IJCC, Vol. 12, No. 1, 85-92(2009) 85
Cultural Diffusion, Adoption and Adaptation -Motifs and Patterns in Indonesian Textiles -
Michael A. *Hann School of Design, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK (Received April 20, 2009 : Accepted April 30, 2009)
Abstract
The objectives of the research are to explain the nature of cultural diffusion and its associated theoretical concepts, to review the nature of traditional Indonesian textiles and to focus particular attention on the origin, evolution and diffusion of motifs and patterns associated with the decoration of two important categories of Indonesian textiles: batiks and ikats. Cultural diffusion refers to the process by which cultural traits, material objects, ideas, inventions, innovations or patterns of behaviour are spread from one social or geographical context to another. Examining the decoration on traditional textiles produced across the Indonesian archipelago, certain motifs and patterns are shown to have been retained from ancient times, and others have been adopted from elsewhere. There is great cultural diversity across the archipelago and ample evidence of cultural diffusion.
Key words : diffusion, batik, ikat.
text to another. Such a process is a key aspect I. Introduction of globalisation, a term coined in modem times to refer to the increased inter-connectivity be The objectives of this presentation are first to tween countries, generally expressed through trade explain briefly the nature of cultural diffusion and and facilitated through developments in technol its associated theoretical concepts, second to re ogy and communication. Probably the best mod view the nature of traditional Indonesian textiles em example of world-wide diffusion is fast food and third to focus particular attention on the ori (e.g, McDonalds). gin, evolution and diffusion of motifc and patterns The study of cultural division is concerned with associated with the decoration of two important the spread of culture and the factoid that account categories of Indonesian textiles: batiks and ikats. for that spread, including migrati쟎 n, communica tions, trade and commerce. Generally cultural traits II. Cultural Diffusion - Its Nature, originate in a particular area and, from there, Processes and Mechanisms spread outward. After diffusion the trait will not appear identical in its new location. A cultural trait The term 이 Htural diffusion refers to the pro will not keep spreading. Rather it will encounter cess by which cultural traits, material objects, icteas, barriers which limit the spread. Barrier effects inventions, innovations or patterns of behaviour may be physical or social. Physical barriers in are spread from one social or geographical con clude the natural environment (seas, mountains,
* Corresponding author E-mail : [email protected]
85 86 Cultural Diffusion, Adoption and Adaptation IJCC
deserts, forests and extremes of climate). Social ed during the late nineteenth and early twentieth barriers are those characteristics tha훝 differentiate centuries. At the two extremes were those ob groups and potentially limit interaction, including servers who believed that there were a limited language, religion, race and ethnicity. In recent number of locations (possibly only one) from which years, barrier effects have been overwhelmed by important innovations could be sourced and modem means of communication. Adoption of the spread worldwide, and others who argued that all new is often accompanied by disuse of the old; human beings possessed the necessary psycho hence the apparent decline of cultural diversity. logical capabilities to allow them to innovate. This So the term ^cultural difRision" is used to de latter view was associated with the belief that scribe the transfer or spread of cultural phenom many important innovations arose independently ena such as ideas, technology, music, artistic styles, in different locations and that diffusion had no languages, religions etc, between individuals or impact on cultural development. The debate de groups of individuals within a single culture (intra- veloped further during the twentieth century to ciHmal diffusion) or from one culture to another take a more balanced stance. Among the leading (inter-cultural diffusion). Examples of inter-cul theoretical contributors to the development of dif tural diffusion include practices associated with fusion theory and its associated concepts and per agriculture, techniques relating to iron smelting, spectives were: Franz Boas (1858-1942) a pio the use of zero in a counting system and, in mo neering anthropological field worker and theorist; dem times, the automobile, the western business Leo Frobenius (1873-1938), the originator of the suit and various varieties of "fast허 1 or “ethnic" concept of cultural circles; F픁 z Graebner (1877- Ibod. An idea, technique or innovation may remain 1934), a leading diffusion theorist; A. C. Haddon strong and develop fiirther (going from strength to (1855-1940), a Cambridge zoologist and anthro strength) in its source area while spreading be pologist, who produced an important book enti yond its geographical boundaries to other areas. tled “A Short History of Anthropology,,； Thor Diffusion may als댢 relocate an idea, thus allow Heyerdahl, a twentieth century Norwegian adven ing it to leave the area of its source and migrate turer; A. L. Kroeber (1876-1960) a student of Franz elsewhere. Diffusion of an idea or innovation Boas; Freidrich Ratzel (1844-1904) who con may also be contagious; that is, based on contact tributed significantly to nineteenth century theo from person to person within a particular popu ries of migmtig and difftision; W. H. R. Rivers lation. Stimulus diffusion is when an innovation (1864-1922) was a strong supported of diffusion or idea from one source stimulates a further more perspectives and spoke strongly against evolu» appropriate idea elsewhere; so while the initial tionist perspectives. Diffusion theory therefore had idea may be rejected in one fonn, a further, more its origins in the discipline of anthropology. In appropriate idea may develop and be accepted. more recent times relevant concepts have been Historically, migrating populations have often used in the areas of archaeology, cultural geog brought with them new ideas and innovations. raphy, business studies and marketing. The work Trans-cultural diffusion agents may include trad of Rogers (2003) is of particular importance in ers, adventurers, explorers, slaves, diplomats, sol introducing diffusion concepts to researchers from diers and hired artisans, craftspeople and labourers. a wide range of disciplines. In literate societies, innovations and ideas can be Traditional textiles offer a particularly rich source communicated through letters and books and dif from which to consider cultural change and di fusion thus encouraged. In the modem era, vari ffusion, The textiles of the Indonesian archipela ous forms of mass media have filled the same go are renowned for their diversity and variety, function. from region to region and from 0and to island. Various diffusion models have been proposed For this reason attention is focused below on re over the years. Two schools or perspectives emerg viewing the possible origins and evolution of mo
86 Vol. 12, No. 1 The International Journal of Costume Culture 87 tifs and patterns used on traditional textiles from the new to fit or blend with the 이 d. Significant across the archipelago, focusing in particular on differences thus dweloped across the archipela identifying regional variations and characteristics go, and certain categories of motifs, patterns and specific to a particular region or area. The term other stylistic features, can be associated with par t4cultural domains" may be used to refer to each ticular soxxrces as well as particular regional des of these specific areas. Attention is focused ini tinations (or cultural domains). This paper is con tially on providing a brief historical background cerned with the results of the process by which and als쟎 on identifying agents of diffusion. various cultural domains retained the old and, at the same time, adopted and adapted the new, as H[. Historical Background and expressed in the motifs and patterns used in the Agents of Diffusion decorative arts.
For much of the second millennium CE, the IV. Categories of Textiles Indonesian archipelago was a port of call to count less foreign traders, adventurers, colonists and As noted previously, Indonesia offers a partic missionaries. Before the arrival of the Portuguese, ularly rich variety of types and categories of tra the Dutch and the British, all in search of rare ditional textiles. Probably the best known of spices and other preci이 书 commodities, Chinese, these are batiks and ikats. Regional variations in Indian and Arab traders had already left their cul the motifs, patterns and symbols associated with tural mark on parts of the archipelago. Buddhism each category are identified below. A brief ex and Hinduism appear to have co-existed in Java planation of each technique is given also. (the most populous island) for many centuries until Hinduism become dominant in the thirteenth 1. Batiks century CE (Hann, 1993). Islam became accepted Batiks form an important class of decorative widely by the sixteenth century, having spread art in Java (Indonesian^ most populous island). gradually from various trading ports in Sumatra, The word batik is used to refer to wax- (or some Java and other islands where it had been intro times paste-) resist-patterning techniques and the duced by Arab, and possibility also Indian trad resultant textile products. The derivation is appa ers, some centuries previously. Subsequently, Euro rently from the Javanese ambitik meaning to pean colonists brought Christianity, which found mark with small dots (Steinmann, 1947). The pro particular acceptance in the i이 ands to the eastern cess, as it is practised in many parts of the world, part of the archipelago. Vari젾 us cultural changes inv시 ves the application of hot molten wax to se came in the wake of these successive waves of lected areas on the fabric's surface. On solid outside influence. In the decorative arts, espe ification of the wax, the fabric is immersed in a cially textiles, a rich catalogue of motifs, symbols dye bath. The wax (or resist) acts as a barrier to and patterns developed, retained from ancient in the dye and take-up only occurs in the un-waxed digenous animistic beliefs, and adopted from Budd areas of the fabric. In the production 퍊 f mono hism, Hinduism and Islam, as well as various Euro chromatic batiks, the resist is applied once only pean, Indian, Chinese and other Asian sources. prior to one dye-bath treatment. With polychro So it can be seen that the principal agents of dif、 matic batiks, more than one dyeing takes place fusion across much of the archipelag펺 were trade, together with an equivalent number of resist ap the spread of religion and mkmialism. The term plications. Subsequent to dyeing, the resist is ''cultural domains" may be used to refer to re removed. There is a long-standing debate on the gions, areas, islands or island groups exposed to origin of batik, and whether or not it is indi these outside influences. In each case a unique genous to Indonesia; this is outside the scope of iconography developed, often involving adapting this paper, but interested readers may wish to re
87 88 Cultural Difliision, Adoption and Adaptation IJCC
fer to Steinmann's article of 1947 which prob Vorstenlanden batiks depict motifs and patterns ably represents the launch of the re!登 vant debate. which are considered to reflect Hindu-Javanese The principal areas of production are on the is culture and include a small number of forbidden land of Java and include the areas in and around or larangan designs (from larang to forbid) which the central Javanese sultanates of Surakarta (Solo) were restricted in use to members of the Kraton. and Yogyakarta (Yogya), the coastal areas of The iconography of Central Javanese batiks re Cirebon, Indramayu, Pekalongan and Lasem and tain much information relating to the ancient be the areas in and around Ganit in West Java. liefs and religious philosophy of the Javanese Surakarta and Yogyakarta were the locations of people. Batiks from coastal regions of the north, the two powerful sultanates or principalities; each on the other hand, show the acceptance of Chinese s나 tanate had its own Kraton or court which, in and European motifs and compositions (Hann and addition to being the residence of the local sultan Thomson, 1993). Some of the more common mo and his extended family, acted also as a seat of tifs and patterns are identified below. government, religion and culture. Many traditio A common batik design associated with Java nal batife were associated with the 마 ■由 anates and, is the tampal (meaning patch or plaster) pattern. since Dutch colonial times, these have been known Traditionally identified a조 typical of Surakarta, as uVorstenlanden bafiks" (Hann and Thomson, Yogyakarta, Pekalongan and Cirebon, this pattern 1993). In terms of colour and patterning, these comprises a design field which is divided by a batiks differed from batiks produced elsewhere network of regular (or sometimes irregular) shapes in Java or other parts of Indonesia. Batiks pro with each filled by either a repeating pattern or duced elsewhere in Java (as well as on adjacent else by a symmetrical or asymmetrical motif. The islands such as Madura) are known collectively tampal pattern may have origins in the patched as pesisir or "coastal batiks”. Even th。니 gh two clothing sometimes worn by Buddhist monks clear categories can seemingly be identified, each as an outward expression of poverty (Hann and category can be further subdivided regionally into Thomson, 1993). unique cultural domains, and each cultural do Another dominant pattern type, typically found main can be seen to have its own unique charac on batiks from Surakarta and Yogyakarta, is teristics or peculiarities expressed through the use the so-called parang (meaning dagger or chopper) of particular motifs, patterns and combinations. pattern. Varieties within this pattern class were Some of the m쟎冀 important regional variants in larangan designs and were restricted in use to the process and the resultant products were de the high ranking members of the Kraton. These scribed previously by Hann (1992). The more im patterns thus acted as insignia of social standing portant of these are identified below. within Javanese society. Motifs of Chinese origin Colour combinations such as blue and white, include the Chinese unicorn and phoenix, pairs of red and white, red and blue, and red, blue and fish, cloud motifs, banji (swastika-shaped pat green were common on pesisir batiks but not on terns) and a wide range of floral decoration prob Vorstenlanden batiks. Further to this, shades of ably sourced from imported Chinese ceramics (Hann coloxws on pesisir batiks varied greatly depending and Thomson, 1993). on the workshop and its location. For example, Occasionally variations or developments in the the red on Indramayu batiks is generally not as technique extended the range of decorative possi bright as the red on Pekalongan batiks. Vorsten- bilities. For example, a common characteristic of landen batiks exhibit a rather more restrained traditional Indramayu batik design was the use of palette of colour: rich browns, indigo blue, cream, a co효 ise 머 ipple effect as space filling or as a back white and black predominate. ground between dominant motifs. This effect was Pesisir batiks show naturalistic compositions achieved by a comb-like implement, with fine and inchide floral, animal and maritime themes. needles as teeth, which was used to produce tiny
88 Vol. 12, No. 1 The International Journal of Costume Culture 89
〈Fig. 1〉Hand-drawn Tulis Batik, 〈Fig. 2〉Hand-drawn Tulis Batik, Java, Late-twentieth Century. Java, Late-twentieth Century.
〈Fig, 3〉Block Waxed Batik, 〈Fig. 5〉Hand-drawn Tulis Batik, 〈Fig. 6〉Indonesian Ikat, Nmid- Java, Late-twentieth Century. Twentieth Centiry. openings in the solidified wax through which the and Koen, 1993, p.265]. The ikat process is a re dye could readily penetrate when the cloth was sist-dyeing process, which involves the binding immersed in the dye bath. of sections of warp and/or weft threads with dye resistant material (such as strips of palm leaQ 2. Ikats prior to fabric construction. When immersed in a The word ikat is derived from the Malay (or dye bath, the uncovered areas of the threads take Indonesian) word mengikat meaning to tie [Kramer up the dye. Further colours can be obtained by 89 90 Cultural Diffusion, Adoption and Adaptation IJCC successively rearranging the resist-protected areas dispersed. Weft-ikat production is less extensive and immersing the threads in the dye bath again. and is evident in parts of Sumatra, East Java, On completion of dy쎤 ing, the resist material is Sulawesi and Bali (Kartiwa, 1987). Double-ikat removed and 후 he threads are arranged carefully weaving appears 柘 be practised cwdy in tlie Balinese before weaving. The resist may be applied to the village of Tenganan (Wanning and Gaworski, 1981). warp, the weft or to both sets of threads. Resultant Some of the regional variations in ikat design products are referred to respectively as warp-ikat, across the archipelago are highlighted below. weft-ikat or double-ikat, with warp threads, weft Variations in production procedures were wide threads or both sets of threads being patterned. spread across the archipelago. The best-known When used as clothing, ikats are worn in the cotton warp-ikats are those of East Sumba. Other form of rectangular shoulder or waist cloths, or important locations are Sulawesi, Timor, Sawu and as wrap-around skirts or tubular sarongs. In Indo Rote. Weft-ikat production was less extensive and nesia ikats were considered to possess a myriad was evident in parts of Sumatra, East Java, Sulawesi of rituaii워 tic, ceremonial and spiritual functions. and Bali (Kartiwa, 1987). Among the most exquisite Referring principally to warp-ikats, Warming and weft-ikats are those from the Palenibang region Gaworski commented that they: of south Sumatra. Double-ikat patterned cloths •■•have a ritual and spiritual value that extends were made in Tenganan, a village located in the beyond the mere physical olyect. Textiles are re east of the island of Bali (Warming and Gaworski, quired for ceremonies, but not just as traditional 1981). A range of weft-ikats was also produced dress fbr participants. The cloths themselves are on Bali. Some of the more important regional var a necessary part of the ritual. Warp-ikat cloths iations in technique and decoration are identified act as burial shrouds, as part of exchange of gifts below. before marriage, and as a way of preserving local Cotton warp-ikats from Ea아 Sumba are known history and legends (Warming and Gaworski, 1981). as hinggi. Much valued as ritual and prestige ob The close relationship between textiles and cul jects, these were worn by men as waist and shoulder ture extends to a time when many of the island cloths. The principal compositional characteristic peoples came into contact with a bronze-using is a series of horizontal bands, three to eleven in culture originating in what is now the northern number, containing a great variety of motifs de part of Vietnam (Warming and Gaworski, 1981). rived from the realms of legend, sacred rite and This Dong-Son culture, as it is known, was the such diverse foreign sources as Chinese porcelains source of certain styles of decoration which com or Dutch coins [Larsen, 1976, pd5이 Probably the bined with indigenous symbols and motifs to pro most common ni여 if is the horse; its use in ikat vide the extensive range of designs evident in the decoration being a reflection of its past status in warp~ikats produced in Indonesia in the past few Sumbanese daily life as a measure of wealth (Wanning hundred years. and Gaworski, 1981). Another prominent motif is Although the forces of Buddhism, Hinduism, the so-called skull tree, a reminder of past ritual Islam and, to a lesser extent, European colonialism istic head hunting. Other common m여 ifs include had a dramatic impact on the culture and beliefs the shrimp, the snake, the Chinese dragon (believed of the inhabitants of Java (the most densely popu to be adapted from imported Chinese ceramics), lated island historically and in modem times) the the rooster, standing human figure, deer, monkey, lives of certain indigenous island peoples, even lizard, crocodile, fish, insects, sea horse, cockatoo during the first decade of the twenty-first century, and various other birds (Hann and Thomson, 1993). have remained largely unaffected since Dong-Son Cotton warp-ikats were produced by the Toradja times [highlighted a few decades ago by Warming people of central Sulawesi. These invariably de and Gaworski (1981). It is among these more re pict large-scale geometric patterns in blue, white mote communities that cotton warp-ikat is widely and black against a dominant red background. The -90 - Vol. 12, No. 1 The International Journal of Costume Culture 91 geometry of the Toradja ikats has been interpre at court appearances, classical dance events, wed ted as human figures in schematic form and has, dings and funerals (Weiner, 1992). The word pa- on occasions, been considered to resemble some tola (with singular patolu) appeared in various patterns produced by native North Americans forms as early as the fourteenth century CE in (Gerlings, 1952; Larsen, 1976). India and in accounts of early-sixteenth-century As pointed out by Kartiwa, trade in Timor cloths European commentators. The latter documents are outside the area was long-standing, especially to reviewed by Guy (1998). Not surprisingly, in coast non-weaving areas such as Irian Jaya (Kartiwa, al Indian towns such as Orissa, ikat designs were 1987). Supplementary-weft decoration is often used inspired by the sea and included various sea ani in conjunction with warp-ikat. Brilliant red bands mals and fish. Flowers and stripes were also com and stripes or large-scale blue ikat patterns are mon and arrowhead-type effects were in wide typical. Motifs include various birds, horses, liz spread use on the borders of saris (Weiner, 1992). ards and human figures. As pointed out by Gittinger, In South India, lotus blossoms, four-petalled flow subtle variations in decoration and technique, in ers and swastika-type designs, as well as stylised cluding tonal qualities of colour and variations in peacocks, parrots, lions and elephants, were com band width were apparent from area to area with mon (Weiner, 1992). Checks and squares contain in Timor, but these variations were barely percep ing small motifs were also used. Ikats from Giyarat tible to the vast majority of outsiders (Gittinger, commonly depicted diamonds and rosettes. 1985). The influence of Indian patola cloth design can The most important characteristic of ikat tex be detected in the design of textiles in many parts tiles produced on Sawu Island was that their de of Indonesia. This is notable in the case of warp- signs denoted membership in a female-aligned clan ikats produced on the island of Rote, in particular system that controlled life-crisis rituals (Hann and through the use of various octagon-shaped floral Thomson, 1993). Delicate white geometric and motifs, known as the black motif in Rote and floral motifs against a dark blue or black back as the jelamprang motif elsewhere in Indonesia ground are the principal decorative feature (Warming (Gittinger, 1985). This motif can be detected read and Gaworski, 1981). Motifs were taken from Portu ily on various Indian patola cloths. guese, Dutch and other European sources (Hann In the western part of Flores, textile patterning and Thomson, 1993). was traditionally through the use of songket weav Probably the most important single source in ing (a supplementary-weft patterning technique dis fluencing the design of Indonesian textiles is the cussed below). Elsewhere on the island warp-ikat resist-dyed 이 oths of India. Most renowned of these patterned textiles were produced. A wide range resist-dyed cloths are the double-ikat silks from of sources of patterning can be identified. In the Giyarat and Orissa. Such cloths featured as precious isolated central region, the ikats produced by the trade goods, and were traded extensively through Ngada are generally blue-black in colouring and out much of South and Southeast Asia, initially show simple triangular, square and zigzag shapes, through the activities of Indian, Arab and Chinese revealing very little influence from outside sour traders and, from the seventeenth century onwards, ces (Gittinger, 1985). Substantial foreign influence Portuguese, British and Dutch merchants who used is evident in the textiles produced elsewhere across them as exchange goods for precious spices such the island. In some cases European designs were as nutmeg, mace, cloves and pepper (Sreenivasam, adapted, or compositional arrangements typical of 1989). Their design had a profound effect on the Sumba were imitated (Gittinger, 1985). The de design of ikats and other textiles in many parts sign of Indian patola cloths had a major impact of Indonesia. Known as patola, and produced in here also. Orissa and Giyarat, they were used as temple The Batak people of North Sumatra produced hangings, bridal gifts and shrouds, and were worn cotton warp-ikats with simple arrowhead effects 91 92 Cultural Diffusion, Adoption and Adaptation IJCC or diamond shapes, in white against a single back act as targets or destinations for diffusion and ground colour. Among the most exquisite weft- subsequent rejection, adoption or adaptation, ikats are those from the Palembang region. In terms of design, these ikats show a bewilderingly References wide-ranging iconography. Motifs include com plex arrangements of ship and mountain images, Gittinger, M. (1982). Master Dyers to the World: snakes, decorative floral and arabesque forms, as Technique and Trade in Early Indian Dyed well as various geometric patterns (Gittinger, 1985). Cotton Textiles. Washington DC: The Textile The most renowned of Bali's textiles are the dou- Museum. ble-ikat patterned cloths made in Tenganan, a vil Gittinger, M. (1985). Splendid Symbols. Textiles lage located in the east of the island. These cloths, and Tradition in Indonesia. Singapore: Oxford which are known as gringsing, show a range of University Press. stylised floral and geometric motifs as well as Guy, J. (1998). Woven Cargoes. Indian Textiles various human figures. The style of the human in the East. London: Thames and Hudson. figures has been compared to thirteenth- and four Hann, M. A. (1992). Unity in Diversity: The Batiks teenth-century temple decoration in central Java, of Java. Ars Textrina XVIII. thus suggesting that similarly-patterned textiles may Hann, M. A. and Thomson, G. M. (1993). Unity have been produced in Java in the past (Gittinger, in Diversity, The Textiles of Indonesia. Leeds: 1985). A range of weft-ikats was also produced The University Gallery. in Bali, showing not only geometric and floral Kartiwa, S. (1987). Indonesian Ikats. Jakarta: Pener- compositions, but also various figural scenes drawn bit Djambatan. from Hindu mythology. Kramer, A. L. N. and Koen, W. (1987). Tuttle's Concise Indonesian Dictionary. Rutland, Ver V. Summary and Conclusions mont: Charles Tuttle Company. Larsen, J. L. (1976). The Dyers art. Ikat, Batik and On examining the decoration on traditional tex Plangi. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. tiles produced across the Indonesian archipelago, Ramseyer, U. (1991). Geringsing: Magical Protec it is readily apparent that certain m아 if& and pat tion and Communal Identity, in B. Hauser- terns have been retained from ancient times, and Schaublin, M. Nabholz-Kartaschoff and U. others have been adopted from elsewhere and adapt Ramseyer. Balinese Textiles London: British ed within their new environment. There is great Museum Press. cultural diversity across the archipelago and am Rogers, E. Diffusion of Innovations. 5th ed. New ple evidence of cultural diffusion. Certain motifs York: Free Press. can be sourced from early animistic and later Dong Sreenivasam, E. (1989). The Textiles of India: A Son cultures. It is evident that the other motifs Living History. Ames, Iowa: Octagon Center and patterns have their origins in the prevailing for the Arts. religions of the time: Buddhism, Hinduism and Steinmann, A. (1942). "The Patterning of Ikats." Islam. CIBA Review Vol.44. In order to contribute further to theoretical frame Steinmann, A. (1947). "Batiks." CIBA Review July works associated with diffusion research, it seems V 이 ,58. worth developing further the concept of ''cultural Warming, W. and Gaworski, M. (1981). The World domains” which are best seen as receptacles for of Indonesian Textiles. London: Serindia Pub receiving cultural innovations. This concept could lications. be of particular value if not restricted to a partic Weiner, Y. (1992). "The Indian Origin of Ikat." ular period or point in time nor a tightly specified Ars Textrina Vol.17. region or area. They are thus flexible entities which 92