Current Issues in Sport Science 3 (2018)

Comparing the expectations, experiences and legacies of volunteers at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships in Oslo 2011 and Val di Fiemme 2013

Martin Schnitzer1, *, Elsa Kristiansen2,3 & Dag Vidar Hanstad3 1 Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, 2 School of Business, History and Social Sciences, University College of Southeast , Vestfold, Norway 3 Department of Cultural and Social Studies, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway * Corresponding author: Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Fürstenweg 185, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria, Tel: +43 512 50745865, Email: [email protected]

ORIGINAL ARTICLE ABSTRACT

Article History: Volunteers play an important role in delivering events, especially events over a longer period of time. Submitted 3rd March 2017 For example, the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships (Nordic WSC) take place every two years in Accepted 14th September 2017 a member country of the International Ski Federation (FIS). These events usually last 12 days and Published 23rd January 2018 combine competitions in cross-country skiing, and Nordic combined. Furthermore, volunteers also represent one of the biggest groups of stakeholders taking part in the event. The Handling Editor: purpose of this article is to shed light on the expectations, experiences and legacies as perceived by Otmar Weiß, volunteers at two events of the same type (Nordic WSC), but staged in two different places and two University of Vienna, Austria different cultural settings. Therefore, 29 volunteers were interviewed; some of them at the FIS Nordic WSC in Oslo and the other Editor-in-Chief: half at the FIS Nordic WSC in Val di Fiemme. Martin Kopp The interviews underline that people volunteer for many different reasons, whereat Norwegian University of Innsbruck, Austria volunteers displayed a more individualistic orientation, Italian volunteers showed a greater com- mitment to their local community. In addition, Italian volunteers felt appreciated by the FIS for the Reviewers: good organization of the events. Other differences were found in the field of community acknow­ Reviewer 1: Siegfried Nagel, ledgement. Norwegian volunteers added that the Norwegian economy would not appreciate this University of Bern, type of experience, whereas in Italy students had to volunteer, which was also appreciated by the Reviewer 2: Norbert Schütte, community. Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, The results show that the retention rate may be higher in Val di Fiemme due to the Nordic WSC being a project-based undertaking. Hence, local community loyalty or simply hobbies could show an in- crease in retention. For future events further research should be undertaken in this field of research.

Keywords: sport events – volunteerism – expectations – experiences – legacies

Citation: Schnitzer, M., Kristiansen, E. & Hanstad D. V. (2018). Comparing the expectations, experiences and legacies of volunteers at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships in Oslo 2011 and Val di Fiemme 2013. Current Issues in Sport Science, 3:002. doi: 10.15203/CISS_2018.002

2018 I innsbruck university press, Innsbruck Current Issues in Sport Science I ISSN 2414-6641 I http://www.ciss-journal.org/ Vol. 3 I DOI 10.15203/CISS_2018.002 OPEN ACCESS M. Schnitzer, E. Kristiansen & D. V. Hanstad Volunteerism at Nordic WSC

Introduction and differences of these two events and to present implications of our findings. “Volunteers are the lifeblood of the Olympic Games and part of the DNA of thousands of people in this country,” said Sebas- tian Coe, Chair of the London 2012 Organizing Committee (IOC, Literature review and theoretical framework 2012) and underlined the obvious fact that major sport events wouldn’t be feasible without the help of many volunteers. The Elite and sport for all events alike depend on the hard work of FIS Nordic World Ski Championships (Nordic WSC) can be con- volunteers, who often are the largest stakeholder group with- sidered a major sport event (Parent & Smith-Swan, 2012), which in an event (Parent & Smith-Swan, 2012). As a result, research takes place every two years in a member country of the Inter- on volunteers and volunteering has become more popular national Ski Federation (FIS). Due to the frequency of this event, in recent decades, with a growing range of scholarly journals already hosted the Nordic WSC eight times, while Italy discussing volunteer topics (Wilson, 2012). The approaches to (1927, 1941, 1991, 2003 and 2013) and Norway (1930, 1966, volunteer research are very often discussed across several dis- 1982, 1997 and 2011) hosted the Championships five times ciplines (Hustinx, Cnaan & Handy, 2010). each. Nevertheless, there are some cultural differences be- Volunteers are a rather complex group of people and there tween Norway and Italy when it comes to Nordic skiing. In Nor- are several types of volunteers: short- or long-term volunteers, way cross-country skiing is considered the national sport; if you who simply contribute to the organization, sponsor-paid vol- are the best in the country, you are usually also among the top unteers or secondees as well as indirect volunteers, who volun- skiers in the world. Ski jumping is also important and has a long teer for their clubs (Skirstad & Kristiansen, 2017). Accordingly, tradition in Norway. While cross-country skiing has a long tradi- the different groups will arrive with different motives for the tion and successful athletes in Italy, too, ski jumping is hardly job and have different experiences before, during and after a practiced at all. sport event. Regardless of the type of the event, it is vital for the In order to cope with the financial burden of hosting a major organizers to possess this knowledge in order to understand sport event, the free work of a large and varied group of volun- why some people volunteer and others do not, and similarly, teers is a necessity. The complex logistics makes the volunteers why some people who volunteer will continue to do so while important for the successful delivery of these events and the others will find volunteering less rewarding and may not vol- volunteers become a key stakeholder. Furthermore, event vol- unteer again. unteerism is a typical ad hoc (and short-term) form of partici- Volunteering motivation has been the object of numerous pation, where the event is the central point. Event volunteers studies in the literature on sport and event management in are usually involved with annual events, often over many years general (e.g. Allen & Shaw, 2009; Burgham & Downward, 2005; (Doherty, 2009). This may be problematic when hosting World Cuskelly, Taylor, Hoye & Darcy, 2006; Doherty, 2009; Downward, Championships with a more extensive structure. Over a period Lumsdon & Ralston, 2005; Downward & Ralston, 2006; Farrell, of 12 days competitions in cross-country skiing, ski jumping Johnston & Twynam, 1998; Love, Hardin, Koo & Morse, 2011; and Nordic combined take place, usually at a variety of differ- MacLean & Hamm, 2007; Pauline & Pauline, 2009; Ralston, ent venues. As a result, new groups of sport volunteers may ap- Downward & Lumsdon, 2004; Schlesinger & Gubler, 2016; pear, as a large international event attracts volunteers with a Werkmann, 2011; Wollebæk, Skirstad & Hanstad, 2014;). Fur- particular interest in the sport or volunteers who are attracted thermore, Farrell, Johnston and Twynam (1998) developed a by major events (Overbye & Wagner, 2014). The increase in vol- 28-item scale known as the Special Event Volunteer Motivation unteers recruited from an already existing pool of volunteers or Scale (SEVMS). Accordingly, these researchers defined the fol- the recruitment of new volunteers may be seen as legacies of lowing groups of motives: purposive motives, solidary motives, the event (Dickson, Benson, Blackman & Terwiel, 2013; Doherty, external traditions and commitments. A lot of this research is 2009; Koutrou, Pappous & Johnson, 2016; Sand, Strittmatter & concerned with the two volunteer trends (collective and reflex- Hanstad, 2017). Hence, apart from the expectations volunteers ive), pointed out by Hustinx and Lammertyn (2003). Based on may have, the volunteer experience is important for retention, the modernization theories of Beck (1992) and Giddens (1991), as there is a critical link between volunteer motivation and ex- the two researchers sought to understand late modern volun- perience. The volunteers need to be trained and feel commit- teerism by making a distinction between collective and reflex- ted to the event and doing a good job. Moreover, they may also ive volunteerism. Hustinx and Lammertyn claim that volun- create legacies, motivating them to volunteer in the context of teerism is influenced by the dissolution of traditional and rigid other major sport events (Doherty, 2009). social configurations, including the core family, traditional sex The purpose of this article is twofold: Firstly, we shed light on roles, class and religion. Aspects such as duty, habit, responsi- the expectations, experiences and legacies as perceived by bility and tradition are prominent in collective volunteerism. In volunteers at two events of the same type (Nordic WSC), but contrast, the individual’s desires are much more dominant in staged in two different places and two different cultural set- reflexive volunteerism. The collective volunteers have intrinsic tings. Secondly, we also investigate the contextual differences motives (Hustinx & Lammertyn, 2003). between the events in order to elaborate the communalities

CISS 3 (2018) January 2018 I Article 002 I 2 M. Schnitzer, E. Kristiansen & D. V. Hanstad Volunteerism at Nordic WSC

Furthermore, a typical trait of reflexive volunteerism is that the all three aspects and a comparison of the same event in differ- participant has weak ties to the organization. A decoupling of ent cultural settings do not exist. membership and volunteering takes place (Putnam, 2000). One Omoto and Snyder (1995) developed a conceptual model for characteristic is that volunteering is limited in time and space volunteers, as each volunteer runs through a typical process, and increasingly event-based. It is the event (e.g. World Cham- comprising the following stages: antecedents, experiences and pionships) and not the organization hosting the event that is consequences. This Volunteer Process Model (VPM) explains on central for the reflexive volunteer. Accordingly, young people different levels (individual, interpersonal, organizational and with high education will be found in this group of volunteers cultural) what the volunteer learns and does and, therefore, (Kristiansen, Skille & Hanstad, 2014). However, the analytical what is required from the organization when offering the vol- framework should be seen as a flexible continuum between the unteer work. For this research project the model of Omoto and two extremes. This is important, as sport event organizers can- Snyder (1995) has been combined with two other models: first- not work solely with reflexive volunteers, as they might need ly, with the model developed by Peters and Schnitzer (2015) the commitment and experience/knowledge of the specific in the context of analyzing the expectations, experiences and type of sport that the traditional volunteers possess. A typical legacies of athletes of major sport events and, secondly, with theoretical approach has investigated new trends by quantita- the concept of the legacy cube for major sport events intro- tively showing a trend in volunteering, which goes away from duced by Preuss (2007). By analyzing how a single stakeholder traditional volunteerism and towards a more individualized percepts an event, Peters and Schnitzer (2015) state that the form of volunteerism (Hustinx & Lammertyn, 2004; Wollebæk experience of an event depends on the expectations of the et al., 2014). stakeholder, but also on other influencing factors such as the To summarize the literature review, we can say that in regards personal setting or the environment. The perceived experience of volunteer motivation the literature is rich. Also the topic of of an event might cause further actions, attitudes or behavior volunteer satisfaction (and therefore of volunteer experience) and can be seen as a legacy of the event. Legacies, as described is quite well covered by scholars (e.g. Ralston et al., 2004) as by Preuss (2007, 211) in his legacy cube, are “all the planned well as the expectations of volunteers as described by Werk- and unplanned, positive and negative, intangible and tangible mann (2011). Regarding volunteer legacies on occasion of sport structures created by and in connection with a sports event events, interesting insights are given by Doherty (2009) or Love that remain for a longer period than the event itself”. and coworkers (2011). At this point, it also must be noted, as Considering the mentioned theories and the requirements already observed by Kristiansen, Skirstad, Parent and Wadding- of this study, we propose a theoretical framework suited for ton (2015), that volunteering has been examined mainly from analyzing and comparing the volunteers of the two FIS Nor- an individual perspective and not from a community level per- dic World Ski Championships based on the phases a volunteer spective. This may also become an important part of our study. runs through when working for an organizing committee. This Hence, to our best knowledge, an analysis and combination of volunteer journey can be split into the three phases “expecta-

Figure 1: The volunteer journey in a major sport event and its influencing factors for the expectation and experience as well as the legacies as a consequence of the expectations and experiences.

CISS 3 (2018) January 2018 I Article 002 I 3 M. Schnitzer, E. Kristiansen & D. V. Hanstad Volunteerism at Nordic WSC tions”, “experiences” and “legacies”, which may be influenced by 2013, 2013). After 1991 and 2003, 2013 was the third time that different aspects. Within the expectations phase, the motiva- the Italian winter ski resort Val di Fiemme (Fiemme) hosted the tion driving people to volunteer at an event and understand- Nordic WSC. The region of Trentino in general, but Fiemme in ing their personality or life circumstances are important factors. particular, has a long tradition of hosting international sport Regarding the experiences, it is important to understand what events. More than 120 FIS races (cross-country ski- is needed to satisfy volunteers, how well the organizing com- ing, ski jumping, Nordic combined) have taken place there in mittee performs and what kind of rewards (if any) create a good the last 20 years and, by hosting the Nordic WSC for the third volunteers experience. By bringing together the expectations time in 22 years (1991, 2003, 2013), the location set a new world (prior to the event) and the perceived experiences (mainly) dur- record. During the 12 days of the Nordic WSC around 1,400 vol- ing the event, the volunteer experience might create legacies unteers helped to make the event a success, among them more (e.g. volunteer uniforms, which may have a long lasting value than 300 students from the region. All in all, the team consisted and utilization). The legacies may be the driving force for future of a good mix of young and elderly volunteers. All of them par- volunteer activities (e.g. at other events or in permanent insti- ticipated in extensive volunteer preparation, consisting of spe- tutions like sport clubs). cific training courses (e.g. team building, table-tops), English lessons and volunteer test events during the 2012 Pre-World Championship races (Organizing Committee Trentino Fiemme Contextual background to the study – the FIS 2013, 2013b). Nordic World Ski Championships Oslo 2011 and Val di Fiemme 2013 Method The FIS Nordic WSC in Oslo (Norway) took place from February 23 to March 6, 2011 at the national venue Holmenkollen for the The data for this case study was gathered during two versions fifth time. This venue also hosted the Nordic WSC in 1930, 1966 of the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships. We selected the and 1982 – while the Olympic Games took place there in 1952. two editions of the Nordic WSC due to the time frame, as they A total of 580 athletes from 49 nations participated; 275,000 were the closed possible editions (2011 and 2013) being staged tickets were sold and it was estimated that 300,000 spectators in a North and South European context and having different were present outside the arena and along the outer tracks dur- settings, but not having too big cultural difference (e.g. like it ing the Championships. The medal ceremonies were held in would be when comparing a European with an Asian country). the city center of Oslo with approximately 50,000 spectators in For the purpose of the study a qualitative research approach, attendance. After the men’s cross-country relay, the police es- namely the method of guided interviews, was chosen. Data timated the number of spectators at 100,000 people. Approxi- was collected from volunteers during the Nordic WSC. Based mately 35,000 campers were observed in the nearby woods on the two examples (Oslo 2011, Val di Fiemme 2013), we in- and along the courses. For the hosting of this event 2,300 terviewed 29 volunteers by conducting a convenient and pur- volunteers were recruited through an electronic application poseful sampling procedure since we wanted different levels of process via a proprietary online staff portal. The web portal for responsibility to be represented (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Table the volunteers was used for recruitment, communication, train- 1 provides an overview of the participants interviewed in the ing, different registrations/sign-ups and staff plans. The Nordic two samples of volunteers (table 1). WSC organizing committee focused on diversity and wanted to Based on the theoretical frame, the interview guidelines fo- recruit young people and people from different cultural back- cused on the expectations, the actual experiences and the grounds. expected and/or experienced legacies. Furthermore, the in- The FIS Nordic WSC in Val di Fiemme (Italy) took place from terviewed volunteers were asked about their background (e.g. February 20 to March 3, 2013. Athletes from 57 nations com- personal information, experience as volunteers, volunteering peted in 21 medal events; a total number of 400,000 spectators as a family tradition), the specific role/job at the Nordic WSC, in- followed the competitions (FIS World Championships Fiemme cluding the length of assignment, the motivation to volunteer

Table 1: Overview of the 29 interviewed volunteers from two events

Event Gender and position Responsibilities NWSC Oslo; 3 Head Volunteers (2 female and 1 Sport initiations, Media communications, Sport and Production services, Norway male), 11 regular volunteers (8 female Hospitality, Medal ceremony, Result services, Technical support 2011, n=14 and 3 male). Age range: 20-67 NWSC Val di 5 Head Volunteers (1 female, 4 male), Registration, Accreditation, General secretary, Assistant for disabled per- Fiemme, Italy 9 regular volunteers (6 female and 3 sons, Medical services, Media service center, Technical support, VIP hos- 2013, n=15 male). Age range: 18-78 pitality, Results services, Information, Medal ceremony, Venue support, Parking

CISS 3 (2018) January 2018 I Article 002 I 4 M. Schnitzer, E. Kristiansen & D. V. Hanstad Volunteerism at Nordic WSC at the event, benefits of being a volunteer, perception of train- So then, I thought it would be a good idea to volunteer here” ing programs, identity/community and satisfaction; at the end (Oslo, male volunteer, 67). of each interview the volunteers were asked the open process feedback question: “Do you have anything else to add?”. The interviews further underlined that people volunteer for It was important that the sample represented both genders, many different reasons. Several emphasized that they wanted different age groups, different venues (e.g. Cavalese, Predaz- to see the “inside of an event” and what really happens behind zo, Lago di Tesero) and a mix of volunteer roles. We tailored the scenes, as one volunteer elaborated: “I wanted to have a an interview guide and some adjustments were made for the position in an important place in this event and I am close to different interviewees due to the site. The human resources the athletes, which is great – I learn a lot from observing them” department of the organizing committee gave recommenda- (Oslo, male volunteer, 40). Another male volunteer shared his tions for potential participants, with whom the researchers interest in the elite athletes and their job: “I was not aware of then arranged appointments for the interviews. All interviews all the other aspects of the life of an elite athlete – it is more were developed and conducted according to the ethical guide- than the race – it is also the warm up, the media and everything lines and criteria stated by Patton (2012). Due to the fact that before the medal ceremony” (Oslo, male athlete, 62). However, no international volunteers participated, all interviews were learning from the athletes was not the only source of learning conducted in Norwegian/Italian and lasted between 20 and 50 mentioned in the interviews: “I like to build things from scratch minutes. The interviews were translated into English to enable such as being part of hosting an event... and I like to be in the the research team to do their comparative analyses. Themes, background – so this job is perfect for me” (Oslo, female volun- quotes and paraphrased quotes representing a meaningful teer, 20). point or thought were identified individually. We read and A more collective approach to volunteerism was found in the coded the raw material and assigned it to main categories and Italian sample, when volunteers reported that they volunteer then to sub-categories. The emerging findings were once more for the local community. Being able “to give something back” compared with the data to verify the understanding and were was closely linked to the local community in Fiemme: “I live discussed with colleagues. here. It’s a very important event for our valley and I felt it was right to make my small contribution, to help in the organization of such an important event for us” (Fiemme, female volunteer, Results and Discussion 22). This is also shown when volunteers help each other, as de- scribed in the interviews: Based on the concept “expectations, experiences and legacies”, the interviews revealed interesting results, which are outlined “At the finishing post, there are two women responsible for giv- in the three themes and provided in table 2. In the discussion ing the athletes tea (this is their job). One day it snowed and we will discuss and analyze the volunteers’ view on the expec- one of them said to me: ‘If you get me a shovel, I’ll give you a tations, experiences and legacies of the two events they were hand clearing the snow!” (Fiemme, male volunteer, 60). involved in. In addition to the table, quotes were included in the presentation and interpretation of the data. In both cases we can note that the concept of volunteering was not new to these volunteers, as others in the family already vol- Expectations unteered, too: “Yes, my father has been a volunteer for many years and everyone at home does a little volunteering inside In the case of Norway, 25% of the volunteers were members of and outside the community” (Fiemme, female volunteer, 24). a ski club, which is surprising in Norway. This is also exempli- While we find some communality in the personal setting of fied by a theme that was found only in the Norwegian sample the volunteers in both groups (e.g. tradition of volunteering for – namely that the interviewees are engaged in volunteering events), we can note that the purposeful motives such as doing because of their interest in ski sport. In addition, the Norwegian something useful and contributing to the society (Farrell et al., sample of volunteers displayed a more individualistic orienta- 1998) seem to be more important to the volunteers in Val di tion – in contrast to the collective orientation of volunteerism Fiemme. Maybe this is also because the results of the own team (Hustinx & Lammertyn, 2003). This distinction of the motives seems less important for Italian volunteers than for Norwegian for volunteering suggests that the first orientation refers to a volunteers: “I see this event as something which has an impact type of volunteer that is changing in line with late modern in- on our image in the world, which shows what we can do; the dividualization processes and that sport event volunteers are sporting success of our team has less priority” (Fiemme, male not determined by social position or static motives when vol- volunteer, 51). unteering. For example: Experiences “I saw an ad in the newspaper. Originally, I wanted to vol- unteer at the Norway Cup this summer [the world’s biggest Relating to the experiences volunteers collected during the tournament for young football players], but I applied too late. World Championships, the aspects of socializing, rewarding,

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Table 2: Overview of the main reasons for volunteering at two different events

phase influencing factors / outcomes NSWC 2011 (Oslo) NSWC 2013 (Val di Fiemme)

expected benefits for the local com- expected benefits for the local com- munity (e.g. „I become a member of a munity (e.g. „it is important for our bigger society than just my local club“; valley...important that the organizing „I like to be part of ‚building‘ and orga- of the event makes a good impression nizing an event“; „the people is why I even though we are a small valley“; do it“; „I am not doing this for the local „people in this valley believe in the community, it is because I like to meet event“; „the media attention is impor- new people“) tant for our identity and pride“; „it helps you to become part of the society“) role of volunteering in the family (e.g. „my parents were volunteers“; „I guess role of volunteering in the family the value of volunteering is something (e.g. „my grandfather did all the World I learned from my family“; „both family Championships and the Tour de Ski and friends are volunteers“; „my entire and the World Cup events which were personality, family is into ski sport“) held here right from the beginning“; expectation motivation, „I was more or less pushed into it, but life circumstances motivation (e.g. „you get to know new not against my will, quite the opposite, I people - and they are all happy“; „every- was very willing, but my family is full of one here in Kollen is smiling these days“; volunteers“; „the oldest volunteer is 88 „they needed people - and as a retired and a great character“) person I have plenty of time“; „I studied at the University in Oslo, now I am back motivation (e.g. „I‘m volunteering for to refresh my language skills“, „my job pleasure, for the chance it gives me, for puts me in close contact with the athle- the contact with people and to meet tes, because I work in the mixed zone“; new people, to contribute“; „I want to „I like to be part of the construction be useful for this event because of my of an event, to prepare everything for passion for sport. I have been working others so that they succeed“; „I feel that in sport for years“; „you know you‘re I contribute as I do a lot of tasks others doing something for the place you live do not mind to do“) in“; „it is definitely a new, unique expe- rience“) socializing: (e.g. „the clothing signali- socializing (e.g. „the relationship bet- zes the membership of the group – you ween volunteers and superiors is won- automatically talk to everyone with the derful“; „we are like sisters and brothers, jacket“; „I get the opportunity to meet we get on well with eachother“; „we are new people – happy people“; „the event one great team, even if we don‘t know is very including, things happen here each other“; „nobody treats anyone at the venue and also downtown with badly here, so I think I‘ll remember it as the medal ceremony“; „when I wear the a great experience“) jacket, peole ask me how my day was“; „there is a chemistry with most of the rewards: (e.g. „the practical aspects people, but there are an age gap and (clothing, souvenirs) are encouraging, cultural differences among the volun- too“; „Certainly, I‘ll take home a jacket teers“) with ‚Fiemme 2013 Volunteer‘ written satisfaction, on it, which is not a bad thing, it will experience organization, rewards: („the clothing does not make us recognizable... you feel impor- reward, success make a big difference, the costs for tant“) taking a two week non-paid vacation from work are higher“; „the clothing is organization: (e.g. „The manager is a proof that you care and have parti- really good. He gets you involved, he cipated in the WC“; „I am a little dis- knows how to do his job and is socially appointed by the pre-training before skilled“; „relations between volunteers the event, it was not good enough“) and superiors are excellent“; „I apprecia- te the organization, because it’s really organization: (e.g. „employees here do wonderful, well planned“) not care much about the experience we gain by being a volunteer“; „I got the opportunity to see the other side of an event“; „there is an advantage with young people who have a new view

CISS 3 (2018) January 2018 I Article 002 I 6 M. Schnitzer, E. Kristiansen & D. V. Hanstad Volunteerism at Nordic WSC

phase influencing factors / outcomes NSWC 2011 (Oslo) NSWC 2013 (Val di Fiemme)

working together with old, experienced satisfaction: (e.g. „the experiences with people in order to get an optimal re- the disabled spectators were great“; „I sult“; „there are so many little things feel like I‘ve been appreciated by eve- that make up a great event, and you ryone during these WC“; „without the satisfaction, are not really aware of them unless you volunteers, the World Championships experience organization, work here“) wouldn‘t be possible - this makes us reward, success proud“) satisfaction: (e.g. „I get a lot of fresh air and I feel good about myself“; „WC in Norway is an unique experience - and I wanted to be part of it“) education / skills development / ca- education / skills development / ca- reer: (e.g. „I learned how to deal with reer: (e.g. „I became more cultured people and approached difficult situ- and improved my skills“; „volunteering ations – it is challenging, but it will be here is part of my education path and useful in future“; „you get an experience will help me for the future“; „I‘ll put this and perspective that you cannot learn experience on my résumé and when I in school“; „you get to see how life really apply for jobs or do interviews“, „we‘ve is like for the best athletes“; „I hope to had many opportunities to get to know meet someone that can help me later foreign journalists, to speak many lan- in my career“; „it is a great experience guages, so I‘d say that it‘s an added and I will add it to my résumé“; „I will value on top of what I expected at the use this experience and try to get a bet- beginning“) ter job in my own country“; „you learn things here that you can not learn from tangible effects: (e.g. „of course, the a book“; „you show commitment when volunteer outfit is great, I can use it in volunteering, I think that is important the future“; „As a benefit, we‘ve got the when applying for jobs“) clothing. This year we‘ve had quite an effort because we‘ve given volunteers 7 tangible effects: (e.g. „the clothing does important items of clothing“) not make a big difference, the costs for taking a two week non-paid vacation intangible effects: (e.g.“it is about from work are higher“‘; „the clothing is a giving not receiving, but you get so- postive, negative, mething back which feels good - also in legacies tangible, intangible, proof that you care and have participa- ted in the WC‘) the long run“; „there‘s this spirit of sha- planned, unplanned ring and getting to know people“; „this intangible effects: (e.g. „the exeperi- will be a lifelong memory of this experi- ence, curiosity“; „I enjoy expanding my ence and I‘ll guard it carefully“) horizon“; „what I do here is very dif- ferent from my everyday life“; „I have social cohesion: (e.g. „in a relatively been a volunteer for 30 years because it small community like Val di Fiemme, I gives me so much“) believe that volunteers are a fundamen- tal part of society - that‘s something that remains“; „this event certainly helps to bring us together“; „there‘s a truly genuine, human relation- ship, almost an intimate one, between the volunteers in that everyone has the same objective and this, at least I think so, everybody will remember“; „95% of the volunteers are locals from Val di Fiemme – so we will work together also in the future“; „we‘ve noticed that, com- pared to 2003, in 2013 there have been many more side events – the square was packed and the atmosphere great – we should do that more often“)

CISS 3 (2018) January 2018 I Article 002 I 7 M. Schnitzer, E. Kristiansen & D. V. Hanstad Volunteerism at Nordic WSC organization and volunteer satisfaction were analyzed. Regard- “Mainly, you know you’re doing something for the place you ing the rewarding, the volunteer uniform was contested, but live in. And on top of that, it’s for personal satisfaction, because seen as a nice memory of a great experience. Several interview- you get a lot out of being with people, meeting new people, a ees mentioned that they were proud to wear the uniform due new atmosphere, and it gives you a lot on a personal level, too” to the good work they did as volunteers; this is also linked to (Fiemme, male volunteers, 25). the pride felt within the local community. Our findings corro­- borate the literature (e.g. Farrell et al., 1998), when we report Legacies that rewarding (extrinsic incentives) is less important in the context of volunteering. The experience of volunteering can If volunteers perceive their expectations as fulfilled or maybe be seen as a good opportunity for socializing and bringing even exceeded, this leads to a positive effect on satisfaction and a group of people together: “we are all brothers and sisters; a high possibility that they will volunteer again at other events you’ve met people and had wonderful, happy times” (Fiemme, or even on a long-term scale for voluntary based organizations male volunteer, 60). (e.g. sport clubs). However, as volunteers might not develop Concerning the organization of the event, it is interesting to expectations on every aspect in advance, satisfaction may not note that the Fiemme volunteers feel that FIS acknowledges only be a result of fulfilling expectations as supported by the them for the good organization of the events, having “assigned following quote: “To tell the truth, I didn’t expect much, because the World Championships three times to the Val di Fiemme in I sent my application late” (Fiemme, female volunteer, 24). twenty two years” (Fiemme, male volunteer, 60. And the vol- This means legacies may be created not only at the expecta- unteers take pride in the work they do: “It’s very satisfying on tion-satisfaction level, but also by unexpected situations the a personal level, because other people, even the athletes and volunteer work may provide. In both cases the (unexpected) their coach, recognize the work you’re doing and congratulate skills development and the possibility of adding the experi- you on the excellent job, you’re doing” (Fiemme, male volun- ence to a résumé or the hope of meeting contacts that may teer, 25). Some volunteers of the Norwegian group had the trigger a future career are important. Due to this fact, volun- feeling that the paid staff of the organizing committee seemed teering was also made obligatory for students in various fields not to take care well enough of understanding the experiences of education: “I believe that our efforts have been appreciated, volunteers have and gain during such an event. The Norwegian also because this year, too, we›ve managed to get the nursing sample of volunteers comprised a huge proportion of young schools involved, so the students participate and get experi- women with no experience as volunteers. Their roles were ence in the field of sports. It is recognized as a lesson for them” within support functions (media, public relations, hospital- (Fiemme, male volunteer, 51). 300 of the 1,400 volunteers were ity) – rather than organizing the actual competitions (Hanstad, students. These students were also part of one of the event’s Skirstad, Skille & Sand, 2011). However, some of the Norwegian other major goals: volunteers also added that Norway and the Norwegian econo- my do not appreciate this type of experience: “We managed to involve the schools and this is important, be- cause it is a training process and we have had excellent results “I do not believe volunteer experience is appreciated as much with the students... [This has helped us to reduce the average as it should be in Norway, I have lived in Canada for many age]...from 56 to 46... It is the new generation [of volunteers]. years – and I would have included this experience in my résu- Another interesting thing is that 26% are women. So we’ve in- mé, if I was still living there. In other places they see the impor- creased the proportion of women” (Fiemme, Head volunteer, tance of a social perspective and not being self-centered, I am male 45). not sure, if people believe that we do this, because we want to give something back!” (Oslo, female volunteer, 35) In both cases volunteering for the events creates intangible ef- fects such as “expanding one’s personal horizon” or “it will be The results of the chapter experience reveal that the success a lifelong memory”. While most of the intangible effects were of the own team is less important for the Italian volunteers expressed on a personal level, territorial (intangible) legacies than for the Norwegian volunteers. This might be because the (Parent & Smith-Swan, 2012) seem to apply more to the edi- expectations on the sporting success are lower as probably in tion of the World Championships in Italy. The interviews reveal a country, where everyone expects the home athletes to win that the event creates social cohesion, that the event organ- every competition: “in principle, I’ll be happier, if the Italians izers have paid a lot of attention to doing side events and that win, but if the Norwegians win, I’ll feel satisfied and involved activities targeted the local community more. This practical in the event all the same” (Fiemme, female volunteer, 24). Fi- implications go alongside with the findings of Doherty (2009), nally, another major difference arises in the enthusiasm level saying that individuals volunteering for an event need to have the volunteers showed during the interviews and the strong the feeling of having given a contribution to their community commitment of the Italian volunteers toward their community. and having a positive life experience by doing something dif- ferent. We noticed that expanding one’s horizon, as suggested by Doherty (2009), was important for Norwegian volunteers,

CISS 3 (2018) January 2018 I Article 002 I 8 M. Schnitzer, E. Kristiansen & D. V. Hanstad Volunteerism at Nordic WSC too, while the experience and the community attachment were that in small community volunteering is strongly linked to the much stronger in Val di Fiemme. The urban environment might benefits an event may bring to the community and to social co- be a reason for the more individualistic values in Oslo, whereas hesion. This underlines that the differences between Oslo and Val di Fiemme is a more rural area, where the social connection Val di Fiemme concerning the expectations, experiences and and identification with the valley seem to be more intensive, legacies of volunteering are more likely to be determined by like shown in this final quote: the fact of whether the event is held in a small community (ru- ral) or in a bigger community (urban) than by the difference be- “95% of the volunteers are locals from the Val di Fiemme and tween volunteering in a Scandinavian or “Italian Alps” context. a few are from the Val di Fassa and the Val di Cembra, two In order to come back to the research questions, the results neighboring valleys […] We’re lucky that, here in the Val di and discussion revealed communalities as well as differences Fiemme and in Trentino, volunteering has become something between the two groups of volunteers at the Nordic WSC Oslo of a culture and we’ve noticed that, compared to 2003, in 2013 2011 and the Fiemme 2013 FIS events. The most important re- there have been many more side events. And so there’s more sults are summarized in table 3. going on. This is appreciated much by the local community” This study is another important step to understanding the ex- (Fiemme, Head volunteer, male 45). pectations, experiences and legacies of volunteers in the con- text of major sport events. Before concluding the discussion, it should be mentioned that the Val di Fiemme approach of volunteering – legacies of vol- Limitations unteering are rather a community benefit than an individual one – is in line with the findings of Kristiansen et al. (2015), We recognize that there are some methodological limitations, where a group of scholars analyzed the volunteer approach as we selected two cases, which do not only have cultural dif- of the FIS World Cup in Vikersund (Norway). It shows ferences (Norway vs Italy), but also differences in the geograph-

Table 3: Overview of the most relevant communalities and differences of the volunteers’ expectations, experiences and legacies

phase influencing factors / outcomes communalities differences

– volunteering for events and volun- – Val di Fiemme volunteers have a teering in general as something high expectation that the event is important in the families of the something good for the commu- ­volunteers nity and the development of the personality, motivation, expectation region life circumstances – purposive motives as key driver for volunteering – Host cities with a different setting (Oslo => urban, Val di Fiemme => rural)

– socializing is important to volun- – high level of esteem and support teers at both events for the Val di Fiemme volunteers provided by the organizers, while – rewarding (e.g. volunteer uniform) Norwegian volunteers gave also is less important [more in Oslo than negative feedback towards the in Val di Fiemme] organization satisfaction, – the performance of the own team experience organization, is more important to Norwegian reward, success volunteers than to Italian volun- teers – while the Val di Fiemme volunteers were enthusiastic about the WC, the Oslo volunteers seemed to be more cut-and-dried – the WC are seen as an opportunity – the aspect of social cohesion, the for skills and development as well importance of volunteering, bring­ postive, negative, as something good for the future ing all locals together and sharing legacies tangible, intangible, career this experience - for the develop- planned, unplanned ment of the valley it is a key driver – intangible effects (experience, spi- for the Val di Fiemme and the key rit of sharing) is more important difference! than tangible effects

CISS 3 (2018) January 2018 I Article 002 I 9 M. Schnitzer, E. Kristiansen & D. V. Hanstad Volunteerism at Nordic WSC ical setting (urban vs rural setting). This makes it difficult to al., 1998) for future events by taking the local and cultural dif- transfer the outcomes to other regions. Another limitation may ferences of event destinations into account. arise from the fact that we questioned the volunteers about the legacies of the World Championships already during the event. Interviews about legacies should definitely be concluded after Funding the event. The strengths of the present study are that we in- terviewed volunteers of the same type of event in a different The authors have no funding or support to report. setting and that we asked them about many aspects of volun- teering, which hardly can be found anywhere else. The framework we used (figure 1) was a helpful guide for de- Competing Interests veloping the interviews and structuring the paper; however, there might be the risk that, when using the frame “expecta- The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. tions, experiences and legacies”, other approaches concerning the experiences volunteers gain are not respected. Therefore, an idea could be to use tracking systems like they are used in Data Availability Statement customer journey studies. All relevant data are within the paper.

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