’s plans under garden city influence. (a) Plan for Letchworth’s Garden City 1904 by Unwin. (b) Plan for Hampstead Garden Suburbs 1912 by Unwin. (c) Plan of Prozorovskaya 1912 by Semyonov. (d) Plans of some grid pattern settlements in the suburbs of Moscow at the end of nineteenth century. Source: (a) Purdom, The Garden City: A Study in the Development of Modern Town, 1913; (b) The Record, The Record- Hampstead Garden Suburb, Vol. 1 No. 1, 1912; (c,d) Belousov, Vladimir Nicolaevich Semenov, 1980

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The Civil War period between 1917 and Howard’s original garden city concept had 1922 resulted in the disbandment of RAGC been dismissed by then [31]. and the discontinuation of the realisation of the garden city in Russia [29]. Consequently, large-scale construction of new Garden Cities slowed down during this period, while the concept was still popular and widely discussed in Russia. For instance, Russian architects designed various versions of their ideal Moscow masterplan according to garden city principles [Figure 10], while it was rare for any planning proposal to be realised [31]. Although RAGC was reformed under governmental auspices shortly after 1922, the concept itself was soon dismissed as a mere utopian fantasy of petit-bourgeois intellectuals, which was incompatible with the vision of the new socialist way of life under Stalin’s first Five Year Plan (1928- 1933). This period was different from the previous one when intensive industrialisation began, and existing cities did not have the Figure 10. Conceptual plans of Moscow under garden capacity for the huge influx of workers from city influence - ‘New Moscow’ by Alexery Shchusev rural areas. New industrial centres and plans and Ivan Zholtovsky 1923. Source: Savchenko, with high practicality were needed. The Continuity in Change-400 Years of Urban Planning for garden city utopia was no longer suited as it Moscow, 2013 is incapable of providing a real solution to the industrialisation consequences in Moscow. 4.4 Garden City Movement in Harbin After the dismissal of the garden city (1) 1898-1917 approach in Russia, a new concept called The early urbanisation stage of Harbin ‘green city’ emerged. ‘Green city’ in Moscow encountered the publication of Howard’s did inherit the idea of providing a healthy and Garden Cities of Tomorrow. The master plan green living condition from garden city but of Harbin in 1902 [Figure 5] prepared by was primarily focusing on creating industrial Russian planners indicates that the western centres and residential settlements on the part of the New Town was already designed outer skirt of central Moscow, instead of under the aftermath of the garden city idea. creating greenbelts [31]. Russia subsequently Interestingly, the development of Nangang in initiated a symposium on the socialist’s city 1901 was three years after the publication of in 1928-1931, inviting overseas planners and Howard’s Garden City in 1898 and 11 years architects, such as Le Corbusier, to contribute prior to Semyonov’s design of Prozorovskaya, to the design of the new, exemplary socialist which is often referred as the first garden city town of Moscow [35,36]. In 1935, Semyonov town in Russia [37]. However, evidence shows was appointed as the Chief Architect of that Russian planners applied the garden city Moscow by Stalin and was one of the leading concept to Harbin since 1901. In Figure 9, a architects for developing the 1935 Master substantial contrast can be observed in Plan of Moscow. The Master Plan of Moscow Harbin’s early plans and some settlements reflected the idea of the green city, which around Moscow at the end of the 19th century emphasised the importance of green spaces, when most of the suburban expansion near but the utopian perfect radial plans of Moscow was still using a rigid grid pattern [9]. Harbin’s urban development seemed to

Inno Science Press 12 Russian Influence on Harbin’s Urban Planning before 1931 Geng, et al. premeditate the popularity of the garden city. of Harbin’s urbanisation are mostly still in use By comparing Howard’s diagram and the and often incorporate wide pedestrian overall planning of Nangang, it is clear that walkways on each side with vegetations. the garden city concept was implemented in The garden city planning strategy is Harbin [38]. In Nangang, Russia started to especially notable in Huayuan Street area design residential buildings by uniform styles with flourishing greenery scenes [Figure 11] and blended with the natural environments. Huayuan Street area was a residential district Central boulevards and street blocks in the for CERMB employees with a large public Nangang District, centred around the square park at the centre [Figure 7]. The boulevards and radiating in all directions, while the in the Huayuan Street area had wide CERMB built residential areas and pedestrian walkways with greeneries on both administrative and business areas between the sides [31]. Due to its historical and cultural roads [Figure 7]. As seen in the map, the significance, the landscape and urban design intersection of Jiaohua Street and Dazhi of the Huayuan Street area should be Street was the concentric point of the radial carefully preserved [40]. plan. One layer of this radial section, namely on Jiashu Street [Figure 7], was designed and (2) 1917-1931 used as a green belt connecting to Beixiu Park Under the inspiration of the garden city, in the centre of the diagonal intersection. In Russian planners, led by A.K. Levteev, the map of Harbin in 1910 [Figure 7], the produced the Majiagou Garden City diagram greenbelt on Jiashu Street and Beixiu Park in 1916 [Figure 12] [8]. Maps of Harbin in were used as greenery spaces. Road design 1925 and 1933 [Figure 13] show that the in Nangang also reflects the garden city layout of the Majiagou Garden City became concept [13]. For instance, Dazhi Street was a more noticeable in the city’s urban fabric. 106metre wide with four motor lanes to The map of Harbin 1925 shows the full accommodate Harbin’s increasing traffic realisation of the Majiagou Garden City when more migrants settled in the city [39]. [Figure 13]. These roads constructed during the early stage

Figure 11. (a) Official Building of CERMB in Nangang on Dazhi Street. (b) Intersection of Dazhi and Hongjun Street. (c) CERMB residential dwellings in Huayuan area. (d) CERMB gathering in Huayuan area. Source: Urban Planning Bureau of Harbin Municipality and Urban Planning Society of Harbin Municipality, 2002

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Figure 12. (a, b) Howard’s Garden City diagram 1898. (c) Majiagou Garden City diagram in 1916. Source: (a,b) Howard, Garden Cities of Tomorrow, 1898; (c) Kradin et al., Harbin-An Ideal City of Russian’s Dream, 2007

Figure 13. Majiagou Garden City 1925 to 2007. Source: Kradin et al., Harbin-An Ideal City of Russian’s Dream, 2007

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Many architectural historians have were demarcated as military zones. During claimed that Harbin’s Majiagou Garden City the Manchurian period under Japanese layout was based on Moscow’s urban layout invasion, the Majiagou Garden City planning [5]. However, as discussed above, Moscow as began to be demolished and redesigned a city was never fully developed under the slowly [8]. As seen in the map in 1933, part garden city concept except for a few small of Majiagou’s Garden City plan was nearby railway towns [31]. Leading European- demolished and used as special military zones. trained planners and architects in Harbin at With the increasing population and the the time, such as Planson and Levteev, were military needs, Japanese planners, led by interested in applying frontier urban and Toshihisa Sato, came up with a development architectural theories in Harbin, including plan called the ‘Plan of Great Harbin’ [8]. Howard’s Garden City concept. This explains They decided to redesign the garden city plan why Majiagou’s Garden City diagram is in Majiagou [13]. As the map shows, by 1938, strikingly similar to Howard’s original the original garden city layout became almost diagram. Although the implementation of unnoticeable with radical planning changes garden city was limited in Moscow due to the around Majiagou area. Although the large chaos caused by the Russian Civil War, it was radial plot can no longer be seen, a small realised to a certain extent in the radial layout around Wenchang Street close to comparatively empty experimental land of Zhongshan Street has been kept today [Figure Harbin. 13]. Although some historic areas have been Like Harbin, Prozorovskaya was also a reconstructed, the combination of grid railway town built under the garden city planning and garden city has culminated in a concept, which was also designed from city with a variegated urban layout formed by scratch. Some similarities can be drawn a series of differently scaled open spaces, between the urban planning of Harbin and boulevards, streets, and laneways. Prozorovskaya. For instance, the intersection of the three boulevards at an open space are 5. RUSSIAN INFLUENCE ON THE located at the northern part of URBAN DEVELOPMENT Prozorovskaya’s plan, while Zhongshan OF DAOWAI Street intersection in Majiagou resembles the Compared with the planning of Xiangfang, same layout [Figure 9 and Figure 13]. Nangang, and Daoli, Daowai District mostly However, differences between the two are went through spontaneous development and more apparent; Majiagou’s approach was a the interference of Russian culture is less complete radial layout [Figure 13], a direct apparent than other districts in Harbin [13,15,41- placement of Howard’s diagram, whereas 43]. However, Daowai's ‘Chinese Baroque’ Prozorovskaya’s plan was a combination of architecture was formed largely under the radial and kite forms [Figure 9]. influence of Russia’s eclectic Baroque Prozorovskaya was a pioneer model for architecture in Harbin [20,41,42,44]. subsequent garden city development in There are several factors to explain the Russia which were sometimes adopted in a formation of ‘Chinese Baroque’ architecture simplified form and realised as abundantly in Daowai. Western countries dominated landscaped towns with low-rise buildings [32]. most of the capital in Harbin before the 1920s, Comparatively, Harbin is unique among but since the 1920s, more Chinese investors Russian cities in many ways. and migrants have moved to Harbin for The influence of Howard’s original business [3]. Due to the increase of Chinese garden city concept in Majiagou is more residents and economic prosperity of visible than other garden cities in Russia. commercial activities, residents Many planned garden cities in Russia were in Daowai would like to announce their rising never realised. In 1932, the Japanese army statues in this city that was mainly dominated invaded , and large blocks of land by Russian power [45]. Hence more and more

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‘Chinese Baroque’ buildings were developed [20]. As shown on the aerial photo in 1966 to declare the uprising of Chinese residents [Figure 15], the buildings near Jingyu Street and their business. ‘Chinese Baroque’ were mostly using courtyard typology. architecture started to flourish organically Compared with the grid development directly after the 1920s [17, 46]. The master plan of supervised by Russian planners Harbin in 1917 [Figure 5] indicates in Daoli District, the grid development that Daowai was already undergoing in Daowai is much denser with smaller block development by then. The map in 1924 size. A case study on Daowai's ‘Chinese [Figure 14] shows that Daowai district had Baroque’ architecture shows one typical already formed its block pattern. Another block in this area is divided by 23 courtyards critical reason for the emergence of ‘Chinese [Figure 15] [47]. The courtyards maximise the Baroque’ was similar to the popularity of width of shop fronts on four sides of the block, eclecticism Baroque in Daoli and Nangang. which are all street-facing and there are Due to its lavishness, Baroque style was used narrow laneways in-between the courtyards. in many commercial developments to Nowadays, the layout of this ‘Chinese resemble wealth [2,45,46]. Chinese residents Baroque’ area in Daowai has mostly been were stimulated by the Baroque architecture kept to its original form, whilst some ‘Chinese which Russians introduced to Harbin. Baroque’ dwellings have been renovated. Some ‘Chinese Baroque’ buildings on Nanerdao Street have been demolished and redeveloped for tourism purpose. Under Russians’ introduction of eclectic Baroque architecture in Harbin and the local needs for multi-functional architecture, ‘Chinese Baroque’ was the key architectural style in Daowai prior to 1931 [42]. In the case of Daowai, Russia influenced the architecture style first, and the building typology contributed to the organic formation of the urban layout.

6. CONSERVATION POSSIBILITIES This section discusses existing issues and conservation possibilities of existing historic

Figure 14. Map of Daowai in 1924. Source: Kradin et areas in Harbin that were developed under al., Harbin-An Ideal City of Russian’s Dream, 2007 Russian influence. From the analysis above, Russian guided planning strategies in the Many studies argue that the key features early stage of Harbin’s urban development of ‘Chinese Baroque’ architecture had direct have been found. Many changes have been impact on the urban layout made since 1931 on Harbin’s urban layout, of Daowai [20,43,47,48]. A ‘Chinese Baroque’ however, traces of grid pattern, garden city style building is often multi-functional with a and Russian impact on Daowai have survived courtyard at the back for residential purpose throughout the development. The study aims and the front of the dwelling caters for to raise authorities and researchers’ attention commercial needs [44]. The front façade of to these heritage areas and develop these dwellings is full of ornaments that conservation guidelines. Three existing issues resemble the Baroque style, while the can be identified from the map analysis above courtyard is often in Chinese vernacular style and on-site observation before providing five with traditional wooden parapets and railings recommendations.

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Figure 15. Courtyard layout of ‘Chinese Baroque’ in Daowai District near Jingyu Street. Source: www.map.baidu.com

6.1 Fire safety and poor condition Wang and Xu affirmed that lower-income and During an on-site observation in Daowai, vulnerable social groups now occupy most of many buildings were in poor condition due to these original residential houses built before the lack of maintenance and illegal 1931 for CER employees in Huayuan District constructions that did not comply with [50]. They also argue that with the government statutory guidelines. Liu asserted that and residents’ limited consciousness, in Daowai, buildings were illegally Huayuan’s development is in a vicious circle. constructed within courtyards, which Despite its poor living destroyed the block’s original design, and condition, Huayuan historical block has been insufficient open spaces are provided because carefully preserved by Harbin Municipal of illegal excavation and construction [49]. Government. Twenty-two precincts in Harbin, Seen in Figure 16, some of these courtyards including Huayuan Street, Central Street and have narrow alleyways between them that are ‘Chinese Baroque’ area in Daowai are listed not wide enough for fire engines to pass as protected sites. However, as Liu insinuates, through [43]. With the lack of planning and some parts of these areas are still used for logic of illegal constructions, some residential purposes. It is hard to provide original Daowai courtyards face severe fire detailed and practical planning instruments to safety issues. guide these residents to protect and improve Surviving precincts, developed before the conditions of these historical areas [49]. 1931 by Russians with open spaces and broad streets, provide sufficient space for fire safety. 6.2 Lack of guidelines for heritage However, the lack of maintenance is a protection of historical blocks concern in these areas, such As seen in the analysis of the maps, some as Huayuan Street area. Service facilities and parts of the historical blocks have been environment have worsened in the area. demolished with only a small portion

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Figure 16. (a) Renovated new ‘Chinese Baroque’ area. (b) Original ‘Chinese Baroque’ dwellings with narrow entrance alley. (c) Original ‘Chinese Baroque’ with brick construction. Source: Photos by Tian Wang, January 2021 surviving today. For instance, as of the date kept to its original form with restorations that this paper was published, aimed to look like the ‘old.’ However, the the Majiagou Garden City plan has been Daowai historical block renovation has mostly removed with only traces left at the received controversial reviews, Wenchang Street and Zhongshan Street as Daowai constructed an entirely new intersection. Research by Liu (2001) argues ‘Chinese Baroque’ street near Nanerdao that researchers need to acknowledge that Street [Figure 16]. The newly built ‘Chinese some buildings in these older blocks are no Baroque’ street looks quite different from the longer usable, although it is essential to original ‘Chinese Baroque.’ A study by Igor recognise the historic and cultural value of described the newly constructed street as these blocks, some parts of the blocks must be ‘new historical.’ Demolishing the original demolished and rebuilt to accommodate more dwellings and replacing them with new residents. Therefore, it is critical to draw a buildings that mimic the original line between demolition and conservation [51]. characteristics of ‘Chinese Baroque’ is a Since 1984, Harbin Municipal Government questionable solution. The renovation has provided lists of heritage buildings and outcomes of the Central Street area and historical areas. Strict rules such as the the Daowai’s ‘Chinese Baroque’ area are prohibition of demolition have been applied very different. A clear heritage protection to the buildings and areas on the list since then. policy is required for better conservation of However, just drawing the boundary between these valuable heritage blocks. destruction and conservation is far from enough. How to renovate or restore the 6.3 Understand the critical characters of protected buildings so that the heritage early planning strategies precinct can be well preserved and presented Section 3 and 4 identify the critical as a whole picture is also critical. As seen in characteristics of a grid plan, garden city and Daowai, parts of the ‘Chinese Baroque’ area ‘Chinese Baroque’ style, which prompted the have been demolished, while other conserved early stage of Russians’ urban planning in parts have been renovated or restored. Once Harbin. Studies indicate that there is a lack of the buildings are prohibited from demolition, understanding of crucial urban strategies used it is not clear which preservation strategy in Harbin historical areas, which sometimes should be applied. Whether the original led to unsatisfied restoration [49, 52]. Therefore, façade should be renovated like new or this study identifies the key characteristics of carefully restored to look like the original strategies used in Harbin to avoid any should be identified. At the moment, there is restoration or reconstruction with a lack of consistency as both strategies can be inappropriate techniques. For a grid plan, the seen in Daowai. combination of diagonal boulevards and grid The Central Street block in Daoli is a pattern in Nangang, or a square and greenery successful example of protecting a historical as the intersection of different boulevards and block. Central Street itself has mostly been the grid pattern that extends from the Central

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Street in Daoli, reflect key characteristics of of courtyard layout and how it extends to the Russians’ grid planning strategy in Harbin. main streets. As stated by Igor [Figure 17], a Therefore, these critical planning elements of large area of Daowai courtyard houses was Harbin should be carefully preserved. For demolished to build a square with Chinese garden city, the Huayuan historic block and zodiac animal sculptures which look the remains of the Majiagou Garden City are anachronistic and have no relationship to the essential for safeguarding the Garden City ‘Chinese Baroque’ style [17]. When looking at Movement in the history of Harbin. For the Daowai’s protection, the characteristics of the Daowai historic block, the most important courtyard are essential. Constructing new thing is acknowledging the impact of developments that do not reflect ‘Chinese ‘Chinese Baroque’ courtyards in the district’s Baroque’ style and demolishing the original urban development. The focus of courtyards should be avoided. conservation should lie primarily on impacts

Figure 17. (a) Renovated ‘Chinese Baroque’ courtyard. (b) Chinese zodiac animal sculptures. Source: Photos by Tian Wang, January 2021

7. SUGGESTIONS ON FUTURE liveable due to their dilapidation [53]. However, CONSERVATION from the analysis above, demolition is not the Based on the understanding of current issues only solution. As seen in the Central Street and possibilities, this section provides five area, the original buildings are no longer used suggestions on how best to conserve Harbin’s for residential purpose but have been urban precincts moving forward. converted to commercial and cultural uses [16]. (1) When making decisions on Another example is the St. Sophia Church, the demolition, the precincts’ historical and church is now used as a gallery to present the cultural value should be carefully considered. orthodox church’s history in Harbin [54]. For example, due to fire safety reasons and Without demolishing these heritage buildings, the restoration of the original urban fabric, the the change of function provides them with illegal construction within the ‘Chinese new purposes suited to the current need while Baroque’ courtyards could be demolished. attracting tourists and locals to visit and raise However, the demolition of large areas of attention and awareness to heritage protection. these courtyards and replacing them with new (3) Understanding the key characteristics residential buildings or squares that do not of the historical precincts is vital before reflect the characters of ‘Chinese Baroque’ making conservation decisions. Different should be avoided. historic areas reflect different urban planning (2) The disrepair of some historical areas strategies, which should be the focus of may not be ideal for residential purposes, but conservation. For example, the ‘Chinese a change of function could be considered. Baroque’ courtyards in Daowai District, Research demonstrates that some of contribute to the historic precinct’s urban the Huayuan historical blocks are no longer fabric. When preserving Daowai District, the

Inno Science Press 19 Russian Influence on Harbin’s Urban Planning before 1931 Geng, et al. courtyard houses and the blocks should be the conservation guideline of historical areas critical focus. Building new developments focusing on restoration techniques could help that look historical but do not reflect the monitor the protection of Harbin’s urban ‘Chinese Baroque’ planning and architectural fabric. ideas should be avoided. Also, the grid plan and garden city are vital principles that have 8. TRANSFERABILITY OF THE historical value behind the design RESULTS of Nangang. Grid patterns developed before Heritage conservation discussions of colonial 1931 that survived until today should be cities in China are often contested due to a carefully preserved. Dazhi mix of reasons such as conflicting interests of and Huayuan Street that reflect the garden various stakeholders, the cultural acceptance city idea should have a focus on maintaining of colonial history and the lucrativeness of the area with its signature wide pedestrian urban land. Among those colonial cities, walkways with greenery. The square and park many unique urban fabrics that once at the crossover points of diagonal possessed high conservation values often intersecting streets are also a key element of resulted in dilapidation and demolition due to urban conservation, as they are symbols of the the lack of feasible solutions. However, in unique fabric in Harbin. Some of the original recent years, the decision-makers of these greenbelts, such as the one in the west part colonial cities are seemingly paying more of Nangang near Jiashu Street could be attention to heritage conservation. restored as greenery, while more green spaces In cities like Harbin, the protection of should be incorporated in Harbin’s urban historical areas has been accelerated due to an planning. increasing recognition by authorities and the (4) Historical blocks should aim to demand for heritage tourism. As seen in cities restore the original features and not rebuild such as Qingdao, Guangzhou and Macau, buildings and dwellings to look tourism and its profitable nature can facilitate new. Daoli District provides examples of post-colonial heritage conservation. However, successful restoration. For example, the there is also a debate as to what degree of restoration of the Central Street and St Sophia tourism is considered over-tourism that can Church. Liu hinted that restoring its original potentially accelerate the degradation of look whilst conserving the historical dwellings and harm their conservations. Zang developments should be the focus and not (2017) criticised that Macau’s over-tourism is rebuilding the façades to make it look new [55]. hindering heritage protection and liveability The same restoration idea could be used in for locals [56]. Based on the recommendations conserving Daowai District. Instead of drawn from this study, a functional change of demolishing and building an entirely new unsuitable residential dwellings and spatial street with ‘Chinese Baroque’ architecture, segregation between protected sites and restoring some historical buildings could help residential areas can potentially foster a the neighbourhood showcase its cultural sustainable balance between tourism, value while maintaining its true form. conservation and the quality of life of local (5) Conservation guidelines on an urban inhabitants. scale should be developed to help protect One important issue discussed in this Harbin’s unique urban fabric. As discussed paper is the significance of stylistic and above, conservation guidelines and heritage contextual understanding of key protection lists have been developed by characteristics of historical precincts in Harbin Municipal Government. Heritage conservation. Many colonial cities in China buildings and areas on the list are well- were consecutively or simultaneously protected against demolition. Likewise, developed under multiple colonisers, making authorities should also put more thought and it vital to scrutinise different cultural impacts effort into protecting historical blocks. A on the urban fabric. For instance, Qingdao,

Inno Science Press 20 Russian Influence on Harbin’s Urban Planning before 1931 Geng, et al. once colonised by Germany then Japan, attempt to use Harbin to channel these historic retains historical precincts and dwellings urban planning ideas resulted in a bold under both cultures’ influences [57]. For cities experimental field and melting pot of leading like Qingdao, it is a challenging necessity for European planning and architectural trends at researchers to identify manifold styles and the time. Unfortunately, most contexts under which the urban fabric was of Majiagou Garden City plan in 1917 have developed. A study by Yang et al. (2020) also been redesigned slowly since the Manchuria discussed the conservation possibilities period, and as a result have left a minimal around Dalian’s Dongguan Street historical mark on Harbin’s urban layout today. area [58]. They suggested that as many However, the garden city ideas implemented buildings near Dongguan Street are in a in the west part of New Town, such as the dilapidated stage, ‘conservation is suggested Huayuan Street area, have determined to focus more on the buildings with high Harbin’s urban layout and remain visible preservation value to achieve a win-win today. It is rare to see landmarks such as balance between financial value and heritage church, square, and park acting as key value.’ Similarly, transferable results from referencing points and a concentric point in this study suggest that with the connotation of traditional Chinese city planning. Russian critical characteristics, relevant policy makers influenced architecture also impacts Harbin’s can integrate historical preservation into urban layout, namely it’s ‘Chinese Baroque’ heritage conservation depending on site courtyard and its impact on the formation of conditions. the historical block of Daowai. Three key issues in the current conservation efforts 9. CONCLUSION including fire safety (or lack thereof), poor In conclusion, by studying the history of understanding of the underlying European Harbin’s urbanisation from 1898 to 1931, this urban strategies, and lack of official guidance paper identifies the impact of Russian urban in urban fabric conservation are recognised. architects’ use of European planning One key issue underpinning these problems is strategies in the city’s development. From the the lack of understanding of the critical analysis of historical maps of Harbin, the characteristics of European urban planning study concludes that the use of grid pattern strategies in Harbin. Five recommendations and the garden city concept are reflected in are offered at the end of this study, including Harbin’s urban fabric. The combination of (1) when making decisions on demolition, the diagonal boulevards, intersecting at open historical and cultural value of historical spaces and greeneries, and the ancient grid precincts should be carefully considered; (2) pattern can be seen in Nangang, change of function could help these precincts while Daoli had a more rigid grid pattern. The be protected while attracting the public to garden city idea is widely reflected across visit and raise attention in heritage Harbin, notably in the Majiagou Garden City conservation; (3) understanding the key plan developed around the same time as the characters of these historical precincts is vital Russian Civil War. Some researchers suggest before making conservation decisions; (4) that the planning of Harbin was inspired by historical blocks should aim to restore the Moscow, however, garden city’s realisation original features but not be renovated to look in Moscow was interrupted by the Russian new; and finally (5) conservation guidelines Civil War and was never fully put to practice on an urban scale should be produced to help again. Many of the garden city inspired towns preserve Harbin’s unique urban fabric. near Moscow only partially implemented Recommendations from this study can also be Howard’s concept such as Semyonov’s transferable and valuable to other colonial master plan for Prozorovskaya, but the cities in China that are facing heritage Majiagou Garden City plan is strikingly conservation issues. identical to the one of Howard. The Russian

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