i THE AMERICAN MILITARY ON THE FRONTIER The Proceedings of the 7th Military History Symposium United States Air Force Academy 30 September-1 October 1976 E3dited by James P. Tate, Major, USAF, Air Force Academy Office of Air Force History, Headquarters USAF and United States Air Force Academy Washington: 1978 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Military History Symposium (U.S.), 7th, United States Air Force Academy, 1976. The American military on the frontier. Includes index. I. Frontier and pioneer life-The West-Congresses. 2. The West-History-Congresses. 3. United States. Army-Military life-Congresses. I. Tate, James P. 11. Title. F596.M53 1976 978 77- 18 177 PREFACE The Seventh Military History Symposium differed from its prede- cessors in that its participants and its audience were perhaps more heterogenous than in the past The nature of the topic for this sympo- sium brought together military historians, frontier historians, western historians, and local historians. Each of these groups addressed the topic from a different perspective. Military historians tended to view the experience of the American military on the frontier as an interest- ing but relatively insignificant episode in American military history. Frontier historians lended to view the military as one of many forces involved in the century-long expansion of the United States across the American continent. Western and local historians tended to view the military in terms of interest in the trans-Mississippi frontier and the plains Indian wars of the late nineteenth century. While military and frontier historians were often more interested in campaigns and doctrine, the broad sweep of history, western and local historians were often more interested in battles and personalities, the rich detail of history. The planners of the symposium attempted to address the interests of both groups. The papers in this volume are those presented at the Air Force Academy on September 30 and October I, 1976. They are arranged into four sections: ‘“The Frontier and American Military Tradition,” “Comparison of Military Frontiers,” “Impact of the Military on the Frontier,” and “Military Life on the Frontier.” Papers in the first two sections address the broad sweep of the military experience on the frontier. These papers help provide perspective and conceptual framework within which to fit the more specific studies in the third and fourth sections. The fifth section, “The Seventh Military History Symposium in Perspective” includes the reactions and commentary of three leading military historians. With a few exceptions the papers and commentary in this volume are presented in the order in which they were delivered at the symposium. The Military History Symposium series began in 1%7 as an an- nual event sponsored by the IJSAF Academy and the Association of Graduates. Since 1970, the symposia have been held biennially. The purpose of the series is to provide a forum for scholars in military iii history and related fields, thereby promoting an exchange of ideas and information between scholars and military professionals, another link between thought and application in military affairs. The USAF Academy and the Association of Graduates are in- debted to the participants whose individual and collective efforts made the Seventh Military History Symposium possible. In addition to the participants, a number of other individuals and organizations were essential to the success of the symposium. The Superintendent of the Academy, Lieutenant General James R. Allen, and the Dean, Brigadier General William T. Wood yard, were steadfast in their sup- port of the Symposium Steering Committee which was responsible for conceiving, planning, and carrying out the program. The committee, chaired by' Colonel Alfred F. Hurley, began plans and preparations for the symposium more than 2 years before the first session began. The committee is particularly indebted to Mr. Robert M. Utley for advice regarding the program and the selection of scholars to present papers. Administrative and logistical details were the responsibility of the Executive Director of the symposium, Captain David A. Miles, who made a very difficult job appear easy. Assisting Captain Miles was a secretarial staff of Carol Meredith, Judi Daugherty, Catherine Clowry, and Yvonne Proctor, whose diligence and wholehearted co- operation contributed greatly to the smooth operation of the confer- ence. Acknowledgements would not be complete without mention of Mrs. Robert Jones, without whose patience and typing skill this vol- ume could not have appeared. iv THE MILITARY HISTORY SYMPOSIA OF THE USAF ACADEMY Current Concepts in Military History. (First Military History Sympo- sium, held in May 11967.) Proceedings were not published. Command and Commanders in Modern Warfare, 2d, enlarged edition, edited by Lt. Col. William Geffen, Washington, GPO, 1971, $1.60, stock number 0874-0003. (The Second Military History Symposium, held in May 1968.) Science, Technology, and Warfare:Proceedings of the Third Military History Symposiurn, 8-9 May 1%9, edited by Lt. Col. Monte D. Wright and Lawrence J. Paszek, Washington, GPO, 1971, $1.25, stock number 0874-0002. Soldiers and Statesmen: Proceedings of the Fourth Military History Symposium, 22-23 October 1970, edited by Lt. Col. Monte D. Wright and Lawrence J. Paszek, Washington, GPO, 1973,-$1.60, stock num- ber 0870-00335. The Military and Society: Proceedings of the Fifth Military History Symposium, 5-6 Cktober 1972, edited by Major David MacIsaac, Washington, GPO, 1975, $1.90, stock number 008-070-00367-8. Military History of the American Revolution: Proceedings of the Sixth Military History Symposium, 10-11 October 1974, edited by Major Stanley J. Underdal, Washington, GPO, 1976, $2.70, stock number 008-070-0361-9. Views or opinions expressed or implied in this publication are those of the authors and are not to be construed as carrying official sanction of the Department of the Air Force or of the Air Force Academy. V Advisory Committee to the Officeof Air Force History Dr. I. B. Holley. Jr Duke University Lt. Gen. James R. Allen Dr. Henry F. Graff Superintendent, IJSAF Academy Columbia University Dr. Robert F. Byrnes Indiana University Dr. Forest C. Pogue Director, Dwight D. Eisenhower Lt. Gen. Albert P. Clark Institute for Historical Research USAF (ret.) Lt. Gen. Raymond B. Furlong Mr. Jack Stempler Commander, Air University General Counsel, USAF Ofice of Air Force History Chief-Maj. Gen. John W. Huston Chief Historian-Stanley L. Falk Deputy Chief Historian-Max Rosenberg Chief, Histories Division-Carl Berger Senior Editor-Lawrence J. Paszek ****************** The Military History Symposium is sponsored jointly by the Depart- ment of History and the Association of Graduates, United States Air Force Academy. 1976 Military History Symposium Steering Committee: Colonel Alfred F. Hurley, Chairman Lieutenant Colonel Philip D. Caine Lieutenant Colonel David MacIsaac Captain David A. Miles, Executive Director Major James F. Wheeler, Executive Secretary, Association of Graduates vi OPENING REMARKS Lt. General James R. Allen Superintendent, United States Air Force Academy Good morning, ladies and gentlemen. It is my pleasure to wel- come you to the Seventh Military History Symposium. We chose The American Military on the Frontier as the topic for the 1976 symposium primarily because we wanted to join our fellow Coloradans in their celebratiori of the centennial of Colorado state- hood. The Air Force Academy is located in Colorado for many good reasons, not the least of which is the proud record of this state in pioneering in many things besides the frontier. For almost a quarter of a century, Coloradans have played a significant role in Academy affairs, and we are very pleased by means of this symposium to rec- ognize in some small way our indebtedness to a great state. This is the second of two symposia coinciding with our Centennial/Bicen- tennial celebration here in Colorado. The first, in 1974, treated the Military History of the American Revolution, the proceedings of which were published late in June of 1976 by the Government Printing Office in cooperation with the Office of Air Force History. In addition to the Colorado Centennial, there are other reasons to justify the devotion of this symposium to frontier history. Whereas the military’s frontier experience may appear at first glance to have little relevance to the mission of an air force in the nuclear age, it was nonetheless an experience rich in examples of small unit command, of ventures into the unknown, of courage both physical and moral (as well as of their opposites), of unconventional warfare, and of civil- military relations under trying conditions-all topics of continuing re- levance. In addition, it is probably fair to observe, not unlike Freder- ick Jackson Turner, that the frontier heritage has had an abiding influ- ence on our people in or out of uniform. As a people we are often uncritically proud of that heritage, recalling images of courage, endur- ance, and commitment-traits that we see as necessary for success on vii the modern frontiers of science, technology, and space. And yet much of that heritage is based upon myths fostered by motion pic- tures, television, and popular literature. Hopefully this symposium can contribute to the on-going effort to separate fact from fancy in the record of the western frontier. viii CONTENTS Page Preface Opening Remarks. 1.t . General James R . Allen ................ vii I . The