Newly Discovered Acheulian Site at Menavali in the Source Region of , District,

Jayendra Joglekar1, Sushama G. Deo1 and S.N. Rajaguru1

1. Department of A.I.H.C. and Archaeology, Deccan College Post Graduate Research Institute, -411006, Maharashtra, (Email: [email protected], [email protected])

Received: 17 August 2016; Accepted: 19 September 2016; Revised: 14 October 2016 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 4 (2016): 515-530

Abstract: Recently an Acheulian site at Menavali in the source region of River Krishna has been discovered. The site has yielded good number of “Large Flake Acheulian” artefacts, with dominance of cleaver flakes. All the artefacts are made on vesicular amygdaloidal fine grained basalt and are fresh to abraded but not rolled. Occurrence of these artefacts both in cobbly pebbly conglomerate and in modern point bar gravel suggest that modern gravel is a product of reworking of conglomerate of the middle Pleistocene age.

Keywords: Krishna River, Satara, Deccan Trap, Menavali, Large Flake Acheulian, Cleaver Flakes, Quaternary Deposits

Introduction Upper reaches of Krishna River in was explored by Malik (1959), Corvinus et al. (1972-73), Pappu (1974), Kulkarni et al. (2008), Joglekar J. et al. (2011). However, these scholars found a very few palaeolithic artefacts from the gravel viz. Pappu reported only seven Lower palaeolithic artefacts from three sites, a few Middle palaeolithic artefacts, and microliths from few sites. Rajaguru (1970) carried out detailed studies of the Quaternary deposits around Wai town initially for his doctoral research, and later continued his observations with other scholars. Corvinus et al. (1972-73) studied Quaternary deposits around Wai and found fossilised tusk of elephas sp. along with fresh water shells. The shell was dated to 33 ka by C-14 method. These were buried under 10 m thick deposit colluvio-alluvial fill exposed during the foundation trench of Dhom dam (6 km upstream of Menavali) on the river Krishna. Rajaguru (1970) argued that the exposed (max. 20 m) colluvio-alluvial deposits around Wai, were not older than early late Pleistocene (<100 ka BP). Based on this, he further interpreted that the Krishna and its tributaries were in aggradational mode during the late Pleistocene and in erosional mode during the Holocene. ISSN 2347 – 5463 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 4: 2016

Kulkarni et al. (2008) reported a flake of Large Flake Acheulian tradition at Pachwad on the right bank of Krishna River, where, earlier in 1960’s Pappu reported a few lower palaeolithic artefacts. These artefacts are made on vesicular amygdaloidal fine grained basalt. Pappu, however, did not mention stratigraphical context of these artefacts. On the other hand Kulkarni et al. (2008) assigned a middle Pleistocene age to the cemented gravel on the basis of undoubted taxonomy of Large Flake of Acheulian tradition. Thus, Pachwad discovery opened up a new page of Acheulian culture of the middle Pleistocene period in the source region of the Krishna river. To test this discovery, we carried out intensive geoarchaeological studies around Menavali in 2015, and succeeded in discovering fairly large collection of Acheulian artefacts, comprising large cleaver flakes. These artefacts were found from two contexts namely cobbly pebbly conglomerate exposed on the left bank of River Krishna and modern point bar pebbly gravel well exposed on the right bank of River Krishna. In this short communication we are reporting significance of our discovery of Acheulian artefacts at Menavali in the general context of other Acheulian sites in the upper Krishna basin.

Krishna River The Krishna is one of the three major rivers of Peninsular India. Like the Godavari, and the Kaveri, it flows across almost entire breadth of the Peninsula from west to east and falls into the Bay of Bengal. In length it is less than the Godavari, but its drainage area including the drainage of its two main tributaries the Bhima, and the Tungabhadra, is larger than that of either the Godavari or of the Kaveri. Its total length is about 1287 km. and in Satara District it flows only for about 172 km.

The Krishna rises on the eastern brow of the Plateau about 6.5 km west of the village of Jor (18º 1’ N and 73 º 41’ E) in the extreme west of Wai. The source of the river is about 1371 m AMSL.

From its source it runs east for about 24 km till it reaches the town of Wai (Fig. 1) and then it flows in southern direction. In the source region, the catchment of this river is formed by six feeders joining from right side viz. the Kudali, Yenna, Urmodi, Tarli, Koyna, and Varna, and two from left side namely the Vasna, and the Yerla (Satara District Gazetteer 1999).

The Krishna and its main tributaries are allochthonous having their catchment in the heavy rainfall zone (about 6000 mm per annum) of the . The drainage pattern is primarily dendritic and appears to have been controlled by joints and lineaments of Deccan trap basalts (Das and Panchal 2014). These rivers are highly seasonal with floods during the monsoon. In general, these rivers occupy shallow box- shaped broad valleys and appear to be misfit in the present geomorphic setting. The channels of the river Krishna and its tributaries are presently entrenched either in bedrock or in colluvio ­ alluvial deposits (Rajaguru and Kale 1985). Climatically, the study area is in a semi­arid zone with a rainfall of 800-1000 mm during the southwest monsoon (Das and Panchal 2014).

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Figure 1: Map showing Krishna River and location of Menavali

Quaternary Deposits in the Upper Reaches of Krishna Basin The source region of the river Krishna around Wai shows extensive (2-3 km) colluvio- alluvial deposits on its banks. The Quaternary deposits in the study area have been described as comprising the following lithological units (Kulkarni et al. 2008).

Unit I. Pebbly-cobbly gravel rich in lithoclasts of basalt, chalcedony, and laterite is the basal lithological unit and is disconformably rests on basalt bedrock. The average thickness of Unit I is 0.3 to 0.5 m

Unit II. The gravel of Unit I is disconformably capped by brownish-yellowish sandy silt with inter layering sandy-pebbly gravel lenses differentially cemented by calcium carbonate. The thickness of Unit II is 4 to 5 m.

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Unit III. Colluvial deposit of unsorted mixture of sub-angular gravel and yellowish brown silt.

Unit IV. Brownish clayey silt without kankars

Kulkarni et al. 2008 found in situ large flake of Acheulian tradition made on basalt from the basal pebbly-cobbly gravel rich in laterite. Based on this Large Flake of Large Flake Acheulian tradition they assigned this gravel to the middle Pleistocene age.

Menavali Village The village Menavali (Lat: 17 º 57’ 56.8” N ; Long: 73 º 51’ 50.3” E, Elevation: 695 m AMSL) is situated on the left bank of Krishna River, 3 km upstream of Wai and is famous for two important historical structures – Nana Phadnavis Wada, and a temple with a Ghat nearby, on the Krishna River itself. Nana Phadnavis was the main administrative officer (Chitnis), for Peshwas in Maratha Period (18th century). Menavali was his native place where, he constructed a huge bungalow. This type of bungalow is called “wada” (house, a place to stay) which is built with typical features of Maratha architecture. This wada is famous for its wall paintings as well. Nana Phadnavis has also constructed a big temple and ghat on the left bank of river Krishna, just behind his wada (Fig. 2).

Figure 2: Temple and ghat on the left bank of Krishna river at Menavali

Pleistocene Sediments at Menavali as Described by Earlier Scholars The section exposed on the left bank where river takes a sudden bend is described below. There is thin layer of dark red silt of ½ meter and is overlain by fine gravel having thickness of 2 meters and show cross bedding and this in turn is overlain by

518 Joglekar et al. 2016: 515-530 another layer of red silt of 3 meters thickness which contains a few kankars (Pappu 1974). Kulkarni et al. (2008) described three units at Menavali namely red silt, cobbly- pebbly gravel, and fine sandy gravel. The gravel bar exposed in the channel was considered as modern gravel. Both the scholars did not find any cultural material.

New Observations During our explorations, we observed that Acheulian artefacts were found from two contexts i.e. within cobbly-pebbly gravel conglomerate located on the left bank, and secondly in the present day channel gravel. The cobbly-pebbly gravel conglomerate is having only two types of lithoclasts i.e. basalt, and laterite. This type of conglomerate which consists of only two lithoclasts has been classified as oligomict conglomerate by Nichols (2009) (Fig. 3). The conglomerate which is about 2 m thick is well cemented by calcium carbonate of ground water origin. We also observed hardpan like calcrete bands within the conglomerate. A few artefacts are embedded in the oligomict conglomerate (Fig. 4). On the other hand artefacts eroding from conglomerate are found in the channel gravel (Fig. 5). The basal oligomict conglomerate on the left bank is capped by 2 to 3 m thick brownish-yellowish silt inter layering with sandy-pebbly gravel lenses with differential calcretisation. It is capped by calcrete free brownish clayey silt for about 3-4 m.

Figure 3: Artefact bearing cobbly-pebbly conglomerate (Oligomict type)

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Figure 4: Acheulian Artefacts within the cobbly-pebbly conglomerate

Figure 5: Loose channel gravel (Inset- Acheulian artefacts)

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While collecting artefacts from the conglomerate we observed that in 1 m x 1 m area, very few (1 or 2) artefacts are present indicating low density of artefacts along with large number of rounded or sub-rounded pebbles and cobbles. A few unrolled artefacts in subrounded and round conglomerate indicate semi-primary context of these artefacts. The gravel within the present day channel is thus reworked over the years.

Lithic Assemblage Until now, 65 Acheulian artefacts have been collected at Menavali from the conglomerate deposit on left bank and from modern channel gravel on the right bank. All these artefacts are made on vesicular amygdaloidal fine grained basalt. The assemblage is flake dominated. Cleaver flake is a noteworthy type in the assemblage along with standard cleavers, side scraper, side flakes, end flakes, flake indeterminate, core, and a unfinished handaxe (Fig. 6) Table 1.

Figure 6: Graph showing distribution of artefacts in the assemblage

Table 1: Dimensions of Cleaver flakes in the assemblage n 41 Max. Min. Mean Length (cm) 18.35 8.4 13.54 Breadth (cm) 14.42 6.44 10.04 Thickness (cm) 7.23 2.48 3.72 Length: Length of cutting edge (cm) 11.72 3.97 7.96 Weight (gm) 1222 142 561

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The dimension of single unfinished handaxe is 13.38 x 8.47 x 4.1 cm, and weight is 463 gm. So far, this is the only artefact made on cobble, while the rest are made on vesicular amygdaloidal fine grained basalt blocks. There are 3 cores; one of them can be categorized as giant core i.e. having length more than 20 cm. Other 2 cores are comparatively small in size (Table 2). The average length of the assemblage is 13.44 cm hence it is classified as Large Flake Acheulian assemblage.

Table 2: Dimensions of cores in the assemblage n 3 Length(cm) Breadth (cm) Thickness (cm) Weight (gm) Max. 21.06 15.76 13.4 5365 Min. 11.55 9.84 9.1 1657 Mean 15.34 12.28 10.97 2732

Cleaver flakes are defined as “Flakes in the large size ranges which have not been secondarily trimmed. Of the type on which cleavers or other large implements could have been made. Presumably, the shape is due to the type of core used” (Kleindienst 1962: 100). There are 41 cleaver flakes (Fig. 7) and 3 standardized cleavers in the present assemblage. Cleaver flakes are unifacial with no modification of working edge; hence they are not termed as cleavers. In this assemblage, cleaver flakes are mostly made on side flakes (P3 & P7), some on special side flake (P2, P4, P6, & P8), and few on end flake (P5). P stands for position of positive bulb or point of percussion (Figs. 8 and 9).

Figure 7: A few cleaver flakes in the assemblage

The butt end of cleaver flakes are of various shapes viz. pointed, roundish, and squarish and bit end like convergent, divergent, and parallel (Figs. 10,11, and 12). It is observed that secondary flaking is minimal (Fig. 13 and 14). Count of secondary flakes on ventral side is shown as V0 to V2. Similarly for dorsal side D0 to D5 has been used. An attempt is made here to interpret presence of large number of cleaver flakes by suggesting some behavioral pattern. The main function of standard bifacial cleaver is to get a sharp cutting edge that could sustain pressure and could be used for longer time.

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Figure 8: Cleaver showing position of flake detachment

Figure 9: Graph showing position of flake detachment on cleaver flakes

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Figure 10: Types of Bit end and Butt end of cleaver flakes

Figure 11: Number of cleaver flakes (Bit end)

In this regard work carried out by Hayden and Gargett (1988) is significant. They suggested that “…….it can be argued that for nomadic groups that have to transport tools and other equipment with them, the most desirable tool is a single, all-purpose tool that can perform all necessary tasks adequately, such as a simple primary flake. Any edge modification will only restrict the range of uses for which a primary flake will be suitable. Particularly for low frequency tasks, it makes most economical sense to use an all-purpose tool, even if it is not of optimal efficiency. These tools are the lithic equivalent of the all-purpose French peasant's pocket knife. The Lower Palaeolithic might be characterized in this fashion.” They further argued that "new activities" and “differential efficiency” lead to production of specialized tools. Based on this we are tempted to say that dominance of cleaver flakes in the assemblage from

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Menavali can be interpreted as primary flakes which were adequate for various tasks like cutting, chopping, skinning, etc. Further it can be speculated that this might be the early stage of Large Flake Acheulian tradition

Figure 12: Number of cleaver flakes (Butt end)

Figure 13: Frequency of number of flake scars on ventral surface of a cleaver flake

It is appropriate here to discuss about bifaces in Indian Acheulian in general. Recent studies by Shipton (2013) showed that bifaces in the later Indian Large Flake Acheulian are relatively thinner than those of the early Large Flake Acheulian. This temporal pattern has been observed across assemblages throughout the Acheulian world. It is noteworthy to mention views of Edwards (2001) about thin bifaces. According to him “…. producing a thin tool is perhaps the most challenging aspect of biface

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manufacturing. It often requires the production of a large, thin flake blank. This involves careful preparation of a large core and striking a precise forceful blow at such an angle as to facilate the removal of a large flake, without either shattering the stone or striking ineffectually. This may involve using soft hammers at the later stages of reduction and careful platform preparation.” Further Edward’s experimental studies of producing thin bifaces proved that it is difficult to produce such thin biface as there are chances of breaking due to end- shock and to avoid end-shock one requires delicate and precise flaking along with cushioning the blow. Thus producing a thin biface requires both planning and dexterity. Therefore, Shipton et al. (2014: 33) stated that “the pattern of thinner bifaces in the later Acheulian may be attributed to an evolutionary increase in hominin skill, with more skilled knappers being able to flake more delicately and precisely as well as anticipating and removing potential barriers to reduction”.

Figure 14: Frequency of number of flake scars on dorsal surface of a cleaver flake

Cleaver flakes in the Menavali assemblage are comparatively bigger, thicker with minimal secondary flaking than the cleaver and cleaver flakes from Gangapur in upper Godavari basin in Nashik district, Maharashtra, and Yedurwadi in the upper Krishna basin in Belgaum district, northern which belong to Late Large Flake Acheulian (LFA) tradition. In absence of absolute ages and other proxy evidence, but based on involving lower skill levels and/or simpler reduction methods we would like to classify Menavali assemblage as Early Acheulian phase.

Preservation Condition of Artefacts All the artefacts in the assemblage are made on vesicular amygdaloidal fine grained basalt. Some of the artefacts have medium light gray (N6) or grayish orange (10YR 7/4)

526 Joglekar et al. 2016: 515-530 patina (Munsell Rock Color Charts 2009). The artefacts found in the channel gravel are slightly more abraded than artefacts found within the oligomict conglomerate which is due to the water action. Artefacts from the oligomict conglomerate are having grayish orange patina (10YR 7/4), calcrete coating on them, and are coarser in texture while these features are completely absent on artefacts found in the channel gravel. On the other hand artefacts collected from channel gravel are having dark reddish brown (10R 3/4) or very dusky red (10R 2/2) patina. Majority of these artefacts are abraded and smoother in texture but not much rolled suggesting less transportation. Some of the artefacts from gravel are having thin patina and it is camouflaged with the colour of raw-material grayish black (N2) which makes it hard to distinguish from modern cobbles and pebbles. This feature was observed when some of the non-artefacts were deliberately broken by using hammer.

Geofacts vs. Artefacts Our experience at Menavali shows that identifying artefacts made on basalt requires specific knowledge about geofacts (natural flakes) and artefacts. We are listing here some common differences (Table 3).

Table 3: Common Differences of Geofacts and Artefacts Geofacts Artefacts

Do not have secondary flaking on them Often have secondary flaking Do not have good sharp edges Produced in such a way that even unmodified edges are sharp enough to use Do not have retouches Often have retouches Do not have true positive bulb of percussion Have positive bulb of percussion Sometimes are produced due to thermal Sometimes accidental breakages fracture (E’ clat Siret) Produced mostly due to striking of two Produced using block-on-block boulders or cobbles on each other due to bed technique or using stone hammer load transport or falling of a boulder/cobble and anvil technique from a height on the exposed bedrock Produced in higher elevations or upper There is no such criterion of reaches of any river/feeder or near nick points specific elevation or location where gradient slope is steep as at such places there is a strong possibility for boulder/cobble to strike on each other or on bedrock

Remarks The new discovery of Acheulian artefacts at Menavali emphasized the importance of reinvestigation of those areas where earlier researchers have reported about the Quaternary deposits but unfortunately did not find any cultural remains.

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Menavali is the classic example where in 1960s Dr. R.S. Pappu explored the area for his doctoral research, and later in 2007-08 Charuta Kulkarni worked for her Post-graduate Diploma Dissertation. However, both these researchers found few artefacts of Acheulian and Middle Palaeolithic artefacts at Pachwad on the left bank of river Krishna, about 15 km downstream of Menavali. Our recent fieldwork is fruitful in this sense thereby implying the importance of reinvestigations. One reason probably could be that channel gravel is always considered as recent phenomena.

The discovery of Acheulian artefacts made on vesicular amygdaloidal fine grained basalt in the source region of the Krishna River proves that hominins were occupying the high rainfall zone (800-100 mm), probably with densely forested areas. Based on the preliminary observations of artefact contexts, nature of artefacts and analysis of the artefacts we propose that these artefacts probably belong to at least middle Pleistocene age.

The results of these recent explorations are encouraging and more attention needs to be given especially in this region. This preliminary field oriented work needs further support from advanced studies. Discovery of Acheulian site at Menavali is the fourth locality of Large flake Acheulian tradition artefacts made on basalt in the upper reaches of river Krishna, the other three are -- Pachwad (Kulkarni et al. 2008), Nisre, and Yedurwadi (Joglekar J. et al. 2011), Atit (Joglekar J. and Deo 2015). We, therefore, conclude that hominins occupied the Deccan trap region of the upper Krishna basin at least since the middle Pleistocene period.

Our discovery of rich Acheulian site at Menavali in the source region of the Krishna river establishes that Acheulian activity was not only confined to eastern semi-arid zone of upland western Maharashtra and southern Karnataka but also to relatively higher rainfall zone (800-1000 mm) and high relief of the basin. Further, so called modern gravels i.e. present day channel gravel appears to be reworked relict gravels of the middle Pleistocene age. Pachwad and Menavali discoveries thus have opened new avenues for understanding adaptation of Acheulian hominin in high relief zone of sub- humid eastern slopes of Western Ghats drained by Krishna, Godavari, and Bhima rivers.

We are pursuing these studies in the source region of the Krishna river with a strong emphasis on typo-technology of artefacts recovered from ancient conglomerate, and modern reworked modern gravels.

Acknowledgements We are thankful to the Deccan College authorities for providing facilities to carry out this research. We acknowledge the help given by Mr. Shardul Kakde, Ms. Bhakti Gohil, Ms. Rajkumari Barbina, Dr. Arunima Pati, and Dr. Shantanu Vaidya during field work. Thanks are due to Mr. Jose, and Dr. Soumi Sengupta for fruitful discussion on technological aspects of lithic assemblage.

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