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Tiger Conservation Partnership Program TIGER CONSERVATION PARTNERSHIP PROGRAM Concepts and Tools to Advance Wild Tiger Conservation: A Core Learning Program LANDSCAPE LEVEL CONSERVATION Eric D. Wikramanayake Mahendra K. Shrestha Compilation copyright © by Smithsonian Institution, September 2014. All rights reserved. The Smithsonian Institution has compiled the content of this work for educational and non-commercial use. The content may be owned by the Smithsonian, contributing authors, or third parties, and some content may be in the public domain. The Smithsonian can offer no guarantee or assurance that all pertinent information is provided or that the information is correct in each circumstance. Users are responsible for determin- ing what permission(s) are required to use the content and, if necessary, for obtaining such permission. The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Smithsonian Institution concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. This publication has not been formally edited. Publishing production: English, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC Acknowledgments TheConcepts and Tools to Advance Wild Tiger Conservation: A Core Learning Program on Landscape Level Conservation course brings out existing knowledge and best practices on the subject. It is possible because of technical contribu- tions from many practitioners, policy makers, and researchers dedicating their lives to conservation of tigers and many other associated species. Valuable contributions and reviews were received from Steven Monfort, John Seidensticker, and Marshall Jones, all of the Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute (SCBI). Sivananthan Elagupillay and G. Balamurugan from Malaysia, Sergey Aramilev from the Russian Federation, Changzhi Zhang from China, and Milind Pariwakam from India shared case studies on their landscapes, so others in tiger range countries and elsewhere can learn about the challenges and opportunities in undertaking landscape conservation programs. We hope to add several more case studies in future updates to this document for the benefit of the larger community of practice. The questions in the “Short Answers to FAQ from Practitioners” section were contributed by the community of practice through the Wild-Tigers Listserv, particularly Shyam Bajimaya, Harendra Bargali, Anil Bhardwaj, Trishna Dutta, Bhim Gurung, Jhamak Karki, Matthew Linkie, Hoq Mahbub Morshed, R. Sreenivasa Murthy, A. N. M. Yasin Newaz, Milind Pariwakam, G. V. Reddy, Sandeep Sharma, Uday Sharma, Effendy Sumardja, and Lhendup Tharchen. We have tried to accommodate the questions received from all of them. The latest updates on the Indian part of the Terai Arc Landscape and other tiger conservation landscapes in India are from Rajesh Gopal, S. P. Yadav, Bivash Pan- dav, and Ramesh Krishnamurthy. Yuri Darman and Dale Miquelle shared the map and additional information on the Russian Far East. Anak Pattanavibool, Theerapat Prayurasiddhi, and James L. D. Smith shared their experiences from the Western Forest Complex in the Tenasserim Landscape. The initial draft of the document was reviewed by A. J. T. Johnsingh (India), Keshav Varma (India), Effendy Sumardja (Indonesia), G. Balamurugan (Malaysia), and Sivananthan Elagupillay (Malaysia). Current and past pro- gram staff, namely Suzy Sine and Ana Tinsler, provided strong administrative support. Support from Ginger Strader, Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, was crucial in giving the final shape to this document. This project was funded by the Global Tiger Initiative, World Bank through the Development Grant Facility, and the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation. Contents INTRODUCTION About the Core Learning Program 1 The eedN for This Training 1 Target Audience 1 Expected Qualifications/Knowledge Base of the Participants 2 Course Overview 2 Learning Objectives 3 How to Use This Core Learning Program Manual 3 WORKSHOP 1 Workshop 1 Course Content 5 Workshop 1 Schedule 8 Module 1 – Why Save Tigers? And How to Conserve Them 11 Module 2 – Creating the Enabling Conditions to Integrate and Mainstream Landscape Conservation into Land Use Planning and Development 13 WORKSHOP 2 Workshop 2 Course Content 17 Workshop 2 Schedule 22 Module 3 – Tiger Ecology and Natural History: A Primer 25 Module 4 – Introducing a New Paradigm: A Landscape Approach to Tiger Conservation 27 Module 5 – Enabling Conditions and Policies for Tiger Conservation Landscape Management 29 Module 6 – How to Design and Manage a Tiger Conservation Landscape 31 Module 7 – Monitoring 33 SECTION 1: Tiger Ecology and Natural History: A Primer 35 Evolution and Biogeography 35 Tiger Subspecies 36 V VI CONCEPTS AND TOOLS TO ADVANCE WILD TIGER CONSERVATION Tiger Ecotypes 37 Tiger Ecology, Behavior, Demographics, and Implications for Conservation and Recovery 37 SECTION 2: Introducing a New Paradigm: A Landscape Approach to Tiger Conservation 43 What Is a Conservation Landscape? 43 Evolution of Landscape Approaches to Conservation 44 Advantages of Landscape Conservation 44 Examples of Conservation Landscapes 46 Why a Landscape Approach to Tiger Conservation? Ecological, Demographic and Genetic Justification 52 Evidence for Landscapes in Maintaining Tiger Ecology, Demographics, and Genetic Variability 53 History of Tiger Conservation Landscapes 55 Co-Benefits of Tiger Conservation Landscapes 56 Where to Achieve Tx2: The Global Tiger Recovery Program Goal for 2022 57 SECTION 3: How to Design and Manage a Tiger Conservation Landscape 59 A Framework for Landscape Design 60 A Framework for Managing Tiger Conservation Landscapes 64 Policies and Enabling Conditions 69 Monitoring 69 Best Practices 70 SECTION 4: Best-Practice Examples of Landscape Conservation 73 TheTerai Arc Landscape 73 Central Indian Landscape (CIL) 79 Recovery of the Amur Tiger Population in the Russian Far East and Northeast China through Transboundary Conservation 90 Central Forest Spine: A Landscape-Level Initiative to Re-Establish Ecological Connectivity in Peninsular Malaysia 94 REFERENCES 105 GLOSSARY 115 SHORT ANSWERS TO FAQ FROM PRACTITIONERS 117 COURSE ASSESSMENT 127 Introduction About the Core Learning Program Concepts and Tools to Advance Wild Tiger Conservation: A Core Learning Program on Landscape Level Conserva- tion attempts to provide a comprehensive overview of the current understanding of the main issues related to land- scape conservation and how it can be fostered among the policy makers and other stakeholders to facilitate better land use planning leading to landscape conservation for tigers and other large mammals requiring large areas. We assembled relevant materials and case studies to improve understanding and encourage landscape level management practice through national level response, as well as transboundary cooperation for the transborder landscapes. This Core Learning Program (CLP) serves as a framework to develop planning and implementation strategies best suited for individual range countries. The CLP is intended to be a living and evolving document, and regular updates will be based on practical cases, recent literature and studies, new tools and technology, and feedback from users to ensure that it continues to reflect the most comprehensive tools and relevant experiences in this field. The Need for This Training Over the past 150 years the tiger range has collapsed by more than 93%, and the wild tiger population has declined to less than 3,500 animals. The precipitous decline is attributed in part to poaching, but also to extensive habitat loss and fragmentation. The remaining tigers live as isolated populations confined to protected areas, scattered across the vast range, from India to Indonesia and north to the Russian Far East. Many of the protected areas are, however, too small to sustain viable populations and the natural ecology and behavior of tigers. In response, con- servation biologists have proposed a new paradigm for conserving tigers; the creation of conservation landscapes, where proximate protected areas can be linked with habitat corridors that can facilitate dispersal movement and maintain ecological and genetic connectivity. Managing the tiger populations as larger, connected metapopulations can increase the ecological, demographic, and genetic viability of tiger populations, and the probability of long term persistence. The purpose of this course is to introduce this new approach and strategy for tiger conservation. Target Audience The primary target groups for this course module on landscape- scale approaches and strategies for tiger conservation, management, and population recovery are: 1. Policy makers at the level of Secretary to relevant Ministries 2. Directors and Deputy Directors of the relevant departments responsible for wildlife and forest/habitat con- servation and land- use planning. 3. Protected areas managers and managers of state/provincial forests. 1 2 CONCEPTS AND TOOLS TO ADVANCE WILD TIGER CONSERVATION The first group consists of high-lev el policy makers, such as the Secretaries to the relevant ministries, that include national planning and development, but also others responsible for land use issues that could impinge on landscape conservation (e.g., hydropower, industry, agriculture, roads, etc.). These sectors are key stakeholders responsible for expediting policies related to land uses and land allocation for conservation of large
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