Tropical Ecology 57(2): 133-141, 2016 ISSN 0564-3295 © International Society for Tropical Ecology www.tropecol.com

Forest transition curve of India and related policies, acts and other major factors

P. P. BHOJVAID*, M. P. SINGH, S. R. REDDY & J. ASHRAF

Forest Research Institute, New Forest, Dehradun 248006, Uttarakhand

Abstract: This paper analyses the factors accounting for in India, which has been characterized by a continuous decline of forest cover for about seven decades since the year 1900 and then increase since 1970s. It is argued that several forest policies and acts, economic growth, liberalization, dramatic increase in grain yield and stabilization of agricultural area in the country, promotion of and encouragement for timber import, global campaigns and protocols in areas of biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services, including have given shape to the forest transition in India. It has been opined that India and other growing economies are likely to improve their forest cover further. However, it may involve associated with timber export from poorer economies such as the African underdeveloped and developing countries to other countries which have observed a shift towards increase in forest cover.

Key words: Forest cover, forest transition, plantation forestry, policy milestones, import, .

Handling Editor: M. Agrawal

Introduction al. (2005); which follows an economic developmental pathway. EKC suggests that the The shift from decrease in forest cover to a relationship between a country’s economic trend of increasing forest cover associated with development and its environmental degradation economic development of a nation is referred to as follows a path according to which as the level of forest transition. Forest transition (FT) is economic development increases beyond a certain presently studied from the curve drawn using time point in a country (Stern 2004), first its rate of de- series data on forest cover. It is used to describe forestation stabilizes and then start the empirical regularity in the conditions of the gaining in cover and biodiversity. However, the forests as nations undergo economic development, relationship between deforestation and income, industrialization and urbanization (Mather 1990; and associated policy and institutional factors is Mather 1992; Walker 1993) in historical not straightforward (Arrow et al. 1995; Bhattarai perspective. It is evident that the modernization, & Hamming 2001; Culas 2008). Since the urbanization and economic development have a management of forests in most developing complex relationship with the rate of defore- economies is under public ownership, it has been station. The phenomenon of the forest transition suggested that the EKC relationship is linked is explained in terms of an Environmental with various socio-political institutions, Kuznets Curve (EKC) by Culas (2012); structural factors, and historical processes (Arrow Southworth et al. (2010); Mather (2007); Rudel et et al. 1995). Culas (2012) has even analyzed

*Corresponding Author; e-mail: [email protected]

134 FOREST TRANSITION IN INDIA alternative development paths for forest cover of global wood based trade. The Government of changes and forest transition for the Reducing India has brought timber import under open Emissions from Deforestation and Forest general license. As a result, timber import into Degradation (REDD) policy in the context of India has increased rapidly, and is currently climate change initiatives under United Nations approximately worth $6 billion per year. It is Framework Convention on Climate Change.The believed that additional timber worth at least as occurrence of forest transition in recent years much value enters the Indian market via illegal could be seen in India and some other developing routes. Indications are that a considerable amount economies (DeFries & Pandey 2010; Mather 2007; of timber enters India from adjacent areas of Southworth et al. 2010). The environmental factors Nepal (Midgley et al. 2007). However, by doing so, are responsible for species distributions, commu- a country shifts its environmental demand to nity structure, and ecosystem properties in the another country. Nilgiris, Western Ghats (Srinivasan et al. 2015). Additionally, local wood manufacturers have This paper examines various factors affecting adopted better technologies and have increased forest transition in India. It is hypothesized that their material use efficiency. Successive advance- forest transition is a result of a combination of ments in panel products and composite wood using social, economic, legal, policy and technical lignocellulosic material has covered diverse range changes. of product and variety, which were traditionally The main objectives of this article are to (i) using solid wood (Shukla & Singh 1994). In the develop a framework for analyzing forest transition last twenty years, wood has also been substituted in India and (ii) examine the relationship between by plastic and other material such as medium various macro level processes and forest transition density fiber board, high density fiber board, in India with special reference to national forest particle board, wood plastic composite etc., thus policy interventions. reducing pressure on natural forests (GOI 2004). India has one of the oldest organized forest A framework for analyzing forest transition sectors in the world. In 1864, the Forest Conservator in the Presidency of Madras was We identify five major categories of changes instituted. Subsequently, forest policies were (Fig. 1) which seem to influence transition of formulated and forest service was initiated. After forests in India. These interact with each other in India’s independence, the Forest Conservation Act a complex and intertwined manner forming a was enacted in 1980, prohibiting the diversion of cluster. Notably, some of the factors within each notified forest areas for development or other no category may overlap across categories. Therefore, forestry activities, and putting a break on forest these categories are not mutually exclusive. degradation that had peaked during 1970s (Singh Transition in attitude toward forests has et al. 1990). This act also provides for happened primarily as a result of general increase Compensatory (CA) in lieu of forest in societal awareness towards environment and land diverted for nonforest use, for which the user biodiversity and decrease in individuals’ day-to- agency pays. This money is being utilized for day dependence on forests for livelihoods. One of raising of an adequate number of the key factors that has driven this decrease in and associated species of herbs and shrubs. dependence on forests is the rapid rural- to- urban Additionally, the institution of migration. Globally, the urban population now represented through Joint exceeds 50 % and is expected to further rise more (JFM), has resulted in a reduced rate of defore- in coming decades. It is estimated that more than station. The rate of deforestation has also been 95 % of net increase in global population will occur stabilized with frequent and efficient monitoring of in cities of developing countries like India (Table forests with the help of techniques such as remote 1). Already three Indian cities, Mumbai, Delhi and sensing, geographic information system, etc. All Kolkata are among the top 10 largest cities of the these changes have led to a changed focus for skill world (UN 2011). development of forest officers (GOI 2009). An increase in both affordability and Forest officials face increased internal and availability of imported wood based products such external pressure for periodic monitoring and as furniture can help alleviate pressure on local reporting of the state of forests in the country. The wood production and, in turn, on local forests. (FSI) publishes biannually a Wooden furniture has become a major component report on the status of forest. This report clearly BHOJVAID et al. 135

Table 1. Trend of Indian population (million).

Year 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 Total 361.1 439.2 548.2 683.3 846.4 1028.7 1210.2 Urban 62.5 78.9 109.2 159.4 217.5 286.1 377.2 Rural 298.6 360.3 439 523.9 628.9 742.6 833 Growth rate 13.3 21.6 24.8 24.7 23.9 21.5 17.64 Urban % 17.31 17.96 19.92 23.33 25.70 27.81 31.17 Rural % 82.69 82.04 80.08 76.67 74.30 72.19 68.83

Source: Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India.

Changes in attitude toward forests

Changes in formal Changes in evaluation and usage of forest social scrutiny products mechanisms Forest transition

Changes in Changes in forestry and interface forest between forests management and other practices macro systems

Fig. 1. Interacting agents of change (peripheral circles) that are shaping forest transition in India. shows the extent of forests in different parts of (TPP) specifically prioritised afforestation and India and includes data to the level of district planting and all rural employment generation administration units. However, still FSI data have programmes had certain percentage earmarked for not been used meaningfully by states to chalk out afforestation. Progress of tree plantation is plantation activities. As a result of an increased monitored by the ministry of statistics and pro- focus on participatory forest management and gramme implementation; government of India. sustainable utilization of forest resources for rural Civil society pressure and increased media employment generation, the forest department now attention on forestry issues have intensified public has annual targets to achieve (FSI 1987;FSI 1989; scrutiny of . Emphasis on stake- FSI 1991; FSI 1993; FSI 1995; FSI 1997; FSI 1999; holder engagement processes has added pressure FSI 2001; FSI 2003; FSI 2005; FSI 2009; FSI 2011) on forest bureaucracy for increasing public to address these issues. The 20-Point Programme participation in forest management decisions and 136 FOREST TRANSITION IN INDIA for improving transparency in information disse- needs (Lal 1990). Consequently, all concessions mination (Haripriya 2000). and rights that were not explicitly granted by the The forest transition curve in terms of forest state were withdrawn; paving the way to facilitate cover is the net result of such aspects as absolute control of the state over forest resources. deforestation, degradation of forests, conservation, Moreover, the objectives advocated in the first sustainable management, rehabilitation and forest policy in India in 1894 could not be afforestation, all operating at different scales implemented in all categories of forestlands and its during different stages of economic development. application was limited to supply of valuable Each stage is generally characterized by timber from India to England for the imperial dominance of one of these aspects over the others. strategic and commercial interests. Some of the For example, deforestation dominated the first efforts made under the scientific management of phase of the forest transition curve; it started in a forests under the concept of sustained supply of big way with the advent of colonial rule and timber; could not make a mark on the overall continued unabated till the early decades of condition of forests in the country and the Independent India (FRI 1961). Changes in land subsequent two world wars further deteriorated use such as agricultural expansion and the forests of India due to over exploitation of infrastructural projects have taken a toll on forest timber (Gadgil & Guha 1995). Areendran et al. land. India’s agricultural area, however, more or (2013) addressed the rate of deforestation and less stabilized due to intensification of agriculture forest fragmentation in the mining areas of by the 1970s. There have been several other Madhya Pradesh. factors which have influenced land use scenario of India from time to time. Moreover, there have been several milestones in the realm of legal and policy framework in Independent India since the enactment of Indian Forests Act in 1927 in the British India (Fig. 2). There are other indirect drivers of forest cover change, which include general economic development, urban population growth, an emergence of secondary and tertiary sectors in economy, higher opportunity cost of land, import substitution of forest products and change in attitude towards forests of general masses.

Historical changes: From harvesting and control to production from plantations and Fig. 2. Legal and policy milestones of India valuing ecosystem services (Bhojvaid et al. 2013). A: Indian Forest Act 1927; B: The National Forest The trends for over a century in India indicate Policy 1952; C: Advocating Social forestry; D: Forest that (Table 2 and Fig. 2) forest area continuously Conservation Act 1980; E: National Forest Policy 1988; declined from 1900 to early 1970s; more steeply F: 1990; G: Liberalization of after independence. Expansions of railways during the Import of Wood 1996; H: Biological Diversity Act the later part of the nineteenth century and early 2002; I: Forest Rights Act 2006. decades of the twentieth century (Singh & Singh 1992; Tucker 1983), needs of world wars and forest Legal policy forest dynamics in India conversion for agriculture were probably some of the major causes of forest loss (Negi 1994; Singh et The National Forest Policy of 1952 after India’s al. 2011). The use of Sal and Deodar for railway Independence from British Empire recognized the sleepers and unregulated cutting of trees for wars functional classification of forests as protected were particularly damaging. Forest regulations forests for environmental consideration, national and policies formed during the British Empire forests for strategic requirement of defense, facilitated inclusion of rich forests into government communications and industry, and village forests property and consequently alienated the people by for local needs. Apart from these functional forest denying access to these forests for their routine types, tree lands for extension forestry to meet the BHOJVAID et al. 137

Table 2. Decadal forest cover trend.

Years 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Forest cover 89.9 87.1 87.0 83.3 79.4 75.8 69.1 62.9 64.1 66.3 66.9 69.2 (M Ha) Percentage of 27.35 26.49 26.46 25.34 24.15 23.06 21.02 19.13 19.50 20.17 20.34 21.05 geographical area

Source: FAO 2005, FSI 2011, Singh 2011. growing needs of the people were also recognized 1976) was 4.13 Mha about 60 % of which was for (Negi 1994). It was also recommended that 33 % of agricultural purposes. Before the Act came into the total geographical area of the country should force, the diversion rate of forest land was 165,200 be under the forest cover. Consequently, more and ha yr-1, which came down to 36,560 ha yr-1 after more areas were declared notified forestlands and the enforcement of the act (GOI 2004). A new forest consolidation took place in the first two National Forest Policy was promulgated in 1988. It decades after independence. Though the extent of marked a major departure from the 1952 policy by notified forests showed continuous increase due to laying prime emphasis on environmental stability inclusion of more land into the category of legal and conservation of forests. Furthermore, the new forests, the status of forests in terms of forest cover policy laid emphasis on meeting the domestic in the country showed continuous decline (Fig. 3). requirements of fuel wood, fodder, minor forest In 1950-51 the forest area in India was 40.48 produce and construction timber for rural and Mha. It increased to 66.80 Mha in 1976-77 and tribal population and their participation in 76.52 Mha in 1996, i.e. an increase of 36.04 Mha. protection and management of forests. Con- However, the intervening period witnessed large sequently, the forests were no longer a source of scale tree by private owners to get maxi- revenue for finance required for development mum returns as their properties (forests) were activities (Negi 1994). While earlier the focus was acquired by government orders as national on sustainable harvest of timber and earning property. Forests, being legally on the provincial/ revenue, in the new policy importance was given to state list under the “separation of powers between the conservation of natural heritage in the country the provincial and central governments”, continued by preserving natural forests with their vast to be diverted recklessly for all non-forestry variety of flora and fauna and rich genetic purposes. Moreover, large scale developmental resources (GOI 1991). Participatory arrangements activities were initiated immediately after inde- have existed in Indian forestry since long in some pendence leading to a rapid industrialization form or the other. However, these were formalized (including the production of paper, , and with a declaration from the Ministry of Environ- saw milling), expansion of railways, network of ment and Forests, Government of India in June highways and road broadening, varied con- 1990, which provided to the state governments a struction activities, river valley hydro projects, framework for involvement of village communities expansion of agriculture etc., claiming large areas in protection, regeneration and development of of forests (nearly 4.13 Mha until 1976) (GOI 1999; degraded forests situated in the vicinity of the GOI 2004). Forests were thus considered a land forest villages. Structured JFM has been in bank for meeting the land needs for other land use operation for almost 20 years and till March 2010, purposes and a resource for earning revenue. an area of 24.6 Mha has been brought under the Further, the subject 'Forest' was legally brought JFM regime (ICFRE 2010). under the concurrent list of the Constitution from the State subject by the 42nd Amendment of the Implications of legal and policy shifts Constitution in 1976. Subsequently, a Central Act As a consequence of the enactment of Forest - Forest Conservation Act 1980, was enacted to Conservation Act 1980, Policy of 1988 and the regulate the diversion of forest land for non- subsequent intervention of the Supreme Court of forestry purposes. It is important to mention here India in 1996, (i) presently there is a ban on felling that prior to the enactment of the Forest of trees in all forests over 1000 m altitude, (ii) high Conservation Act 1980, the diversion of forest land priority has been given for raising fuel wood and for non-forestry purposes during 25 years (1951- leaf fodder producing trees in the government 138 FOREST TRANSITION IN INDIA forests resulting in almost complete exclusion of 2007). Importance has been given to the raising industrial trees, (iii) industrial wood eradication of invasive alien species like Lantana production has been restricted to only on farm camara, which have spread in much of the lands or on waste lands and (iv) a ban on all degraded forest areas of India and are regarded operations in national parks and sanctuaries has threat to biodiversity and regeneration of native been imposed. All these factors have resulted in species (Kumar & Mathur 2014; Manzoor & Shah decline of timber production from natural forests. 2014; Sharma & Raghuvanshi 2010). Alongside there have been increased plantations in various models in agriculturally Liberal wood import policy advanced provinces of the country (Table 3 and In India, until 1970s the natural forests Fig. 4) to meet demands of wood based industries. remained the main source of timber. The total Interestingly, the wood from eucalypts, poplars, production of timber from forests was about 10 casuarina etc. has been declared as agricultural million m3 per year although the country’s produce and is marketed through agricultural requirement was estimated to be about 15 million market committees and even enjoys exemption m3 (NCA 1972). Part of the requirement was met from federal income tax. by harvesting trees from private lands outside forests. The National Forest Policy 1988 also laid Table 3. Recent trend of plantations in Haryana in emphasis on conservation of forests and Mha. biodiversity, and discouraged production of timber from natural forest for industries. The annual Common1/ Forest Farm/Private production of timber from forests had declined to Year Institution2 Total land land about 4 million m3 by 1990. In view of increasing land emphasis on conservation of forest, the Govern- 2006-07 14.0 0.4 32.19 46.90 ment of India took a policy initiative in 1996 to 2007-08 14.0 2.0 28.06 45.00 liberalize the import of wood and wood products by 2008-09 16.0 2.8 32.75 52.20 bringing wood/timber under Open General License 2009-10 13.0 2.2 35.29 50.78 (OGL) category to reduce the demand supply gap and protect existing forests. Since then the import 2010-11 17.0 1.3 32.60 50.66 of wood and wood products has been steadily Total 75.0 8.7 160.00 245.63 increasing (Fig. 5). The current level of import of Average 15.2 1.7 32.20 49.10 wood is about 6 million m3 of which round logs Percentage 31.0 4.0 65.00 100.00 alone constitute more than 93 %. constitutes an important timber species and forms about 15 % 1 2 Community land, Land available in premises of of the total annual imported volume. Most of the government institutions. imported teak is from Myanmar, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Ecuador, Costa Rica and Benin. The value In brief, there has been a major shift in the of the imported wood and wood products has very purpose of managing forests and hence their gradually increased from INR 33,220 million in uses. While earlier the focus was on how to harvest 2003-04 to INR 76,880 million in 2009-10, which is timber sustainably and regenerate major timber approximately $ 6 billion as on date. However, species, now forests are to be conserved for their such trends in import may result into deforestation biodiversity and ecosystem services, particularly and degradation of forests resources in poor and carbon sequestration. In the present conservation emerging economies a phenomenon akin to strategies local people depending on forests for leakage as observed in clean development mecha- their subsistence living are considered very much nism. The shifting of such burden needs to be a part of forest management. While earlier, the examined in detail by conducting a separate study forests were regarded as a revenue source, now (Midgley et al. 2007). governments are generating finance to reduce , conserve biodiversity and Agro-forestry and trees outside forests enhance the ecosystem services occurring for their ecosystem. India must be among the few National Commission on Agriculture in its developing countries, which pay compensation to interim report in 1972 has emphasized importance states with higher forest areas for providing of production forestry (man-made forests) and ecosystem services to the rest of country (Singh recommended creation of Forest Development Cor- BHOJVAID et al. 139

porations in different states for enhancing the investment through bank financing and raising of large scale plantations through social forestry. The report of the commission was instrumental in promoting large scale social forestry programmes in India. Subsequently, India has had large scale social forestry programmes with the aim of producing fuel wood, fodder, small timber and other products from the plantations on wastelands, degraded forests, private marginal lands, village common lands and agricultural farms (Fig. 6 ). These efforts were made with general assistance from externally aided projects from donor agencies such as World Bank, Swedish International Deve- lopment Cooperation Agency (SIDA), Danish Inter- national Development Agency (DANIDA), Depart- Fig. 3. India's Forest cover and Notified forest area ment for International Development (DFID) and based on normalized values. Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) to meet the needs of rural communities. In the first three decades after Independence i.e. 1950-80, the total plantations done by the State forest departments was 3.54 Mha with an investment of INR 2,400 million, while in the Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85) alone, 4.64 Mha of plantations

was raised with an investment of INR 9,260 million. This substantial increase was due to

million m3 internationally aided social forestry projects. Plantations were established outside forest reserves on wasteland owned by the governments and communities on private lands. It was estimated that 5.94 Mha of public lands were covered under block plantation and 2.92 Mha were covered in private areas (GOI 1999). Fig. 4. Trend of timber production from government forests (generally native forests) in India. Source: ICFRE 2010.

Fig. 6. Trend of forest plantation in India of National Five Year Plans.

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(Received on 14.02.2014 and accepted after revisions, on 29.05.2014)