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Home , Antonio Fava, Bouffon, Jacques Lecoq, Russell Dykstra, Steven Berkoff

APPENDICES CONTENTS

Appendix A 278 (List of International Lecoq Alumni).

Appendix B 280 (List of Local Lecoq Alumni).

Appendix C 283 (Spreadsheet of Productions Involving Local Lecoq Alumni).

Appendix D 293 (The Pedagogy of ).

Appendix E 342 (List of Interview Questions).

Appendix F 343 (Consent Form).

277 APPENDIX A:

LIST OF INTERNATIONAL LECOQ ALUMNI

Please note: this is not a complete list of international Lecoq alumni. Additional information has been included in brackets where this was available.

Alain Gautre Antonio Fava (commedia dellarte) ( - director) Avner "The Eccentric" Eisenberg (US - circus and clowning) Babs Carryer (US -performer and teacher) Barrabbas (Ireland) Beau Jest Moving Theatre Carlo Mazzone-Clementi (US - founder of the DellArte International School of ) Christophe Marthaler (director) Cirque du Soleil Clod Ensemble Dario Fo De La Guarda (Argentina) Denise Stoklos (Argentina) Didier Doumergue (director) Dody Di Santo (United States - theatre teacher at the Center for Movement Theatre, Baltimore) Drew Richardson Els Comediants Eric Bouvron (United States - performer) Footsbarn Travelling Theatre (mask, Shakespeare) Gates McFadden (television film - Star Trek: The Next Generation) I Gelati (Britain - commedia dellarte) IMAGO (masked theatre ensemble) Jim Calder (New York - performance artist and teacher) (director/puppeteer) Kalevala (Finland) La Compagnie Extremement Pretentieuse (Street theatre)

278 (director) Michel Azama (writer) Moving Picture Mime Show (larval mask and mime) Mummenschanz (mask theatre) Nada Theatre Philippe Avron (France - actor) Pig Iron Theatre (Philadelphia, USA) Rufus Pierre Byland () Steven Berkoff (England) The Company (includes members trained at the Lecoq school) Theater Grottesco (Sante Fe) Theatre Spirale (Switzerand) Theatre de Complicite Theatre de la Jacquerie Theatre de la Jeune Lune (Minneapolis) Touchstone Ensemble (community based theatre) UMO Ensemble of Seattle () Yasmina Reza (playwright)

279 APPENDIX B

LIST OF LOCAL LECOQ ALUMNI

Name of Alumnus Lecoq Training Additional Lecoq-based Training Contact Status Marc Furneaux (deceased) 1956 - (?) X-U Roslyn de Winter 1959 - 1961 I George Ogilvie 1960 - 1962 I Francis Batten 1969 - 1971 I Richard Hayes-Marshall 1969 - 1972 1972 - 1973 - teaching diploma - Ecole Jacques Lecoq I Dick Richardson 1972 - 1974 X-A Justin Case 1972 - 1974 I 1975 - 1977 I Isabelle Anderson 1976 - 1978 I Claire Teisen 1977 - 1979 I John Bolton 1977 - 1979 1979 - 1980 - teaching diploma - Ecole Jacques Lecoq I Luda Popenhagen 1977 - 1979 1984 - Ecole Pagneux / Gaulier (Paris) I Ron Popenhagen 1977 - 1979 1983 - 1984 - teaching diploma - Ecole Jacques Lecoq I Nerida Minty 1978 - 1979 I

I Alumnus contacted and interviewed X-U Unable to make contact with alumnus LEGEND X-0 Unable to make contact-alumnus living overseas X-F Alumnus contacted but failed to respond to messages X-D Alumnus contacted but declined to be interviewed X-A Alumnus discovered after cut-off date 280 Nique Murch 1978 - 1979 1980 - diploma - Ecole Serge Martin (Paris) I Iaon Gunn 1978 - 1980 X-0 Russell Cheek 1978 - 1980 I Ted Keijser 1978 - 1980 X-0 Andrew Lindsay 1979 - 1981 I Lorna Marshall 1979 -1981 I Nicoletta Boris 1979 - 1981 X-0 Richard Moore 1979 -1981 I Celia Moon 1980 - 1981 1981 - 1982 - Ecole Pagneux / Gaulier (Paris) I Ines Judd 1980 - 1982 X-D Linda Raymond 1981 - 1982 1982 - 1983 - Ecole Pagneux / Gaulier (Paris) I Therese Collie 1981 - 1983 I Judith Pippen 1982 1982 - Ecole Pagneux / Gaulier (Paris) I Marie Dumont 1982 - 1984 1994-1995 - teaching diploma - Ecole Jacques Lecoq I Mark Bromilow 1982 - 1984 1982 - 1983 - Laboratoire dEtudes du Mouvement I Alex Pinder 1983 - 1985 1983 - 1985 - Ecole Pagneux / Gaulier I Heather Robb 1983 - 1988 I Elizabeth France 1984 - 1985 I Christine Grace 1987 - 1988 1988 - 1989 - Ecole Pagneux / Gaulier (Paris) I Steven Bishop 1987 - 1989 I

I Alumnus contacted and interviewed X-U Unable to make contact with alumnus LEGEND X-0 Unable to make contact-alumnus living overseas X-F Alumnus contacted but failed to respond to messages X-D Alumnus contacted but declined to be interviewed X-A Alumnus discovered after cut-off date 281 Nigel Jamieson 1988 - I Michael Newbold 1989 - 1991 I Russell Dykstra 1990 - 1991 1991 - 1992 - Ecole () I Andrew Hale 1990 - 1992 Dominique Sweeney 1991 - 1993 I Will Hodgson 1991 - 1993 I Camilla Arkin 1992 - 1994 X-A Jonathon Turner 1993 - 1995 X-F Nicole Nabout 1993 - 1995 X-F Justin Buchta 1994 - 1996 X-0 Fiona Gabb 1995 - 1996 X-A Andrew Gillard 1997 - 1999 X-A Lucy Egger 1997 - 1999 X-A Stephanie Kehoe 1998 - 2000 I Mazz Appleton - X-F Russell Fewster - X-U Michael Lindsey Simpson - X-A Trevor Smith Unconfirmed alumnus X-U

I Alumnus contacted and interviewed X-U Unable to make contact with alumnus LEGEND X-0 Unable to make contact-alumnus living overseas X-F Alumnus contacted but failed to respond to messages X-D Alumnus contacted but declined to be interviewed X-A Alumnus discovered after cut-off date 282 APPENDIX C:

Spreadsheet of Productions Involving Lecoq Alumni.

283 Production Notes Year Company/Organisation Event I Venue City Name 1 Name 2 Role

1984 The Musical! + tour: Canberra, Armidale 1984 Adelaide Fringe Adelaide Celia Moon actor 1985 Scandals, The 1986 - Belvoir Street Sydney Geoffrey Rush director A-Ned-U-Kelly 1983-90 (?) Castanet Club, The Russell Cheek actor/devisor Accidente street theatre performance 1994 Anvil Theatre Company !Adelaide Fringe Adelaide Dominique Sweeney director/devisor Accidente street theatre performance 1994 Anvil Theatre Company I Adelaide Fringe Adelaide Michael Newbold actor Agamemnon Factor, The 1989 (Atelier Sydney Betty France actor

Alchemist, The 1996 1 Belvoir Street Sydney Geoffrey Rush actor-Subtle All of Me + toured internationally 1993 Legs on the Wall Performance Space Sydney Nigel Jamieson director/devisor Alpha Beta STCSA Union Hall, Adelaide Adelaide George Ogilvie director 1973 i University Amar Desh: My Country 1995 Belvoir Street Sydney Celia Moon director

An Afternoon with the Kids 1976-94 (1) L Footbridge Theatre Sydney Nique Murch actor

An Ideal Husband .______1972 MTC Melbourne George Ogilvie director And a Nightingale Sang 1992-93 gm Brisbane Russell Dykstra actor And Sensible Shoes - 1976-94 (? _.... Adelaide Festival Botanic Gardens Adelaide Nique Murch actor Animal Acts 1984-1986 (?) Magpie Geoffrey Rush director Arachne and Dr Succubus re-mounted as Circus of iMelbourne Fringe Melbourne Christine Grace director/actor Wonders, touring Victoria 1994-97 -4 As You Like It 1975 STCSA L Playhouse Adelaide George Ogilvie director As You Like It 1 995 WAPA Perth George Ogilvie director Back to Front Room 1983-90 (?) Castanet Club, The Russell Cheek actor/devisor Bali Adat 1991 MTC Melbourne Festival Melbourne Alex Pinder actor Beautiful Life, A + La Boite 1998 Brisbane 1998 Matrix Theatre Brisbane Russell Dykstra actor-Ahmed Beautiful Necklace, The 1988 Spoletto Fringe Church Theatre. Melbourne Claire Teisen actor/devisor Beautiful Necklace, The 1988 Spoletto Fringe Church Theatre Melbourne John Bolton director Beauty and the Beast 1995 The Big Island Theatre Company Will Hodgson director Behind the Shed 1983-96 (?) Pipi Storm Childrens Theatre • Nique Murch director Benefactors 1986 STCSA Adelaide Geoffrey Rush actor-David Blind Giant is Dancing, Die 1983 STCSA Adelaide Geoffrey Rush actor-Allen Fitzgerald Blood Wedding 1983 STCSA Adelaide Geoffrey Rush actor-The Moon Hamilton Arts Centre Hamilton Nerida Blue Hills, Black Rain I 1992 Minty actor/director/devisor Body Slam 1992-93 Rock 're Roll Circus The Wharf Sydney Russell Dykstra actor Breaker Street + 1998 Adelaide Fringe 1998 Metro Arts Brisbane Dominique Sweeney devisor/actor-Potzy Breaker Street + 1998 Adelaide Fringe 1998 Metro Arts Brisbane Therese Collie director Breaker Street + 1998 Adelaide Fringe 1998 Metro Arts Brisbane Will Hodgson actor/co-devisor Breaker Street + 1998 Adelaide Fringe Seventh Wave Ensemble Theatre Metro Arts Brisbane Dominique Sweeney actor/devisor _ ___ 1998 Broken Glass 1986 Richard [Moore actor/devisor Burkes Company 1968 MTC Melbourne George Ogilvie director Burkes Company 1968 MTC Russell Street Melbourne George Ogilvie director Business As Usual, The + Belvoir Street 2000 1999 Melbourne Fringe Melbourne John Bolton director dEsperanza 1991 Street Arts Theatre Company Brisbane Ethnic Music Brisbane Therese Collie devising co-ordinator Caca Courage + 2000 - Powerhouse, QPAT Cremorne Theatre Brisbane Russell Dykstra director Brisbane 1996 Cakeman, The 1976-1982 (?) George Ogilvie director Captain and Brighella, The + Lorne, Covent Garden 1991 Melbourne Dominique Sweeney actor/devisor/director Carmen 1995 Lyric Opera of Q1d Brisbane Russell Dykstra actor-Lillias Pastia

284 Production Notes Year Company/Organisation Event Venue City Name 1 Name 2 Role Carols-by-lazerlight 1984-1986 (7) Magpie Theatre Belvoir Street Sydney Geoffrey Rush director Castanet Menu, The 1983-90 (7) Castanet Club, The Russell Cheek actor/devisor Cat Among the Pigeons 1970 MTC Russell Street Melbourne George Ogilvie director Celebration of Welcome 1984 West Theatre Company Footscray Institute of Melbourne Certified Marriage, A 1973 STCSA George Ogilvie director Chaos and Control Youth theatre project 1996 QPAT Gympie Will Hodgson director/devisor Children of the Devil + 1998 tour: Brisbane, Brisbane Festival Brisbane Russell Dykstra actor/devisor Sydney, Melbourne 1996 Chinese Take-Away 1997 Gum Yi Productions Brisbane Therese Collie director Clearance + 1995 1996 Darling Legs on the Wall Melbourne Festival Melbourne Nigel Jamieson director/devisor Harbour;1996 Adelaide Festival;1996 National Festival of Australian Theatre;international tour 1994 __ Clockwork Orange, A unknown TN Theatre Company Isabelle Anderson choreography/movement Clowneroonies 1978 QTC, Nimrod Theatre Company Brisbane Geoffrey Rush director Clowneroonies 1978 QTC Geoffrey Rush actor-Roy the Wonde5boy

Comedy of Errors, The re-mounted 1974 Adelaide STCSA Union Hall, Adelaide I George Ogilvie director Festival 1973 University Comedy of Errors, The 1990 STCSA Geoffrey Rush actor-Antipholus of Coppelia 1976-1982 (?) Australian Ballet Company George Ogilvie director 1976 STCSA Adelaide Festival Playhouse George Ogilvie director Crete and Seargeant Pepper 1973 STCSA George Ogilvie director Day in the Life of Joe Egg, A 1968 MTC Hobart George Ogilvie director Death of a Salesman 1976-1982 (7) George Ogilvie director Definitely Not the Last 1984-1986 (7) Magpie Theatre Geoffrey Rush director Devil Katya, The 1982 Playbox Theatre Melbourne Russell Cheek actor Devil Katya, The 1982 Playbox Theatre Melbourne Claire Teisen actor Devil Katya, The 1982 Playbox Theatre Melbourne Iaon Gunn actor Diary of a Madman, The 1989 Belvoir Street Geoffrey Rush actor-Poprosh in Diary of a Madman, The + Adelaide Festival; tour: Belvoir Street Geoffrey Rush actor-Poproshin Moscow, St Petersburg 1991 Diary of a Madman, The +tour: Adelaide return Belvoir Street Geoffrey Rush actor-Poproshin Belvoir season 1992 .1 Don Giovanni 1976-1982 (7) Australian Opera Company George Ogilvie director Double Dinkum Richard Moore actor/devisor _ _ 1985 Dream Cafe, The 1985 West Theatre Company Melbourne John Bolton actor Dream Cafe, The 1985 West Theatre Company Melbourne Claire Teisen actor Dutch Courtesan, The 1993 MTC Geoffrey Rush actor-Cocledemoy Etiquette Zero 1999 Sydney Fringe The Alliance Francaise Sydney Luda Popenhagen actor/director Etiquette Zero 1999 Sydney Fringe The Alliance Francaise Sydney Ron Popenhagen actor/director Every Minute Counts 1991 Icy Tea Theatre Brisbane Celia Moon director Everything in the Garden 1968 MTC Russell Street Melbourne George Ogilvie director Expresso Bongo unknown QTC Isabelle Anderson choreography/movement Faces, Fakes and Falsehoods 1983 Russell Cheek actor/devisor Fish Without Bicycles 1988 Performance Space Sydney Celia Moon director

285 Production Notes Year Company/Organisation Event Venue City Name 1 Name 2 Role Mamma Flamma 1998 Adelaide Festival -1 Nigel Jamieson director/devisor Flea in Her Ear, A 1967 Union Theatre Repertory Union Theatre Melbourne George Ogilvie director Flea in Her Ear, A 1967 Union Theatre Repertory Union Theatre Melbourne George Ogilvie director For Example 4- Bay Street, Sydney 1991 ETC Belvoir Street Sydney Russell Cheek director Adelaide Festival 1989 Foundling Child, The • 1994 Freewheels TIE Sydney Russell Cheek director Fourpenny Opera, The 1987-88 Red Weather The Gap Sydney Betty France actor/devisor Frogs 1992 Belvoir Street Sydney Geoffrey Rush director Galax Arena unknown Adelaide Festiva t Nigel Jamieson director Garden of Grandaughters 1993 co-production-Playbox STC George Ogilvie director Gentlemans New Clothes, The 1993 Belvoir Street Sydney Russell Cheek actor-Monsieur Jourdain Giant Babies, The street theatre performance 1985 West Theatre Company Royal Melbourne Show Melbourne John Bolton actor Giant Babies, The street theatre performance 1985 West Theatre Company Royal Melbourne Show Melbourne Claire Teisen actor Gift of the Gorgon, The 1994 QTC Brisbane Russell Dykstra actor Gigi 1995 QT r Brisbane Russell Dykstra actor Glamalot 1996 Toadshow, QPAT Brisbane Russell Dykstra actor - Sir Galahad Gone with Hardy unknown QTC Isabelle Anderson choreography/movement f Government Inspector, The 1991 STC Sydney Russell Cheek actor Government Inspector, The 1991 STC Geoffrey Rush actor-Khlestakhov Government inspector, The 1971 MTC Melbourne George Ogilvie director Greek Theatre Project 1994 USQ Brisbane Russell Dykstra actor 1991-92 Magpie Theatre Company Michael Newbold actor Hamlet unknown Grin Tonic Isabelle Anderson choreography/movement Hamlet unknown Grin Tonic Isabelle Anderson actor-Ophelia Hamlet + return season 1995 Belvoir Street Geoffrey Rush actor-Horatio national tour 1994 Happy End 1988 Spoletto Fringe Melbourne Nerida Minty performer Hard Labour Mate 1983 West Theatre Company Old Melbourne Gaol Melbourne Haxbys Circus 1995 STCSA Playhouse Adelaide Michael Newbold actor-Freddy the clown Heartbreak House unknown MTC Isabelle Anderson actor-Ariadne Heiress, The 1967 Union Theatre Repertor _ Union Theatre Melbourne George Ogilvie director Hercules unknown Rock n Roll Circus Nigel Jamieson director Hold Me 1990 Sydney Festival Bondi Pavilion Sydney Celia Moon director Howzatt 1982 Freewheels TIE Newcastle Russell Cheek director/devisor I Dont Move, I Dont Scream, + Melbourne Fringe Festival La Mama Melbourne Alex Pinder director My Voice is Gone 1988 I Yitha (The She Goat) 1993 Street Arts Theatre Company Brisbane Therese Collie co-writer Pm Not Catching Fish, Pm West Theatre Company Melbourne Claire Teisen actor Catching Plastic 1987 If You Spit on the Earth, You Red Weather Sydney Betty France actor/devisor Spit on Yourself 1987-88 . Imaginary Invalid, The 1991 IN! Princess Theatre Brisbane Judith Pippen movement director Imaginary Invalid, The 1999 Ensemble Theatre Sydney Russell Dykstra actor-Pulcinella, Incident at Vichy 1967 Union Theatre Repertory Union Theatre Melbourne George Ogilvie director Inspector General, The unknown MTC Melbourne George Ogilvie director

286 Production Notes Year Company/Organisation Event Venue City Name 1 Name 2 Role Journeys End 1974 STCSA Royalty Theatre George Ogilvie director Jugglers Three 1972 STCSA Union Hall, Adelaide George Ogilvie director Jumping Mouse + 2000 1985 the Church Theatre Melbourne John Bolton actor Kakos 1998 Qur Brisbane Russell Dykstra co-director Kaspars Wake street theatre performance; + Gonghouse Melbourne Festival Melbourne Nerida Minty performer international tour 1991 Kellys Republic 1987 , Sydney Festival Nigel Jamieson director Killing of Sister George, The 1966 Union Theatre Repertory Russell Street Melbourne George Ogilvie director King Lear 1978 Or Geoffrey Rush actor-The Fool King Lear 1988 STCSA Geoffrey Rush actor-The Fool King Lear + Q Theatre season STC Wharf Theatre Sydney 1995 George Ogilvie director Knack, The 1966 Union Theatre Repertory Russell Street Melbourne George Ogilvie director Knock em Dead 1992-93 Qld Arts Council Brisbane Russell Dykstra actor La Fa La Ful 1984 Street Arts Theatre Company Brisbane Therese Collie actor/devisor La Peche Anvil Theatre Company Will assistant director 1996 Hodgson La Peche 1996 Anvil Theatre Company 1 Dominique Sweeney director/devisor Last Laugh, The + 190 Sydney Festival, Double Take Wood Street Theatre Newcastle Russell Cheek actor/devisor 1982 Adelaide Festival 1981 Last Laugh, The + 1982 Sydney Festival, Double Take Wood Street Theatre Newcastle Claire Teisen actor/devisor 1982 Adelaide Festival 1981 Last Laugh, The + 1982 Sydney Festival, Double Take Wood Street Theatre Newcastle Ted Keijser actor/devisor 1982 Adelaide Festival 1981 Last Laugh, The + 1982 Sydney Festival, Double Take Wood Street Theatre Newcastle Iaon Gunn actor/devisor 1982 Adelaide Festival 1981 Later that Evening 1994 Sydney Festival Sydney Russell Cheek director/devisor Le Cafe 1993-96 Melbourne Christine Grace actor/devisor Les Enfants du paradis 1989 VCA Melbourne Geoffrey Rush director Les Enfants du paradis 1988 Belvoir Street Geoffrey Rush actor-Baptiste Lillies of the Paddock 1987 Murray River Performing Group Brisbane Therese Collie director Long View, A 1969 MTC Russell Street Melbourne George Ogilvie director Lucrezia Borgia 1976-1982 (?) Australian Opera Company George Ogilvie director Lulu 1997 Belvoir Company B Belvoir Street Sydney Michael Newbold actor Mabinogion + season in Melbourne, tour: Christchurch Christine Grace actor/devisor NZ, South Island 1991 Macbeth unknown Isabelle Anderson actor-Lady Macbeth Macbeth + Q Theatre season 1996 STC Wharf Theatre Sydney George Ogilvie director Magic Show, The 1975-80 (7) Heather Robb actor/devisor Magistrate, The 1968 MTC Russell Street Melbourne George Ogilvie director Major Barbara 1976 STCSA Playhouse George Ogilvie director Major Mitchells Mighty West Theatre Company Melbourne John Bolton actor Travelling Show 1983 _ Marat/Sade 1990 STCSA Geoffrey Rush actor-Marat Marriage of Figaro, The 1997 QPAT Stage X Festival Brisbane Russell Dykstra clowning director Marriage of Figaro, The 1983 STCSA Geoffrey Rush actor-Figaro

287 Production Notes Year Company/Organisation Event Venue City Name 1 Name 2 Role Marriage of Figaro, The 1998 QTC Geoffrey Rush actor-Figaro Measure for Measure 1994 Woodward Theatre Brisbane Judith Pippen movement director Medea 1987 The Mill Geelong Alex Pinder actor Medea Australian tour Toga Richard Moore actor Festival, 1988 1987 Merry Wives of Windsor, The 1987 Royal Qld Theatre Company Geoffrey Rush director Midsummer Nights Dream, A unknown Darwin Theatre Company Darwin Isabelle Anderson director Midsummer Nights Dream, A unknown QTC Isabelle Anderson actor-Titania

Midsummer Nights Dream, A 1982 STCSA 4-- Geoffrey Rush actor-Oberon/Theseus Midsummer Nights Dream, A 1983 STCSA Geoffrey Rush actor-Oberon/Theseus Misery of Beauty, A 1989 Theatre Works Melbourne Alex Pinder actor La Boite Miss Bosnia 1995 Brisbane Russell Dykstra actor - Boris/Lidija Mission Molly Morgan 1983-90 (?) Castanet Club, The Russell Cheek actor/devisor Moliere, Masks Mayhem 1989 FAST Monash University Melbourne Alex Pinder director Momentum Intandem 1992 Seymour Centre Sydney Richard Hayes-Marshall director/devisor Monsoon 1996 Nigel Jamieson director Moomba Festival Melbourne John Bolton actor Moomba River Parade 1984 West Theatre Company Mother Courage 1982 STCSA jGeoffrey Rush actor-Soldiers Mr Knuckles 1991-92 Magpie Theatre Company Michael Newbold actor Murri Time + tour: NT, Sydney 1995 Kite Theatre Come Out Festival Adelaide Therese Collie director/devisor Myth of the Curse, The 1988 Betty France actor - Jocasta Nana Obscuras + Woodford Festival, Sydney Sydney Festival Betty France actor/devisor Casino, Mardis Gras 1994-96 National Health, The QTC Isabelle Anderson choreography/movement Neighbours, Never! 1976-94 (?) Sydney Festival Hyde Park Sydney Nique Murch actor Netherwood STCSA Geoffrey Rush actor-Dr Eberhard l 983 Netherwood 1984 STCSA Sydney Festival Sydney Geoffrey Rush actor-Dr Eberhard New Sky Isabelle Anderson actor/devisor

Street Arts Theatre Company Rialto Theatre Brisbane Therese Collie director/devisor Next Stop West End 1985 Nicholas Nickelby STC Isabelle Anderson actor-Kate Nickelby

No End of Blame 1981 STCSA Geoffrey Rush actor No Face Like Home + Come Out Festival 1989, Salamanca Festival Hobart Russell Cheek actor/devisor Warana Festival 1991 1988 No Files on Biggles + 1982-Nimrod, Adelaide Double Take Wood Street Theatre Newcastle Russell Cheek actor/devisor Fringe. Opera House, the Last Laugh 1981 No Flies on Biggles + 1982-Nimrod, Adelaide Double Take Wood Street Theatre Newcastle Claire Teisen actor/devisor Fringe. Opera House, the Last Laugh 1981 No Flies on Biggles + 1982-Nimrod, Adelaide Double Take Wood Street Theatre Newcastle Ted Keijser actor/devisor Fringe, Opera House, the Last Laugh 1981 No Flies on Biggles + 1982-Nimrod, Adelaide 1981 Double Take Wood Street Theatre Newcastle loon Gunn actor/devisor

288 Production Notes Year Company/Organisation Event Venue City Name 1 Name 2 Role

No title Bouffon project involving Mummers Theatre Company Hobart Christine Grace workshop leader/director disabled performers 1994-95 No title Bouffon project involving QPAT Brisbane Arts Centre Brisbane Christine Grace workshop leader/director disabled performers 1994

No title clown tightwire duet 1994 Highly Strung Melbourne Fringe Footscray Arts Centre Melbourne Christine Grace director No title bouffon trapeze piece Blue Project, The Melbournern Fringe Footscray Arts Centre Melbourne Christine director 1994 Grace No title street theatre performance, + Blue Project, The Sydney Festival Sydney Christine Grace actor tour: NZ 1992-94 No title street theatre performance 1992-1994 Latin Lizards, The Melbourne Christine Grace actor No title cabaret, + Harold Park Hotel 1989 A Household Name The Tilbury !Sydney Linda Raymond actor/devisor No title Sydney Summer Tent Season 1991 Circus Oz Sydney Claire Teisen actor-Ring Mistress No title The Humour Foundation Justin Case actor-clown No title 1983 West Theatre Company Larundel Psychiatric Melbourne No title West Theatre Company Williamstown Festival Melbourne John Bolton actor 1984 _ ___ No title 1983 West Theatre Company Ascot Vale Festival Melbourne John Bolton actor No title West Theatre Company Ascot Vale Festival Melbourne Claire Teisen actor 1985 No title (Street Theatre + Expo 88 Bonzani Warana Festival Judith Pippen director/devisor performance) 1988 No title (street theatre + Royal Easter Show, Spontaneous Combustion Festival of Perth Perth Betty France actor/devisor performance) Auckland 1990 No title (street theatre + Newcastle Show, Darling Extended Limbs Festival of Sydney Sydney Betty France actor/devisor performance) Harbour 1989-90 No title (street theatre + tours nationally Hunting Party, The Melbourne Festival Melbourne Christine Grace actor/devisor performance) internationally 1995-98 No title (street theatre Adelaide Michael Newbold actor-clown•longdrop No title (street theatre touring nationally Essendon Policewomens Marching Claire Teisen actor-Dolly the baton performance) internationally Band twirler 1984-1988 No title (street theatre 1984-1988 Essendon Policewomens Marching Melbourne John Bolton actor/devisor No title (street theatre + corporate theatre Justin Case actor-clown/humour valet No title (street theatre + corporate theatre Steven Bishop actor-clown-Harry No title (street theatre 1998 Brisbane Festival Brisbane Steven Bishop performer/mask maker Of Rogues and 1975-80 (?) Theatre of the Deaf Seymour Centre Sydney Heather Robb director/devisor Old King Cole 1976 STCSA Playhouse George Ogilvie actor-Twoo the Clown Production Notes Year Company/Organisation Event Venue City Name 1 Name 2 Role

Oleanna 1993 STC Geoffrey Rush actor-John On Our Selection + Nimrod, 1979 1979 Jane Street Sydney Geoffrey Rush actor-Dave On Parliament Hill 1987 Belvoir Street Sydney Geoffrey Rush actor-Mouldy 2 Once Upon Inala 1984 Street Arts Theatre Company Brisbane Therese Collie director/devisor STCSA Pal Joey 1983 Geoffrey Rush actor-Victor Patate (Spud° 1971 MTC Russell Street Melbourne George Ogilvie director Paying the Piper 1973 MTC Melbourne George Ogilvie director Pearls Before Swine 1986 Belvoir Street Sydney Geoffrey Rush director

289 Production Notes Year Company/Organisation Event Venue _lefty Name 1 Name 2 Role Pell Men + 1987 Melbourne Comedy Belvoir Street Sydney Geoffrey Rush director Festival 1986 Pericles 1998 VCA Melbourne George Ogilvie director Pericles 1987 MTC Wharf Sydney Isabelle Anderson actor-Thaisa Philanthropist, The MTC Russell Street Melbourne George Ogilvie director 1971 Piece by Piece + tour: central far-west Freewheels TIE Newcastle Russell Cheek director/devisor NSW 1984 Pirate Stew 1996 Kite Theatre Brisbane Therese Collie director Playboy of the Western World, QTC Isabelle Anderson actor-Widow Quinn Point of Departure 1978 QTC Geoffrey Rush actor-Monsieur Henri Poppy Kettle People Have Land 1987 The Mill Geelong Alex Pinder actor Popular Mechanicals 2, The 1992 Belvoir Street Sydney Geoffrey Rush director Popular Mechanicals, The + MTC 1988;STCSA 1988; Belvoir Street Sydney Geoffrey Rush director Belvoir St 1992 1987 Pots of Red Jam 1996 Brisbane Festival Brisbane Judith Pippen actor of Homburg, The 1982 STCSA Geoffrey Rush actor-Field Marshall PSSTI (Practice Safe Sex Today) 1989 Rock n Roll Circus ii317isbane Therese Collie director Quartet from Rigoletto, The 1995 co-production-Q Theatre Ensemble Sydney George Ogilvie director Ready for Men 1979 The Stables Sydney Heather Robb actor/devisor Rebecca Twelfth Night Theatre Brisbane Dominique Sweeney actor-Frank Crawley Red Square 1986 Adelaide Festival Nigel Jamieson director/devisor Reunion Show, The 1988 Street Arts Theatre Company Brisbane Therese Collie director Revengers Tragedy 1981 STCSA _ Geoffrey Rush actor 1--- Rhinoceros 1967 Union Theatre Repertory Union Theatre Melbourne George Ogilvie actor-Berenger Rites of Passage street theatre performance 1993 Gonghouse Melbourne Festival Melbourne Nerida Minty performer Rites, Wrongs and Off-beat 1985 Street Arts Theatre Company Brisbane Therese Collie actor/devisor Woodward Theatre Brisbane Judith Pippen director Rivers of China, Th 1996 Rookery Nook 1973 STCSA Royalty Theatre George Ogilvie director Rookery Nook 1970 WC Russell Street Melbourne George Ogilvie director Rookery Nook 1970 MTC Russell Street Melbourne Roslyn de Winter actor-Mrs Leverett Royal Hunt of the Sun, The 1966 Union Theatre Repertory Russell Street Melbourne George Ogilvie director Royal Hunt of the Sun, The 1966 MTC Melbourne George Ogilvie director Royal Show 1982 STCS Qtaffreye Rush tor Junction Theatre Company Adelaide Michael actor Scam 19981 Queens Theatre Newbold Seasons Qld Theatre of the Deaf Isabelle Anderson director/devisor Secret of Bum Canyon, The 1983-90 (?) Castanet Club, The Russell Cheek actor/devisor Servant of Two Masters 1994 Cremome Theatre Brisbane Judith Pippen movement director Servant of Two Masters 1967 Union Theatre Repertory Union Theatre Melbourne George Ogilvie director She Stoops to Conquer 1974 STCSA Playhouse George Ogilvie director Shepherd on the Rocks STCSA Geoffrey Rush actor-Archbishop Wilfred 1987 Biggs Shoe-Horn Sonata, The 1997 La Boite Theatre Brisbane Judith Pippen assistant director Silver Lining 1982 STCSA, Geoffrey Rush actor-Toozenbach Six Characters in Search of An 1969 MTC Russell Street Melbourne George Ogilvie director

290 Production Notes Year Company/Organisation Event Venue City Name 1 Name 2 Role

Six Characters in Search of An MTC Russell Street Melbourne Roslyn , de Winter actor-stepdaughter Author 1969 Small Poppies 1986 Magpie Theatre Adelaide Festival Adelaide Geoffrey Rush director Small Poppies 2000 Sydney Festival Belvoir Street Geoffrey Rush actor-Clint Snapshots from Home + 1996 - Brisbane Festival + QPAT Brisbane Russell Dykstra actor Qld tour 1995 St Albans Ablaze 1983 West Theatre Company Melbourne John • Bolton actor Stepping Out 6 month tour Isabelle Anderson actor-Andy Strangers in Paradise 1997 Seventh Wave Ensemble Theatre Griffith University Brisbane Dominique Sweeney actor/devisor/director Strangers in Paradise 1997 Seventh Wave Ensemble Theatre Griffith University Brisbane Will Hodgson actor/devisor Streetcar Named Desire, A unknown QTC Isabelle Anderson actor-Blanche Dubois Struggle of the Naga Tribe, The unknown Nimrod Theatre Company Sydney Isabelle Anderson choreography/movement Sucked in Bad . Toured to schools in SA 1996 Michael Newbold director/devisor Sugar Mountains 1983 West Theatre Company CSR sugar factory Melbourne John Bolton actor Sunrise STCSA Geoffrey Rush actor-David 1983 ___ _ I 1---- • Swingin Safari, The 1983-90 (?) Castanet Club, The Russell !Cheek actor/devisor Tartuffe 1997 Sir Opera House Playhouse Sydney Russell Cheek actor-the officer Teen-ages 1984-1986 (7) Magpie Geoffrey Rush director Teeth and Smiles 1980 Nimrod Theatre Sydney Geoffrey Rush actor Tempest, The unknown Grin Tonic Isabelle Anderson choreography/movement Thark 1975 MTC St Martins Melbourne George Ogilvie director The Cutting Room 1995 Performance Space Nigel Jamieson director The Importance of Being + MTC national tour 1988 MTC Geoffrey Rush actor-Jack Worthing The Logan City Story 1983 Street Arts Theatre Company Brisbane Therese Collie actor Three Cuckolds, The 1988 La Boite Brisbane Judith Pippen co-director Three Cuckolds, The 1974 STCSA Playhouse George Ogilvie director Three Sisters 1968 MTC Russell Street Melbourne George rgilvie director Threepenny Opera, The unknown Twelfth Night Theatre Isabelle Anderson actor-Folly Peachum Threepenny Opera, The unknown TN Theatre Company Isabelle Anderson choreography/movement Throw of the Dice 1997 Richard Hayes-Marshall director/devisor Tightrope 1998 Merivale Street Theatre Brisbane Marie Dumont co-director Tightrope 1998 Merivale Street Theatre Brisbane Mark Bromilow co-director - Tightrope 1998 Merivale Street Brisbane Dominique Sweeney actor Tin Symphony 2000 Olympic Games Nigel Jamieson director/devisor unknown Nimrod Theatre Company Isabelle Anderson actor-Pope Joan Top Girls •, Trial of the Catonsville Nine, MTC Russell Street - Melbourne George Ogilvie director The 1971 1- Trip the Light Fantastic 1983-96 (?) Canberra Festival Gorman House Canberra Nique Murch director La Mama Melbourne Alex Finder actor Tristan and Yseult ______1996 Tristram Shandy 1988 MTC Geoffrey Rush actor-Tristram Troilus and Cressid _ unknown Grin Tonic Isabelle Anderson choreography/movement Troilus and Cressida 1989 Grin Tonic Geoffrey Rush actor-Thersites/Paris Twelfth Night STCSA Geoffrey Rush actor-Sir Andrew Ague 1983 Cheek Twelfth Night ______1984 STCSA Sydney Festival Sydney Geoffrey Rush actor-Sir Andrew Ague Uncle Vanya 1992 STC Geoffrey Rush actor-Astrov

291 Production Notes Year Company/Organisation Event Venue City Name 1 Name 2 Role Unreal 1984-1986 (7) Magpie Theatre Geoffrey Rush director Up in Smoke unknown West Theatre Company Melbourne Claire Teisen actor Very First Day, The 1995 Theatre of the Deaf Sydney Russell Cheek writer/director Vital Signs + Alfred Hospital, 1985 1985 West Theatre Company Royal Melbourne Melbourne John Bolton actor Volcanes 1987 Teatro Unidad y Liberation Brisbane Therese Collie actor Waiting for Godot 1979 Jane Street Sydney Geoffrey Rush actor-Vladimir Wake Baby + international tour;1997 _1997 Skylark Opera House Nigel Jamieson director War and Peace 1966 Union Theatre Repertory Russell Street Melbourne George Ogilvie director Wedding, The 1994 Arts Access Sunshine Community Melbourne Christine Grace workshop leader/director Who Nose Romeo and Juliet? 1997 Woodward Theatre Brisbane Russell Dykstra director Wildheart 1994 Legs on the Wall Wharf 2 Nigel Jamieson director Winters Tale, A 1987 STCSA Geoffrey Rush actor•Autolycus 1994 QTC Brisbane Russell Dykstra actor-Autolycus Winters Tale, The ... Wolfs Banquet, The 1989 Belvoir Street Sydney Geoffrey Rush director actor Worlds Apart 1994 Brolgas, QTC Brisbane Russell Dykstra

292 APPENDIX D

THE PEDAGOGY OF JACQUES LECOQ

GENERAL OVERVIEW

The Ecole Jacques Lecoq currently offers a two year course. Between eighty and one hundred students are accepted each year into the first year and at the end of the first year approximately thirty students are selected to undertake the second year program. The criteria for acceptance into the second year is based on quality of work, acting talent and on the students capacity for play (Lecoq 1997:107). The first year begins with silent improvisations, followed by studies in the neutral mask, the expressive masks, characterisation and dynamic approaches to poetry, painting, music and objects. Parallel to this work is training in techniques of movement comprising preparation of the body and voice, dramatic acrobatics and analysis of movement. The second year is primarily concerned with the study of a variety of performance styles. It begins with a preparatory phase of study that covers different gestural languages, consisting of pantomime, figurative mime and story-telling through word and image. This is followed by exploration of different dramatic territories: melodrama, commedia dellarte, bouffon, tragedy, clown, and different comic styles including burlesque, the absurd, and the eccentric (1997:153). The second year continues training in techniques of movement but here they are specifically applied to the different performance styles.

A major component of both the first and second year programs is the auto-cours or self- directed study. Here students work in groups on a given theme to create performance pieces which are then presented to the other students and members of staff.

Students attend classes for four hours per day, with the first year students attending in the morning and the second year students in the afternoon. These four-hour sessions are typically divided into one hour of study in the techniques of movement, an hour and a half of acting taught through improvisation, and an hour and a half of auto-cours (Frost Yarrow 1990:64).

Lecoq has described the objectives of the first and second years as follows:

293 In the course of the first year, we shall have planted roots, enriched the soil, turned over the earth. We shall have completed three journeys: first the observation and rediscovery of life as it is through replay, thanks to the freedom conferred by the neutral mask; second, we shall have raised the levels of playing, by means of expressive masks; finally, we shall have explored the poetic depths of words, colours, sounds. The first year will have built up a very precise body of work which will remain as our point of reference. Come what may, a tree is still the Tree, and we shall need to continue our practice of observing it.

The second year, however, is very different. It does not form a logical continuation of the first, but a qualitative leap towards another dimension: geodramatic exploration of huge territories, with one single objective: dramatic creation (2000:97).

For those who complete the first and second years at the Lecoq school, there is also an optional third year. This is designed for those wishing to become performance trainers. Students undertaking the third year gain a greater understanding of the pedagogy by attending all of the first year sessions as observers and assistants to the instructors. They are also required to attend the Laboratory of Movement, an adjunct to the Lecoq school. The Laboratory of Movement (LEM) - Le Laboratoire detude du mouvement - is a department of experimental scenography that was created by Lecoq in collaboration with architect Krikor Belekian. Studies are for one year and are open to students at the Lecoq school and other interested parties from outside the school such as architects, set designers and painters. The LEM focuses on two principal activities which interface with the general pedagogy of the Lecoq school. The first is concerned with movement and the play of the miming body, and the second is concerned with the creation of scenographic constructions.

The work of the LEM rests on the premise that before constructing a space, it is necessary to have an understanding, firstly, of how the body moves and, secondly, of how the body moves in response to constructed spaces, whether they are designed for theatre or for habitation. The LEM thus develops an understanding of constructed space as fundamentally concerned with the movement of the bodies inhabiting it, and the theatrical space as fundamentally concerned with the movement and play of the actor. In a dynamic study of space and rhythm, the course draws on a number of the exercises which are studied at the Lecoq school. The creation of scenographic constructions is undertaken in conjunction with these exercises whereby students are asked to construct structures and forms relating to each exercise. At the conclusion of the LEM year, students are asked to make a scenographic space on a proposed theme. These can incorporate music, sculpture,

294 poetry or literature. The constructions are not fixed models, however, but are portable structures which are demonstrated via the students moving them through the space (Lecoq 1997:163-164).

PHILOSOPHY

Judith Pippen has commented that one of the perennial struggles for actor training is the choice between teaching a system of vocal or physical work, which implies obedience to a repetitive skills-based project, or to empower in training by mapping the territory in a variety of ways and challenging them to life-long learning in their chosen field (1997:6). Pippen goes on to suggest that this second mode of teaching remains open ended and endlessly generative by virtue of a continual reflecting on experience. Notably, Pippen cites Jacques Lecoq as belonging to the second category. As Alan Levy has indicated, `Lecoq believes in "training the actor-creator" and sincerely disavows any intent to "breed little Lecoqs" which is why his alumni bear no trademark (1978:60).

Underpinning Lecoqs pedagogy is a philosophical commitment to the creative freedom of the actor and this commitment permeates every aspect of the course. For Lecoq, the primary goal of his school is the search for a theatre of creation (School Brochure 1997). All the elements of the pedagogy - improvisation, creation of performance material by the student, training in techniques of movement, and the exploration of different dramatic territories - serve to develop the creative imagination of the students and to provide reference points for subsequent creative endeavour. Through improvisation, the student is directly involved in the creation of dramatic situations and dynamics. In the auto-cours, the student is invited to create characters, situations and mise en scene. In studying the techniques of movement, the student is offered principals of movement, acrobatic skills and skills for analysing movement, all designed to enlarge their expressive capabilities and offer reference points for future work. The exploration of a number of dramatic territories at the Lecoq school is undertaken not so these forms can be copied and reproduced, but that they may serve as reference points for the use of form in dramatic creation and for creating new and innovative theatrical forms. As Lecoq indicates:

There is an exchange which takes place between the students and me...the students often have wishes...which are often the right ones. They aspire to theatrical forms which do not exist as yet and I find it interesting to do things which havent yet been done. But, of course, the theatre which hasnt been done yet is reflected in the past. It isnt possible to say that one is always inventing new things, there are points of reference, so that permits me to recognise periods in the past which are propitious. But its not a museum, its an exchange which takes place in the present.

295 Nevertheless, tradition interests me, but by that I mean a tradition which is rediscovered through the phenomena of today, rather than trying to redo something which has been done already... One imagines the past, and the thing that I find good is that the past helps us to imagine the future (Lecoq, interview with McLean, quoted in Leabhart 1989:94).

Lecoq is thus strongly committed to the idea of the actor as creator rather than the actor as interpreter. He believes that the codification of a style is contrary to its development as an art form, since the style becomes a fixed aesthetic which imposes limits on the creativity of the artist, deeming them an interpreter of a proposed aesthetic rather than a creator of form (Lecoq, in Felner 1985:156). Lecoq is consequently strongly opposed to prescriptive and codified forms of movement, such as those found in the pedagogies of Decroux and Marceau. Lecoqs critique of the students work is also indicative of this position, in which he uses the via negativa or negative road approach. Bari Rolfe explains:

The creative imagination is exercised by his use of the via negativa; that is, his comments are always in terms of what not to do, leaving affirmative paths open for the student to find. This teaching strategy acts as a kind of benevolent frustration; by blocking the path taken by the actor, you oblige him to look for another (1972:38).

In this way, students learn through trial and error, discovering their own way of doing things, as opposed to having someone dictate how a thing should be done. While the training is both confronting as well as rigorous, it constantly spurs students to expand personal creativity and expression, assisting them to discover new dramatic forms, through experimentation with various styles and levels of acting so that each student may discover their own individual style and approach to theatre (Lecoq 1973:118). Jean Perret has eloquently captured Lecoqs pedagogical and philosophical position when he says:

The pedagogue can only cultivate, orient, and fortify the inborn talent, bring out that which is larval or discover that which is hidden... Therefore, it consists for Jacques Lecoq, and this is fundamental, not only to never forget that the student comes to him with a desire, a vocation, a gift, a talent (or sometimes an illusion...) but, more importantly, to give him the means to go to the end of his desire, to propose to him the references, to awaken his curiosity for life, both within and without, to educate his actors body, gesture and word, and to provoke his imagination as actor-author.

296 To propose and sustain a creation inspired by a true theatre of gesture which moves truthfully and which speaks truthfully, this is the pedagogical aim of Jacques Lecoq (in Lecoq, 1987:107).

One final point to be made about Lecoqs philosophical position concerns the pedagogys basis in movement techniques. Lecoqs commitment to the notion that everything moves is enacted not only as a pedagogical imperative, but as an imperative in terms of the development of the pedagogy itself. While the core aspects of Lecoqs pedagogy have remained stable since its beginning, the pedagogy has never been stagnant:

Everytime I have had an experience, it fed the teaching process, and basically it all developed like a plant growing (McLean interview, in Leabhart 1989:91).

Lecoq has always been interested in exploring and discovering new and more effective ways of teaching theatre. As one graduate of the school comments:

[E]verything is moving all the time and [Lecoq] is not a movement maniac for no reason - hes always moving and hes always re-thinking something and, "How could we make it better?" and "Why do students have a problem there?" For instance, when I read about bouffon in his book Le Corps poetique, its very different to what we did when we were there. Its much more detailed and at the time I studied with him, he didnt know exactly what to do, he was searching. Buffoons were new at the school and he was trying to find the best way to introduce them to us (Dumont 1998:191, interview).

In the 1960s, for example, Lecoq added the study of clown to his pedagogy and in the late `70s, he incorporated the study of bouffon. Much of what is added to his pedagogy is in response to the work and creations of his students, so that the students creativity itself feeds back into the pedagogy, maintaining it as a living and vital theatre training.

297 PEDAGOGY

1. IMPROVISATION.

At the Lecoq school, improvisation is employed as the training technique in the acting classes and is used by students as an approach to creating their performance material in the auto-cours. In addition, students frequently incorporate improvisational skills in presentations of their devised auto-cours material. This does not necessarily mean that they improvise within a given framework, but rather that they are able to play in the moment of performance, are sensitive to an audience, and can extend and add to their devised material, taking it beyond what has been developed in rehearsal. Training in improvisation has a number of objectives:

Through improvisation, the actor learns lively spontaneity, the direct life in a particular role, the mental as well as physical ability to move and be alert, acting with an ensemble and interacting with the partner on stage (Koller 1992:67).

The first-year program commences with what Lecoq calls Le jeu psychologie silencieux -`the play of psychological silence. Improvisation exercises are conducted on themes such as La Chambre denfance (`The Childhood Bedroom), LAttente (Waiting), and La Reunion psychologique (`The Psychological Encounter). The objective of these improvisations is to replay situations from life without concern for the audience, without exaggeration and with the greatest fidelity to reality (Lecoq 1997:41). The exercises are primarily for the benefit of the instructor rather than the student, in that they allow the instructor to observe and assess the quality of each students play.

Following initial improvisations are exercises which work towards discovering the structures of play; of proposing what Lecoq calls the motors or the driving forces of theatrical play. They focus on silent improvisations based on encounter where the situation rises progressively to higher and higher levels of dramatic intensity until it is taken to some sense of limit or apex. Lecoq uses the idea of a scale to illustrate this dramatic dynamic:

298 The notion of a scale clarifies the different moments in the progression of a dramatic situation [...]. The principle of the scale, which we use very often, is an excellent method for discovering these laws and for ascending the levels of play (1997:46).

To demonstrate the dramatic dynamics of a scale, Lecoq has created an exercise called Six sons - The Six Sounds . In a collective lesson, the students mime some repetitive physical work, such as chopping wood, painting a wall or sweeping. During this mime, the students will hear six beats from a drum or tambourine, made by the instructor. Each sound has a different significance and requires a different response (1997:46):

The first one you do not hear (which does not mean there will be no reaction). The second, you hear, but without paying any special attention to it. The third one is loud and you listen to see if it will repeat. Since it does not, you cease paying attention. The fourth is very loud, and you think you know where it comes from, which reassures you. The fifth fails to confirm what you had thought. Finally, the sixth and last is an jet plane which passes over your head (2000:34-35).

Based on principles of movement, the scale operates in terms of action and reaction. Lecoq considers that the dramatic force will be proportional to the timing of the reaction and it is necessary that students find an appropriate rhythm for the timing of action and reaction in their own work. The exercise is particularly useful for understanding the dynamic progression of movement and becoming familiar with composing the techniques of movement which the scale imposes. Lecoq considers that this scale, which operates by means of mounting dramatic intensity, approaches the structures of play found in the commedia dellarte (1997:45). The scale is not only applicable to commedia work, however, but serves as a reference for all the scales which the actor might subsequently encounter in a variety of theatrical situations. In addition to the Six sons scale, Lecoq has developed many other scales which include The Scale of Laughter, The Scale of Crying and The Scale of Tension which comprises the following: 1. super-relaxed; 2. relaxed; 3. pragmatic; 4. neutral; 5. first stage of excitement; 6. second stage of excitement; 7. frozen in tension (1997:45).

Le Masque neutre - The Neutral Mask: Following these preliminary improvisations, work commences with the neutral mask and continues everyday for three months. As the core of Lecoq s pedagogy, this work marks the beginning proper of the voyage undertaken by students at the school (1997:47). The neutral mask is a full-face mask which has no particular expression, and evokes no specific emotion or character. The features of the mask are simple, regular, peaceful, and suggest an attitude of physical and emotional calm without internal conflict (Lecoq

299 1990a:31). The student works with the neutral mask as though it were a generic being, a common denominator of humanity. Under the mask, the student works towards the neutral state which can be defined as a state of openness, availability and readiness, without past or passion (Lecoq 1973:118). Lecoq acknowledges that the neutral state is of course something that is impossible to achieve, and has spoken of this work as moving towards a `fulcrum point which does not exist (Lecoq quoted in Eldredge 1975:390). It thus serves as a point of reference only and operates as such in relation to character and movement.

Work with the neutral mask explores the other of character. While an individual has a personality, character traits, a history, a context, conflicts, passions and desires, the neutral mask works towards a state of equilibrium, without past, passion or conflict. It operates in a state of perpetual discovery and receptivity, encouraging the student to see, to hear, to feel, to perceive, to touch things as if for the first time (Lecoq 1997:49). Having no past or future demands that the student respond to a situation in and of itself, without the interjection of preconceived ideas, past impressions, expectations, assumptions, personal conflicts or biases. It thus encourages the student to react in an open and spontaneous way (Lecoq 1973:118).

Movement is also an expression of character. An individual will perform any given movement or task with distinctive nuances such as walk, posture, gait and rhythm. The neutral mask thus also functions as a point of reference in terms of movement: The movement work begins with the neutral which gives points of support essential to play (Lecoq 1997:49). Under the neutral mask, students attempt to execute their movements in a neutral fashion which can be defined as movements which are economical, essential to the given task and which communicate as little sense of characterisation as possible. Neutral movement can be thought of as a zero point, a point of departure from which one can measure movement in terms of time, space, effort, rhythm and energy. For Lecoq, style works in relation to the neutral and the economical in that style is created by the manner in which the neutral and economical is altered and distorted so that,

Movement begins first with economy, that minimum of effort for a maximum of result, which defines style (Lecoq, in Rolfe 1972:37).

In working towards the neutral state, the student necessarily attempts to neutralise their own expressions of personality, relinquishing personal, social and cultural mannerisms, idiosyncrasies and physical responses in the quest for the neutral gesture. The work requires that the student recognise and erase habitual ways of moving, perceiving and responding to the environment. Lecoq is attempting here to erase socio-cultural, historical inscriptions so that the student becomes a blank page on which to write the

300 (Lecoq 1997:47). The student thus learns to experience themselves in terms of how their movements and responses deviate from the neutral and the economical. In this sense, the neutral mask work aims to deconstruct the student in terms of the physical, psychological and emotional dynamics and responses which have been socially and culturally constructed and inscribed in the body of the student. Paradoxically, however, in attempting to be other than themselves the student is led to a greater awareness of what defines them as an individual:

We first try to recognise what belongs to everybody. By using the neutral mask you can say that I cloned the students so that they resemble each other, or tend to. But the urgency of differences appears precisely in the research of being the other. And at a certain moment, one is never like the other, and then urgencies appear which [the students] dont recognise and which will, little by little, be revealed in their creation, starting with a recognition of life as it is. A tree is first a tree and then how are they going to sense this tree, which may be different to each one? But before sensing the differences, you must sense what is common to us all. That is the whole pedagogy of the school (Lecoq 1999:video recording).

Work with the neutral mask has a number of pedagogical objectives. Lecoq claims that it helps to develop the dramatic presence of the actor and assists the student in finding a point of support where respiration is free (Lecoq 1997:49). Students learn to use their body rather than their face for dramatic expression and at the same time to be precise and economical in their movements. The neutral thus serves as a foundation mask, a mask of support from which the student will learn to wear all the other masks and perceive their difference from the neutral and from each other. In this sense, the neutral mask is worn under any other mask or character (Lecoq 1997:47). Striving to achieve the sense of equilibrium of the neutral mask also affords the student a better understanding of the disequilibrium of dramatic characters in conflict. In attempting to achieve a neutral state, the students sensitivity to variations of character is accentuated and their point of departure for the creation of character becomes the neutral state of equilibrium rather than their own character or personality. By considering themselves as a character, the student is able to neutralise these character traits in order to build character on a neutral foundation. They learn to play a character by firstly discovering how to play the other of character.

Improvisations in the neutral mask begin with themes which, though simply stated are profoundly difficult in their execution (Lecoq 1990a:31). The first is Reveil - Waking Up where, from a state of repose, the student must awaken as if for the first time, without past or passion, having never seen the world before (Lecoq 1997:50). Another is called L' Adieu au bateau - The Farewell to the Boat, in which a very dear friend is embarking on

301 a boat to travel far away, never to return. At the moment of departure, you arrive at the jetty and give a last gesture of farewell. Another theme is le Voyage elementaire - The Fundamental Journey. Here the student travels through an imaginary terrain coming out of the ocean, walking over the sand, through dense forest, crossing a mountain, a river, a valley and finally a desert (1997:52). None of these improvisations is positioned within a particular context or from the point of view of a particular person but are generic themes which attempt to move the student towards discovering the essential elements within these situations, of finding the common denominators of waking up, a journey, or `a farewell. The Farewell is thus not intended to be any particular farewell but The Farewell of All Farewells (Lecoq 1997:51-52).

Approaching the Arts: The early stages of Lecoqs training do not make reference to theatre but to life. In this regard, Lecoq considers that it is necessary for the student to rediscover the dynamics of various phenomena by re-playing them through the miming body. Lecoq calls this the `rnimodynamic technique. The aim is to extend the physical and emotional reference points of the student, moving them towards other dimensions and other territories:

Here we are dealing with an abstract dimension, made up of spaces, lights, colours, materials, sounds which can be found in all of us. They have been laid down in all of us by our various experiences and sensations, by everything that we have seen, heard, touched, tasted. All these things are there inside us, and constitute the common heritage, out of which will spring dynamic vigour and the desire to create. Thus my teaching method has to lead to this universal poetic sense in order not to limit itself to life as it is, or as it seems. In this way the students can develop their own creativity.

When we watch the movement of the sea, or of any element or substance such as water or oil, we are dealing with objective movements which can be identified and which arouse similar sensations in those who watch them. But there are also things which do not move and in which we can nevertheless recognise dynamic elements, such as colours, words, architecture. We can see neither the form nor the movement of a colour, nevertheless the emotion which they arouse may set us in motion - even in emotion. We try to express this particular emotion through mimages, through gestures which have no reference point in the real world.

Through the mimodynamic process, rhythms, spaces, forces and static objects can all be set in play. Looking at the Eiffel Tower, each of us can sense a dynamic emotion and put this emotion into movement. It will be a dynamic combining rootedness

302 with an upward surge, having nothing to do with the temptation to give a picture to the monument (a figurative mime). Its more than a translation: its an emotion. Etymologically, the word emotion means setting in motion. In fact we constantly mime the world around us without realising it. When you are in love, your own actions instinctively mime those of the loved one. At the school we try to externalise this element instead of retaining it inside, and, for it to emerge, there must first be a recognition before this may develop into understanding and creation. In order to develop the poetic sense, whether one is an artist, writer or actor, one must feed off all these experiences (Lecoq 2000:46-47).

S'identifier a la nature - Identification with the Natural World: The next phase of neutral mask improvisations is sidentifier a la nature - Identification with Nature. Here students aim to embody or represent a variety of natural phenomena, imitating their movements and rhythms. However, as Lecoq stresses: It is not a question of complete identification, that would be serious, but of playing at identification (Lecoq 1997:53). Identification with nature begins with the four elements: water, fire, air and earth. In the case of water, for example, students play the ocean, a river, a stream or a waterfall:

I am facing the sea, watching it, breathing it. My breath moulds itself to the movement of the waves and gradually the picture shifts as I myself become the sea (Lecoq 2000:43).

Work on the elements also incorporates work on texts which have an element as their subject matter. Gaston Bachelards LAir et les Songes, for example, is used to evoke images of air and enrich the students identifications with this element (Lecoq 1997:54).

After work on the elements students undertake improvisations in which they attempt identification with different types of matter or materials such as paper, metal, oil, cream, rubber, wood, plastic, and also work on identification with various animals. This work has a number of aims:

For the actor, the objective is both to broaden his field reference and to sense all the fine shades of difference which separate one material from another or which co-exist within the same material. Substances which are doughy, unctuous, creamy, oily, all possess different dynamics. My aim is for the students to acquire a taste for such qualities, exactly as a gourmet will recognise the subtle differences between flavours (Lecoq 2000:44).

303 Approaching Colours: Following identification with phenomena that have observable movement dynamics is work on phenomena which do not move but which also present dramatic possibilities. Various phenomena are approached in this work: colours, lights (moonlight, sunlight, artificial lights) and painting. With the students working in small groups, the instructor calls out different colours and asks them to react to them instantly without thinking but merely to express the internal movement which they feel when confronted with the colour. The students then choose a particular colour which they can see in the workshop space and suggest movements for each colour. The other students attempt to guess which colour the actor is presenting. Lecoq considers that there is a time, a space and a rhythm that is `right for each colour. The class discovers together through observation if a movement takes too long or goes too far and loses its colour. Lecoq is particularly attentive here to the quality of the students movements. It is important that the students do not provide an external representation of a colour or a descriptive, symbolic movement, but that their movements come from within, from the feeling that the colour evokes in them (1997:58).

From the work on particular colours, the students then work more broadly by creating a translation of a whole painting in mimodynamic terms. It is not a question of presenting an illustration of the painting, but of partaking directly in the spirit of the painting (Lecoq 1997:59). There is a difference in approaching painting to approaching isolated colours and Lecoq considers that they provoke different dynamics and do not move in the same way. The yellow in a Van Gogh painting does not move in the same way as an isolated yellow, for example. This work on paintings is done in groups where it is important that each student moves separately while at the same time forming part of a collective body.

Approaching Poetry: As with the approach to painting, the approach to poetry works on the words before considering a poetic text. In this sense, the work is like music, where a student of music will learn to play different sounds before bringing them together in a musical composition (1997:60). The mimodynamic study of words is approached via verbs and nouns by considering a word as a living organism and looking for the body of the word:

For this purpose we have to choose words which provide a real physical dynamic. Verbs lend themselves more readily to this: to take, to raise, to break, to saw, each contains an action which nourishes the verb itself. I saw carries within it the dynamics of a movement. In French, le beurre is already spread, whereas in English `butter is always in a packet. According to the language being used, words will not always have the same relation to the body. We do lengthy work based on different

304 languages: French, English, German, Italian, Japanese, Spanish, etc. With the word `to take, for example, the French students embody the thing they are taking, closing their arms around the upper part of their bodies. They are not trying to take this or that object, but to take in a general way, to take everything, to take themselves. Germans, with Ich nehme' pick something up. The English, with I take, snatch. Of course, this raises the problem of translating poetry. I take my mother by the arm cannot be translated as I pick up my mother by the arm, nor by I snatch my mother by the arm. The best way to translate a poem thus seems to me to be through mimodynamics, truly putting the poem into motion in a way verbal translation can never attain (2000:49).

Thus the movement dynamics of a poem are found in the interior of each word. A lot of the work on the dynamics of words focuses on words that relate to nourishment, since they already have a connection with the body. Through the mimodynamic technique, various words are put into movement by the students (1997:61).

After work on individual words the work begins on a whole poetic text. The instructor reads a number of poems to the students and they must choose one which they would like to work on. In groups of three or four, the students prepare a piece that puts the poem into movement, finding a collective movement for the poem. In addition, the students have a `festival of poetry where each student brings into class a poem and presents it in their own language. Working in groups the students put these poems into movement working within the language in which it was presented (Lecoq 1997:62).

Approaching Music: The same approach is used for sounds and music. Students work on different sounds and musical works by composers such as Bartok, Bach, Satie, Stravinski, Berio, Miles Davis. Here students are asked to visualise the music as though it were a material or an organism in movement. The students enter the workspace and embody the music, playing with the movement it evokes. Lecoq requires the students to be particularly attentive to the dynamics in the music:

I ask the students to recognise the musics internal movements: when it draws together, when it spirals, explodes, drops away, etc. This is not the same thing as interpretation, which is another area. One can play entirely against Bartok, take up a point of view, or an opinion, see it in a particular light, which will vary with the person, their time, their culture, but before playing against it one must have played with it.

305 The Bartok Lesson is highly structured. It is divided into several stages. Listening to the work, you must first visualise what is happening in space. Then you attempt to touch the sounds which move about. Next, you investigate whether the sounds are pushing you or pulling you, or whether it is you who are pushing and pulling them. Finally, you gradually enter a state of mutual belonging. Only after this state has been reached is it possible to choose a point of view, to be for, against, or with - in other words, to create a relationship of play, for the aim is always to play with the music, just as you might play with a character. You must avoid a situation in which the music simply mimics the performance of the character or fills in the gaps, as is too often the case in theatre (2000:51-52).

Lecoq considers that all of these diverse mimodynamic approaches are essential for the enrichment of the play of the actor. The pedagogical aim is to develop the theatrical eye or the perception of the student such that they begin to have a subtle regard for the nuances of gesture. Subsequently, when the actor raises an arm or moves their head, the audience receives a rhythm, a light or a colour, a dynamic of movement. Lecoq considers that the development of perception in this regard is also important to the development of the students creative self-expression (1997:62-63).

Transposition: Identification with phenomena constitutes a particular phase of work. Afterwards, it is necessary to re-invest the explorations and discoveries of this work in a dramatic dimension or context. For this, Lecoq uses la methode des transferts - the transference method, which consists of taking the dynamics of nature, of gestures of action, of animals, of matter, to a level of theatrical transposition beyond the realm of realism.

Lecoq offers two approaches. The first consists of humanising the dynamics of an element, a material or an animal by giving it a mode of behaviour and speech, and then placing it in relationship to another. A student may create an airy character, for example, who moves with indecisive rhythms and wanders continually or a character who speaks like fire when they are angry or anguished. Like the gestures of the body, words also have to reach a certain level of theatrical transposition (1997:55-56). In the second approach the student plays a character in which an element or an animal progressively appears at certain moments. A character who is searching for something might begin to take on the qualities of a mouse, for example. Another character might suddenly or intermittently reveal the dynamics of a colour.

The work on identification allows the student to experience and experiment with a large number of possibilities in terms of the dynamics of natural phenomena. The student

306 consequently acquires a series of complex and precise references and these can serve them in their future work as theatre practitioners or writers by enriching characterisation. Lecoq observes that this can sometimes occur in a very unconscious way:

The main results of this identification work are the traces that remain inscribed in each actor, circuits laid down in the body, through which dramatic emotions also circulate, finding their pathway to expression. These experiences, ranging from silence and immobility to maximum movement, taking innumerable intermediate dynamic stages, remain forever engraved in the body of the actor (Lecoq 2000:45).

Lecoq claims that the dynamics which the student has experienced through identification will come back to the actor, sometimes many years after having attended the school. When the actor is given a text to interpret, for example, the text will resonate in the body and the actor will discover a rich texture and availability of expressive possibilities: `Because, in truth, nature is our first language. And the body always remembers this (1997:56).

Les Masques Expressifs - Expressive Masks: Following the neutral mask work, students explore a range of masks which Lecoq calls collectively `les masques expressifs' - expressive masks. These are full-face masks and include the larval, character and utilitarian masks. The larval (les masques larvaires) are large white masks inspired by those used in the carnival of Bale in and are consequently sometimes called Bale or Basel masks. They portray simple, nascent forms which suggest but do not delineate definitive human characteristics. Their features are limited to a huge nose, for example, or a ball shape suggesting a head. Some of these masks suggest animal features, others have parts of the mask cut away, giving the impression that their form is not yet complete. The character masks (les masques de caractere) are similar to the masks of the commedia dellarte in that they depict stock character types such as the sly, the idiot, the arrogant, the bully or the miser. Unlike the commedia masks, however, the character masks are full-face and are therefore played without speaking. The utilitarian masks (les masques utilitaires) were introduced to the school in the mid 1970s and are thus a relatively new addition. They are the only masks which Lecoq uses that are not designed specifically for the theatre. They include a variety of mask used in sport or manual work including welders masks, hockey masks, gas masks and so on (Lecoq 1997:64).

Improvisation in the expressive masks works in two directions: les personnages et les situations - characters and situations (1997:68). Students begin by exploring what Lecoq calls the guiding attitude of a particular mask (1997:63). With the exception of the

307 larval masks, Lecoq does not allow students to use mirrors for this phase of the work (Lecoq, quoted in Eldredge 1975:391). Students must examine the mask closely before exploring physical attitudes which might be appropriate to the mask, maintaining the masks image in their mind when performing. In this way, students work towards discovering a walk, gestures, gait, posture, movements and rhythms for the mask and must also find a suitable costume for their mask.

Students work on diverse themes based on everyday situations which must be transposed to the level of the mask. Here the attitudinal possibilities of the mask are explored through simple themes such as the journey, the doctors waiting room or the bus stop. They provide a structure in which students can develop the character of their mask as well as developing dramatic relationships between different masks. In addition to these realistic situations, Lecoq also proposes improvisations which explore the animal and the `fantastic dimensions of the mask. One such exercise is done in larval masks where a number of students are aliens who have been captured by human beings. The humans are without masks and herd the masked characters into an enclosure, prodding them with a stick to test their reactions and responses (Lecoq 1997:68).

Le Contre-Masque - The Counter-Mask: The counter-mask is not a type of mask but is a way of approaching the playing of a mask where the student must perform the opposite character or attitude to the one suggested by the mask:

Each larval or expressive mask can be acted twice: by the mask and in contra mask. If I act a mask which represents an idiot, I attempt to identify with the role that it suggests and organise my body and acting in this sense. But I can act the opposite and express an intelligent being under the mask of an idiot. In so doing I create another character more rich than the first, who carries within himself (sic) this conflict of having the air of an idiot and not being one. This is the counter-mask (Lecoq 1987:115).

Having worked with the neutral mask which operates without conflict, students learn to consciously perform conflict under the counter-mask. Unlike the stereotyped gestural attitudes of the expressive mask, the counter mask enables students to develop more complex characterisation where the character harbours an internal conflict. The student here learns to embody and portray two conflicting attitudes by accounting for the state imposed by the mask and the contrary internal state (Wylie 1994:85). This work serves to prepare the students for the commedia dellarte half-masks as well as expanding their skills in character portrayal.

308 Included in the work with the expressive masks is the occasion of the festival of masks where each student makes a mask which is then tested in performance. Testing involves discovering if the mask functions well theatrically:

Some of the masks [the students] come up with are very beautiful, but that is not enough. A good theatre mask must be able to change its expression according to the movements of the actors body. My objective is for them to construct a mask which genuinely moves (Lecoq 2000:53-55).

In the initial exercises, students wear their own mask but later each student wears another students mask so that they can observe their own mask in action and assess its effectiveness. Once again students explore the attitudinal possibilities suggested by the mask in order to discover its characteristic movements and gestures. Through improvisation, the masks are placed in diverse situations and are provoked by the instructor in many directions to see how they might respond (1997:64).

The work with the expressive masks has a number of pedagogical objectives. Lecoq considers that this work allows the students to experience an essential dimension of theatrical play which involves the entire body and creates an awareness of the intensity of an emotion:

The expressive mask shows a character in its broad outlines. It structures and simplifies the playing style by delegating to the body the job of expressing essential attitudes. It purifies the performance, filtering out the complexities of psychological viewpoint, and imposing pilot attitudes on the whole body. While capable of great subtlety, masked performance of this kind always depends on a basic structure which is not there in unmasked playing. That is why such work is an indispensable part of the actors training. Whatever its dramatic style, all theatre profits from the experience an actor gains through masked performance (Lecoq 2000:53).

The mask enlarges the actor and essentializes the intention of the character and the situation. It makes explicit the gestures of the body [...] it filters out the inessential and drops the anecdotal, it renders legible (Lecoq 1990a:31).

The work builds on the neutral mask work in that the identification with animals, the elements, materials, can be utilised as basic attitudes which animate the masks (Wylie 1994:83). As with the neutral mask, the expressive masks serve once again as a reference for the actor.

309 Les Personnages - Characters: Towards the end of the first year, work begins on the playing of character which has been the objective of all the previous work. Students are asked to create a character, freely inspired by observations of people in the street or persons from their everyday encounters. Students must create a character which they can describe in three words such as proud, generous, quick-tempered. This simplifies the maximum definition to establish a base structure which permits the actor to play and to find all the nuances and complexities of their character. The students must travel to school and attend all classes - including movement and acrobatics - dressed as their character and in the role of their character. Here they are treated by the staff as new students. In the acting classes students present themselves as their character one by one to the other students who ask them questions about their identity such as their name, age, family situation or origin. After this the students are put into improvisational situations in which they can further explore their characters. Lecoq groups the students into large families according to the types of mask they have. There are those who are placed in an office or business environment, those who belong to manufacturing, and those who belong to universities for example. These `families are then placed in improvisational sites: at home, at work, in the metro, on vacation, in the waiting room (Lecoq 1997:71-73).

Students are then asked to create a second character which must be as different as possible from the first. This character is worked on in a different manner:

We interrogate it physically. I ask which characters like to be looked at, which `nobody looks at, which think they are being looked at, which used to be looked at but arent any longer, which know where theyre going (are driven), which `dont know where theyre going, etc. After this I can be more precise, asking which go to football matches, which go clubbing on Saturday nights, which go to museums, which go to sex shops (Lecoq 2000:63-64).

The characters created by the students are observed in different situations in order to determine the environments which best permit the characters to be revealed. In this way the students have the opportunity to explore and develop their characters, not only in response to different situations and environments, but in relation with other characters. Students are assisted in their characterisations by an analysis technique which focuses on the relationship which the character has in space. Once again, Lecoq relies on exploration of the dynamics of the push and pull with the aim of determining which characters are pushed from behind, which are pulled forwards and so on.

310 In a solo exercise, each student must choose two characters that are very different and complementary to each other. With these characters, each student must create a scene of pursuit involving the dynamics of seeing, chasing, waiting and searching:

On the stage is a screen with two panels; in front of it is open space, while the space behind is hidden. A first character arrives, looking for someone else, calls, fails to find them, goes to look behind the screen. Very rapidly, with the help of a prop or an item of costume, the actor changes character and reappears, playing the other character, pursued by the first.

The students have to build up this theme using every imaginable means. It involves playing with the illusion of multiplying characters, using changes of costume, props, voice, presentation from the front, from the back, etc. Ideally there will be a moment when they manage to show the two characters together (Lecoq 2000:64).

These themes are first explored in a collective lesson before the students are asked to work on the same theme in an auto-cours task. In this case, the students are grouped into a company of five actors who must play ten characters:

Anything becomes possible: separation of voices and images, multiplication of screens, etc. Hotel Paradiso is a richly suggestive theme, with doors which slam, cupboards for hiding in, mistaken identities of all kinds. Here we are approaching both the virtuosity and the pleasure of play, and for me these are the most important dimensions of acting. In this exercise, as in its predecessors, my pedagogic purpose is always to oblige the students to play characters which are as distant as possible from themselves (Lecoq 2000:64-65).

The approach to character culminates with a task in which a group of actors has to create a scene with set, costumes, objects and numerous characters. The task has one major constraint: it must be performed on a playing space no larger than two metres by one metre. In this small space, the students are required to bring to life situations which occur in huge spaces:

Two people, lost in an immense forest, search in vain for one another, then at last meet up. Physically they can be fifty centimetres apart while dramatically the distance is hundreds of metres; they can call to one another across a valley, or from the tops of hills, which all the time standing back to back (Lecoq 2000:65).

311 This theme is done with two students, then three, four and so on with up to seven actors playing on a two metre square stage. Lecoq notes that this exercise is done in the tradition of cabaret, whereby dramatic forms are easily invented through the imposition of strict constraints on the playing space (Lecoq 1997:75).

2. MOVEMENT.

Lecoq has said that Movement is the basis of everything. We call the art of acting le jeu -its a physical act (Lecoq, quoted in Hiley 1988:40). Thus the Lecoq pedagogy is principally a movement-based approach to the training of the actor. Movement work, which Lecoq calls techniques of movement, consists of three distinct aspects comprising: Preparation of the Body and Voice, Dramatic Acrobatics and Analysis of Movement.

1. Preparation of the Body and the Voice: Corporeal preparation has the objective, not of creating a model body or of inscribing the body of the student with pre-existing theatrical forms, but of helping each student to attain the plenitude of their movements, of achieving their movement potential by extending as far as possible their field of corporeal expression. This work comprises isolation exercises and dramatic gymnastics.

Isolation exercises involve working on each part of the body separately: legs, arms, pelvis, torso, shoulders, neck, head, and so on. This work has the aim firstly of broadening the students physical expressivity and secondly of extracting the dramatic potential from each part of the body:

Training the body is necessary, based on movements which particularise the body in its large attitudes where each part acts separately. Each movement must be done with a dramatic motivation so as not to be external or mechanical (Lecoq 1990a:34).

In the theatre making a movement is never a mechanical act but must always be a gesture that is justified. Its justification may consist in an indication or an action, or even an inward state (Lecoq 2000:66).

Lecoq nominates indication, action and state as three ways or manners of justifying a dramatic movement. For example, the movement of an actors head in three geometric directions - on the side, in front, or backwards - can be dramatically justified in terms of: `I listen, I look, I am afraid respectively. If an actor puts their head on the side they can

312 indicate that they are listening, as in a pantomimic gesture. Although the act of listening does not require any visible movement from the body, the actor indicates to the audience that they are listening. With the head forward, an actor can perform the action of looking at something, and with the head turned backwards can convey an emotional state of fear at something which is behind them. Raising an arm can also be justified in terms of indication, action, state. In pantomime, an actor might raise an arm to indicate to the audience that they are taking a cup from a shelf. Alternatively, an actor may literally perform the action of taking a cup from a shelf. In tragedy, an actor may raise an arm in a gesture of emotional anguish.

A second aspect of corporeal preparation is dramatic gymnastics whereby, once again, each gesture, attitude or movement is dramatically justified. Here, Lecoq uses elementary exercises such as balancing the arms, balancing the legs, flexing the torso towards the front, the side or the back. Such exercises are usually used as a warm-up but also operate as important pedagogical tools. The following serves as an example:

Arms raised and extended, a forward fall from the trunk flexes the body which bounces back up to the starting point (2000:67).

This movement must be realised by the students in a precise progression, initially performed simply in a mechanical manner. After this is achieved, the students must try to enlarge the movement to its maximum limit utilising the greatest space possible. In a third phase of the exercise, two key moments of the movement are focused on in order to discover the dramatic dynamic or potential of the movement:

They are the starting point, with arms extended, just before the trunk collapses, and the end of the movement, with the trunk upright again and the arms in the vertical, when the body is once again extended and the movement is about to fade, imperceptibly, into immobility.

These two moments, which precede and follow the extension of the body, carry a very strong dramatic charge. The state of suspension just before the beginning is part of the dynamics of risk (risk of falling) and includes a sense of anguish which emerges clearly. Conversely, the concluding suspension is one of landing, returning to a state of calm, coming gradually to immobility and serenity (Lecoq 2000:67).

Respiration is then incorporated into the movement whereby the movement is accomplished on a complete outbreath. Here, the inbreath comes into play only at the

313 point of immobility, at the moment of suspension between the completion of one movement and the beginning of the next. Images which parallel the movement are then suggested to the students:

Still using the same movement, the students imagine they are looking out to sea, following the rhythm of the waves. That can lead on to imagining a ball being thrown up into the air and falling back, with the fascination exerted by the beginning and the end of the movement: what is this instant of immobility between flying up and falling back? Does the ball remain for an instant suspended in mid-air? How? In this kind of movement drama makes its appearance at the very moment of suspension. Beforehand we are simply dealing with sports (2000:68).

Dramatic gymnastics is also accompanied by vocal preparation. Lecoq does not view the voice as separate from the body, but considers that a voice in space functions in the same manner as a gesture in space. Thus, as one may throw a ball at a target point, so too is the voice thrown by the actor in space in attempting to reach the target of the audience situated at a certain distance. Vocal preparation involves the students exploring sounds which can accompany a gesture, with breathing and voice always being realised together: 'In movement a sound can be emitted, a word, a sentence, a poetic sequence or a dramatic text' (1997:79).

2. Dramatic Acrobatics: Dramatic acrobatics incorporates acrobatic movements, juggling and stage combat. These are studied throughout the two years and in the second year are applied to the different performance styles or dramatic territories which are studied. The aim of this work is to help the student to achieve the physical freedom which is prevalent in childhood before society imposes constraints on the movement of the body. Lecoq is attempting here to liberate the actor as much as possible from gravity, working at the same time on developing flexibility, strength and balance. Through dramatic acrobatics, the student approaches the limits of their dramatic expression: 'The mastering of techniques of all acrobatic movements such as falls, somersaults, fights, juggling, has only one objective: to give the actor a greater freedom of acting' (Lecoq 1997:82).

The exercises begin with simple acrobatic movements, such as a handstand, shoulder stand, falling, rolling, somersaulting or jumping, and progressively increase in difficulty. Once again, importance is placed on the dramatic justification of a movement. A fall which culminates in a somersault can be dramatically justified in terms of an accident, such as

314 bumping into an obstacle. Alternatively, it can be justified as an element of acting transposition. In commedia for example, Arlecchino may start to laugh and end up somersaulting with laughter.

Juggling is complementary to dramatic acrobatics. Students begin by juggling balls, progressively increasing the number of balls they can handle. They then learn to juggle various objects from everyday life such as plates, glasses or shoes. Once again this work is given dramatic justification by integrating the juggling into a dramatic sequence. A scene in a restaurant, for example, can then involve juggling various culinary items such as plates, pots and pans or even food (Lecoq 1997:81).

Stage combat is also studied as part of dramatic acrobatics and can incorporate both acrobatic and juggling skills. Students are taught how to give or receive a slap, a kick, how to pull someone's hair or nose. These actions can provoke a collective brawl and the objective is to be able to give maximum illusion to the fighting sequences. In such a brawl, an actor may roll on a table or a chair might be flung across the room and juggled by another actor (Lecoq 1997:82).

3. Analysis of Movement: Analysis of movement is the basis of all corporeal work undertaken at the Lecoq school. It consists of analysing the movements of the human body, analysing the dynamics of nature, and analysing the movements of animals. Lecoq bases this work on the laws of movement which he summarises as follows:

1. There is no action without reaction. 2. Movement is continuous, it never stops. 3. Movement always originates in a state of disequilibrium, tending towards equilibnum. 4. Equilibrium is itself in motion. 5. There is no motion without a fixed point. 6. Movement highlights the fixed point. 7. The fixed point, too, is in motion.

These principals can be elaborated by examining the results of the ceaseless play between the forces in equilibrium and disequilibrium: oppositions (in order to stand upright, man opposes gravity) alternations (day alternates with night as laughter alternates with tears), compensations (carrying a suitcase in the left hand forces one to compensate by lifting the other arm) (Lecoq 2000:89).

315 Lecoq notes that while these concepts may seem abstract, they operate in a very concrete way on a stage and are therefore important foundational concepts of his pedagogy. On the one hand, they serve the individual actor in understanding and executing dramatic movement. On the other hand, they serve the raise en scene and also writing for the theatre, since an understanding of the placement of a fixed point in any given situation is crucial to the dynamics of theatre:

If everyone on stage moves simultaneously, the sense of movement disappears for want of a fixed point, becoming incomprehensible and impossible to make sense of. Actors have to be able to place themselves with reference to others, in a clear relationship of listening and responding.

Paradoxically, this work on movement, evidently so applicable to performance and production, should be even more useful to the writer. Whatever the themes dealt with, the ideas expressed, the stories or styles employed, it is essential for playwriting to be structured from a dynamic point of view. In particular, it must have a clear beginning and an end, for any movement which fails to end has no true beginning. The sense of an ending is essential (2000:90).

To Lecoq, movement is not simply a mechanical act. It is an act at once mechanical and emotional. A physical attitude corresponds, therefore, to an internal attitude so that raising an arm, for example, results in a parallel emotional state (Lecoq 1973:118) and pushing or pulling are analogous to an internal emotion such as love or hate (Lecoq, quoted in Hiley 1988:40). There is a link or reverberation between the inner and outer spaces of the body:

[A]ctions trace in the sensible body physical circuits in which emotions are written. These feelings, states of mind and passions, express themselves through gestures, attitudes and movements which are analogous to physical action (Lecoq 1997:82).

My interior state and my physical actions take parallel paths. To one action there is a corresponding state (Lecoq 1974:281).

Lecoq proposes that all movement, that everything human beings do in their lives can be summed up in two basic actions: to pull or to push. Whether movements are physical, such as a simple movement of the arm or a nod of the head, or whether they be emotional, such as a deep desire or consuming passion, everything brings us to pull or to push: We never do anything else . (Lecoq 1997:91). The dynamics of the push and pull encompass: to be pulled or to be pushed; to pull oneself or to push oneself; to pull another or to push another. They can be accomplished in multiple directions: in front, next to, behind, at an

316 angle. Lecoq calls this The Rose of Efforts, which is a multi-directional space that is adaptable to all human movements. Three principal directions are contained in The Rose of Efforts: vertical, horizontal and diagonal. Thus all dramatic dynamics can be situated in space, enabling a precise study of physical movement, from the simple - I love, I pull; I hate, I push - to the more complex (Lecoq 1997:94):

In space there is an abstract play of geometry and following the diagonals, the horizontal, the vertical, the direction, there is a kind of abstraction circulating below emotions [...] there is a kind of structure in which everything is involved. An angle is enough to change everything, based on a measure which is balance. So this play is important in writing, in architecture, and in all the arts (Lecoq 1999, video recording).

What this means in terms of actor training is that passions and emotions are indicated in space, through the movements, gestures and attitudes of the body:

Whatever the actors gesture, it is inscribed in the relationship between the actor and the surrounding space, and gives rise to an inner, emotive state. Once again, the outer space is reflected in the inner space (2000:67).

There are different attitudes of the body which correspond to the dramatisation of space: floating bodies, bodies extended, bodies alert, bodies in action, bodies in tension, and these do not displace the same quality of space. Every actor produces particular qualities of space depending on the play, the level of a theatrical act and the style, whereby the gestures may be more densely packed, more sustained, or more purified (Lecoq 1974:279).

Lecoq considers it important for the student actor to know how the body pushes and pulls, so that they may be able to express all the particular ways in which a character pushes or pulls.

While the Rose of Efforts is significant in terms of an individual actors movement and the mise en scene, Lecoq also suggests that all of the territories of theatre can be situated in space within the Rose of Efforts:

These three movements refer back to three different dramatic worlds. Horizontal `pull/push corresponds to you and me. This is dialogue as found in the commedia dellarte or the clown routine. Vertical movement situates man between heaven and earth, between zenith and nadir, in a tragic event. Tragedy is always vertical: the gods are on Mount Olympus. Bouffons are also vertical, but in the

317 other direction: their gods are underground. As for the diagonal, it is sentimental, lyrical, it flies off and we cannot tell where it will come down. This is the terrain of the broad emotions of melodrama (Lecoq 2000:81-83).

Thus, movements not only parallel emotional states, they also parallel theatrical genres or styles. Lecoq calls this the `geodramatics' of different dramatic territories or performance styles (1997:107).

Analysing the Movements of the Human Body Analysis of human movement begins with students learning three foundational movement sequences which are based on undulation. Undulation is the principal means of locomotion for the human body. In walking, the pelvis is involved in a double undulation: one is lateral, as in the way a fish swims, and the other is vertical, as in the way a dolphin jumps out of the water. For the human body, undulation takes anchorage on the ground and transmits the effort progressively through all the body parts. Lecoq calls undulation the 'motor' or driving force of all the physical efforts of the human body: pulling, pushing, running, jumping, climbing, lifting, carrying and so on.

Lecoq has summarised all human movements in three movement sequences: undulation, inverse undulation and eclosion. Undulation begins with the body in a standing position. Starting with the feet, then bending the knees, the body begins to fold forward and then returns to the standing position, pushing backwards through the knees, the pelvis, the chest and the head, in an undulating motion. Inverse undulation is the same movement perfoimed backwards so that instead of starting from the feet, the head begins the movement, fixing on a point in space above the head. Between these two movements is eclosion, which develops from the centre of the body. Eclosion begins from a squatting position with the body occupying the smallest space possible. The body gradually unfolds until at the end of the movement the body is standing with the arms extended above the head in a 'V' shape. It is important that this movement is executed smoothly, without disruption and with all the body parts acting simultaneously.

For Lecoq, undulation, inverse undulation and eclosion are three important principals for understanding human movement. They also constitute the three axes of Lecoq's pedagogy, corresponding to three types of masked play: eclosion to the neutral mask, undulation to the expressive masks in their first image and inverse undulation to the counter mask. These movement sequences carry an important pedagogical objective in that they embody three dramatic positions: to be with, to be for, to be against. As with all of Lecoq's movement work, they are not undertaken simply to provide an understanding of the rudiments of movement but also harbour dramatic implications and operate from

318 Lecoqs first law of movement that there is no action without reaction. Thus undulation is an action while inverse undulation serves as a dramatic reaction (Lecoq 2000:74).

Undulation and inverse undulation principally involve four attitudes: the body forward, the body in extension, the body backwards, the body in contraction. These can be applied to the different stages of life: childhood, adulthood, maturity, old age. Lecoq asks the students to adopt the four attitudes in succession while being conscious of the different stages of life:

The body in forward position, back arched, head thrust forward, suggests an image of childhood or the figure of . The vertical position, with the body upright, takes us back to the neutral mask, to the mature adult. The autumn of life, or digestive phase, makes us incline backwards from the vertical axis. We fall back into retirement. Finally old age hunches us up so that we become, once more, like a foetus (2000:74).

Once the students have mastered these basic movement sequences, Lecoq applies `treatment to the exercises which he defines as a series of variations which aim to explore the range of possibilities of the movement. Thus from analysis of a simple gesture, multiple variations are explored in order to enlarge the students expressive fields. Lecoq defines the principles of treatment as: enlarging and shrinking, equilibrium and respiration, disequilibrium and progression. These are applied to all foundational movements or movement sequences and are then processed in all physical actions and ultimately are applied to acting itself, including the emotions.

Applying treatment to any movement sequence always begins by enlarging the movement to its maximum in order to locate its limits in space. With the undulation sequence, for example, enlarging consists of pushing the body to its maximum limits in all directions. In improvisations, too, students always begin from a simple situation which is enlarged to its maximum, increasing the feelings to extreme limits before reducing the situation. In the scale of laughter, for instance, students begin with a smile and then enlarge this dynamic to the point of dying with laughter, before reducing the situation to a more moderate kind of laughter. Lecoq considers it particularly important for the actor to start big, so that they discover the broad dimensions of a character before nuancing. He maintains that psychological acting must be a consequence of playing big in space:

An actor who has practised this exercise and experienced the upper limit of the laugh will be free to react with great subtlety and vividness in psychological drama. The

319 whole range of laughter will be present in his performance. In this procedure we move from expressionism to impressionism, from the play of the whole body to the play of the perceiving eye (2000:75).

After enlarging, the movement is then reduced or shrunk to the point where the movement is not perceptible from the outside, so that a student may be seen to be 'laughing on the inside'.

Following shrinking, equilibrium and breathing can be applied to a movement sequence. Here, the dramatic justification of a movement can vary according to the quality of respiration that is applied to the movement. The exercise of 'The Farewell' provides a clear example, where the student is standing and raises an arm to say farewell to someone:

If this movement is made while breathing in as the arm is raised, and then breathing out as it falls back, the sense of a positive farewell results. If you do the opposite, raising the arm on the out breath, and letting it fall as you breathe in, the dramatic state becomes a negative: I don't want to say goodbye, but I am obliged to do so! Another possibility: breathe in, hold your breath, then do the movement, and only breathe out once it is completed, which gives rise to the fascist salute. Finally, the opposite is also possible: breathe out, then do the movement before breathing in again. Perhaps there is a bayonet at my back, forcing me to do it! All these nuances of breath control are applied to the nine attitudes and have a profound effect on the dramatic justifications which are produced (Lecoq 2000:76-77).

Finally, disequilibrium and progression are applied to a movement sequence. Here a movement is pushed beyond its limits, placing the body in the situation where it will fall. In order to avoid falling, the human body will resort to locomotion or some kind of movement so that the body progresses rather than falls: 'This movement is valid for physical movement as well as for feelings' (Lecoq 1997:86).

The Nine Attitudes Lecoq calls an 'attitude' a strong moment, a moment of immobility which is extracted from a movement, like freezing a frame on a film. An attitude is discovered by pushing a movement to its limit point and can be placed at the beginning or the end of a movement, like a hinge on which the movement operates.

Lecoq has devised a series of nine attitudes which the students are required to learn and accomplish successively: 1. The samurai; 2. The table; 3. The grand harlequin no. 1; 4. The forward feint; 5. The hip opening; 6. The mirror hip opening; 7. The rolling forward

320 feint; 8. The grand harlequin no. 2; 9. The table. Once the series of nine movements has been mastered by the students Lecoq once again applies treatment: enlarging and shrinking, equilibrium and breathing, disequilibrium and progression, and also dramatic justification such as 'I watch', 'I look back', and so on. The students can then experiment and discover multiple possibilities, particularly in going from one attitude to another, but it is important for the students to conserve the basic structure of the attitudes.

`The Nine Attitudes' series has a number of pedagogical objectives. Firstly, the attitudes enable the student to move beyond the structures of everyday movements. The sequence gives the pelvis, the torso and the head a certain rigour which goes against natural movements or stances, moving towards an artificiality which Lecoq considers to be indispensable to artistic transposition: 'We play counter to nature in order to better speak about nature' (1997:87). Many theatrical traditions incorporate physical 'attitudes' such as the commedia and the Noh theatre, and Lecoq considers that it is important for the students to start from a simple, natural gesture to reach a more elaborate structured style of theatre. Lecoq suggests that these particular nine attitudes are effective in this regard because they embody contradictions so that there is never only one dramatic justification. The attitude of 'The grand harlequin, for example, can suggest a feeling of reverence, of servitude, of fear or simply of nausea. Thus the attitudes are pedagogically rich in that they can carry multiple possibilities.

Researching Physical Actions in their Economy Analysing physical actions is undertaken through the miming of actions and aims to reproduce these actions in their greatest economy. 'Economy' of movement occurs when the least amount of movement, time, energy and effort are expended to execute a given task. Thus miming any particular action in its economy consists of performing the action in its essential aspects without transposing the mime in any way in terms of the object, the obstacle or the resistance. For example, the essential elements involved in the act of shovelling may be defined as: thrust, lever, lift, throw. A character may wipe their brow, hitch their trousers, lean on the shovel or blow their nose, but none of these activities is required to perform the act of shovelling (Rolfe 1977:19).

In analysing physical actions, Lecoq uses work related activities such as shovelling, digging or woodcutting, as well as actions involved in sport such as lifting weights, discuss throwing, javelin and so on. Mime of action also involves object manipulation including opening a suitcase, closing a door or having a cup of tea (Lecoq 1997:89). The movements are initially analysed from the point of view of technique and are then pushed to their maximum, then reduced in order to discover their dramatic possibilities. To avoid the exercises becoming simply a matter of technique or gratuitous virtuosity, analysis is

321 not limited to the execution of isolated movements, but also involves movements which are inscribed in a dramatic sequence. The Wall is one example and comprises fifty-seven precise attitudes:

Your are in a town, being chased; you hide beneath an archway at the end of an alley. Your pursuer passes by without seeing you. Your only way out is by climbing over a wall, on the other side of the street. You rush to it, climb and jump down on the other side. Unfortunately, he has seen you and is already there waiting for you! (Lecoq 2000:79).

The students are asked to analyse this exercise, working on each attitude individually, attitude by attitude. Only when they have become intimately familiar with the requirements of each attitude and can perform each attitude technically well can the students forget the technique and allow themselves to engage in acting the sequence and finding the rhythms: `It is a question here of a discipline of the body in the service of play. Constraint in the service of liberty. This text is also used as the basis of an auto-cours project, but rather than simply acting the sequence as written, the students are asked to create a collective `ballet which is performed to music. Here the meaning of the piece is discarded and only the movements themselves are used. Students can give themselves any number of rules which might involve a particular movement being completed several times, alone or collectively, together or in several stages.

Researching physical actions in their economy once again serves as a reference for the students. In learning to analyse and reproduce physical actions, the students are then able to apply this knowledge to their performance work with any physical action. More importantly perhaps, students knowledge of movement in its economy serves as a reference point for transposing a movement into a dramatic style or genre. For example, Lecoq suggests that a comic effect can be produced by an error occurring in the execution of an action, whereby the performer continues to the succeeding movements before realising the error has occurred. This can be demonstrated in rowing a boat. From researching the movements essential to rowing a boat, the student is aware of the precise movement components required to demonstrate the action of rowing a boat. In a comic effect, the character may lose an oar, but the comic effect is only produced if the character does not realise the loss of the oar until two or three actions after losing the oar, whereby he or she may respond with surprise or panic. The more time it takes to realise the mistake (in terms of how many successive gestures or attitudes are performed), the more dense the characterisation (Lecoq, in Felner 1985:162).

322 The mime of action in its economy also has the objective of making students discover that everything humans do in their lives can be summed up in two essential actions: pull or push and the three major directions involved in the Rose of Efforts. The action of the rower seated or standing are back and forth movements involving pull and push. Climbing, lifting, carrying or throwing a discus, are vertical actions. Diagonal movements are found in the woodcutter and the gondolier, who makes the boat move with a long pole (Lecoq 1997:93).

Analysing the Dynamics of Nature Analysing the dynamics of nature runs parallel to the neutral mask work on identification with nature and comprises the four elements and various materials. Here, improvisations which were done in the neutral mask are technically reassessed in terms of analysis of movement in an attempt to define the various body parts which are used. The four elements - fire, air, water, earth - are approached in their different manifestations. Water, for example, is considered in terms of the lake, the pond, the river and the sea. The movements of the body confronted by the sea are analysed, and so on with the other elements (Lecoq 1997:95).

Following analysis of the four elements, 'matter' or various materials are approached. Lecoq considers that the principal characteristic of matter is that it is passive so that the qualities of matter can only manifest themselves through their reactions, their movement can only be analysed when they are acted upon. To observe the reaction of matter, one has to throw it, crinkle it, knead it, tear it or break it. In approaching technical analysis of matter, Lecoq has made an inventory of different types of matter, dividing them into categories according to their respective properties.

The first type of materials are those which can be compressed to a maximum density. These include lead thrown on the ground, soil, clay, or a metal pipe that can be bent. These materials, once acted upon, cannot be modified any further. Here the dramatic analogy might be 'what is said is said'. Bendable or elastic materials, by contrast, attempt to return to their initial form once they have been pulled or acted upon, although they can never totally recapture their original manifestation. This type of material includes such things as rubber, elastic and some fibres. The more they are pulled or stretched, the more they get tired and the less they can retain their initial form. Lecoq considers that, dramatically, they embody a dynamic of nostalgia and fatigue. Included in this category are materials such as paper which can be folded, creased, crinkled. These materials also attempt to return to their original form but experience greater difficulty than elastic or rubber materials. Lecoq considers that matter has an inherently tragic quality because of its passive nature. Paper

323 can be particularly interesting when applied to the movement of the tragic chorus and the quality of the movement will be different depending on the nature and quality of the paper used:

The tragedy of newspaper is not the same as that of paper used to wrap flowers; the drama of greaseproof paper used by the butcher is not the same as that of recycled writing paper. The indelible creases in the paper suggest the innumerable scars which speak to us all of our nostalgia for paradise lost (Lecoq 2000:85).

The last category in Lecoq' s inventory of types of matter involves materials which can be broken and destroyed: cracks in glass, the cracks in a window, explosions: 'Here, perhaps more than elsewhere, it is about us, about our various cracks' (Lecoq 1997:96). In addition to being acted upon by human intervention, matter also has the capacity to be transformed by cold and heat. Melting, evaporating, solidification can be rich dramatic analogies (Lecoq 1997:97).

The work with matter progresses from analysis to performance. In acting oil, the students begin with the oil confined in the bottle. Here they can experience the dynamics of oil as a prisoner of the bottle before it is poured out, considering the forceful landing of the oil and its subsequent and continuous spreading. Importance is placed here on the rhythm and fluidity of the oil and the timing of the movement, which must be properly moderated so that the oil does not spread too quickly (Lecoq 1997:97-98).

Having worked on and analysed these different materials, students will have experienced multiple possibilities in terms of the nuances between the various types of material: the qualities of oil, of smoke, of paper, of metal or of wood. The dynamics of matter can then become a language which the students can use throughout their artistic work as theatre practitioners. They can analyse their own movement and characterisation in terms of being too 'oily', for example, or not being 'lead' enough. Lecoq considers that, 'This language of analogy is both rich and precise and goes beyond any psychological approach' (Lecoq 1997:98).

Analysing the movements of animals The study of animals is more directly related to the creation of characters. This research begins with the parts of an animal's body which make contact with the ground, and takes into consideration: how they stand on the ground, how the points of contact with the ground are made and how these differ from those of humans. These include animals with hooves, such as horses and cattle, plantigrades with flat, padded feet such as bears, kangaroos or dogs, animals with webbed feet such as ducks, and various kinds of insects,

324 such as flies whose feet are like suction caps that move as though they were glued to the ground. In this work, students are invited to explore these different kinds of contact with the ground. The locomotion of animals is then studied. Here the locomotive qualities of quadrupeds, bipeds and reptiles are principally approached and include the galloping of a horse, the walk of a chicken or the slither of a snake. Lecoq considers that observation of real animals is essential to this work and students go to the zoo in order to observe and analyse.

Following these initial explorations, the work moves directly into performing the movements of animals. Working with the instructor, the students discover the various attitudes of a particular animal. The possible attitudes of a dog include, for example, standing on four legs, begging, lying down, watching. The pedagogical focus here is that the students act the animal rather than indicate or signify the animal. Thus it is important to observe and analyse rather than simply imagine the animal (1997:99-100).

Analysing these dynamics of animals also serves as a reference for the student. While these skills can be used in performance to actually play various animals, they can also be used to enrich characterisation. The chameleon, who looks without ever moving its head, can be applied to the characterisation of a spy, for example, or the movements of a cat can be applied to a seducer (Lecoq 1997:99).

3. CREATION.

A key component of the Lecoq pedagogy is the auto-cours or self-directed study where students work for one and a half hours per day without the help of instructors. At the beginning of each week, students are presented with a theme which they work on in small groups to create a theatre piece that will be presented to all the staff and students at the school. Presentations are usually at the end of the week, although some auto-cours pieces are worked on for longer periods. The themes of the auto-cours are connected to the work that is currently being undertaken in the acting classes. Thus when students are working on clown, for example, the auto-cours theme is related to this aspect of the work (1997:101).

Towards the end of the first year, students undertake a major research project. They must choose a place and an environment of everyday life which they do not know. For a period of four weeks they must observe and assimilate. Lecoq stresses that it is not a question of becoming an investigative journalist, but of thorough integration in their chosen milieu. Some students, for example, spend their research period at a hospital, where they give food

325 to the sick and assist the staff. Others have chosen environments such as a fire brigades barracks, funeral homes, race-courses or religious communities. From their research, the students must create a short theatre piece using the theatrical forms they consider most appropriate to the environment they have observed and the experiences they wish to convey. Their pieces are then performed at a soire to a public audience (103). In the second year, these public soirees occur more frequently where students present their auto- cours creations periodically throughout the year. At the end of the second year is the `commandes where each student is commissioned to create a piece of theatre from a title which is given to them individually and is, once again, presented to a public audience (1997:103).

The auto-cours has two major pedagogical concerns. One is the writing and staging of a scene (Lecoq 1997:103). Writing here does not refer to the students literally sitting down and writing a piece of theatre. Lecoq s pedagogy encourages a movement-based approach to theatrical creation, so that although the auto-cours pieces may be scripted to some extent and well rehearsed, generally students use improvisation to devise their dramatic material on the floor. Another pedagogical concern of the auto-cours involves the dynamics of ensemble work. Here students can learn how to propose their own ideas, how to listen to and incorporate the ideas of others, how to work co-operatively, under the pressure of a strict deadline, to create a theatre piece which has given parameters. They must work with people they do not know and learn how to overcome any conflicts, crises, tensions and disagreements which arise. In this way, the students are placed in a situation which is comparable to that of a professional theatre company. However, because the Lecoq school is an international school, students are faced with additional challenges in terms of language and socio-cultural difference. All students attending the Lecoq school are required to speak in French, but for many students French is not their first language. Consequently, communicating ones ideas and listening to the ideas of others can become an even more complicated proposition. In addition, students attending the school come from diverse cultural backgrounds so that, not only are students working with people they do not know, they are often working with people from very different socio-cultural contexts to their own. This situation provides students with the opportunity to learn how to work co-operatively with a particularly diverse range of people and personalities.

4. DIFFERENT DRAMATIC TERRITORIES.

Another key aspect of the Lecoq pedagogy is the teaching of a variety of performance styles or dramatic territories, as Lecoq has called them. Unlike the other three elements of the pedagogy, which occur in a parallel way throughout the first and second years, the

326 exploration of different dramatic territories is undertaken only in the second year. Melodrama and commedia dell'arte are studied in the first trimester, bouffon and tragedy in the second, clown and comic genres such as the burlesque, the excentric, the absurd, are studied in the third trimester. Before beginning exploration of these different territories, however, is a study of 'the languages of gesture'.

Gestural Languages: The second year at the Lecoq school commences with work on 'gestural languages' which focuses on expression of the body in different directions comprising: pantomime, figurative mime and cartoon mime. This work is designed to enrich the explorations of style by providing the students with a shared vocabulary in terms of gestural language and theatrical communication.

The first is pantomime which Lecoq identifies as a theatrical language in which words are replaced by gestures (Lecoq 1997:111). By finding symbolic attitudes, students learn here how to create the illusion of objects, images and situations in space. The pantomimic technique primarily uses the gestures and movements of the arms and carry these attitudes through the body. It necessitates a different syntax to spoken languages in that it requires a precision and succinctness of phrasing. Students must also work on finding a 'face mask' which is capable of changing expression during the course of a movement phrase (Lecoq 1997:111-112).

Figurative mime (La figuration mimee) is the second theatrical language studied. It uses the body to represent objects, architecture or furnishings rather than words. An actor can represent a door with their body, for example, which another actor can open and close. A group of actors can create a structure with their bodies such as a church, or can create the illusion of a throne on which an actor sits (1997:112).

Cartoon mime (La bande mimee) is a language very near to silent film. Here it is not a question of the actor representing objects individually, but of expressing sequences of images collectively. All the images can be suggested by the actors in movement, in a silent play:

In their auto-cours, I ask a group of students to recreate a whole film without words, using only gestures. Cartoon mime can make use of any cinematic technique: close-ups, long-shots, illusions, flashbacks, in short the whole repertoire of the modern language of moving pictures, with its rhythms, its brilliance, its ellipses, all transposed into the dimensions of theatre (Lecoq 2000:102).

327 Finally, the technique of the conteur mimeur applies the different languages of gesture to storytelling. The conteur mimeur consists of a narrator, two principal characters, a chorus who supports the actions of the principle characters and musicians who create sounds for the action and situation of the story that is being told on stage. The chorus creates the environment in which the action is taking place with their movement and their bodies so that if, for example, the principal character is at home, the chorus might create an armchair, a clock ticking using their arms as the hands of the clock. The musicians further support this action so that if a character mimes pouring water into a class, the musicians will make the sound of the water by pouring liquid into a container.

Following study of these various languages of gesture, work begins on the different dramatic territories.

Melodrama: The territory of the melodramatic is situated in the world of opposites: good versus evil, morality versus corruption, sacrifice versus betrayal, innocence versus malice, courage versus faint-heartedness. It operates primarily on the play of grand sentiments: regret, remorse, vengeance, resentment, treachery, humiliation and disgrace. Playing the field of the melodramatic requires sufficiently strong forms of expression which can accommodate the intensity of these grand sentiments. The form of language which corresponds to melodrama is inspired by the bande mimee. As in the style of silent films, it uses shortened forms of expression and phrasing which Lecoq calls flashy language since it relates to the flashing images of early cinematography (Lecoq 1997:115).

The themes of melodrama focus on the tragedy of the people, of people faced with the difficulties of life. Lecoq claims that the subject matter of melodrama always encompasses a reference to time and has consequently named melodramas two principal grand themes as returning and leaving, the push and pull of life. Students begin work on melodrama with the theme of The Return of the Soldier where, after many years of war, a soldier returns to his isolated cottage on a snowy winters night:

He knocks at the door. It is opened. By the fire he finds his wife, two children and a new husband. She thought he was dead but she recognises him. He too recognises here, but neither shows it. He asks if he can stay the night. He is received, comforted, warmed. In the course of improvised scenes, in which he is left alone with the different characters, we discover that one of the children is his, the other is not. In the end, since the wife appears happy, the soldier sets off once more (2000:106).

328 Two pedagogical elements are given particular attention here. Firstly, the students are confronted with a situation in which the timing of events needs to be very precise. The scene operates in terms of action and reaction, involving the play of silences, of looking, discovery, recognition and surprise, so that the manner of moving, the rhythm and the timing of events is crucial. The students must take into consideration such questions as: `Who is going to begin the gestures of discovery and surprise? How will the recognition be made between the soldier and his wife? How can we find the right timing of discovery, of surprise? To better explore these questions, Lecoq divides the scene into sub themes: the soldier knocks on the door - there is a reaction; the soldier enters - his wife knows him, and so on. Each sequence is analysed in a precise manner so that the students can explore the different phases of play involved in the scene (2000:106).

The second pedagogical element of concern here is the way in which the actors play. It is important that the students avoid the tendency to simply exaggerate their expression in a cliched melodramatic way. This would be a parody of melodrama. Playing in the field of melodrama does not consist of making a reference to it as a theatrical style, but of discovering and portraying particular aspects of human experience. One of the major difficulties for the student is in being able to truly assume the grand emotions of melodrama without resorting to parody or clich (2000:107).

Another theme for improvisation is called Leaving for America. Here, a Sicilienne stands at a sea port with an old suitcase in hand. He says farewell to his wife and family. He is going to make his fortune in America. There can be many possible variations on this theme and Lecoq leaves his students to choose a particular situation which they wish to explore. They can choose the theme of arriving in a new country, for example, and explore the difficulties of meeting new people, the difficulties of being separated from their family, a letter arrives, and so on (1997:116).

To enrich the students experiences in the territory of the melodramatic, work is also undertaken on dramatic texts which correspond to the dynamics or dimensions of melodrama. One such text is the final scene in The Cherry Orchard. In this scene, the characters are leaving the house in which they were born, never to return. Contained in the passage are the dynamics of farewell which have been studied in the neutral mask. These dynamics, initially explored in an economy of gesture and emotion, are now applied to a particular stylisation. The scene is once again broken down into sub-themes in order to analyse the phases of play which are involved (1997:117-118).

329 Commedia dell arte: The study of commedia has been part of the curriculum since the Lecoq school was established. However, Lecoq has felt it was necessary to re-discover the dynamics which underpin the commedia style because common perceptions of commedia have become so cliched, and has called it instead the human comedy. Thus the first task of the students is to make their own half-masks. The aim is to make a masked character which the students can play without reference to the commedia dellarte. Working with the instructor, the students discover the possible play of their masks, exploring their characteristics, their movements and how they might relate to each other. Following exploration of their own half-masks, the students then explore the traditional commedia masks, their characters, themes and situations (1997:118).

The half-masks of the commedia dellarte have clearly defined features which depict stereotypical character traits. They are not one-dimensional, however, but represent a complex of contradictory tendencies:

Thus Pantalone the old man, rich merchant of Venice, greedy and amorous, sick and in full health, is the condensation of several characters, old and young at the same time. Amorous, he dances; if one asks him for money, he is going to die (Lecoq 1987:115)

The commedia characters continually occupy contradictory positions, so that Arlecchino is at once naive and malicious, Il Capitano is strong and fearful, Il Dottore knows everything and yet knows nothing. As with the counter-mask, this duality gives a depth and richness to the play of the commedia masks (Lecoq 1997:122).

The themes of the commedia are constituted by the urgent desires of its characters: envy, hunger, love, greed, jealousy. These are more a matter of survival than of life, where desires are pushed to extreme levels and situations to maximum consequences. The themes are played out via the grand tricks of human nature, in which each one tries to trick the other, only to find themselves caught in their own trap. Simple themes are proposed to the students to work on in improvisation such as: Arlecchino scratches himself, `Arlecchino eats spaghetti, Pantalone counts his money, Somebody calls somebody. Some of the themes can be played just as well in the students own half-masks, and Lecoq encourages them to freely adapt the principles of play using their own masks (Lecoq 1997:122).

In addition to these improvised scenarios, students also perform prepared pieces through work in the auto-cours. Two pedagogical elements are important here: what is played and

330 how it is played. In terms of what is played, it is important within the improvised scenario that the students pay attention to the key points of performance, to the obligatory check- points within the piece. Secondly, the students must attend to how they play. They need to be focused and clear about what is driving the game, considering such questions as: `What are the forces in play? Who pulls? Who pushes? Who pushes him/herself. Who pulls him/herself? Who is pulled? Who is pushed? . Lecoq also places a priority on the capacity of the students to employ tactics of play: How are they going to mount or descend a situation? How do they enter into a rhythmical exchange of language? (Lecoq 1997:121).

Because the commedia dellarte pushes play to extreme levels in terms of character and situation, the actor must also play at a maximum level in terms of movement, energy and voice. The commedia style of performance is physically demanding because of the exaggerated postures and often requires that the actor adopt precariously held positions. Movement can be pushed to the maximum, until it is acrobatic where a character sneezing can culminate in a backward somersault. Hence this work relies heavily on the techniques of movement and acrobatics taught throughout the first and second years. The style also demands a peak level of physical energy and ranks highly on Lecoqs Scale of Tension . Added to these challenges is the reliance on the voice. With the commedia masks, students must find a voice for their character and must also make the voice appropriate to the level of the mask. As Lecoq notes: Under the half-mask, the text itself is masked (1997:122)

Les Bouffons - The Bouffons The territory of the bouffon is situated in the field of the social and the cultural. Their function is transgressive, pushing the boundaries of accepted social rules, codes, norms, beliefs, values, and ideologies. Their driving force is parody, mockery, derision and ridicule, designed to effect a dislocation in our constructions of society and all that society holds dear. The bouffons mock the unmockable: war, world famine, God, religion, science, politics, manners, protocol, academia.

The bouffons believe in nothing and mock everything (Lecoq 1997:126). They are able to challenge society because they exist on the periphery, inhabiting a socially marginal world. They are societys outcasts, fringe-dwellers who live in bands with their own social organisation, their own rules, rituals, ceremonies, processions, their own inverted hierarchy in which the smallest and weakest is the most powerful, their own bizarre logic that makes an absurdity of our own. Their favourite pastime is to amuse themselves by imitating and ridiculing the life of human beings. They make war, for example, beating each other, disembowelling and killing each other. They amuse themselves so much in this that they

331 quickly tend to the wounded so that they can begin all over again, killing themselves repetitively, for their mutual pleasure. Each bouffon has their own place in the hierarchy so that those who are beaten enjoy the game as much as those who beat them. Thus there is no conflict in the world of the bouffons. Here the absurdities of war are ridiculed, grotesquely distorted in the mirror which the bouffon holds up to society.

Indispensable to the bouffon form is the creation of a body that is visually different, fantastic, exaggerated, deformed or twisted. The bouffon body operates in relation to and transgression of social constructions of normalcy and the normal body by creating the grotesque body, the deformed body, the deviant body. In his research into the bouffon, Lecoq found it was imperative that the person mocking should be visually different to the person being mocked, otherwise the parody simply degenerates into a form of malice which is intolerable and unacceptable to those being mocked. Lecoq therefore sought to create a body that was other, and invited his students to transform themselves by adding appendages, protuberances and padding to create huge buttocks, bellies, breasts, genitals, or hump backs, making them grotesque, deformed, corpulent, distended creatures. Through this physical transformation the whole body becomes a mask. Lecoq found that behind the body mask of the bouffon, his students became freer in their derision and dared to do things they would never do in their own bodies. The people they parodied, too, were more willing to accept those that mocked them. Lecoq made connections here with the medieval fool, King Lears fool, or the court jester who, being foolish and inconsequential, can express truths that would not be tolerated from another (Lecoq 1997:126).

Over the period of Lecoqs research, different families of bouffons have emerged. These correspond to three different territories which are almost completely independent: mystery, the grotesque and the fantastic:

Mystery borders on quasi-religious belief. The bouffons from this family are soothsayers. They know the future. They know the end of the world and can foretell it. They know the mysteries of the times before birth and after death. They are prophets [...]. The grotesques are close to caricature. They have the same relationship to everyday life that can be seen in humorous drawings. They never deal with feelings or with psychology, but only with social functions. Daumier s set of prints depicting the different professions have this dimension. In the dramatic repertoire, a character like Jarry s Ubu belongs to this world. The fantastics are especially present today. They make use of electronics and of science, but also draw on the wildest flights of combinations, bouffons whose head was in their belly. Every madness is possible here: it constitutes the freedom and the beauty of the actor (Lecoq 2000:119-121).

332 The territory of the bouffons is extremely vast so that its borders cannot be fixed in a definitive manner. Because of this, Lecoq asks the students to explore the territory widely, exploring successively in these three major directions.

Work in the field of the bouffon begins with the bouffon body. Students are asked to create their bouffon bodies using fabrics, foam, objects, costumes, ribbon string, and so on. These costumes are not definitive, but will be developed and refined during the work. When their bouffon bodies have been made, students work with the instructor in researching the gestures and actions of their bouffon, searching for the movements which will animate their creations. Because of the physical encumbrances of the body mask, the gestures of the buffoon are organised according to the dictates of their costume which `obliges one to only make certain movements that verge on catastrophic acrobatics and which would be impossible to effect with a normal body (Lecoq 1987:119). Students also experiment with different voices to discover the voice of their bouffon which is appropriate to their bouffon body.

Parallel to the work with each bouffon body, preparatory improvisations are undertaken on the theme of childhood since, No one is more of a child than the bouffon, and no one is more of a bouffon than a child (Lecoq 2000:124). The first theme is that of a town square, where the students are asked to be children playing such games as cops and robbers in a sandpit. The students must explore the multiple possibilities of the situation: malice, tenderness, fights, possessiveness, laughter. It is important that the students do not play the characters of children externally, but that they re-discover the state of childhood and explore its impulses, its desires, and its search for rules. Another preparatory theme is `the children play at adults, where the students play Mummy and Daddy, war or `doctors and nurses. Following this exercise, it is suggested that it is actually the adults who play like children in their concern for possession and power (Lecoq 2000:124).

The bouffons always come in front of an audience to perform society (Lecoq 1997:134). Within this territory, many themes are possible including war, news items, politics, television, trade unionism. Where a student imitates a person from society, they must not do so by entering into the psychology of the person, but must do it in the bouffon manner, amusing themselves with the character they are playing. The students also write and perform their own bouffon texts and it is important here that they write at the level of the bouffons who will take a situation and deform it, twist it, imbuing it with their own logic. For example, they might repeat the same word many times, or go

333 backwards, simply for their own amusement. Improvisations can involve music and dancing, where the students invent rituals, processions, parades and societal structures which parody our own societies (Lecoq 1997:134).

Tragedy: The territory of tragedy is concerned with the relationship between humanity and the gods, divinity, transcendence, destiny. In tragedy, humanity is not responsible for its actions because its fate is in the lap of the gods. The human passions - hate, love jealousy - come up against the will of the gods and confront the heroes to their death. The people are always present to assist and comment on the events which occur. For Lecoq, playing the field of tragedy is not a matter of historical reconstruction, since anything in this direction could only ever be supposition and imposes a certain idea of tragedy. Rather, it is a matter of searching to re-invent a tragedy of today, asking: 'What person is sufficiently strong today to oppose the gods, a choir in movement? Who can be the heroes of our time?' (Lecoq 1997:137).

Two principal elements structure the territory of tragedy: the choir and the hero. Students begin preliminary work on these two elements by approaching firstly the crowd and the leader of the people. The first theme proposed for improvisation is to replay a scene from London's Hyde Park where, each Sunday, people deliver speeches, attempting to catch the attention of passers and convince them of their point of view. In a subsequent improvisation, a second speaker is involved who comes to oppose the arguments of the first by advancing their own point of view. The crowd begins to take on the form of a tragic choir, gathering around the speakers. In these improvisations the public speeches of people such as Martin Luther King, Angela Davis or Charles de Gaulle can be used by the students. A third preparatory exercise involves the reaction of the crowd, since the choir almost always operates in reaction to an event or to a speech. In this exercise, a group of students are asked to improvise a public crowd where they are all watching and responding to some event such as a football match, a film or a play. Here a 'language' must be found for which the audience can perceive the dynamic and emotion of that which unfolds. In undertaking these exercises, the students must approach the emotional dynamics which resemble the crowd, the leader and the text. In tragedy, the crowd must be carried to the dramatic level of the choir and the leader to the level of the hero. Thus the passage of the crowd to a choir is an elevation in the level of play, the same as that which operates between psychological play and the play of the mask. In the same way as a mask necessitates a particular level of play in the actor, so too must the crowd and the leader be carried to the level of the mask (Lecoq 1997:138-139).

For the students, the great experience of tragedy is to discover a sense of connection: with

334 the other players, with the group and with the space. For this purpose, Lecoq has created an exercise called LEquilibre du plateau - The Equilibrium of the Plateau, which he considers one of the most beautiful exercises invented at the school (1997:141). There are two versions of the exercise. Both are concerned, not only with playing the space of tragedy, but with the play of equilibrium and disequilibrium of any theatrical space, of creating mise en scene and mise en movement by the displacement of actors.

In the first version of the exercise, all players stand forming a large rectangular space. Players imagine that this is a plateau which balances on a central pivotal point or axis. If a person takes their place in the central zone of the plateau, they retain its equilibrium. However, if they move out of this zone, they make it unbalanced and it will tilt and fall like a raft on the ocean. It is necessary then, for a second person to intervene in order to re- establish the equilibrium of the plateau, by choosing a favourable place in relation to the first. To begin, player A moves to the central zone of the plateau. When the time seems right, player A provokes the disequilibrium of the plateau by moving to a position which will render it unbalanced. Player `B then enters, moving to a position which will restore the equilibrium of the plateau. Player B then leads the game, provoking a new disequilibrium which A must restore by moving to a favourable position. This continues until A decides not to respond to the disequilibrium provoked by B and remains still. This then provokes a new state of imbalance, calling the entry of C who becomes the new leader . A and B respond to the movements of C to maintain equilibrium until they both decide not to play any more. Thus provoking a new disequilibrium, which calls the entry of a fourth player and so on (Lecoq 1997:142).

The plateau is principally concerned with teaching students the dynamics of time and space in a theatrical context. It is not a question of playing realistically in the space, but of understanding a sense of the fullness or emptiness of the space, of the distribution of the actors in the space, and of the dramatic effects of rhythm, pace and quality of movement. In playing the plateau, the students move with their own personal rhythms: they can move fast or slow, they can move in a fluid or disjointed fashion. They decide to enter, to move, or not to move when they feel it is necessary. That is, they decide on movement in an instinctive way, and must feel when the time is right to enter, when the time is right not to respond, when the time is right to change the rhythms of movement. Thus they can pick up the pace if the rhythms have been slow for too long, or to slow the pace down when the rhythms have been frantic. They must also sense the feeling of the other players in deciding not to respond, without any discussion or gestural indicators. The plateau functions, therefore, in terms of the relationship between the actors on the stage, but also in terms of their relationship with the audience. During the exercise, the students who sit on the boarders of the plateau serve a particular function in this regard:

335 A secret bond establishes itself between watchers and players, not consisting of a direct relationship between them, but of a shared sense of being present in the space. Seated on the benches, all the participants can tell if the timing and placing of the players is right. They instinctively know when it is too long or too short, and whether the positions taken up are the right ones. This awareness is there among the watchers, who assist the players, by their very presence, to achieve the right timings and placings. They see the mistake of someone who thinks he can enter the stage although there is in fact no place for him. Besides, these errors are necessary and have to be allowed for if the game is to continue, for distance and timing cannot be reduced to mathematical precision.

We notice that actors instinctively take up positions which correspond to a simple geometry, linked to their number. When there are three of them, they tend to form an equilateral triangle; four a square, five a circle. These positions, which we already noted in the silent psychological improvisations, do not make for a playable dramatic situation. They can only find justification in rituals tending toward the monumental. Hence the research for a different distribution of positions, with rhythms which can breathe life into dramatic situations. An actor on the edge of the stage carries more weight than when he is central and so a variable distribution is required to maintain a balanced stage. The point of the game is gradually to achieve a harmonious relationship with time, space and the other actors on stage (Lecoq 2000:134).

A second version of The Plateau is concerned more specifically with the tragic chorus. For Lecoq, the constitution of the chorus is an essential element of tragedy and two things are paramount. One is that the chorus moves together, embodying a strong sense of connection to each member of the group and to the space. Another concerns the quality of the choruss movement. It is important for Lecoq that the chorus functions as a living organism, as a collective body without being obviously choreographed, organised, or symmetrical in a military-like fashion:

A chorus is not geometric but organic. As a collective body, It possesses a centre of gravity, of respiration, of extension. In just the same way as a collective body, it has its centre of gravity, its extensions, its respiration. It is a kind of living cell, capable of taking on different forms according to the situation in which it finds itself. It may exhibit contradictions, its members may sometimes oppose one another in subgroups, or alternatively unite to address the public with one voice (2000:130).

336 The second version of The Plateau exercise is designed specifically to address the issue of the chorus being able to move as a collective body. It is played in a similar manner to the first, except that when player C enters, players A and B band together and operate as one entity as though their weight was equal to the weight of `C on the plateau. Thus as more players enter, the chorus grows and moves together in response to the provocations of the leader or `hero . The disequilibrium of the plateau is provoked when the chorus decide together not to respond to the movement of the hero. Thus, when the chorus no longer feels impelled by the hero to balance the space they remain still. The hero then completes their movement, tipping the balance of the space and another player enters the space in order to balance it (Lecoq 1997:143-144). This exercise enables the students to move in ensemble but without any sense of external structuring or organisation: `The chorus is together without looking at each other because they are looking at the same thing (Felner 1985:160).

The question of the quality of the choruss movement is addressed in a different way. The manner in which a chorus moves can operate in terms of the emotional state of the chorus at any given time. But rather than taking emotions as the point of departure, Lecoq uses the earlier neutral mask work on identification with matters. These, he says, offer a tragic language which can be employed to determine the movements of the chorus. In this way, the chorus can move as paper which unfolds, as a carton which is spilt, a glass which is breaking, a tissue which is torn. It is also interesting to disorder a tragic chorus, to fracture or tear, to send them into disarray. These exercises not only provide a structure in which to order the movements of the tragic chorus, but function also as a reference to the students for all work on mise en scene (Lecoq 1997:141).

Tragedy is also approached through work on text. Here the tragic texts of ancient Greece are used but also texts which encompass a tragic dimension such as those of Racine, Artaud, Botho Strauss, Michel Azama, Steven Berkoff. The work does not focus on creating a finished production, but on creating the dynamics of the chorus through engagement of the body and the voice. Rather than sitting down and reading or analysing a tragic text, the texts are approached through the body using the mimodynamic technique:

Major texts are worked during the moment of tragedy and we also use this period to bring the voice out because at school we dont use the diaphragm to place the voice. It is placed in the action of the movement. It is placed in the desire to speak to others and then in the transposition the chorus and its one voice offers (Lecoq 1999, video recording).

337 As with the approach to painting and music, students are asked to look for a physical adherence to the text by focusing on the images, words and dynamics, starting with movement. Lecoq stresses that this work is not concerned with interpretation or analysis of the text. Interpretation, he maintains, is the responsibility of the director and consists of making the text clear in all its facets: socio-historical context, psychological or moral aspects. Lecoqs approach to text thus avoids interpretation in favour of a focus on exploration of the internal movement dynamics of the text. This requires that the student has no pre-conceptions and takes no particular position before exploring the text so that these dynamics are discovered during the process rather than imposed beforehand.

The first stage of the process aims to liberate the text within the body so that the body is not experienced as an obstacle in the expression of the text. Here students move and gesture while speaking the text without concern for the construction of their movements. The gestures and movements which arise out of this basic work are very diverse. In the next phase of the work, the gestural dynamics or the play of gestures become more structured and are then performed by the students in silence without the accompanying words of the text. Following this the students work on deciding which gestures are most appropriate to the words and the distribution of the voices among the players. Then the quality of the gestures and movements are refined so that little by little a more structured set of dynamics arises. As part of this work, students are asked to create an auto-cours piece which is presented to a public audience.

Clown: The final dramatic territory begins with clown and culminates with varieties of comedy: burlesque, the absurd and the eccentric. The study of clown is not concerned with re- producing the traditional antics of the but with the search for ones own clown. This process principally involves turning ones weaknesses into a theatrical force. In this respect, we are all clowns: we all have our weaknesses, our failings, and our inadequacies; but we often attempt to hide our weaknesses for fear of appearing ridiculous and being laughed at. We prefer to present the most appealing image of ourselves to ourselves and to the world, believing that we are beautiful, intelligent or strong . The study of clown aims to remove our social mask and turn our failings to theatrical advantage.

The exploration of clown does not involve the actor adopting a pre-established character. Instead, the student dons only the red nose of the clown which Lecoq has called the smallest mask in the world (Lecoq 1990b:43). In the search for ones clown, the student must discover their greatest flaws and characteristic failings. They must lay themselves bare for all the world to see and without any defences, without the security of a character,

338 must depend only on their own weaknesses and inadequacies (Lecoq 1997:153). The clowns nose helps them to do this by lighting the eyes with naivet and by enlarging the face: When an actor enters a space wearing a little red nose, his face presents a state of availability without defences (Lecoq 1990b:43). While this may place the actor in an extremely vulnerable position, it also places them in a position of great freedom and authenticity (1997:157):

This search for your own clown rests in the freedom to be yourself and, in making others laugh at you, to accept the truth of what you are. There is a child in each of us which society does not permit us to show. The stage permits it better than life (Lecoq 1990b:44)

Parallel to this work is research by the students into a particular walk for their clown. Just as Groucho Marx, Chariot or Jacques Tati have their characteristic walks, so too does the student develop theirs. It is never a question of exterior composition but always of developing and pushing their own personal walk. In the same way that students search for their characteristic weaknesses, students also search in their body for characteristic elements in terms of gait and carriage. Through observation of the students natural walk, idiosyncrasies can be found, such as an arm that doesnt swing in balance with the other, a foot which is turned inwards, a head that is carried to one side. These are progressively exaggerated to find a personal transposition. In addition to their walk, the students must also find a costume for their clown which, Lecoq says, liberates the students from their social mask (Lecoq 1997:155). Students are at total liberty to choose their costumes, but during the course of improvisations they will be progressively adjusted and refined.

Unlike other theatrical territories, clown themes are not restricted to particular subject matters for, as Lecoq notes, The themes of the clown are innumerable. All of life is a clownesque theme (Lecoq 1997:154). Initially, themes for improvisation are approached by each student individually. They largely entail the lone student, armed only with their red nose, entering the space with the object of making the audience laugh: Someone enters a scene and discovers the audience. Later themes are improvised in conjunction with other clowns: the clowns rehearse a play and the clowns move house (Lecoq 1997:160). In ensemble clown improvisations, the references of the circus are reappraised with regard to clowning hierarchies. According to Lecoq, all clowning situations involve a hierarchy between the clowns. Circus and other clowns are often found operating in trios or duos. We find this in the Marx Brothers, the Three Stooges, Arlecchino and Brighella and Laurel and Hardy. The trio is structured in terms of le clown blanc - the white-faced clown, the Auguste and the second Auguste. The hierarchy allows each clown to be

339 situated in relation to another where each supports the antics of their partner. Improvisations on the clown hierarchy are undertaken with the theme of the trick and the double flop (Lecoq 1997:157).

A number of pedagogical elements are important in the study of clown. The great difficulty is to find the appropriate dimension of play, of the student playing truthfully rather than playing a clown. The student must play authentically, pleased and delighted at their own weaknesses. It is also important that the student does not pre-empt what will occur, but is always playing in a state of reaction and of surprise. Integral to clown work is the flop whereby the clown fails at what they intend and succeeds at what they do not. When a trick fails, or a joke does not make the audience laugh, the clown must redeem themselves and play with the flop, turning it around to make the audience laugh at their failure:

The clown is the person who flops, who messes up his turn, and, by so doing, gives his audience a sense of superiority. Through his failure he reveals his profoundly human nature, which moves us and makes us laugh. But he cannot flop with just anything, he has to mess up something he knows how to do, that is to say an exploit (Lecoq 2000:146).

Unlike most other characters of the theatre, the clown is in direct and immediate contact with the audience. Rather than playing to the audience, or in front of the audience, the clown plays with the audience and is influenced by their reactions and responses:

What counts is to lean on the audience and to react to everything like a ping-pong ball at the country fair, those little balls on little fountains of water. The little red nose is the ball, and the audience is the fountain and you place your red nose on the audience and thats it - you react to the audience. Thats what counts here, to be open to what happens in the audience (Lecoq 1999, video recording).

Clown work is therefore an important training for the actor, not only in terms of clown performance, but more broadly in terms of developing a strong awareness of the audience and being able to forge a strong relationship with the audience. As Lecoq points out, this work does not necessarily have the function of making the student proficient at being a clown:

This psychological clown, from which can develop a dramatic pedagogy essential to the freedom of the actor, is not necessarily for performance and most often

340 remains a form of private expression. A little red nose is not enough to make a professional clown (Lecoq 1990b:43)

The work on comic varieties of burlesque, the absurd and the excentric are an extension of the clown work. Each genre has particular characteristics. The burlesque relies on the gag and often inverts reality. The absurd makes appeal to two logics which clash:

I ask my way of someone, who points out the road leading off to the right...I take the one that turns to the left! In fact, I am going back to get my suitcase, which justifies my left turn, but the person I asked (like the audience) does not know that. He cannot understand it and so the situation appears absurd to him. The eccentric character does things differently from other people. His centre is elsewhere. He combs his hair...with a rake. Another eccentric is a virtuoso on the piano...which he plays with his toes (Lecoq 2000:151-153).

Clown work and the work with these different comic genres incorporates acrobatics, juggling, music and song. The students also work on clownesque movements such as tripping and falling, playing with objects such as a hat and also playing with words. Because many students play an instrument, each year the students create an orchestra, in the spirit of cabaret or revue. Here the students also create the dramatic material for this comical cabaret, producing short ten minute scenes (Lecoq 1997:161).

The study of clown is given as much importance as the neutral mask work and together they frame the Lecoq pedagogy (1997:153). For while the neutral mask involves the collective in its search for a common denominator, the study of clown moves in the opposite direction, involving a singularity and a search for that which is individual. In the neutral mask, Lecoq asks the students to observe and be all the world in its many manifestations. With the clown, he asks them to be themselves, and to observe the effect they produce on the world (1997:157).

341 APPENDIX E:

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What sort of impact has your Lecoq training had on your theatre work in Australia?

2. What have you found the most valuable or useful about your Lecoq training in your theatre work? For example:

a How does play, le jeu and complicite come into your work?

b Have you used mask in your work? In what ways, please give an example

c Could you talk about how a physical approach to acting and/or directing and/or teaching is evident in your work?

d Could you give some examples of how the knowledge of different styles of theatre has influenced your work?

e What do you think is the benefit of the neutral mask as a training tool?

f How has the group-devised been of benefit to your work?

g Have you done much work with improvisation, either as a rehearsal tool, a tool for devising theatre or as a performance medium?

h. Mime

For Directors: What is your approach to directing, especially in terms of your approach to text?

For Teachers: Are there ways in which you have modified or adapted what you learned at Lecoq in your own teaching - in terms of both content and approach? If so, how?

For Film/Television workers: Is it difficult to translate the Lecoq training to film and/or television?

Influence on Australian Theatre Can you think of theatre practitioners who may have been influenced by your own work? Who? How?

Would you like to speculate on how Lecoq graduates have influenced Australian theatre generally?

Do you think there has been a move in Australia towards a more physical theatre; a more masked theatre; a less script-based theatre?.

342 APPENDIX F

CONSENT FORM

Ph.D. Dissertation Theatre Studies Department University of New England Armidale NSW 2351 Working Title: The Impact of Lecoq's Training on Australian Theatre Anticipated Submission Date: April 1999 Researcher: Lynn Everett Supervisor: Professor Adrian Kiernander

The aim of this project is to research and document the influence of Jacques Lecoq's pedagogy on theatre training and practice in Australia. The study will focus on prominent theatre practitioners operating in Australia who have undergone Lecoq-based training (either at the Ecole Jacques Lecoq or through graduates teaching in Australia). The method used for collecting data is by tape-recorded interviews with such persons as described above. These interviews will be concerned with recording the career histories of the interviewees and the impact their Lecoq training has had on their work.

At present, data from the interviews will be kept strictly confidential and will be accessible only to myself and my supervisors. It is anticipated, however, that all the interview data from this study will be collected in a research archive, in which case the data will be accessible to other researchers.

PARTICIPATION:

• No individual is under any pressure to participate in an interview/interviews for this study. The participant i s free to withdraw consent and to discontinue participation in the interview/interviews at any time.

• Any questions concerning this study can be directed to Lynn Everett or Professor Adrian Kiernander, Department of Theatre Studies, on (067) 73 2149.

• Should you have any complaints concerning the manner in which this research is conducted, please contact the Human Research Ethics Committee at the following address:

The Secretary Human Research Ethics Committee Research Services University of New England Armidale NSW 2351 Telephone: (067) 73 2352 Facsimile: (067) 73 35543

I have read the information above and any questions I have asked have been answered to my satisfaction.

I agree to participate in a tape recorded interview/interviews, realising that I may withdraw my consent at any time.

I understand and agree that research data from this study may be published.

Date: (Participant's Signature)

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350 Fitzpatrick, Peter (1986) After the Wave: Australian Drama Since 1975, in Contemporary Australian Drama, ed. Peter Holloway, 1987, Sydney: Currency Press, 161-180.

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Gauntlett, Frank (1992a) Review of The Diary of a Madman, Telegraph Mirror, 31 March, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, March 1992, 117.

Gauntlett, Frank (1992b) Review of Uncle Vanya, Telegraph-Mirror, 22 August, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, August 1992, 15.

Gauntlett, Frank (1993a) Dancing on Ceiling with Legs on Wall, Daily Telegraph Mirror, 2 September, 44.

351 Gauntlett, Frank (1993b) Review of Oleanna, Telegraph-Mirror, 11 September, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, September 1993, 45.

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Gordon, Raymond L. (1987) Interviewing: Strategy, Techniques and Tactics, 4th Edition, Homewood Illenois: Dorsey Press.

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Hawkins, Stewart (1996) Review of Macbeth, Daily Telegraph, 15 March, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, March 1996, 55.

352 Healey, Ken (1991) Review of Rebecca, Sun-Herald, 30 June, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, June 1991, 13.

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Kapur, Shekhar dir. (1998) Elizabeth (motion picture), Universal.

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353 Kelly, Veronica ed. (1998) Our Australian Theatre in the 1990s, Amsterdam - Atlanta, GA: Rodopi.

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355 Lecoq, Jacques, Carasso, Jean-Gabriel, Lallias, Jean-Claude, Roy, Jean-Noel (1999) Les Deux voyage de Jacques Lecoq, (video recording), Jean-Noel Roy Jean-Gabrel Carrasso (dirs.), La Sept ARTE, ON LINE productions, ANRAT.

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356 Lloyd, Tim (1995) Review of Haxbys Circus, Advertiser, 4 December, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, December 1995, 20.

Lloyd, Tim (1996) A Crate Idea to Pack em in at the Festival, Advertiser, 1 February.

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McCallum, John (1994) Review of Wildheart, Telegraph-Mirror, 9 December, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, December, 1994, 12.

McCallum, John (1995) Nimrod Theatre Company, in Companion to Theatre in Australia, ed. Philip Parsons, Sydney: Currency Press, 407.

357 McCallum, John (1996) Review of The Alchemist, Australian, 29 August, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, August 1996, 11.

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McGillick, Paul (1993a) Review of All of Me, Financial Review, 17 September, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, September 1993, 44.

McGillick, Paul (1993b) Review of Oleanna, Financial Review, 17 September, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, September 1993, 47.

McGillick, Paul (1995) Review of King Lear, Financial Review, 19 May, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, May 1995, 85.

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358 Mitchell, Tony (1995) English Influences, in Companion to Theatre in Australia, ed. Philip Parsons, Sydney: Currency Press, 205-209.

Moffatt, Julie (1996) Review of Verona, North Shore Times, 31 January, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, January 1996, 24.

Molloy, Susan (1982) Nothing to do with the Real Biggles, Sydney Morning Herald, 9 February, The Arts, 8.

Morel, Eliane (1994) Review of Hamlet, Theatre Australiasia, August, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, July 1994, 75.

Morgan, Joyce (1998) In the Line of Fire, Sydney Morning Herald, 2 March, 13.

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Neill, Rosemary (1989) Review of The Diary of a Madman, Australian, 27 July, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, July 1989, 10.

Neill, Rosemary (1991) Review of The Government Inspector, Australian, 31 May, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, May 1991, 66.

Neill, Rosemary (1992) Review of Uncle Vanya, Australian, 21 August, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, August 1992, 14.

Neill, Rosemary (1993) Review of The Street of Crocodiles, Australian 11 January, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, January, 1993, 8.

Nellhaus, Tobin (1993) Science, History, Theatre: Theorizing in Two Alternatives to Positivism, Theatre Journal, December, vol. 45, no. 4, 505-528.

Nemeth, Mary (1987) Review of The Three Cuckolds, Financial Review, 20 March, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, March 1987, 40.

359 Nugent, Ann (1987) Review of Pericles, Canberra Times, 13 June, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, June 1987, 6.

Nugent, Ann (1993) Review of The Street of Crocodiles, Canberra Times, 16 January, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, January, 1993, 71.

OBrien, Geraldine (1982) Tor Some Helpless Laughter, See Biggles, Sydney Morning Herald, 13 February, The Arts, 14.

Oakley, Barry (1987) Review of Pericles, Times on Sunday, 14 June, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, June 1987, 5.

01b, Suzanne (1988) Review of The Diary of a Madman, New Theatre Australia, September, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, July 1989, 11.

Oxford English Dictionary (1989, cited 10 Oct 1999) Second Edition, http://dictionary.oed.com.

Partridge, Des (1998) Clowning Around, Courier Mail, 17 January, 11.

Payne, Pamela (1992) Review of The Popular Mechanicals, Sydney Morning Herald, 30 June, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, June 1992, 73.

Payne, Pamela (1993a) Family Runs on Explosive Energy, Sun Herald, 12 September, 115.

Payne, Pamela (1993b) Review of Oleanna, Sun-Herald, 12 September, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, September 1993, 46.

Payne, Pamela (1994) Love, Greed and Lust, Sun-Herald, 11 December, 142.

Payne, Pamela (1996a) Review of Macbeth, Sun-Herald, 14 April, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, March 1996, 57.

360 Payne, Pamela (1996b) Review of The Alchemist, Sun-Herald, 1 September, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, August 1996, 48.

Perks, Robert Thomson, Alistair eds. (1998) The Oral History Reader, London: Routledge.

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Pippen, Judith (1998) Inscribing Actors Bodies: Towards an Epistemology of Movement Praxis in Actor Training, PhD thesis, Queensland University of Technology, Australia.

Plotnitsky, Arkady (1994) Complementarity, London: Duke University Press.

Popenhagen, Ron Luda (1999) Jacques Lecoq Panel, presented at Passing Away and Passing On: The Legacy of Grotowski, Strehler, Lecoq and Muller, Centre for Performance Studies, University of Sydney, 18 September, (video recording of proceedings).

Portus, Martin (1989) Review of The Diary of a Madman, Sydney Review, August, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, July 1989, 12.

Portus, Martin (1999) Arts Today (radio broadcast), 3 February, ABC Radio.

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Postlewait, Thomas (1991) Historiography and the Theatrical Event: A Primer with Twelve Cruxes, Theatre Journal, May, vol. 43, no. 2, 157-179.

Pottage, Michael (1995) An Exploration of Legs on the Wall, unpublished essay.

Prouse, Robert (1982) Twice Double, JUKE, 10 July, 22.

Rabkin, Gerald (1992) Waiting for Foucault: New Theatre Theory, Performing Arts Journal, September, no. 42, 90-101.

361 Radhakrishnan, R. (1996) Diasporic Mediations: Between Home and Location, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Radic, Leonard (1990) Review of The Diary of a Madman, Age, 26 June, in ANZTR, Australian Theatre Studies Centre of the University of NSW, June 1990, 12.

Radic, Leonard (1991) The State of Play: The Revolution in the Australian Theatre since the 1960s, Ringwood: Penguin.

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362 Rolfe, Bari (1978) Magic Century of French Mime, Mime, Mask Marionette, no. 1, 135-138.

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363 Sumner, John (1993) Recollections at Play: A Life in Australian Theatre, Melbourne: Melbourne University Press.

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364 Ward, Peter (1992) A Singular Act: Twenty -Five Years of the State Theatre Company of South Australia, South Australia: Wakefield Press.

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Oral History Interviews: All interviews listed below were conducted by Lynn Everett. Transcripts of the interviews are collected in an ancillary volume held in the Theatre Studies Department, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, 2351.

Anderson, Isabelle (1999) Telephone interview, New York, USA, 11 February.

Batten, Francis (1998) Telephone interview, Brisbane, QLD, 24 February.

Bishop, Steven (1998) Telephone interview, Brisbane, QLD, 1 September.

Bishop, Steven (1999) Telephone interview, Brisbane, QLD, 17 May.

Bolton, John (1997a) Personal interview, Williamstown, VIC, 17 March.

Bolton, John (1997b) Personal interview, Williamstown VIC, 9 April.

Bolton, John (1999) Telephone interview, Williamstown VIC, 1 December.

Bromilow, Mark (1998) Telephone interview, Montville, QLD, 26 October.

Bromilow, Mark (1999) Telephone interview, Montville, QLD, 20 October.

Cameron, Neil (1999) Telephone interview, Brisbane, QLD, 15 November.

Case, Justin (1998) Telephone interview, Sydney, NSW, 8 August.

Cheek, Russell (1998) Personal interview, Sydney, NSW, 20 May.

Cheek, Russell (1999a) Telephone interview, Sydney, NSW, 5 December.

Cheek, Russell (1999b) Telephone interview, Sydney, NSW, 6 December.

Collie, Therese (1998) Telephone interview, Brisbane, QLD, 19 November.

366 Collie, Therese (2000) Telephone interview, Brisbane, QLD, 22 May.

Cotton, Julia (1998) Telephone interview, Sydney, NSW, 26 November.

de Winter, Roslyn (1997) Telephone interview, Melbourne, VIC, 4 August.

Dumont, Marie (1998) Telephone interview, Montville, QLD, 27 October.

Dumont, Marie (1999a) Telephone interview, Montville, QLD, 7 September.

Dumont, Marie (1999b) Telephone interview, Montville, QLD, 20 October.

Dykstra, Russell (1998) Telephone interview, Brisbane, QLD, 1 September.

Dykstra, Russell (1999a) Telephone interview, Sydney, QLD, 16 December.

Dykstra, Russell (1999b) Telephone interview, Sydney, QLD, 17 December.

France, Betty (1998) Telephone interview, Melbourne, VIC, 13 October.

Grace, Christine (1997) Personal interview, Seddon, VIC, 28 May.

Grace, Christine (1999) Telephone interview, Seddon, VIC, 30 November.

Hayes-Marshall, Richard (1998) Telephone interview, Sydney, NSW, 24 September.

Hodgson, Will (1998) Telephone interview, Elwood, VIC, 23 September.

Hodgson, Will (1999) Telephone interview, Elwood, VIC, 6 December.

Jamieson, Nigel (1998) Telephone interview, Sydney, NSW, 8 September.

Kehoe, Stephanie (2000) Telephone interview, Brisbane, QLD, 19 August.

Lindsay, Andrew (1998) Telephone interview, Kensington, VIC, 4 August.

Lindsay, Andrew (2000) Telephone interview, Sydney, NSW, 4 May.

Marshall, Lorna (1997) Personal interview, Melbourne, VIC, 28 May.

367 McDonald, Meme (1997) Personal interview, Melbourne, VIC, 4 June.

Minty, Nerida (1998) Telephone interview, Melbourne, VIC, 9 September.

Minty, Nerida (1999) Telephone interview, Melbourne, VIC, 15 November.

Moon, Celia (1998) Telephone interview, Sydney, NSW, 2 September.

Moore, Richard (1998) Telephone interview, Scarborough, NSW, 7 August.

Murch, Nique (1998) Interview by letter, Darwin, NT, 3 September.

Newbold, Michael (1998) Telephone interview, Adelaide, SA, 20 October.

Newbold, Michael (1999) Telephone interview, Adelaide, SA, 1 November.

Ogilvie, George (1998) Telephone interview, London, UK, 19 September.

Pinder, Alex (1997) Personal interview, Melbourne, VIC, 3 June.

Pippen, Judith (1998) Telephone interview, Montville, QLD, 10 August.

Poppenhagen, Ludvika (1998) Telephone interview, Sydney, NSW, 10 November.

Poppenhagen, Ron (1998) Telephone interview, Sydney, NSW, 7 November.

Raymond, Linda (1998) Telephone interview, Sydney, NSW, 6 August.

Robb, Heather (1998) Telephone interview, Melbourne, VIC, 14 August.

Rush, Geoffrey (1998) Telephone interview, Melbourne, VIC, 2 October.

Sweeney, Dominique (1998) Telephone interview, Labrador, QLD, 17 September.

Teisen, Claire (1997a) Personal interview, Williamstown, VIC, 7 April.

Teisen, Claire (1997b) Personal interview, Williamstown, VIC, 10 June.

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