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DIVERSITY STUDY OF AGARICS AND POLYPORES ON THE EASTERN SLOPES OF MT. PALEMLEM, ILOCOS NORTE, PHILIPPINES

MAVIC JUMAQUIO CLUTARIO JOHN EMMANUEL QUINTO CUIZON

An undergraduate thesis Submitted to the Department of Biology College of Arts and Sciences University of the Philippines Manila Padre Faura, Manila

In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Bachelor of Science in Biology May 2019

Department of Biology College of Arts and Sciences University of the Philippines Manila Padre Faura, Manila

ENDORSEMENT

The thesis attached hereto, entitled Diversity survey of agarics and polypores on the eastern slopes of Mt. Palemlem, Ilocos Norte, Philippines prepared and submitted by Mavic Jumaquio Clutario and John Emmanuel Quinto Cuizon, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor in Science in Biology was successfully defended on May 15, 2019.

JEFFREY P. MANCERA, M.Sc. EDWIN R. TADIOSA, Ph.D. Thesis Adviser Thesis Co-adviser

MARILEN P. BALOLONG, MSc., Dr.P.H., DPAM Thesis Reader

This undergraduate thesis is hereby officially accepted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Biology.

JAY T. DALET, PhD LEONARDO R. ESTACIO, JR., PH.D. Chair Dean Department of Biology College of Arts and Sciences University of the Philippines Manila University of the Philippines Manila

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We, the researchers, would like to extend their sincerest praise to the main supervisor of this study, Mr. Jeffrey Mancera - his feedback always being astute and useful.

We graciously thank Dr. Edwin Tadiosa of the National Museum of Natural History for lending his invaluable time and expertise in identifying the macrofungi specimens.

This study would not have been possible if not for reader Dr. Marilen Parungao-

Balolong for opening the window to this opportunity towards contributing to the biodiversity studies on macrofungi.

Special thanks are given to Mrs. Marilou T. Andres of the municipality of Adams,

Ilocos Norte for her assistance in securing the necessary permits and arranging for the researchers' stay in the base camp; to Mr. Jefferson Agonoy for allowing us to stay at his home for the duration of the study and for his significant contribution with the data collection. Utmost gratitude is extended to Mr. Manuel Tawali for his assistance with the collection of data. His ability to navigate the terrain of the study site whilst simultaneously taking part in data collection made this paper possible.

We are grateful for the Andres family for warmth their hospitality and breadth of their support, for the members of Team Adams - Alan, Cinth, Daryll, and Justine for their help and company for the duration of the study.

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Finally, utmost thanks are given to our families, for their support, their unwavering faith in our ability to make this small but significant contribution to the Philippine studies on macrofungal diversity.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ENDORSEMENT ...... ii Acknowledgements ...... iii Table of contents ...... v List of tables ...... vi List of figures ...... vii List of equations ...... viii List of appendices ...... ix List of plates ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. Abstract ...... x Introduction ...... 11 Background of the study ...... 11 Statement of the problem ...... 13 Research objectives ...... 13 Significance of the study ...... 14 Scope and limitations of the study ...... 14 Review of related literature ...... 15 Materials and methods ...... 23 Study site description and permit acquisition ...... 23 Spore print and herbarium preparation ...... 25 Identification ...... 26 Results and discussion ...... 28 Notable agarics and polypores ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. Factors affecting diversity of agarics and polypores ...... 38 Conclusion and recommendation ...... 40 references ...... 41 Plates ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1. Species listing of agarics and polypores found on the eastern slopes of Mt. Palemlem, Ilocos Norte, Philippines ...... 30 Table 2. Results of the Diversity Index values for Polypores and Agarics...... 36

LIST OF FIGURES

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Figure 1. Terrain map of Mt. Palemlem showing transect line ...... 21 Figure 2. Diagrammatic representation of the sampling plots (blue) along the transect (red)...... 24 Figure 3. Template of field tag ...... 25

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LIST OF EQUATIONS

Page

Simpson’s index ...... 27 Shannon-Weiner diversity index ...... 27

viii

LIST OF APPENDICES

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Gantt Chart ...... 50 Line Item Budget ...... 51 Approved permits ...... 52 Approved permits ...... 53 Elevation and coordinates of quadrats ...... 54 Tally sheets ...... 55 Tally sheets ...... 58 Curriculum vitae ...... 60

ABSTRACT

A taxonomic survey of agaric and polypore macrofungi was conducted on the eastern slopes of Mt. Palemlem, Ilocos Norte. The study aimed to catalogue macrofungal species by employing combined transect line and quadrat sampling. Collection in four transect lines, each with ten 10 m x 20 m quadrats at 100-m intervals, yielded 136 identified morphospecies. Macrofungal diversity was measured using Simpson’s Index of Diversity

(1-D) and Shannon-Wiener's Index (H’). The most abundant morphospecies were the polypores Microporus affinis MSPALIN-02, Stereum hirsutum MSPALIN-35, and M. xanthopus MSPALIN-03. The agaric and polypore community of the area was highly diverse with (1-D) of 0.9953 and H’ of 2.586 for agaric community, and a (1-D) 0.9817 and a H’ of 3.5851 for the polypore community. These results provide baseline information needed for observing trends of macrofungi diversity across increasing altitude, habitat, and other microclimatic factors. The important role that macrofungi play in ecosystem dynamics such as those of wood-rotting fungi can be helpful in assessing the material cycling rate of the forest. Further studies covering a longer period of observation, larger sampling area, and other ecological parameters are recommended for a more complete picture of macrofungal diversity in the area.

Keywords: abundance, agaric, diversity index, Ilocos Norte, Mt. Palemlem, polypore

INTRODUCTION

Background of the study

Mt. Palemlem is a mountain located southeast of Municipality of Adams, Ilocos

Norte. Its peak is at 1,350 meters above sea level and is located in the coordinates 18°30'

N, 120°53'E. Adams town proper is a fifth-class municipality located south of the municipality of Pagudpud, surrounded by the Cordillera mountain range in the south and east, and Mt. Palemlem, the highest peak of the town, in the northwest. The town covers a land area of 15,931 ha. The climate in Adams is tropical with significant amount of rainfall throughout the year. It is driest in March, warmest in May, and has the heaviest precipitation in August at 373 mm (“Climate: Adams,” 2018).

Fungi are a hyper-diverse but under-documented group of ecologically significant organisms (Branco, 2011). Documentation and conservation of fungal species prove to be challenging as mycologists estimate fungal diversity worldwide between half to 9.9 million

(Sridhar, 2013). Macrofungi belong to the phyla Ascomycota (Berk.) Caval.-Sm. and

Basidiomycota Moore, which produce macroscopic fruiting bodies known as ascocarps and basidiocarps, respectively (Niem & Baldovino, 2015). Under the Basidiomycota is the

Agaricales Underw., known as gilled mushrooms containing approximately 8,500 species, the largest clade under the class Agaricomycetes Doweld. and one of the most diverse orders under the phylum Basidiomycota (Binder et al., 2005; Matheny et al., 2007).

Another group of macrofungi is order Polyporales Gaum. containing 2,300 known species, which are known as “polypores” and are known as wood decomposers with spores held in

tubes (Kuo, 2004). They play important roles in forest ecosystems, especially the

Polyporales, which are key players in the carbon cycle assisting with the decomposition of lignin (Floudas et al, 2012; Dela Cruz et al., 2013).

The macrofungi are some of the medicinally and nutritionally significant groups used traditionally by indigenous people (De Leon et al., 2012; De Leon et al., 2013). A study in Coron, Palawan by Capistrano et al. (2008) even show various uses of macrofungi outside food and medicine, such as in hastening the decay of wood, as decoration, fertilizer, and even in rituals.

To study macrofungal diversity, tools of measurement are crucial to describe the diversity profile in the area (Whittaker, 1960). The Simpson’s diversity index (D) is used to determine the number of species present and the relative frequency of the species.

Diversity is measured according to the dominance of certain species; the more dominant a group is, the less diverse the community (Simpson’s Diversity Index, 2011). Another tool is the Shannon-Wiener's index (H’), a widely used measure for diversity based on

Margalef’s information theory quantifying the degree of order/disorder within a sample. It accounts for species richness and evenness (Biofilms and Biodiversity, 2019).

There have been numerous macrofungal diversity studies done in the Philippines, with the earliest records done by foreigners, mostly Spanish friars, French Botanists, and

American plant pathologists, back in the 19th century (Graff, 1916; Quimio, 1986). Filipino pioneers in mycology mainly worked with the systematics of plant pathogenic fungi

(Quimio, 1986). According to Musngi et al. (2005) there are 4,698 macrofungi species

currently known in the country. More species has since been discovered to add to the growing dataset that is the macrofungal diversity of the Philippines.

Continuous documentation and monitoring of macrofungal diversity status are necessary, especially as their habitats are disturbed by both natural and human-related activities. Knowing the various macrofungi in the country and diversity levels will help in their conservation efforts along with providing researchers preliminary data on notable fungi species to utilize as food, medicine, and more.

Statement of the problem

What are the morphospecies of agaric and polypore macrofungi that occur on the eastern slopes of Mt. Palemlem, province of Ilocos Norte? How diverse are they?

Research objectives

This investigation generally aimed to document agaric and polypore macrofungi on the eastern slopes of Mt. Palemlem, province of Ilocos Norte. Specifically, it aimed to:

1. Describe, identify, name, and classify morphospecies of the agaric and

polypore macrofungi in the area;

2. Determine the diversity level of agaric and polypore macrofungi in the area

using Simpson’s and Shannon-Wiener diversity indices; and

3. Create a polypore and agaric field guide for the documented species of

agaric and polypore macrofungi on the eastern slopes of Mt. Palemlem.

Significance of the study

To date, no macrofungal diversity study in Mt. Palemlem has been published yet.

This pioneer work will provide baseline information for biologists who intend to explore more research opportunities in the site including ecological investigations (e.g., the correlation of altitude and ecosystem gradient across the landscape with macrofungal distribution and diversity), among others. Creating a polypore and agaric field guide of the macrofungal species will benefit the local community by contributing to the documentation of their natural resources and by serving as primary reference, especially to the younger generations.

Scope and limitations of the study

Collection was done in January 16-21 and February 2-5, 2019 and therefore was limited to species that were present during the two week-long sampling periods. Only macrofungal species in maturing-to-mature sporocarp stages of development during the time of collection were sampled, for easier morphological identification. Identification is limited to morphological characteristics only due to lack of resources to avail genetic analyses.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Study Site

Mt. Palemlem, also known as Pico de Loro of the North, is located around 18°30'

N, 120°53'E, with its peak at 1,350 meters above sea level (see Figure 1). It appears as Mt.

Pico de Loro in the official National Mapping and Resource Information Authority

(NAMRIA) website found northwest of Adams and can be accessed via the Adams-

Pagudpud road that is adjacent to its eastern perimeter. The jump off points were accessible by motorcycle from the base camp in the town proper within 10–30 mins.

Adams town proper served as the base camp for the study. It is a fifth-class municipality located south of the municipality of Pagudpud in the same province. It is surrounded by the Cordillera mountain range in the south and east, and Mt. Palemlem, the highest peak of the town, in the northwest. The town covers a land area of 15,931 ha.

(Philippine Statistics Authority, 2007). Accessible from Pagudpud by road or via trekking,

Adams is lush with forests and several waterfalls, most notable of which is the Anuplig

Falls, which make the town a good spot for hikers and ecotourists. The climate in Adams is tropical with significant amount of rainfall throughout the year. It is driest in March, warmest in May, and has the heaviest precipitation in August at 373 mm (“Climate:

Adams,” 2018).

Classification of the agarics

The Agaricales Underw., also known as the gilled mushrooms and the euagarics clade under class Agaricomycetes Doweld., is one of the most diverse orders of the phylum

Basidiomycota. It is a monophyletic group of approximately 8,500 described species, making it the largest clade under the class (Binder et al., 2005; Matheny et al., 2007).

According to Matheny et al. (2006), there are six major clades (i.e., the agaricoids, hygrophoroids, marasmioids, pluteoids, plicaturopsidoids, and trichomaltoids) and 30 families described under Agaricales. Most of them are saprotrophs, which live on soils and rotting wood, or ectomycorrhizal, which are symbiotic with the roots of living plants. Some are parasitic, which cause root rot. A few even capture or parasitize vertebrates or invertebrates (Matheny et al., 2007). Their basidia are produced in layers (called hymenia) on the underside of fleshy fruiting bodies called basidiocarps, in tubes (as in boletes), or on gills as in mushrooms (Webster & Webber, 2007). The Agaricales include a lot of pileate-stipitate forms with lamellate (gilled) hymenophores. According to Adnaan (2016), however, no morphological synapomorphy unites the Agaricales.

Classification of the polypores

The Polyporales Gaum., of the same class Agaricomycetes, contain 2,300 known species. Most of the Polyporales are considered “polypores” in the sense that they are wood decomposers with spores held in tubes (similar to the tubes of boletes). The Polyporales have conspicuous sporophores (fruiting bodies), sometimes mushroom-like, with either tube-shaped, gill-like, rough, smooth, or convoluted hymenium (Kuo, 2004). Their hymenophores are composed of vertical, closely packed tubes (Miettinen et al., 2011) that may be modified into teeth or spines or may be mazelike or gill-like (Volk, 2000). There are also other basidiocarp types and hymenophore configurations such as bracket-shaped

(e.g., Ganoderma Karst, Trametes Fr.), effused resupinate (e.g., Wolfiporia Ryvarden &

Gilb, Phlebia Fr.), or stipitate with poroid (e.g., Polyporus P. Micheli ex Adans.), lamellate

(e.g., Lentinus Fr.), or smooth (e.g., Podoscypha Pat.) hymenophores. Some have shelf- like or flabellate clusters of overlapping basidiocarps (e.g., Laetiporus Murr., Sparassis

Fr.) (Binder et al., 2013).

The taxonomy of polypores is rather complicated. In 1953, when a study of polypores in North America was published, nearly all of the species were transferred to

Polyporus (Kuo, 2004). Back then, the genus was a catch-all for all “non-mushroom-” shaped fungi with pores. Nowadays there are more than a hundred genera of polypores that have been described and accepted, most of which belong to the family Polyporaceae. Other families have been erected to accommodate the remaining genera such as Albatrellaceae

Pouzar, Bondarzewiaceae Singer, Fistulinaceae Lotsy, Ganodermataceae Karst., and

Hymenochaetaceae Imazeki & Toki (Volk, 2000; Justo et al., 2017).

Ecological role of macrofungi

Macrofungi play important roles in nutrient cycling, water transport, and plant protection against disease (Hallare, 2013). Primarily, they decompose and convert organic matter into forms that are useful to plants. The Polyporales, in particular, are key players in the carbon cycle, with the white-rot members among the most efficient lignin decomposers in the biosphere (Floudas et al., 2012). Most of the Polyporales are saprotrophic wood-decay fungi, recycling the nutrients in the wood and releasing them over a long period of time, up to several hundred years from a single large down tree. Some act as mild to severe plant pathogens that can cause timber damage such as Fomitopsis

Karst., Ganoderma, and Phaelous (Fr.) Pat (Binder et al., 2013).

Ethnomycological value of the agarics and polypores

Since a great majority of the Polyporales are saprotrophic wood-decay fungi, some communities like the paganistic nomadic Tagbanua in the municipality of Coron, province of Palawan, utilize fungi in hastening the decay of wood (Capistrano et al., 2008; Binder et al., 2013). There are even accounts documenting the use of the polypore Polystictus Fr. as a decoration and, in extension, a source of income (Capistrano et al., 2008). A thorough study by De Leon et al. (2012) on the Aeta of Central Luzon reported many uses of polypores including household decoration and medicine (e.g., Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis)

Karst.) or food (e.g., Lentinus cladopus Lev., L. sajor-caju (Fr.) Fr., L. squarrosulus Mont.,

L. tigrinus (Bull.) Fr., and Polyporus grammocephalus Berk.).

There are more recent reports of use of macrofungal species in other parts of Asia.

In Ladakh, India, a new variety of Laetiporus sulphureus (Bull.) was discovered that is edible and referred to by locals as ‘Chasha’ (‘chicken’), as the mushroom has a meaty texture and tastes like chicken (Yangdol et al., 2014). In Rupandehi District, Nepal, locals use the tropical polypore Pycnoporus cinabarinus (Jacq.) Karst. as medicine, used to remedy diseases such as mumps and ear pain. Scleroderma citrinum Pers. as both food and medicine, and Schizophyllum commune Fr. as a ‘last resort’ food (Aryal & Budathoki,

2013).

As for the Agaricales, many species under the order are used by humans either as food, in biotechnology and medicine, rituals, and many others. In a study in Palawan, many species and genera under the Agaricales including Auricularia auricularia (L.) Underw.,

Hygrophorus Fr., Lactarius Pers., Tricholoma Fr., and most notably, Termitomyces R.

Heim, are used as food and fertilizer by the Tagbanua people. Use of mushrooms in the area has a rich cultural history since they trace some of their semi-cultivated mushrooms to the spores brought about by a priest during the Spanish colonial era (Capistrano et al.,

2008).

Tools of measurement in diversity studies

Biodiversity is a field that focuses on the variation of ecosystems, species, genes and interactions of plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms in a given space and time

(Bollman & Brautisch, 2013). There are several tools of measurement to describe the diversity profile of organisms in an area. Species diversity is the commonly studied facet, which is measured using richness and evenness values. Richness is the sum of species present in an area while evenness is the relative sum of the species in an area. Spatial distribution is another aspect of diversity—gamma diversity (i.e., the sum of species in an area) depends on alpha diversity (i.e., the mean total of species in distinct localities) and beta diversity (i.e., the differentiation of species across those localities) (Whittaker, 1960).

Species diversity indices such as Simpson’s and Shannon-Weiner are some of the commonly used values to describe the diversity of an area.

The Simpson’s diversity index (D) was used to determine the number of species present and the relative frequency of the species. Diversity is measured according to the dominance of certain species; the more dominant a group is, the less diverse the community. The closer D is to 0, the greater the diversity, whereas the closer it is to 1, the lesser the diversity. Simpson’s index is great for calculating dominance, but its weakness

lies in the fact that the presence of rare species will contribute insignificantly to the value of D (Simpson’s Diversity Index, 2011).

Formulated in 1949, the Simpson index (D) was eventually refined by several economists and ecologists as a measure of richness (total number of types in a group).

Economist E. Simpson penned the first version of this equation based on probability theory, such that diversity can be estimated as directly related to the probability that two individuals belonging to the same community and picked at random in the same would belong to different species (DeJong, 1975). For the purposes of this study, the form 1-D or

D' will be used in order to estimate agaric and polypore diversity.

Because the equation relies heavily on the proportion the samples, in this case being relative abundance values, D' is thusly dependent on changes of the total number of abundant species in the sample, using this index for relatively small sample sizes would yield a poorer estimate of community diversity. For a community with a small number of abundant species the value for D' will be near 0.

Shannon-Weiner's index is a widely used measure for diversity. Several studies eployed the use of H' in estimating community diversity. It was formulated based on

Margalef’s information theory which quantifies the degree of order/disorder within a sample, functioning to predict the expected species in a community.

Compared to Simpson’s index, Shannon-Weiner index (H’) increases as diversity increases. Similar to the Simpson's diversity index, H’ takes into account species richness, to compliment it, H’ also accounts for evenness, giving rare species equal weight with the dominant species when calculating for diversity (Biofilms and Biodiversity, 2019).

Macrofungal diversity studies in the Philippines

The earliest records of fungal diversity studies in the Philippines came from foreigners, mostly Spanish friars, French botanists, and American plant pathologists, back in the 19th Century. The fungi recorded during this time were usually only documented as a side note from diversity studies of plants or more often only recognized as plant pathogens. Most of the recorded fungi belonged to the group of the Agaricales and

Polyporales, with a few Ascomycetes. The first report, however, of any fungus collection made in the Philippines is that of C.G. Ehrenberg and one named Chamisso in 1820, where they were said to have collected a new species, Sphaeria eschscholzii Ehrenb., which was in fact a Daldinia Ces & De Not. closely related to D. concentrica (Bolton) Ces & De Not.

(Graff, 1916; Quimio, 1986).

The Filipino pioneers in mycology, which include Professors Teodoro, Ocfemia,

Celino, Ela, Roldan, and Orillo, mainly worked with the systematics of plant pathogenic fungi. Their collections formed the valuable nucleus of the then two herbaria in the

Philippines, one at the Bureau of Soils in Manila (now Bureau of Soils and Water

Management in Diliman, Quezon City) and the other at the Department of Plant Pathology,

University of the Philippines Los Baños. Unfortunately, World War II in 1942 destroyed the collections and only the duplicates sent to large herbaria abroad are the ones that survived during this era of early mycology in the Philippines (Quimio, 1986).

An early study by Quimio and Capilit in 1981 listed 672 species recorded from

1937 to 1977. This number swelled into about 4,698 macrofungi species that are currently known in the country, with most studies focusing on general descriptions of basidiomycetes

(Musngi et al., 2005). Niem & Baldovino (2015) identified 41 species of macrofungi belonging to 20 families from Cavinti Underground River and Cave Complex, municipality of Cavinti, province of Laguna, with most species belonging to the Polyporaceae. Other notable publications that document fungal diversity include studies by Tadiosa et al. (2007,

2011), who made collections from different decaying woods from Mt. Cuenca, province of

Batangas and Bazal-Baubo Watershed, province of Aurora, respectively, and

Sibounnavong et al. (2008), who collected macrofungi during the dry season in Nueva

Ecija, which yielded seven (7) species. More relevant to this study are the reports of macrofungi collected from mountains by Tadiosa et al. (2007) in Mt. Makulot, De Castro and Dulay (2015) in Mt. Makiling, and Pampolina and Paquit (2017) also in Mt. Makiling.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study site preparation and permit acquisition

Mt. Palemlem, also known as Pico de Loro of the North, is located around 18°30'

N, 120°53'E, with its peak at 1,350 meters above sea level. Prior to conducting the study, letters addressed to the Municipal Government of Adams and Barangay Council of Adams were sent. The letters included a brief description of the study, specific objectives, the site of interest, and the expected date of fieldwork. Permission from the Municipal Government of Adams was secured prior to site inspection and specimen collection, and the necessary fees (environmental and tourist fees) were paid.

Figure 1. Terrain map of Mt. Palemlem showing transect line (TL) 1 (blue), TL 2 (green), TL 3 (red), and

TL 4 (orange)

Field sampling and collection

Sampling plots were prepared using the transect and quadrat method employed by

Tadiosa et al. (2011). Trails served as reference for the establishment of sampling plots.

Starting point and sampling side were chosen considering convenience and safety. Ten (10) sampling plots were made along each of the four transects, each with an area of 20 m × 10 m at 100-m intervals (see Figure 2). Brightly colored plastic straw ropes and wooden pegs were used to mark the plot boundaries. GARMIN Global Positioning System (GPS) device

GPSMAP 62 was used to determine the coordinates and elevation of each plot; the former was mapped out using Google Earth (see Figure 1).

Figure 2. Diagrammatic representation of the sampling plots (blue) along the transect (red).

Species were photographed in situ to document their growth habit and habitat.

Macroscopic characteristics of the fungi were recorded prior to collection such as the size, color, shape, and texture of the fruiting body (Kinge et al., 2013). Macrofungi found within the quadrats were recorded in photographs and assigned a collection number in the corresponding field tag. The field tag reflects the sampling site, plot number, and the collection number (see Figure 3). Preliminary identification was done at the base camp

(reflected in the field tag as “Field ID”). The frequency of each organism was recorded as raw data in the sheet in Appendix E with a corresponding Figure 4. A summary of the macrofungi according to ranks (i.e., order, family, species levels) is presented in Table 3.

Collected samples were designated MSPALIN-01 onwards chronologically, so exact quadrat and transect location can be backtracked.

Representative specimens (i.e., those with the least damage and most intact spores) were collected by carefully digging the ground around the specimen (in the case of soil- dwelling agarics), taking care not to disturb the hyphae or by cutting the surrounding bark of the bracket fungus using a knife (in the case of polypores). For those growing on animal and plant remains, a portion of the substrate was collected alongside the fungus.

Collection no.: 1

Preliminary ID:

Sampling Site: Mt. Palemlem, Adams, Ilocos Norte

Collection date:

Collector:

Figure 3. Template of field tag.

Spore print and herbarium preparation

For mushrooms and bracket fungi, characterization of spore prints was helpful in identification. For agarics, fresh specimen was cut at the fruiting body, which was placed flat on a sheet of dark and white paper inside a plastic container. Placing the spore print paper in a container protected the spores from damage during transport.

Preservation of an entire specimen depended on how much moisture it contained.

Fleshy bracket fungi were wrapped in parchment or newspaper in the field and were dried in a fruit dryer several times in 40-min. cycles at 58°C. After 4–5 days (including estimated

travel time from Adams, Ilocos Norte to University of the Philippines (UP) Manila), the dried fleshy samples were stored in compartments of medicine boxes or placed in plastic zip-up containers with silica bead packs to remove any buildup of moisture (Tadiosa,

2011). For polypores, each of the samples was wrapped in waxed paper and placed in separate polypropylene bags while smaller specimens were placed in separate compartments of a plastic container to avoid cross-contamination, then placed in a collection basket. Specimens were air-dried initially at the base camp and fully upon return to UP Manila. Thereafter, the specimens were stored in separate plastic containers with silica bead packs to prevent build-up of moisture.

Once properly preserved, the fleshy specimens remained in their containers while the woody specimens were placed inside paper boxes. Containers and boxes were labelled with the collection number, scientific name, sampling site, collection date, and name of the collector.

Identification

Identification was done by recording the following features of the macrofungal specimen in situ: size, color, shape, texture, and surface moisture of the cap, color, attachment, and spacing of the gills, and size, shape, veil presence, flesh color, and texture of the stem (Kinge et al., 2013). Characters of fungi were compared to field guides, keys, and online databases such as MycoKey (mycokey.com) and MushroomExpert

(mushroomexpert.com), the latter having a vast assortment of dichotomous keys. Field guide references were used following Tadiosa & Briones (2013). Professional help was

sought from the Philippine National Herbarium, National Museum of the Philippines

(Padre Burgos Drive, Manila).

Data analysis

Dominance by macrofungal community diversity and species richness were described using Simpson’s Index (D) and Shannon-Weiner diversity index (H’) given by the following equations:

Simpson’s index

2 D’= 1 - Σpi (Equation 1)

Where pi = proportion of a species to the total number of individuals of all species

Shannon-Weiner diversity index

H’ = −Σ (pi ln pi) (Equation 2)

Where pi = proportion of a species to the total number of individuals of all species

The Simpson’s Index (D) was used to determine the number of species present and the relative frequency of the species. Diversity is measured according to the dominance of certain species; the more dominant a group is, the less diverse the community. The closer

D is to 0, the greater the diversity, whereas the closer it is to 1, the lesser the diversity.

Simpson’s index is great for calculating dominance, but its weakness lies in the fact that the presence of rare species will contribute insignificantly to the value of D. Since the fact that as the value increases the diversity decreases is counterintuitive, a simple solution is

to subtract D from 1, hence the Simpson’s Index of Diversity (1-D) (Simpson’s Diversity

Index, 2011).

Compared to D, Shannon-Weiner index (H’) increases as diversity increases.

Similar to D, H’ takes into account species richness, but in contrast, it also accounts for evenness, giving rare species equal weight with the dominant species when calculating for diversity (Biofilms and Biodiversity, 2019).

Relative species abundance was obtained by dividing the number of individuals of a species to the total number individuals and multiplying by 100.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1 shows the taxonomic rundown of gathered organisms. A total of 1133 specimens were collected and identified in Mt. Palemlem representing seven orders, 30 families, 61 genera, and 133 morphospecies. Polyporus accounts for most of the polypore species with six species under it, followed by Ganoderma, Phellinus, and Stereum each with four species. Most of the polypores belong to the family Polyporaceae with eight genera under it, followed by Fomitopsidaceae with three genera. The polypores consist of four orders, namely Polyporales with five families and 15 genera, Corticiales with one family and one genus, Hymenochaetales with one family and two genera, and lastly,

Russulales with one family and also one genus. Mycena contains the most of the agaric species with 14 species under it, followed by genus Clitocybe with six species, while third is tied to Coprinus, Marasmius and Hygrocybe with five species each. Tricholomataceae contains most of the agaric genera with six genera under it, followed by Psathyrellaceae with five genera. The agarics consist of also four orders, the Agaricales with 17 families and 34 genera, the Boletales with two families and also two genera, the Cantharellales also with two families and three genera, and the Russulales with one family and two genera.

Table 1. Species listing of agarics and polypores found on the eastern slopes of Mt. Palemlem, Ilocos Norte, Philippines

Taxa Family Order Collection Code

AGARICS Agaricus sp. Agaricaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-122 Amparoina sp. Tricholomataceae Agaricales MSPALIN-15 Anthracophyllm melanophyllum Omphalotaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-21 Armillaria sp. Agaricaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-12 Cantharellus sp. 1 Cantharellaceae Cantharellales MSPALIN-62 Clitocybe geotropa Tricholomataceae Agaricales MSPALIN-101 Clitocybe sp. 1 Tricholomataceae Agaricales MSPALIN-81 Clitocybe sp. 2 Tricholomataceae Agaricales MSPALIN-37 Clitocybe sp. 3 Tricholomataceae Agaricales MSPALIN-111 Clitocybe sp. 4 Tricholomataceae Agaricales MSPALIN-58 Clitocybe sp. 5 Tricholomataceae Agaricales MSPALIN-32 Collybia sp. 1 Tricholomataceae Agaricales MSPALIN-83

Conocybe sp. 1 Bolbitiaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-19 Coprinellus disseminatus Psathyrellaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-106 Coprinopsis picacea Psathyrellaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-47 Coprinopsis atramentaria Psathyrellaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-130 Coprinus atramentarius Psathyrellaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-72 Coprinus micaceus Psathyrellaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-75 Coprinus plicatilis Psathyrellaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-63 Coprinus sp. 1 Psathyrellaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-38 Coprinus sp. 2 Psathyrellaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-27 Corticium sp. 1 Corticiaceae Corticiaceae MSPALIN-90 Cortinarius sp.1 Cortinariaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-112 Cortinarius sp.2 Cortinariaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-77 Craterellus tubaeformis Cantharellaceae Cantharellales MSPALIN-117 Crepidotus sp. 1 Inocybaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-50 Crepidotus sp. 2 Inocybaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-39 Entoloma sp. 1 Entolomataceae Agaricales MSPALIN-108 Entoloma sp. 2 Entolomataceae Agaricales MSPALIN-4

Gymnopilus sp. Hymenogastraceae Agaricales MSPALIN-33 Hydnum sp. Hydnaceae Cantharellales MSPALIN-92 Hygrocybe sp. 1 Hygrophoraceae Agaricales MSPALIN-133 Hygrocybe sp. 2 Hygrophoraceae Agaricales MSPALIN-10

Hygrocybe sp. 3 Hygrophoraceae Agaricales MSPALIN-61 Hygrocybe sp.4 Hygrophoraceae Agaricales MSPALIN-120 Hygrocybe sp.5 Hygrophoraceae Agaricales MSPALIN-114 Hygrophoropsis sp. Hygrophoropsidaceae Boletales MSPALIN-107 Hygrophorus sp. 1 Hygrophoraceae Agaricales MSPALIN-36 Hygrophorus sp. 2 Hygrophoraceae Agaricales MSPALIN-126 Inocybe sp. Russulaceae Rusullales MSPALIN-59 Laccaria sp. Psathyrellaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-8 Lactarius sp. 1 Russulaceae Rusullales MSPALIN-116 Lactarius sp. 2 Russulaceae Rusullales MSPALIN-115 Lacteus plumbeus Russulaceae Rusullales MSPALIN-96 Lepiota cortinatus Agaricaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-131 Lepiota sp. Agaricaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-49 Marasmiellus sp. 1 Omphalotaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-64 Marasmiellus sp. 2 Omphalotaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-6 Marasmiellus sp. 3 Omphalotaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-9 Marasmius androsaceus Marasmiaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-85 Marasmius ramealis Marasmiaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-65 Marasmius rotula Marasmiaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-103 Marasmius sp. 1 Marasmiaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-121 Marasmius sp. 2 Marasmiaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-11 Mycena alcalina Mycenaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-99 Mycena inclinata Mycenaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-29 Mycena sp.1 Mycenaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-1 Mycena sp.2 Mycenaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-43 Mycena sp. 3 Mycenaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-24 Mycena sp. 4 Mycenaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-123 Mycena sp. 5 Mycenaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-84 Mycena sp. 6 Mycenaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-51 Mycena sp. 7 Mycenaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-109 Mycena sp. 8 Mycenaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-94 Mycena sp. 9 Mycenaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-88 Mycena sp. 10 Mycenaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-48 Mycena sp. 11 Mycenaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-76 Mycena sp. 12 Mycenaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-14 Omphalina sp. Tricholomataceae Agaricales MSPALIN-98 Omphalotus olearius Omphalotaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-60 Oudemansiella sp. Physalacriaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-66 Panaeolus papilionaceus Psathyrellaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-26 Panaeolus semiovatus Psathyrellaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-52

Panellus stipticus Mycenaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-53 Pholiota sp. Strophariaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-45 Phylloporus sp. Boletaceae Boletales MSPALIN-100 Pleurotus sp. 1 Pleurotaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-79 Pleurotus sp. 2 Pleurotaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-71 Russula sp. 1 Russulaceae Rusullales MSPALIN-18 Russula sp. 2 Russulaceae Rusullales MSPALIN-129 Rusula fragilis Russulaceae Rusullales MSPALIN-23 Schizophyllum commune Schizophyllaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-13 Tricholoma sp. 1 Tricholomataceae Agaricales MSPALIN-104 Tricholoma sp. 2 Tricholomataceae Agaricales MSPALIN-69 Tricholomopsis sp. Tricholomataceae Agaricales MSPALIN-20 Trogia sp. Marasmiaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-74 Volvariella sp. Pluteaceae Agaricales MSPALIN-78

POLYPORES Amauroderma rude Ganodermataceae Polyporales MSPALIN-16 Amauroderma rugosum Ganodermataceae Polyporales MSPALIN-67 Amauroderma sp. Ganodermataceae Polyporales MSPALIN-102 Cymatoderma elegans Meruliaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-40 Daedalea quercina Fomitopsidaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-93 Earliella scabrosa Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-119 Fomes sp. Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-113 Fomitopsis feei Fomitopsidaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-91 Ganoderma applanatum Ganodermataceae Polyporales MSPALIN-87 Ganoderma lucidum Ganodermataceae Polyporales MSPALIN-44 Ganoderma sp. 1 Ganodermataceae Polyporales MSPALIN-73 Ganoderma sp. 2 Ganodermataceae Polyporales MSPALIN-97 Hexagonia hydnoides Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-42 Hexagonia nitida Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-80 Hexagonia tenuis Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-56 Hymenochaete rubiginosa Hymenochaetaceae Hymenochaetales MSPALIN-30 Hymenochaete sp. 1 Hymenochaetaceae Hymenochaetales MSPALIN-118 Hymenochaete sp. 2 Hymenochaetaceae Hymenochaetales MSPALIN-31 Irpex lacteus Phanerochaetaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-7 Irpex sp. Phanerochaetaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-105 Microporus affinis Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-2 Microporus vernicipes Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-5 Microporus xanthopus Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-3 Phaeolus sp. Fomitopsidaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-57

Phellinus gilvus Hymenochaetaceae Hymenochaetales MSPALIN-89 Phellinus punctatus Hymenochaetaceae Hymenochaetales MSPALIN-110 Phellinus sp. 1 Hymenochaetaceae Hymenochaetales MSPALIN-55 Phellinus sp. 2 Hymenochaetaceae Hymenochaetales MSPALIN-125 Polyporus hirsutus Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-25 Polyporus sp. 1 Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-54 Polyporus sp. 2 Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-128 Polyporus sp. 3 Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-124 Polyporus sp. 4 Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-95 Polyporus tenuiculus Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-82 Poria sp. Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-22 Pycnoporus cinnabarinus Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-86 Pycnoporus sanguineus Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-127 Pycnoporus sp. Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-17 Stereum hirsutum Stereaceae Russulales MSPALIN-35 Stereum ostrea Stereaceae Russulales MSPALIN-28 Stereum sp. 1 Stereaceae Russulales MSPALIN-46 Stereum sp. 2 Stereaceae Russulales MSPALIN-132 Trametes hirsuta Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-41 Trametes sp. 1 Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-70 Trametes sp. 2 Polyporaceae Polyporales MSPALIN-34

Evaluation of macrofungal diversity using Simpson’s Index of Diversity and

Shannon-Wiener Index

To review, this study aimed to determine the diversity level of Agarics and

Polypores present in Mt. Palemlem using the Simpson’s Index of Diversity (1-D) and

Shannon-Wiener Index (H’). Simpson’s Index of Diversity has values that range from 0-

1, and increasing value means increasing probability of individuals randomly selected from a sample will belong to different species (Simpson’s Diversity Index, 2011). The closer the 1-D is to 1, the higher the species richness and diversity (DeJong, 1975). For

Shannon-Wiener's Index (H’), it is a widely used measure for diversity based on information theory which quantifies the degree of order/disorder within a sample, functioning to predict the expected species in a community. It takes into account species richness and evenness, and the higher the value, the higher the diversity of the samples

(Biofilms and Biodiversity, 2019).

The value of 1-D for both Agarics and Polypores in Mt. Palemlem shows high diversity, 0.9953 for Agarics whereas 0.9817 for Polypores. These results are complemented with a high H’ value, 2.5886 for Agarics and 3.5851 for Polypores.

Table 2. Results of the Diversity Index values for Agarics and Polypores Groups Simpson’s Index of Diversity (1-D) Shannon-Wiener's Index (H) Agarics 0.9953 0.9817 Polypores 2.5886 3.5851 Comparison of results with other mountainous macrofungal diversity studies in

Luzon

Tadiosa et al. (2011) conducted a macrofungi study in Bazal-Baubo watershed in

Central Luzon, covering 20000m2 of sampling area. They collected 91 species, 55 genera,

and 30 families of basidiomycetes. Their study revealed species in common with those collected in Mt. Palemlem such as Hexagonia tenuis, Amauroderma rugosum, Ganoderma applanatum, G. lucidum, Hymenochaete rubiginosa, Marasmius ramealis, M. androsaceus, M. rotula, Coprinus disseminatus, Coprinus plicatilis, Microporus affinis,

Pycnoporus sanguineus, and others with incommon genera such as Amauroderma sp.,

Stereum sp., Trametes sp., Microporus sp., Pluteus sp., and many more. The watershed ecosystem has similar environment with Mt. Palemlem such as logging trails and foot paths, heavy vegetation, riverbanks, slash-and-burn areas and grasslands, which could be interpreted for the similarities in the fungi collected on the eastern slope of Mt. Palemlem.

Most of their collections are also located 250 meters above sea level.

Another study in Central Luzon by De Leon et al (2013) reports similar species as

Panaeolus papilionaceus, Hexagonia tenuis, Coprinus disseminatus, Ganoderma applanatum and G. lucidum, Marasmiellus ramealis, Marasmius rotula, Microporus (or

Polystictus) xanthopus, Pycnoporus sanguineus, Schizophyllum commune, and others at the genus level such as Mycena sp., Collybia sp., and Marasmius sp.. Their results indicate that more species of macrofungi are present during the latter part of the rainy season, but they do not specify which species. Nevertheless, most of the macrofungal species that they collected are from the family Polyporaceae, as in this study.

Also in 2013, Tadiosa and Briones conducted a study in Taal Volcano Protected

Landscape and covered 7,200m2 sampling area, where they found 64 species of basidiomycetes, 54 of which are under the traditional polypore and agaric groupings. The study used Simpson’s Index of Diversity to compute for species richness, abundance, and

evenness. Although the value was not stated in the paper, it concludes that the area has a high fungal species diversity as compared with those in other ecosystems in the region.

A study by Arenas et al. (2015) in Mt. Palaypalay, Southern Luzon, covered

30,000m2 sampling area and collected 89 species, 64 genera, and 34 families of basidiomycetes. They did not use any diversity index, but they have concluded that the area has a high number of macroscopic fungal species as compared to protected areas in Cavite,

Laguna, Batangas, Rizal, and Quezon (CALABARZON) Region. Their study site covers a wide range of habitats for macrofungal species such as rotten fallen tree trunks and branches, living trees, timber, trails, grasslands, pasture lands, fence posts, wood chips, stumps, and leaf litter. Their study also established that high moisture and rainfall leading to lower temperatures will allow the abundant growth of macofungi.

Another study in Mt. Palaypalay by Angeles et al. (2016) sampled 9,000m2 and subsequently found 24 families, 37 genera, and 41 species of basidiomycetes. It should be noted that the landscape is currently experiencing some degree of anthropogenic disturbances such as kaingin farming, quarrying, and minor foraging. In Mt. Makiling,

Paquit and Pampolina (2017) sampled 800m2 and found 11 species of macrofungi. The study applied the Shannon-Wiener index and concluded that undisturbed areas have higher species diversity of both trees and macrofungi than disturbed areas. The value of H’ for the undisturbed areas (composing of 400m2 sampling area) is 2.16, while the value for the disturbed areas (composing the other 400m2 sampling area) is 1.61, both results are lower than the results of H’ in Mt. Palemlem both for Agarics and Polypores.

In Mt. Maculot, Batangas, Arenas, Tadiosa, & Reyes (2018) laid five quadrats each

1km long in five different habitats and collected 76 species of Agaricomycetes, three of which are gasteroids. Their study also covered areas like forested areas, grasslands, shrub land/agricultural/denuded areas, rocky areas, and cliffs. As expected, the highest number of species was found in the forested areas, next is grassland followed by shrub land/agricultural/denuded areas.

Discussion of abundant species

The similar studies indicate that having high number of Polyporaceae is not unusual since the species under this family are known as wood-inhabiting fungi, and Mt. Palemlem has an abundance of trees for these fungi to thrive on. The type of trees may be not very significant as the area exhibits high diversity, and polypores in high diversity ecosystems such as in the tropical forests of Mt. Palemlem are expected to have broad host ranges

(Lindblad, 2000).

Among the macrofungi sampled, the more abundant group are the polypores comprising 764 or 67.43% of all samples observed. The agarics comprise 369 or 32.57% of all samples observed. The most abundant morphospecies are, in decreasing order:

Microporus affinis MSPALIN-02, Stereum hirsutum MSPALIN-35, Microporus xanthopus MSPALIN-03, Stereum ostrea MSPALIN-28, and Schizophyllum commune

MSPALIN-13.

The abundance of the morphospecies Microporus xanthopus could be partly explained by the fact that the some significant parts of the sampled quadrats, though of limited anthropogenic disturbance, has had a history of logging activities with some

stretching up to as far back as the Japanese occupation era according to the mountain’s guide. This habitat is preferred by Microporus xanthopus which can grown on trunks left after lumbering (Ryvarden & Johansen, A Preliminary Polypore Flora of East Africa,

1980). Meanwhile, the high elevations of the sampled quadrats may be harboring deciduous trees (such as some species of Ficus) which could explain the high abundance of Microporus affinis (Ryvarden & Johansen, 1980; Halevy, 1989). As for Stereum ostrea,

S. hirsutum, and other Stereum species, they are saprobic on the deadwood of hardwoods

(wood from dicot trees) of which the forests of Mt. Palemlem have plenty of (Chamuris,

1988; Kuo, 2008). Interestingly, there has been early records of the presence of Stereum ostrea as far back as 1909 taken in Pauai, Benguet at an altitude of 2,100 meters. This study adds that S. ostrea is also found in Malacca and Java, and has probably been distributed throughout Malaya in general (Graff, 1918). Meanwhile, Schizophyllum commune, also known as the split gill fungus, is dubbed to be the most widespread fungus in existence, being found in all continents except for Antarctica due to lack of wood to use as substrate there (Volk, 2000). It is saprobic on deadwood, and occasionally parasitic on living wood and prefers hardwood (dicot wood). It grows alone, or more frequently, gregariously clustered (as observed in this study) on decaying hardwood sticks and logs (Kuo, 2003).

S. commune is notable for its ability to survive drying out and revival upon contact with moisture, which helps it grow and survive substantially even in areas with not a lot of rain.

(Volk, 2000).

Preliminary computations for macrofungi diversity show an interpretably high diversity for the eastern slopes of the site. Anthropogenic activities on the site were largely

restricted to farming and resource gathering of a handful of individuals that reside in one area near the second transect. The indigenous people occasionally harvest rattan from the mountains and they also get their wood for building materials here. Although Mt. Palemlem is recognized as an attraction for hikers, it is still largely undisturbed; more than half of the quadrats sampled were outside of the established trails and the guide stated only the indigenous people living in the mountains travel those parts for resource collection. The limited disturbances to the area likely contributed to its high level of diversity.

Factors affecting diversity of agarics and polypores

Areas sampled for the study were mostly forested. Parts of the quadrats touched waterbodies such as rivers or small brooks, which results to increased humidity supporting the occurrence of small agarics such as Coprinus, Marasmius and Mycena which need high moisture to survive.

Majority of the macrofungi found are wood-inhabiting polypores, whereas the agarics were restricted to shaded, moist areas mostly favoring soil and leaf litter as substrates with some Mycena found on twigs and Pleurotus and Cantharellus on moist fallen logs. The higher abundance of polypores compared to agarics could be attributed to the climate and the period of collection which was made in January–February, which is said to be the dry season in the area (“Climate: Adams”, 2018). The dry season is where polypores dominate due to their tough, leathery to woody composition compared to the agarics which are usually moist and shrivel up in dry weather and polypores are known to renew growth each year, forming annual growth layers with which their age can be estimated, forming long-lived basidiocarps (Ginns, 2007).

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The preliminary survey of agarics and polypores of Mt. Palemlem show that there is a high species diversity of the groups in the mountain, especially when compared with other similar studies. A higher number of polypores were collected than agarics, attributed to the dry season during sampling. Microporus affinis MSPALIN-02 had the highest abundance across all sampling quadrats, followed by Stereum hirsutum MSPALIN-35,

Microporus xanthopus MSPALIN-03, Stereum ostrea MSPALIN-28, and Schizophyllum commune MSPALIN-13. Majority of the macrofungi found were polypores residing on dead wood followed by agarics on leaf litter and soil.

These results provide baseline information needed for observing trends of macrofungi diversity across increasing altitude, habitat, and other microclimatic factors.

The important role that macrofungi play in ecosystem dynamics such as those of wood- rotting fungi can be helpful in assessing the material cycling rate of the forest. Longer period of observation is recommended, one that ensures at least a collection during both the wet and dry periods in the area, along with a parallel study on the western slope.

Determining other environmental factors such as the flora, soil pH, and humidity, among others, could also provide a more complete picture of the fungal diversity in Mt. Palemlem.

For example, knowing the host species of the fungi and surrounding abiotic factors may explain further the existing macrofungal diversity.

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APPENDIX A

Gantt Chart

Research Expected Months Activities Outputs SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY

Writing of Thesis Thesis proposal Proposal prepared for oral presentation

Oral Defense of the Thesis proposal Proposal approved

Preparation for Equipment sample collection, prepared for Acquisition of field collection, authorizations, collection bags permits, ocular sterilized, inspection permission from local government bodies acquired, permits acquired

Diversity survey Samples collected and secured

Identification of Samples samples. identified. Data analysis Diversity indices, fungi profile

Writing of First Paper sent to Draft adviser; feedback received on the paper Thesis Defense Approved thesis

Final Manuscript Finalized writing manuscript

APPENDIX B

Line Item Budget

1. Operating expenses

a. Personnel services (local field guides) PHP 3,000

b. Materials and equipment

i. Labelling materials PHP 300

ii. Collection boxes & plastic containers PHP 1,000

iii Formalin, ethanol and distilled water PHP 1,000

2. Operational Expenses

a. Printing and binding of manuscript PHP 3,000

b. Lodging (10 nights) PHP 6,000

c. Transportation (3 times)

i. Bus travel (Manila-Laoag, v.v.) PHP 4,800

ii. Van rental (Laoag-Adams, v.v.) PHP 6,000

TOTAL 25,1000

APPENDIX C

Approved permits

Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences University of the Philippines Manila, Ermita, Manila 1000 January 14, 2019

Kgg. Rosalia D. Dupagen Town Mayor Municipality of Adams, Ilocos Norte

Kgg. Maelyn D. Guinayen Barangay Chairman Municipality of Adams, Ilocos Norte

Kgg. Bernardo P. Tawali Tribal Chieftain Municipality of Adams, Ilocos Norte

Kami po ay mga mag-aaral mula sa Unibersidad ng Pilipinas Maynila at kasalukuyang nagsasagawa ng pananaliksik para sa aming undergraduate thesis sa kursong B.S. Biology. Kasama sa aming pananaliksik ang pag-aaral ng iba’t-ibang uri (diversity) ng kabute (macroscopic fungi o macrofungi) at ang kaalaman ng mga mamayan ng Adams tungkol sa mga katangian at mga gamit nito (ethnomycology).

Sa mungkahi ng aming resource person na si Mr. Michael Calaramo, propesor mula sa Northwestern University, napili naming pag- aralan ang iba’t ibang uri ng kabuteng matatagpuan sa Mt. Pao.

Sagayon, kami po ay humihingi sa inyong tanggapan ng mga sumusunod: ● Kami ay pahintulutang pag-aralan at mangolekta ng iba’t-ibang uri ng kabuteng matatagpuan sa Mt. Pao sa mga araw ng Nobyembre 24 at 25 at Disyembre 10-13. ● Kami ay pagkalooban ng isang taong gagabay at sasama sa lugar na aming pag-aaralan ● Kami ay pahintulutang magsagawa ng panayam (interview) tungkol sa kaalaman ng mga mamamayan ng Adams sa mga katangian at mga gamit ng mga kabute, sa mga araw ng Enero 19 at 20 ● Kami ay pahintulutang manirahan sa isang bahay-tuluyan sa Adams para sa kabuuan ng aming pananaliksik

Bilang pasasalamat, kami po ay handang magbigay ng dokumentong naglalaman ng mga larawan ng iba’t ibang uri ng kabute sa Mt. Pao at ng buong kopya ng aming pananaliksik sa Munisipalidad ng Adams.

Kami po ay umaasa sa mabuting tugon mula sa inyong tanggapan.

Lubos na gumagalang,

ANDRES, DARYLL ICAONAPO, ALAN JUNE CLUTARIO, MAVIC DAVE

AQUINO, HYACINTH SILVESTRE, JUSTINE CUIZON, JOHN EMMANUEL LOISE RYAN

APPENDIX C

Approved permits

APPENDIX D

Elevation and coordinates of quadrats

900 800 700 600 500 T2 400 T3

Elevation (m) Elevation 300 T1 200 T4 100 0 Q01 Q02 Q03 Q04 Q05 Q06 Q07 Q08 Q09 Q010 Quadrat

Plot No. Coordinates Plot No. Coordinates Plot No. Coordinates Plot No. Coordinates

18°30'55.7"N 18°29'52.1"N 18°29'02.7"N 18°31'40.1"N T01Q01 T02Q01 T03Q01 T04Q01 120°54'19.0"E 120°53'50.1"E 120°53'40.8"E 120°54'40.7"E

18°30'57.2"N 18°29'55.3"N 18°29'07.8"N 18°31'41.4"N T01Q02 T02Q02 T03Q02 T04Q02 120°54'16.0"E 120°53'52.9"E 120°53'40.3"E 120°54'38.0"E

18°30'56.1"N 18°29'58.0"N 18°29'11.0"N 18°31'42.4"N T01Q03 T02Q03 T03Q03 T04Q03 120°54'13.0"E 120°53'54.7"E 120°53'41.0"E 120°54'35.2"E

18°30'57.9"N 18°30'01.3"N 18°29'14.0"N 18°31'42.8"N T01Q04 T02Q04 T03Q04 T04Q04 120°54'09.5"E 120°53'57.1"E 120°53'39.8"E 120°54'32.0"E

18°30'54.9"N 18°30'04.7"N 18°29'15.7"N 18°31'44.2"N T01Q05 T02Q05 T03Q05 T04Q05 120°54'22.5"E 120°53'55.1"E 120°53'37.1"E 120°54'29.9"E

18°30'51.8"N 18°30'06.3"N 18°29'18.6"N 18°31'43.7"N T01Q06 T02Q06 T03Q06 T04Q06 120°54'23.3"E 120°53'51.5"E 120°53'34.7"E 120°54'41.7"E

18°30'50.2"N 18°30'06.2"N 18°29'06.3"N 18°31'47.2"N T01Q07 T02Q07 T03Q07 T04Q07 120°54'26.6"E 120°53'48.4"E 120°53'44.3"E 120°54'42.4"E

18°30'46.7"N 18°30'05.0"N 18°29'06.4"N 18°31'51.0"N T01Q08 T02Q08 T03Q08 T04Q08 120°54'27.2"E 120°53'44.9"E 120°53'48.6"E 120°54'43.2"E

18°30'43.7"N 18°30'04.9"N 18°29'05.6"N 18°31'55.0"N T01Q09 T02Q09 T03Q09 T04Q09 120°54'25.2"E 120°53'42.0"E 120°53'53.0"E 120°54'44.6"E

APPENDIX E

Tally sheets

Abundance/ Relative Abundance Taxa Relative Abundance Tally (%)

AGARICS

Agaricus sp. 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Amparoina sp. 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Anthracophyllm melanophyllum 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Armillaria sp. 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Cantharellus sp. 6 0.0157068 1.57068063 Clitocybe geotropa 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Clitocybe sp. 1 3 0.0078534 0.78534031 Clitocybe sp. 2 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Clitocybe sp. 3 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Clitocybe sp. 4 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Clitocybe sp. 5 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Collybia sp. 1 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Collybia sp. 2 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Conocybe sp. 1 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Coprinellus disseminatus 23 0.0602094 6.02094241 Coprinopsis picacea 12 0.0314136 3.14136126 Coprinosis atramentaria 11 0.0287958 2.87958115 Coprinus atramentarius 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Coprinus micaceus 6 0.0157068 1.57068063 Coprinus plicatilis 11 0.0287958 2.87958115 Coprinus sp. 1 12 0.0314136 3.14136126 Coprinus sp. 2 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Corticium sp. 1 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Cortinarius sp.1 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Cortinarius sp.2 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Craterellus tubaeformis 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Crepidotus sp. 1 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Crepidotus sp. 2 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Entoloma sp. 1 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Entoloma sp. 2 1 0.0026178 0.26178010

Gymnopilus sp. 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Hydnum sp. 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Hygrocybe sp. 1 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Hygrocybe sp. 2 3 0.0078534 0.78534031 Hygrocybe sp. 3 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Hygrocybe sp.4 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Hygrocybe sp.5 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Hygrophoropsis sp. 3 0.0078534 0.78534031 Hygrophorus sp. 1 3 0.0078534 0.78534031 Hygrophorus sp. 2 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Inocybe sp. 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Laccaria sp. 5 0.013089 1.30890052 Lactarius sp. 1 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Lactarius sp. 2 3 0.0078534 0.78534031 Lacteus plumbeus 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Lepiota cortinatus 3 0.0078534 0.78534031 Lepiota sp. 3 0.0078534 0.78534031 Marasmiellus sp. 1 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Marasmiellus sp. 2 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Marasmiellus sp. 3 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Marasmius androsaceus 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Marasmius ramealis 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Marasmius rotula 3 0.0078534 0.78534031 Marasmius sp. 1 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Marasmius sp. 2 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Mycena alcalina 13 0.0340314 3.40314136 Mycena inclinata 34 0.0890052 8.90052356 Mycena sp. 10 3 0.0078534 0.78534031 Mycena sp. 11 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Mycena sp. 12 3 0.0078534 0.78534031 Mycena sp. 3 3 0.0078534 0.78534031 Mycena sp. 4 19 0.0497382 4.97382199 Mycena sp. 5 4 0.0104712 1.04712042 Mycena sp. 6 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Mycena sp. 7 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Mycena sp. 8 3 0.0078534 0.78534031 Mycena sp. 9 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Mycena sp.1 1 0.0026178 0.26178010

Mycena sp.2 3 0.0078534 0.78534031 Omphalina sp. 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Omphalotus olearius 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Oudemansiella sp. 3 0.0078534 0.78534031 Panaeolus papilionaceus 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Panaeolus semiovatus 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Panellus stipticus 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Pholiota sp. 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Phylloporus sp. 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Pleurotus sp. 1 33 0.0863874 8.63874346 Pleurotus sp. 2 0 0 0.00000000 Russula sp. 1 6 0.0157068 1.57068063 Russula sp. 2 3 0.0078534 0.78534031 Rusula fragilis 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Schizophyllum commune 53 0.1387435 13.87434555 Tricholoma sp. 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Tricholoma sp. 1 2 0.0052356 0.52356021 Tricholomopsis sp. 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Trogia sp. 1 0.0026178 0.26178010 Volvariella sp. 2 0.0052356 0.52356021

Total 369 1 100

APPENDIX E

Tally sheets

Abundance/ Taxa Relative Abundance Relative Abundance (%) Tally

POLYPORES

Amauroderma rude 2 0.0026247 0.26246719 Amauroderma rugosum 5 0.0065617 0.65616798 Amauroderma sp. 2 0.0026247 0.26246719 Cymatoderma elegans 4 0.0052493 0.52493438 Daedalea quercina 2 0.0026247 0.26246719 Earliella scabrosa 2 0.0026247 0.26246719 Fomes sp. 5 0.0065617 0.65616798 Fomitopsis feei 6 0.007874 0.78740157 Ganoderma applanatum 23 0.0301837 3.01837270 Ganoderma lucidum 19 0.0249344 2.49343832 Ganoderma sp. 1 6 0.007874 0.78740157 Ganoderma sp. 2 3 0.003937 0.39370079 Hexagonia hydnoides 33 0.0433071 4.33070866 Hexagonia nitida 19 0.0249344 2.49343832 Hexagonia tenuis 14 0.0183727 1.83727034 Hymenochaete rubiginosa 37 0.0485564 4.85564304 Hymenochaete sp. 1 22 0.0288714 2.88713911 Hymenochaete sp. 2 10 0.0131234 1.31233596 Irpex lacteus 4 0.0052493 0.52493438 Irpex sp. 23 0.0301837 3.01837270 Microporus affinis 65 0.0853018 8.53018373 Microporus vernicipes 12 0.015748 1.57480315 Microporus xanthopus 50 0.0656168 6.56167979 Phaeolus sp. 1 0.0013123 0.13123360 Phellinus gilvus 33 0.0433071 4.33070866 Phellinus punctatus 28 0.0367454 3.67454068 Phellinus sp. 1 18 0.023622 2.36220472 Phellinus sp. 2 15 0.019685 1.96850394 Polyporus hirsutus 25 0.0328084 3.28083990 Polyporus sp. 1 11 0.0144357 1.44356955

Polyporus sp. 2 8 0.0104987 1.04986877 Polyporus sp. 3 9 0.011811 1.18110236 Polyporus sp. 4 13 0.0170604 1.70603675 Polyporus tenuiculus 18 0.023622 2.36220472 Poria sp. 7 0.0091864 0.91863517 Pycnoporus cinnabarinus 13 0.0170604 1.70603675 Pycnoporus sanguineus 15 0.019685 1.96850394 Pycnoporus sp. 2 0.0026247 0.26246719 Stereum hirsutum 53 0.0695538 6.95538058 Stereum ostrea 44 0.0577428 5.77427822 Stereum sp. 1 12 0.015748 1.57480315 Stereum sp. 2 2 0.0026247 0.26246719 Trametes hirsuta 41 0.0538058 5.38057743 Trametes sp. 1 16 0.0209974 2.09973753 Trametes sp. 2 10 0.0131234 1.31233596 Total 764 1 100