ASSOCIATION FOR CONSUMER RESEARCH

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Female in Advertising: What Do French Women Think? Elisabeth Tissier-Desbordes, ESCP-EAP, Paris Delphine Manceau, ESCP-EAP, Paris

[to cite]: Elisabeth Tissier-Desbordes and Delphine Manceau (2002) ,"Female Nudity in Advertising: What Do French Women Think?", in GCB - Gender and Consumer Behavior Volume 6, eds. Pauline Maclaran, Paris, France : Association for Consumer Research, Pages: 85-109.

[url]: http://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/15705/gender/v06/GCB-06

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Female Nudity in Advertising: What Do French Women Think?

Elisabeth Tissier-Desbordes, ESCP-EAP, Paris Delphine Manceau, ESCP-EAP, Paris

ABSTRACT audiences? To address this issue, we analyse what women think about This paper analyzes the female nudity in advertising. reactions of French women to To our knowledge, there is no advertisements depicting female nudity. international survey on nudity in Initially, it appears that French women advertising. However using the are not explicitly shocked. However, different but connected concept of several factors influence their reactions decency, in 1988, a survey of the to these ads: erotica and sexuality, the International Advertising Association presence of humour, the congruence (IAA) inquired about the salience of between nudity, the product category “sex and decency” problems in and the situation presented in the ad, advertising in 47 countries (Boddewyn, the representation of the product and 1991). It established a distinction aesthetic aspects. between four distinct issues, which are as follows, “tasteless/indecent ads”, “sexy ads”, “sexist ads”, ads including INTRODUCTION an “objectification of women” and “violence against women”. The IAA Non-French visitors coming to France then identified the countries where are frequently surprised by the number these factors can be considered as major of ads depicting naked women or issues based on the statistics about the showing parts of the body. These magnitude of such sex-and-decency ads stage what Goffman (1976) calls a problems. For instance, in the United hyper ritualisation, standardizing, Kingdom, among the 701 complaints exaggerating situations and characters: received in 1989 by the self-regulatory « an ad is a ritualisation of social ideals, Advertising Standards Authority on such as everything preventing the distasteful, indecent or in some way manifestation of the ideal has been cut, offensive advertisements, 34% alleged suppressed”. In some countries, nudity that the ad was offensive because of the is explicitly forbidden in advertising, in manner in which it depicted or referred others, it is allowed but not widely to womenwomen. Many problems stem used, and in France or Italy, nudity is from the inappropriate placement of ads allowed and widely used but a (PlayBoy vs. a TV magazine) and from degrading representation of human problems of execution and beings is prohibited. Is nudity a interpretation (Boddewyn, 1991). degrading representation of people? Unfortunately, the IAA survey did not How is it perceived by target

85 include France, the country in which we be related to the two different have conducted our research. pornographies of men and women Two studies investigating the (Stern & Rutgers 1991). perceptions of the treatment of women We thus wish to investigate women‟s in press, magazine and poster reaction. . Do they accept or reject advertising (ASA, 1982, 1990) showed nudityit? Are women shocked and that only a minority of women find when? What ad characteristics make it advertisements offensive (Elliott, nudity more or less acceptable? Do Eccles and Hodgson, 1993). Women women relate nudity with sexuality? Do are very critical about advertisements they accept a natural representation of for cleaning products that “exaggerate nudity without sexual associations? Is the importance of household chores”, nudity better accepted when represented but 53% of men thought that “the way in an esthetical setting and/or when the in which women are shown in press, product is congruent with nudity? magazines, and poster advertising has We try to answer these questions in this no effect on the way women appear in research. In theF firstly part, we review real life”. In France, a survey showed the literature on nudity and gender that 53% of people considered that it is representation in advertising. We then not acceptable to show sex in present the qualitative survey we have advertising, and 35% feel felt the same conducted in order to understand how for nudity (Manceau and Tissier- women react to several ads representing Desbordes, 1999). However, reactions naked women. In part 2, wWe present differed significantly according our methodology and. We then analyse depending on gender and age. For the interviews, before drawing instance, 45% of women do did not find conclusions. nudity acceptable in advertising while only 26% of men shared this opinion. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Formatted 21% of young people (aged 15-25) rejected nudity in advertising, Female representation in advertising Formatted compared to 34% of the middle-aged (35-45 group) and 51% of older people Research on female representation in aged 55-65 1 advertising began in the early seventies In a cultural context where female with the seminal work of Goffman nudity is highly represented in (1976). After an initial burst of research advertising – and much more activities during the seventies, only few represented than male nudity -, we articles went on publishingwere focused our research on the recipient published later. Artz and Venkatesh responses to these ads since recipient (1991) request more research in this responses have not been widely studied area because the questions have become in former papers on sexual appeals and more complex. The research on this nudity in advertising (Reichert & topic scarcely deals with nudity, but Ramirez 2000). Gender affects the more generally highlights the perceptions of nudity. One may wonder differences of the representation of if women interpret female nudity in women in advertising and the shifts in advertising as a result of male gender-based roles in society, stressing domination in advertising and in sexual stereotyping (Lundstrom and economy. It has been shown that gender Siglimplaglia, 1977, Coutney and affects the characteristics of sexual Whipple, 1983, Gilly, 1988). For appeals in advertising (Reichert & instance, Elliott, Eccles and Hodgson Ramirez 2000). Reactions to nudity can (1993) showed that women are very

86 critical about advertisements for private collector and not shown in cleaning products that “exaggerate the public before several decades). importance of household chores”, but Female nudity has always had symbolic 53% of men think that “the way in meanings, from the Eve‟s nudity which women are shown in press, symbolising the original sin to the magazines, and poster advertising has Olympia by Manet, a prostitute with a no effect on the way women appear in direct glance. But the representation of real life”. the nude woman female body has also always been a quest for perfection, from the Venus by Botticelli to the“XXX La Nudity grande baigneuse”(?) by Ingres. “In art, Formatted the female body is the representation of Nudity is a fascinating topic but also an nature, truth and the sublime” (Joy and ongoing paradox. To simplify, male or Venkatesh, 1994). However, nudity is female nudity has always been both Beauty and Sin, Paradise and Hell. represented and has frequently shocked some people in the Judeo-Christian Female nudity in advertising Formatted civilisation. The parts of the body that can be shown Consumer behaviour has paid little have changed during the centuries. In attention to the human body while the Middle Ages, it was more practitioners widely depict it in disturbing to show female calves than advertising ( Joy and Venkatesh, 1994). breasts (Bologne, 1997). Medieval art A recent survey revealed growing does did not fear nudity, as is noticeable public concern about the treatment of on the portals of churches. The women and nudity in advertising Renaissance period exalted the strength (Boddewyn, 1991). Several papers on of bodies, frequently using mythology the ethics of advertising focused on sex and ancient references. When: if a and nudity (Duke, Picket, Carlson and painter wanteds to represent a naked Grove, 1993, Henthorne and LaTour, aristocratic woman, he has had to 1995, LaTour and Henthorne, 1995). disguise her in a naked Diana the Some researchers have scrutinized the Huntress. But such portrayals were not impact of a sexual content on the appreciated by everybody, for example, effectiveness of advertising. A high the people has stoned the David of sexual content increases the attention Michelangelo. “ Liberating nudity, the paid to an ad and the interest it attracts, Renaissance has activated the most but it also leads to a rejection of the tremendous campaign of sense of advertisement and harms the brand‟s of the modern period” reputation (Aaker and Bruzzone, 1985, (Bologne, 1997). In the nineteenth LaTour and Henthorne, 1995, De century, nudity is was frequently Pelsmacker and Van Den Bergh, 1996, represented but with two means of Soley and Reid, 1998). However, distance: temporal distance (ancient former research has find found nude) or spatial distance (oriental contradictory results on the impact of nude). No realism is was allowed. This sexual content on the attitude towards border will wasbe crossed by the brand and on purchasing intentions Impressionistic painters, Manet with the (De Pelsmacker and Van Den Bergh, Olympia (Schroeder, 2000), or much 1996, Severn, Belch and Belch, 1990, more disturbing, the “Naissance du Vezina and Paul, 1997). monde” by Courbet (ordered by a The presence of female nudity in advertising tends to be accepted when it

87 is congruent with the product and its Consequently, we have felt it necessary usage, but is rejected when nudity is to use a precise definition of nudity: perceived as a gratuitous provocation the representation of naked breasts or (Peterson and Kerin, 1977). Consumer buttocks, considering that, in Europe, irritation in response to an these parts of the body are generally advertisement turns out to be linked hidden. We consider that ads more to the product category and the representing a partially naked woman execution than to the nudity itself enter in our definition whenever such (Aaker and Bruzzone, 1985). Thus, parts of the body are depictedshown consumers may have a positive naked. We will check if this definition perception of the presence of an is consistent with women perceptions undressed when the in our interviews. advertisement is for a body oil, whereas the same image is likely to be judged Methodology Formatted very negatively if it is associated with a do-it-yourself tool kit (Simpson, Horton Formatted and Brown, 1996). Nudity in advertising has been Previous research has shown that men investigated in previous studies but react more positively than women to the with a positivist approach simplifying presence of naked women in ads nudity and sexuality into scaled (Peterson and Kerin, 1977, LaTour, responses to structured questionnaires. Pitts and Snook-Luther, 1990, LaTour We contend that nudity is very much and Henthorne, 1995, Geuens and De more complex and thus has to be Pelsmacker, 1998, Manceau and investigated in more depth. Tissier-Desbordes, 1999) – even though According to O‟Keefe (1990), one can the result appears to be the other way define messages in terms of intrinsic round when dealing with masculine messages features or in term of nudity (Simpson, Horton and Brown, recipient responses. Most studies on 1996). As for age, young people are gender in advertising have been based less disturbed by provocative on the interpretation by of the authors, advertisements and appreciate them deconstructing the discourse without more than older people, even if results taking into account the point of view of vary according to the campaigns (De the consumer. However some studies Pelsmacker and Van Den Bergh, 1996, have looked the at gender in advertising LaTour and Henthorne, 1995, Vezina through the eye of the consumer and Paul, 1997, Alwitt and Prabhaker, (Elliott, Eccles and Hodgson, 1993). 1994, Manceau and Tissier-Desbordes, Every consumer experiences an 1999). advertisement personally, with his/her own history, his/her own beliefs. Our METHODOLOGY choice of methodology seeks to Formatted investigate such consumer experiences Definition of female nudity when facing an ad representing a naked Formatted woman. Formatted Nudity is a highly cultural concept. As Following Elliott and XXXet al. Formatted mentioned previously, showing a calf (1995?), we thus have adopted a for women was considered more erotic discourse analytical approach, in in the Middle Ages than revealing exploring the meanings which women breasts. In India, it is common for construct from advertisements which women to show their navel, while a use images of naked women. shoulder is considered indecent.

88 Each reader is assumed to be a dynamic - aesthetics, contrasting ads with a participant in the reading process. We will to display aestheticism as will examine the text-reader opposed to non-aesthetic ads. relationship,, considering that the 5 female judges classified 35 ads gender of the reader determines of the according to these criteria. We finally process of making meaning. That is selected 10 of them in order to why for this research, only women have represent the different categories been interviewed. This could also be (Appendix 1). We divided them into justified by the fact that these ads we two groups, each interview including a used are mainly targeted towards group of five ads, differing according to women. the three criteria set out above. For each We conducted 20 interviews with interview, we presented the ads women previously known, selected in sequentially on a paper sheet in a order to vary age, jobs and level of portfolio and asked the same list of education. However no claim can be questions on each ad (see interview made for the generality or guide in Appendix 2). However, we representativeness of the sample. This switched the order of presentation of methodology seems consistent with an the five ads because presented a exploratory research. (Table 1) shocking ad first could create irritation and then generate a halo effect on all To set up a portfolio of advertisements the ads presented later. The interviews depicting naked women, we bought were conducted by the two authors and women magazines from various a master student, either at the home or countries (USA, Germany, United at the office of the interviewees.We Kingdom, Italy, Spain and France) in an then switched to another ad (until five) international bookstore over a period of and asked to same list of questions. one month. Based on the nudity criteria depicted mentioned above, we gathered RESULTS Formatted all the ads presented presenting bare Formatted breasts or buttocks. We then eliminated The two authors analysed the the ads presenting several women or interviews separately in order to men, in order to focus on the identify the salient themes. A representation of a single naked comparison showed a strong woman. We sorted out the ads based on homogeneity of interpretation. Five three criteria: main themes were identified: the denial - congruence between nudity and the of women to admit they are shocked by Formatted: Bullets and Numbering product category, opposing the ads, the representation of woman congruent products (underwear), and of nudity, sexual content, the medium levels of congruence (e.g. congruence with the product, and the products congruent with the importance of aestheticism and nature. representation of the body but not These main themes are consistent with necessarily naked, like tanning pills the results of Reichert and Ramirez or shoes) and non-congruent (2000), who studied characteristics of products (like, for instance, an sexually oriented appeals in advertising. alarm-clock or a consulting company), The denial to be shocked Formatted - level of overt sexually content, opposing overt sexually oriented Formatted ads to representations of nudity When the ads were presented, the which do not refer explicitly to sex, interviewees generally did not say they

89 were shocked, but they employed one‟s so much seen, there „s no new Formatted indirect words to express their invention there, I‟m not interested”. Formatted disagreement. “It doesn‟t shock me but * Refuse Refusal to name. Formatted I don‟t like it”. “I am rather divided, I They also refused to name what could Formatted am really divided, because I think there be considered as shocking, I meanthat Formatted are good ideas but the set-up, I don‟t is to say sex : “ it doesn‟t develop Formatted find it is successful”. They refused to imagination, we just imagine one thing, reject the ad in its entirety: “I am a bit it only brings one thing to mind ( Formatted embarrassed because there are things I laughs)”. Formatted don‟t like”. Women found excuses, * Refusale to enter the game. Formatted telling they were too old, “too They also refused to confess to bethey Formatted retrograde” for these kinds of ads: “I were shocked because that is the aim of Formatted don‟t like this image of the woman, I the ad : to to provoke. They refused to Formatted am perhaps from another generation”. enter into this game:. Formatted This attitude could may have been “ I am not shocked, they are trying to Formatted emphasised by the age of one of the provoke”. (“ça ne me choque pas on Formatted interviewers, a 24years-old girl. Here est dans la provocation”). are the reasons they put forward to They understand considered that Formatted explain why they were not shocked. advertising used processes in order to Formatted attract them, in order to sell. And given Formatted * - Tolerance and openness. This denial that advertising is only for goods, for Formatted could be explained by the will to appear sales, this is not worth thinking about it. Formatted tolerant: “That suits for women who It is too small too small, too futile a Formatted like boots with a bit of an erotic look, topic to be discussed. these are for some women who would like to be like that”. Even when they rejected the ad, they asserted their openness: “I am very open to most But in fact, the women we interviewedy things, but here, really!” refused to acknowledge several aspects * - Reason and logic. They found in the ads that we presented to them. Formatted explanations for their dislike, and try to We have classified the words they use Formatted back them up with reason: “Why show to reject the ads in six categories : breast and bottom for shoes, that‟s ugliness, artifice, without reason, completely irrational !”. vulgarity, disgust and inadapted * - Habits. They proposed habits as (Table 2). More precisely, here are the explanations: “Iit doesn‟t shock me elements they refused. because we have seen worse, but it * S - scarcely the presence of a Formatted doesn‟t add anything”. “This woman is woman, mainly when the product was Formatted like a sexual object but it is a bit like very far removed from a feminine that in nearly all ads now”. They universe: “ we take her out and we put affected a blasé indifference. “This ad another thingsomething else in the ad”. is sexual, but that‟s a bit in nearly all Formatted the add made now”.” “Bare women * Nthe nudity. When asked what they Formatted like that, you see them everywhere”. wcould change in the ad, they added The frequent use of nudity in knickers, systematically. : “she needs advertising involves generated a severe pants”, .“” I would put a bra and pants judgement on such ads, charged with an on her”, “they cwould have shown a absence of creativity. very nice dressed woman, such as a “Ads like that, in fact, are everywhere; business profile”, “ ”.” I wouldn‟t have Formatted we‟ve already seen 50,000 like this put a woman naked on top of that”.

90 * Sthe sexual position of women, “ the completely bare woman with sport Formatted position makes the woman ghastly”, “ shoes”.. she is nice but she doesn‟t stand up - straight” – also meaning “_ she doesn‟t *Ssome objects, symbols of erotica or Formatted hold herself well” since the words are objects placed in an erotic position, like similar for the two meanings – in a pillow placed between the thighs, or French it is the same word :( “elle ne se the hand to hide the genitals. “Rather tient pas bien”). Erotica is not for than shehave her hides theher genitals advertising and should not be used to with her hand, I would have put pants promote products, it has to be on her”. It is interesting to notice that protected,kept in a private sphere, and among the reasons why the Olympia not transferred to in a commercial ofby Manet was such a scandal, was sphere : “ What‟s getting on my nerves that the hand of the model was put on is to showing a woman in an erotic the genitals, in the centre of the position to boost a lingerie brand”. painting, inevitably attracting the eye * T the non congruence of nudity with (Bologne, 1997).objects, Formatted the product and the non congruence with the brand, as well as the non o congruence of nudity within the o. environment of depicted in the ad (the *TheTo use of non direct selling Formatted landscape). They did not accept an messages. “ I need an explicit message, Formatted unseemly situation: a naked woman I am very Cartesian, so it must be under a tree, “we are not anymore explicit”. Adam and Eve anymore, we don‟t live on islands stark naked”. “” We don‟t What are the words they used to sleep like that”. “We One wonders reject the ad : what she is doing with shoes on her belly, shoes are to be put on one‟s feet, We classified the words in five I don‟t know, shoes are made to walk categories : ugliness, construction, in”. “It is not something very natural to Ugliness:« I don‟t like it at all, I think see a completely bare woman with sport it is ghastly”. I find her indecent, shoes”. The women we interviewed clearly indecent because there is no also refused non congruent objects: aestheticism”. “I find it horrible, she is Formatted “nudity with trainers, well, it‟s beyond awful”. me completely”. This topic will be addressed in a later section since Construction : ”It doesn‟t look natural”. congruence appears as a major and “It looks a bit posed”. “There is a very complex factor.. artificial side that I dislike”. ”.” She is -the environment of the ad: the relatively disembodied”. ”It is very Formatted landscape,or by an unseemly stereotyped”. situation : a naked women under a tree, “ we are not anymore Adam Without reason : “ That‟s without and eve, we don‟t live on islands interest”. That‟s ridiculous, it‟s worth stark naked”.” We don‟t sleep like nothing „ je trouve ça nul). That‟s a that”.” We wonder what she does little absurb” .“That‟s completely with shoes on the belly, shoes are to irrational”, “ it stinks”. be put on the feet, I don‟t know, shoes are made to walk”.” It is not Vulgarity : “That‟s vulgar”. “ it really something very natural to see a looks dowdy”.” that makes bottom of the range”.

91 “we don‟t need to show the gap Disgust and horror: “That‟ shit”, (je between the buttocks”. ”, “wWe trouve ça trop nase – I think it‟s bust”, wonder limit what she „‟s waiting for “I am horrified”, “I am super disgusted. with her bums in this position”, “it “That‟s sickening”,”that gore” ( pub the reminds the provocation side of “ I seller). show you my bums”, that‟s also at the limit of the (“she borders on porno Out of purpose :”that‟s excessive”, actress) a porno actress, and I don‟t “That‟s ridiculous” like it at all”. This definition of nudity confirmed our They Women preferred the ad preliminary choice in the methodology : when when: to choose mainly ads with bare women, * the nature was present : “« that‟s with showing either bare breast or Formatted better because there is the sea behind, buttocks. Formatted that makes it a bit more natural” “; “ The interviewees preferred the ads this ad makes one dream, as far when where breast or bottom is not assince behind there is the a beach, the shown : “ this ad is not badly made, sand, the sea behind”, aesthetically, she is shown in a position * the ad was aesthetic, where you can‟t really see everything, Formatted * humor was used. For instance in the thatit‟s “hidden a bit...”. In fact, n Formatted aAd “Aubade”, there is a gap between Nudity seemed better accepted when Formatted the image and the text “lesson 27”, the body was presented from the back * the message was clear : “ you see, it (.“ I don‟t think that‟s shocking. ; Formatted is like contemporary painting, I don‟t Firstly, it is seen from the back”). like it that much because I don‟t Moreover, it appeared that nNudity understand the message, I prefer supposes perfection, perhaps in figurative painting”. reference to painting. - “ Quitte à ce In the following paragraphs, we qu‟elle soit nue, autant qu‟elle soit analyse more thoroughly several of the belle “- If she has to be bare, better that above mentioned topics, such as the she to be beautiful”. reactions to the way woman and nudity Overall, nudity was rarely accepted. It are represented, the reactions to should not be shown (“I don‟t see why sexuality, the importance of congruence she is naked”). Women refused to look and the various dimensions of this at the naked woman: “I am more concept, and finally the impact of interested in the landscape”. When aestheticism. asked what they would change in the ad, the women interviewed systematically put clothes back on. “I Formatted think I would prefer the girl well Tthe representation of nudity and the dressed in order to see how it makes the Formatted representation of womanwoman boots stand out”. Was it a real interest Formatted for the clothes, or by a sense of The concept of nudity: breast, bottom modesty? They dressed up the models, and perfection but not in a modest way: “we could Formatted have a sexily dressed girl!”, “I would a) nudity dress her up a little, even if it means she Nudity could be summed up by breasts would be short skirted, in little shorts, and bums. Women noted : “why show dressed a little bit, now there are little bums and breast for shoes ?” , T-shirts cut just beforeover the belly button”. Clothes appeared to be closer

92 to the feminine universe. Clothes meant dress the models, but not in a modest fashion, trends, creation, whereas way : “we can have a sexy dressed girl nudity led to sexuality. !”.” I will dress her up a minimum, even if it means she would be short * Women Female nudity perceived as : skirted, little shorts, a minimum a marketing tool dressed, now there are little T-shirts cut The representation of a naked woman in just before the belly button”. Clothes the ad was interpreted as a means to appears to be closer to the feminine catch the eye, and soas such, was universe. Clothes mean fashion, trends, understood to beas a marketing tool, but creation, whereas nudity leads to it was considered as illegitimate. “” sexuality. The fact that she is stark naked, that‟s a means to shock, to catch the eye, but The representation of woman: the need well..., that‟s not very relevant”. for a faceb) Women One very frequent reaction to nudity Formatted In fact, women attributed the presence was the need to see the face of the Formatted of naked women to an advertising woman depicted. strategy aiming at increasing attention. *The absence of a face. A woman needs This is consistent with Wright‟s a face (1986)‟s conclusion that consumers Almost all iInterviewees looked for a Formatted activate assumptions about the motives face. “ I would have put her head, the Formatted of advertisers – “control schema” - and her face”., “I would have liked to see interpret the advertisements in relation her head, and not just her body, that to these motives. TThe congruence or would have made it better, so I think”. the non congruence with the product Moreover “Iit is not very frank, they was the first point to be put forward. hide their her eyes”.“ “I would like to We will discuss this issue in the third see the eyes of this girl because she partlater on. deserves it”. We see cow eyes, bovine So, the woman was considered as a eyes”(« on voit un regard de vache , de marketing tool. But the use of nudity in bovin »). « “Her body is nice, but we advertising was perceived as a lack of don‟t see her face” ». “We don‟t even imagination by advertisers. “They use see her eyes” ( On voit m^me pas ses nudity at any casefor anything instead yeux »).”On a envie de regarder le of , I don‟t know , to finding another visage pour voir si la femme est belle idea”. ou pas.” “We would like to look at the face to see if the woman is nice or not”. * Clothes better than nudity “T this ad looks artificial because she Nudity has not to be shown. “I has no eyes”. don‟t see why she is naked” (« je ne The absence of eyes depersonalises the vois pas pourquoi l‟avoir mise à woman, she becomes a model, a poils ». They refuse to see the bare creation. This prevented identification. woman : “I am more interested par the How to identify with a body without landscape” eyes ? A body without eyes was Nudity is scarcely accepted. When considered as impersonal, but and, asked what they change in the ad they moreover, not human. Without eyes, the systematically put clothes back on. “I woman was necessarily passive, and think I would prefer the girl well interviewees would prefer active dressed in order to see how it renders women, women expressing emotions. with the boots”. Is it by interest for the Eyes were a way to have access to the clothes, by sense of modesty ? They

93 soul, it was the expression of a human money”. (elle est génée d‟être là mais being versus an object. pour se faire du fric elle est là. “ A wWoman as a sexual object, a woman who poses to make money and who *Disembodied woman: - Models are posing poses naked should win earn different, they are not women more”. “« Femme objet, femme qui pose se faire de l‟argent et qui en We could also explain the refusal to a posant nue doit gagner be shocked by the fact that women davantage »« That‟s degrading for the considered these models only as woman, that‟s discrediting her” ». models, not as women. “« She is an Some go further, speaking of incarnation, not a real woman” », “ prostitution : “That‟s a kind of that‟ s just for show, clearly..”, “I look disguised prostitution” ». at her as a painting... as a photo in a A woman showing her body in museum”. a magazine, for an ad, was considered Several reasons explain why the as a prostitute or a woman doing it for wSo, women we interviewed could not the money. That was not usual, not “ identify with these models or project normal”, ordinary women would not do themselves onto the models, : that. - the women depicted in the ads they We found the old attitude were too young : “It could represent a towards models in the nineteenth young virgin”, “ it is the photo of a nice century when models for painters were little young little girl, it doesn‟t suggest mainly prostitutes or perceived as me many thing to me!, it doesn‟t touch prostitutes. We could classify the words me” ( ça ne m‟atteint pas),. used to describe the women in the ads in two categories, prostitutes and - tThey were too beautiful and the objects (Table 3), even though some interviewees felt physically different: interviewees have difficulty classifying “There are always super women, and them (“a queer creature”, “a we feel a little bad beside thems when figurehead”). we are not like that” „ , il y a toujours des super nanas et nous on se sent un The women in the ads were perceived peu mal à coté quand on n‟est pas as different from the interviewees. This comme ça”. reflection accounted for the fact that The interviewees have difficulties to many women were not shocked by the identify themselves, to project ads. Since this was not the real world, themselves to the model. They feel they kept at a distance from the pictures different physically but - they shown to them. They also noted that considered that the woman in front of over the past few years so many ads her them was just a model, not a real they had seen for so many ads the last woman in the real life2: “a woman as a years depicting this type of sex object who poses to make money desincarnated naked models without and posing naked should earn more”. ” flesh and blood that they were neither This should have bring her some surprised nor shocked anymore. money”. In some ads the position of the women lying down reinforced this idea of Formatted The interviewees suggested that models woman as as a sexual object. According only posed like that for money. “I am to Goffman (1976), women are Formatted ashamed for her”. “She looks awkward frequently represented lying, or on a Formatted to be here, but she is here to make bed, position of submission. Lying, it is Formatted Formatted

94 difficult to defend oneself, the woman She has to be entire : “ Tant qu‟à faire, Formatted is vulnerable: men are rarely il fallait montrer ses pieds jusqu‟en bas, Formatted represented lying down. je trouve qu‟elle est coupée ». » While Formatted they do it if they really wanted to show a naked woman, “they had to show her The ideal woman : a feminine woman feet entirely, otherwise I think she is with clothes on cut”. Behind this rejection of nudity, also lied And finally the woman had to Formatted a representation of women. be dressed. Formatted A woman had to be beautiful Overall, the reactions to the but not too much : “She is a girl who is representation of women stressed the pretty without being a real peach, that importance of the concept of efferent is to say it is „ c‟est à notre portée) versus aesthetic reading styles proposed possible to look like this girl” ». The by Rosenblatt (1978) and Stern (2000) . interviewees Female readers would be characterised They rejected the idea of norms by an aesthetic (affective) mode of for women, like being thin, beautiful: .. reading versus efferent (masculine) “ with these ads , they say here it is the reading. We had no comparisons with kind of woman you must be”. male reading, but we found that women She The ideal woman also had to be wanted to participate emotionally in the active. The model was often too character‟s lives. They wanted the passive. “Se.( Pub Paciotti)” she has models to be happy, to look sensitive, such an empty glance, hollow, seeking intimacy with the text. uninteresting”. “She has n‟ot got the Nevertheless, rationality was present in eyes of a woman who take enjoys some analyses, but rarely so. Stern pleasure or who would like to seduce... (2000) argues that females enter into Sshe is put here, it has been imposed to the world of a story of an her from outside, she has the eyes of a advertisement, and that men appear to passive girl”. be more distant from the text. Here The woman had to look happy. however, we found womean distant, Moreover, when the interviewees refusing to enter into the text when they agreed to discuss about the sexual rejected it. Stern also insists on attitude of the model, they looked for a women‟s acceptance of the authorial woman who took pleasure and who presence as given, in contrast with showed it.: « We feel she is not well”,” men‟s determination to seek out the The ideal woman She had to look smart author‟s purpose. However, we found : “she looks like a twit, she is posing” ( that women tried to understand the aim elle a l‟air cruche, elle a la pose). of the author. “That‟s looks like a useless woman, a woman who is going to spend the summer getting tanned”. Femme-objet : la pub est-ce assez Moreover, if the interviewee important pour se révolter ? tout le accepts to discuss of the sexual attitude monde le fait ! of the model, they look for a woman Et puis les femmes ont aussi envie de who take pleasure and who shows it.W prendre du plaisir et dans certaines de Women preferred something feminine, ces pub c‟est du plaisir que l‟on montre. simple, kind, natural, soft… and entireto see a full body: “w. « coté Words for women simple féminin »

95 We can classify them in two - a marketing tool categories : prostitutes, objects As nudity erotica is understood as a tool 1. Prostitutes : »Women as sexual to attract the eye ( . “they put erotica to object, woman, who poses to make catch the eye”) but not accepted. More money and who, posing bare should precisely, win more”.( « Femme objet, femme -erotica and nudity qui pose se faire de l‟argent et qui eErotica in itself was not rejected, but en posant nue doit gagner this specific kind of erotica was davantage »). “a woman of easy rejected. The interviewees said they virtue” (« femme facile »), « a would accept a more subtle erotica, prostitute » (« femme de without nudity and with less prostitution ») demonstration : : “even so, erotica 2. That a fair object supposes a bit of mystery” (“l‟érotisme, 3.women as an object : “A sandwich ça suppose quand même un peu de woman”,“A display woman” ( une mystère”). Erotica for women supposes femme présentoir), « Women as mystery, not to show everything (, a merchandise” naked body, sexual acts), but only to 4.Some interviewees have difficulty to suggest all this in a very subtle way. classify them : “A queer animal”, “a Because Eeven when sexuality was figurehead “(“une potiche”). only suggested, this bothered women. “I don‟t like the hands on the As far as we analyse, they woman in genitals”...”she hides her genitals with the ads are not like the interviewees, her hand”. they are perceived as different. French culture distinguishes clearly between a beautiful and a sexy person. Some words express the concept of 3-Sexually oriented content beauty without sexuality, like “potiche” Formatted ( a decorative objectvase), a Formatted The fear of words representation of woman as a Either sexually oriented content wasand decorative object, without a brain, but sexuality are rejected or the not necessarily sexy, on the contrary , interviewees refusedd to see themit, to toof a bimbo who, is a sexy girl. tell talk about themit. The words they employed evoked Développer.XXXX sexuality or sensuality, but indirectly:. « “a bit too loose a position” »… , ManThe permanent reference to men “that‟s it‟s a little bit too much of anthe position a little bit too arched position There was no man depicted in any of which shocked me ”. For instance in the the ads we used. However, whenever ad for the lingerie Aubade, the woman there was a sexual content, Man is had her hand slipped in her pants, and absent in these ads, but the reference to one interviewee suggested to put men was omnipresent because of the offtake away the “ thingummy of suggested sexuality. If the woman had hands”: “..« I would remove the a lustful position, she was described as fingers, because it‟s a pity, to touch her being offered to the man. The pants doesn‟t bring anything,.. what do advertised they want to show?” , “. The proposed products were mainly for When erotica was mentioned, it was women and usually bought by women considered as a (shoes, pants, tanning pills etc.). However, the interviewees scarcely

96 considered , but the womaen is scarcely considered as the target. These ads seemed to them ass created for men : Humour makes sexuality less alarming ““ May be one would have to ask a The interviewees accepted nudity and man what he thinks about it”, .“I don‟t‟ erotica much better when the ad (and think know what women think about this especially the text) included a touch of ad, but I have several pals who could humour. This was particularly clear for not resist it”/ the Aubade ad. “This ad is less (“ ça serait intéressant de savoir ce que shocking. T; there is more sympathy les hommes en pensent”),” “it would be because she it makes you laugh”. (“ interesting to know what men think C‟est vrai que c‟est une note d‟humour about that”.“ ”, “ I can‟t judge, I am et ça.; comment dire.. pas dédramatise not a man”, “.... “You shwould have to mais ça lève le niveau de la pub .That‟s interview men”. right that it is a touch of humour and Women perceived theses ads as created that […] ‟s how to say.. to makes it less for men even if the presented products awsomeaustere. But thatIt raises the are for women. Moreover, women level of the ad”. refuseds to judge these ads. These ads We could imagine that nudity were supposed to create emotion, but with humour was better accepted for men only. Women thought they because this kind of ad appeals to the were not good judges because they women‟s mind, their brain, not only couldn‟t feel the same emotions: . their sexual emotions. “That‟s certainly for the manmen, isn‟t As mentioned previously, to be it, no ?”. In a previous study, accepted, a woman must be perceived O‟Donohoe (2000) had also noticed as a human being, with eyes and brain. that for the women interviewed, “ads This use of humour to talk about sex in showing women taking off their clothes advertising had been previously noticed were obviously considered as directed by Eliott (1995), who proposes that at men”. women use humour in order to “reduce This masculine reading was amazing the levels of their anxiety and allow and enlightened the androgenic turn of them to deal with the subject matter”. Formatted advertising, emphasised by Stern But as pointed by de Certeau (1984), Formatted (2000). Because women thought these the reader is able to reinterpret the ads had been created by men, they read symbolic and resignify meanings in male advertising text as a man. Perhaps unintended directions. we could use the world decipherment in this case. De Certeau (1984) uses this term for reading someone else‟s language according to their own rules III – as reading is an interpretation made CProduct congruence Formatted with the reader‟s culture.

When starting this research, we The other reference to man men is anticipated that product congruence concerningdealt with the difference in would strongly affect the reactions to representation of men and women in female nudity. This is why we chose advertising : (“ They don‟t do the same ads including different levels of thing for with men”) and that was a congruence. The interviews showed reason to be annoyed by the presence of that this is a major variable. a naked woman. Congruence was often the first factor

97 mentioned when judging ads depicting ad represented a naked woman and female nudity. Women asked what the were not chocked shocked or annoyed ad was about and commented on the by the presence of female nudity. presence of a naked woman to promote Showing an entirely naked woman was the product category. However, even perceived as « “logical” » to interviews also showed that product promote the Doriance self-tanning pills congruence was a more complex in order to show that the tan was all variable than we expected. over the body 3 However, when asked The level of product congruence what they would change in the ad to Formatted improve it, several people said that they The level of product congruence would add some clothes, usually light appears as a major factor affecting the and sexy clothes such as a suit ad perception. All women commented (tanning product) or underwear (Rosy, on the product category and the Paciotti). relevance of nudity for such products. As one woman summed up, « “Well, a Other products were considered as woman who is naked can be justified completely non-congruent with female when there is a link with the product” » nudity, that islike the alarm clock or the (« A la limite, une femme qui soit très e-consulting company. People did not nue, dans la mesure où il y a un lien understand why those ads depicted a avec le produit, ça peut se justifier »). naked womaen and reacted very Women were bothered by what they negatively. « “Why a naked woman? called « “pointless nudity” » (nudité What is she doing there?” » inutile), which was perceived as using (« pourquoi une femme nue, qu‟est-ce females as sexual objects. A low qu‟elle fait là ») (Inexware). Nudity congruence generated irritation. One was then interpreted as a way to interviewed woman notes, « “You see a increase attention towards the ad. When naked woman and this is to promote a asked what they would change in the ad consulting company. Underwear, self- so as to improve it, women suppressed action tanning lotiontan, OK. Shoes, the presence of a naked womaen. They that was already too much but, now, I completely changed the image and am a little annoyed. They use nudity for some would depict a man instead of a anything instead of trying to find woman. another idea” » (« Tu vois une femme nue et c‟est pour une boite de conseil. Among the sample of ads we used for La lingerie, l‟autobronzant OK. Les our survey, four of them were chaussures c‟était déjà poussé mais là, promoting shoes. This product category oui, ça m‟énerve un peu. On utilise le generated ambiguous and heterogen- nu à toutes les sauces au lieu de eous congruence evaluations. Some chercher une autre idée »).. people found them congruent with female nudity. They noted that if the We have classified the ten ads we used model were dressed up, consumers in the interviews into three groups would look at her clothes instead of her based on the perceived product shoes. Nudity enabled to focus attention congruence (Table 14). Some products on the shoes as opposed to other seemed congruent with female nudity to clothing items. However, as one woman all the women interviewed. This was noted, the consequence was that people the case of underwear, cosmetic surgery looked at the model‟s body instead of and tanning products. For these the shoes! Other interviewees made a products, women understood why the distinction between boots (perceived as

98 congruent with female nudity because perceived more negatively. They note they are sexy products) and sports shoes that « “You should see the product”, » (perceived as non congruent). As for (« il faut qu‟on voit le produit »), beach shoes, some people found it “« you should know what the ad is natural to be naked on the beach while promoting” » (« qu‟on sache ce que other insisted on adding a bathing suit vend la publicité )». One woman we to the depicted body. interviewed compares compared the non-explicit representationness of the When congruence was perceived as promoted product to « “abstract art low, consumers usually tried to use representation that [she did] not feel other elements of the ad to understand comfortablelike that much with”. » the presence of a naked woman. They (« l‟air abstrait que je n‟aime pas usually then read the slogan. For the trop »). Reebok (« (“Natural classic” ») and the Inexware ads (“« Being rich of essential This phenomenon mostly affected elder things : Knowledge” ») especially, they women in their 60s and, to a lower commented on the congruence between extent, women in their 40s. They Formatted the slogan and female nudity. areElder women were bothered by the Rosy ad because no underwear However, note that the congruence appeared in the picture, even though between female nudity and the product they considered the product as category was considered as less congruent with female nudity. They say important when the product seemed said they would have depicted some interesting to the consumers. This products that the brand was selling, phenomenon wasis particularly obvious some « “lace” » or « “nice bras bras”». in regard to the ad promoting the alarm These women weare less chocked clock projecting time on the ceiling. shocked by the ads promoting The Many persons intervieweesd were are Seller beach shoes or Paciotti boots positive about the product and because the products were put forward, considered it as highly innovative and in on the foreground in both images – do not comment on the image depicted even though the congruence was lower in the ad. The presence of a naked and the depicted women more erotic woman appears appeared as anecdotal and provocative. They want the to them and does did not generate any message to be explicit about the reaction. “As one person says, « Here, products to be promoted. honestly, the woman is less important, I am more attracted by the product » Congruence with the situation and the Formatted (« Là honnêtement, pour moi, la femme model‟s position passe plutôt au dexième plan, je suis plutôt attirée par le produit »)”. Other types of congruence also seemed of key importance in understanding The moderating role of product perceptions ofreactions to female Formatted representation nudity. The environment and the situation depicted are supposed tohad to Besides the product congruence, many justify and explain the presence of women insisted on the explicit presence female nudity. The question was in the ad of the product being promoted. whether it was natural or not to be They weare bothered when the product naked in such athis situation. If the ad does did not appear explicitly andor showed a beach, the situation was wais not proposed. Nudity wais then perceived as congruent. This is why

99 Tthe Seller ad is was often well alarm clock:, one notes « “When lying perceived. As for the sea-side landscape down, she would not hold her breast depicted in the ad promoting Doriance like that when she was getting tanning pillsad, reactions are were more awakewaking up”, » (« Quand on est heterogeneous and differed according to couché, on ne se tient pas la poitrine the personal history of the people pour se réveiller »), while another intervieweed. One person noted One person says « “You just woke up, person notes «“ I was a nudist when I you‟re in good shape, you raise up your was young. The woman here is naked legs”. » (« Tu viens de te réveiller, t‟es but it is OK in this ad”, » (« J‟ai fait du en forme, tu mets les jambes en l‟air. Je nudisme quand j‟étais jeune. Elle est serais capable de faire l‟andouille nue mais ça convient bien à la pub ») comme ça »). while others said « “It is somewhat surprising to be naked, standing up, Congruence as a factor of identification Formatted under a tree tree”», (« C‟est quand versus aesthetics as a dream generator Formatted même surprenant d‟être tout nu sous un arbre, debout en fait »), «“ Tell me Congruence between female nudity and where you would see a woman who is the situation thus appeared as a factor completely naked under a pine tree” » of identification. A low congruence (« Dis moi où tu trouverais une fille generated hostile reactions because the qui est vraiment toute nue sous un naked woman appeared as an alibi to pin »). Some even noted that a generate attention towards the ad. This « “slanting tree” » (« arbre penché) perception corresponded to a vision of was not natural in this context. As for advertising that should represent « “the advertisementss showing naked women real world” » as opposed to “« an ideal wearing shoes (Cox, Paciotti), the main world” ». Two opposite approaches criticism dealt with the situation appeared in our interviews. congruence: « “and you, would you wear shoes when lying in silk sheets?” , On the one hand, people appreciated » (« Tu mets des chaussures dans des realistic ads in which they could project draps de soie, toi ? »), « “One wonders their own life. As one interviewee says, why she is in that bed wearing boots” » «“ I think advertising should be rather (« on se demande pourquoi elle est close to reality because otherwise, it is dans un lit avec des bottes »). just considering people are stupid (?) » These reactions recalled why painters (« Je considère que la publicité doit from previous centuries had to find quand même être assez proche de la reasons for the nudity of the characters réalité parce que sans ça, c‟est vraiment they painted. Under the Renaissance or de l‟attrappe nigaud pur et simple »”). the reign of Queen Victoria, for This opinion wais often the case instance, painters frequently referred to forshared by older women. Trust in ancient mythology in order to find a advertising relied on the closeness situation justifying the absence of between the depicted situations and clothes. The same need for justification reality. Many ads weare appreciated featured in our interviews. because they generated identification based on a high congruence between When it seemed natural to be naked in the naked woman represented, the that the situation presented, people the product and the situation. This wais the interviewees commented on the case for the ads related to the Harley position of the woman placed in the ad. Medical Group, the Doriance tanning For instance, regarding the Oregon

100 pills and to a lower extent The Seller shoes. Formatted A key factor of perception On the other hand, people enjoyed beautiful ads and considered that When women commented on thean ten advertising should make them dream. ads we have shown to them, they often The Aubade ad illustrated such evaluate them in terms of aesthetics. phenomenona vision. It generates The ad beauty aesthetics was often generated the more most favourable presented mentioned as the first reason perceptions shared by a very large for liking or disliking it. Aesthetics number of people. In our sample, this seemed to be a respectable and easy-to- ad seemed rather unique by the admit criterion to evaluate ads. While unanime unanimous reactions it women were reluctant to admit that generatesgenerated. PeopleThe they were annoyed by the presence of interviewees find found the image, the female nudity, they easily proposed the woman‟s bottom and the product aesthetic aspects. beautiful. Even though the product wais perceived as congruent with female Some women, especially in their 40s, nudity, this was not the reason why analysed the image depicted very people women liked it so much. They precisely. The words they used to enjoyed the aestheticism associated assess aesthetics dealt with « “light and with a touch of humour in the slogan. shadow effects”, » (« les jeux d‟ombre et de lumière »), « “lines” » (« les Aesthetics appears as a key factor of lignes »), « “the image structure”, » perception even though somewhat (« la structure de l‟image »), its opposed to realism. One notes that « in homogeneity, the colours used. Black advertising, there is a race for aesthetics and white, satin-like textures and that annoys me since it is disconnected sparkling colours were appreciated. from reality » (« Dans la pub, il y a une Light control made images more course à l‟esthétique qui m‟énerve et sophisticated, which was perceived as c‟est décroché de la réalité ») while positive by many people since another person says that she « expects « “sophisticated sophisticated”» ads an image to create emotion and emotion were opposed to « “rough” » comes with beauty » (« attend d‟une (grossières), “ « vulgar” » ones. image qu‟elle m‟émeuve ; et l‟émotion, ça passe par l‟émotion devant la The beauty of the woman depicted in beauté »). the ad also appeared as a key element in the esthetical assessment. The women we have interviewedes analysed her IV- Aestheticism outline (silhouette), her figure (ses Formatted lignes), her skin, her position. They Formatted Aestheticism thus appeared as a key commented on her beauty and her body, factor even though somehow opposed s. Sometimes to distancing themselves to realism. One noted that “in afterwards, mentioning that « “ads advertising, there is a race for always show super women” » (« c‟est aesthetics that annoys me since it is toujours des super nanas ») or that disconnected from reality” while « “the image can be manipulated”, that another person said that she “expects an “. Tthey can do anything” » (« l‟image image to create emotion and emotion est peut-être traffiquée. Ils peuvent tout comes with beauty”. faire »).

101 increased the acceptation of repetition. Ugliness appeared to bother and Since the image was beautiful, people sometimes chock shock consumers. enjoyed seeing it again and again, and They did not like sagging breasts, thus memorised it better. This was bathing suits marks, strange particularly the case for the Aubade superpositions that could refer to an ads. Aesthetics generated a better sickness illness or a malformation (like perception and made repetition more the flowers on the breast of the Rosy enjoyable. ladymodel). CONCLUSION A way to make nudity more acceptable Formatted In this paper, we have intended to Formatted Aestheticism appears to reduced the understand the ambiguity of the reluctance towards female nudity. It reaction of French women towards the made acceptable ads that would have representation of naked women in generated hostile reactions if they were advertisements. It appeared that French not so beautiful, for instance because of women did not say that they were a low congruence or because of a high shocked by these types of ads. sexual evocationevocation. “Some However, more than nudity, they people interviewed even mention it rejected the representation of women as explicitely: « It is provocative but it is a sexual object or as an object without beautiful” » (« C‟est provoquant mais blood, flesh and mind. These ads were c‟est joli ») (Cox shoes), « “For that considered as an intentional product, I find it strange, but it is true provocation from advertisors. Women that it is beautiful” » (« Pour le produit refused to react as expected and to give je trouve que c‟est à côté mais à voir : more importance to advertising than it c‟est vrai que c‟est joli ») (Inexware e- deserves. It could be interesting to consultants). deepen this analysis to understand whether French women internalise the Overall, the impact of aestheticism in masculine norms of the representation advertisements depicting nudity seemed of women, or if their lack of interest for twofold. Firstly, it made female nudity these ads results from a lack of interest more acceptable to women since for consumption society in the face of beautiful naked women were not more important issues. Unquestionably, considered less as much as sexual French women were blasé when objects. Women appreciated the confronted with these ads. representation of women as beautiful: It would be interesting to know if these « “If one puts uses naked women, I‟ ads have been designed by men or had rather have it really aesthetically women (O‟Donohoe, 2000). Future pleasing”, », « “Well, if there is a research could also be aimed at naked woman, I want her to be interviewing men in order to compare beautiful” » (« Si on met des femmes their reactions to the same ads, nues , j‟ai envie que ce soit vraiment following Stern (2000) and the concept esthétique », « Quitte à ce qu‟elle soit of the androcentric versus gynocentric nue, autant qu‟elle soit belle »). reading of a text, as experienced by Aesthetical nudity enabled to attract Brown, Stevens and Maclaran (1997) or attention toward the ad (which was the analysed by Mick and Politi (1989). general role attributed to nudity in In this context, the evolution of advertising) without generating any advertising results from two trends rejection. Secondly, esthetical nudity within the society: firstly, the will to

102 provoke in order to get attention; Aaker, D. & Bruzzone D. (1985), secondly, the quest for a more modern Causes of Irritation in Advertising, representation of women, which does Journal of Marketing, 49, 2, 47-57. not systematically exclude nudity but which implies a positive role of women Alwitt, Linda, F. and Paul R. Prabhaker as human and thinking beings, (1992), " Functional and belief aesthetically represented and in dimensions of attitudes to television accordance with the situation depicted. advertising: implications for According to Goldman, Heath and copytesting", Journal of Advertising Smith (1991: 349), advertisers have Research, September-October, 30-42. attempted to turn the discourse of feminism into “hard currency”. One Artz, N. and Venkatesh N. (1991), example of the advertising attempt to Gender Representation in Advertising, appropriate feminism is the trend Advances in Consumer Research, 18, towards presenting the female body and 618-623. female sexuality, not only through the male gaze, but also as a view of Baudrillard (1981), Simulacres et Formatted women‟s own pleasure and simulations, Galilée, Débats, 243 p. Formatted empowerment. This rhetoric, for Formatted example, surrounds the Wonderbra Boddewyn, Jean (1991), Controlling advertising campaign (Hailstone, 1995). Sex and Decency in Advertising We also noticed that our interviewees Around the World, Journal of preferred ads presenting women as Advertising, 20, 4, December, 25-35. more liberated, in an active position and happy with their body, mastering the Bologne, Jean-Claude, Histoire de la situation. pudeur, Hachette littératures, Pluriel, 1997. NOTES Brown, S., Stevens, L. and Maclaran, 1 This study only investigated three age P. (1997), “If I said you had a beautiful groups. body: literary theory, Mikhail Bakhtin 2 This distinction between advertising and the gender agenda”, in R. Ashford and the real world is contradictory with et al. (eds.), Marketing without borders: the work of Baudrillard (1981) proceedings, 1st annual academy of suggesting the impossibility to marketing conference Manchester distinguish between the real world and University, 113-128. advertising, becoming more real than reality. Certeau (de), Michel, L‟invention du 3 Note that when we had selected this quotidien, Gallimard, Folio essais, ad, we considered the product to have a Paris, 1990. medium level of congruence, justifying that a body could be shown in the ad, Courtney, Alice and Thomas Whipple but not necessarily naked. The (1983), Sex stereotyping in advertising, interviewees apparently did not agree Lexington, MA, Lexington Books. with that and found the product congruent with nudity. De Pelsmacker, P. and Van Den Bergh J. (1996), The Communication Effects REFERENCES of Provocation in Print Advertising, International Journal of Advertising, 15, 203-221.

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First Name Age Level of Education Residential area Job

Stephanie 26 Master in Law Paris suburbs primary school teacher Emy 26 High school Paris downtown unemployed Anne-Sophie 23 MBA student Paris downtown student Florence 24 MBA Paris suburbs product manager Marie 22 High school degree Paris suburbs trombone player Béa 23 Master in psychology Paris downtown student Maud 22 MBA Paris downtown looking for a job Michelle 40 High school Paris suburbs employee Pascale 45 bachelor Paris downtown manager Noelle 48 High school Village in the Alps farmer Elisabeth 39 bachelor Paris suburbs communication manager Valerie 38 High school Paris suburbs administrative assistant Carla 40 PhD Paris downtown professor Monique 60 High school degree Paris Downtown administrative assistant Marie 61 High school Paris suburbs employee Denise 63 bachelor Paris suburbs retired Michelle 60 High school Paris suburbs retired Adeline 53 High school Paris downtown secretary Chantale 57 High school Paris suburbs librarian Marianne 72 Master in mathematics Paris suburbs retired

Table 1 - List of interviewees

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Words Verbatim

Ugliness “I don‟t like it at all, I think it is ghastly”. “I find her indecent, clearly indecent because there is no aestheticism”. “I find it horrible, she is awful”. Artifice “It doesn‟t look natural”. “It looks a bit posed”. “There is a very artificial side that I dislike”. “She is relatively disembodied”. “It is very stereotyped”. Without reason “That‟s without interest”. “That‟s ridiculous, it‟s worth nothing” “ That‟s a little absurd” .“That‟s completely irrational”. “ It stinks”. Vulgarity “That‟s vulgar”. “ It really looks dowdy”. “It looks bottom of the range”. Disgust and horror “That‟s shit”, “I think it‟s bust”, “I am horrified”, “I am super disgusted. “That‟s sickening”, ”that‟s gore” Inadapted “That‟s excessive”, “That‟s ridiculous”

Table 2 - The words used to reject the ads

Prostitutes “Woman as sexual object, who poses to make money and who, posing bare, should earn more” “A woman of easy virtues” “A prostitute” Objects “A sandwich woman” “A woman on display ” “Women as merchandise”

Table 3 - The words used to describe the women in the ads

High congruence Low congruence Ambiguous evaluation

Harley Medical Group Oregon Scientific alarm Reebok sports shoes cosmetic surgery clock Patrick Cox boots Aubade underwear Inexware e-business The Seller beach shoes Rosy underwear consultants Cesare Paciotti boots Doriance tanning pills

Table 4 - Level of product congruence as evaluated in the interviews

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