Ethnic Minority Rule in Ethiopia

CEU eTD Collection

In Partial Fulfillment of the of In PartialFulfillment Requ Ethnic MinorityEthnic Rule inEthiopia; Causes andChallenges: Submitted toCentralSubmitted European University Department ofPoliticalScience Supervisor A comparative study Budapest Hungary Tewodros Yalew - irements for the Degree for irements Arts of ofMaster

Prof. 2014 By

Zsolt EnyediZsolt

CEU eTD Collection to dominance political th divests group ethnic majority the when power to come to minorities ethnic grou ethnic majority the exploresconflict studies, it the three analyze resea The rarely. happens that phenomenon ethnic a of minorities, power into coming the to lead that factors determinant the investigates thesis This Abstract power.

cases , ,

in turn leading to a to leading turn in Ethiopia, Syria and Rwanda. Situated in the wider field of ethnic conflict ethnic of field wider the in Situated Rwanda. and Syria Ethiopia, control ps, seeking to identify the common trajectories behind trajectories common the identify to seeking ps,

oiia power political u al

relationship between the ethnic minority which is in power and and which power isin ethnicrelationship minority between the

resistance put up by up put resistance . The analysis shows that ruling ethnic minorities minorities ethnic ruling that shows analysis The . i

rch employs a comparative method to method comparative a employs rch the minority that gradually brings gradually that minority the i autonomy eir or takes away their their away takes or

the ascendance of of ascendance the

CEU eTD Collection Iam supervisor mycomments the throughout wri to goes gratitude deeper My Acknowledgment highly

indebted to my indebted brother to

ting ofthesis. ting this

Yaya . Thank you . Thank being side for my by ii Professor

sl Enyedi Zsolt

every way stepof the for his guidance and and guidance his for .

CEU eTD Collection Bibliography Conclusion Chapter 4Ethnic Minority SyriaRule: and Rwanda Chapter Resistance 3:Ethnic and Rule Minority ChapterMulti 2:Tigray, Coexistenceand in Autonomy intheModernChapter1: of State Politics Ethnicization Introduction Acknowledgment Abstract Contents 4.5 Tutsi Minority4.5 Tutsi Rwanda Rule: 4.4 AlawiofPower Consolidation 4.3 Alawi‟stoPower Ascendance 4.2 Alawi: history ofPersecution 4.1. 3.2 TPLF: ADominantParty Group a Ethnic Minority of 3.1 TPLF from Revolu 2.3 The onsetinTigray ofRevolution 2.2 Modernizationand StateEthiopia Dominance inMultiethnic 2.1 Tigray, Decline Ascendance and 1.2 1.1 Overview Operationalization ofIndicators Variables and Case selection and Methodology Hypothesis 1.2.3 1.2.2 1.2.1

...... Theorizing Ethnicity The Politics Nation State and Ethnic Syria: ofMinority The Perils Rule

......

...... The Psychological ofEthnic Dynamic Conflicts Primordial Theories ofEthnicity InstrumentalEthnicity Theories of ......

...... tion to State Control toState tion ......

......

...... iii

......

- ...... Ethnic Ethiopia ......

......

78 73 68 65 61 58 54 54 45 40 40 35 31 27 26 22 20 18 16 11 11

ii 9 7 5 4 1

CEU eTD Collection 4 p.3 2008, No. 4, 14, 3 2 1 narrowing the and coercion through exercised poweris political that is minorities dominant these i Tutsi Iraq, Hussein‟s Saddam in Sunnis post and colonial of product a are minorities dominant these instances most In groups whoarebeing majorities able demographically togovern despite outnumbered” c “those as minorities political dominant define Haklai Oded and Kaufman Erik era. modern this in exists still rule ethnic minority rare and few very then, even pre of intentions similar with majority international mobilization, mass because Difficult a difficult. becoming increasingly is domination of face the in it exercising and power such attaining Such come tolookpermanent” mayout quickly being and in unalterable,appearbeing lines the Since excluded. be will who and included be will who determine to lines clear provides identity ethnic societies, divided severely L.Horowitz Donald of words the In group. ethnic minority a of exclusion the of expense the at comes power political of exercise and politicized been have cleavages ethnic where societies the majorityanan upper hand Increasingly, society. their in groups majority the with compared underrepresented politically instances many d of victim a been historically have groups ethnic Minority Introduction

Ted Robert Gurr and Barbara Harff,Barbara and Gurr Robert Ted Ibid O., Haklai, and P. Eric Kaufmann, L.Horowitz, Donald ssure and lack of legitimacy are at odds with political power that subordinates a majority. But But majority. a subordinates that power political with odds at are legitimacy of lack and ssure ., 4 ., p. er f upeso ca suppression of fear

modern era and its concomitant ideals of democracy and popular sovereignty give sovereignty popular and democracy of ideals concomitant its and era modern

Democracy in Divided Societies Divided in Democracy

2 .

n lead a minority ethnic group to seek power but the manner of of manner the but power seek to group ethnic minority a lead n d a secured exercise ofpower.especiallyd aexercise This is secured thecase individed

Dominant Dominant ETHNIC CONFLICT IN WORLD POLITICS WORLD IN CONFLICT ETHNIC ethnicity: from minority to majority, majority, to from ethnicity: minority n Burundi or Alawis in Syria. in Alawis or Burundi n , Journal of Democracy, Vol. 4, No. 4, 18 No.4, 4, Vol. Journal , ofDemocracy, 1

iscrimination and domination and in and domination and iscrimination ommunally differentiated ruling ruling differentiated ommunally Nations and Nationalism and Nations , Westview Press, 1994, p.6 1994, Press, Westview , 4

A common feature of feature common A - - colonial process, colonial 38, 1993, P. 18 P. 1993, 38, 3 .

, Vol. Vol. , , “in ,

CEU eTD Collection No.4, 596 5, Vol. Studies, ofAfrican Eastern 8 7 6 5 regionalism party. ruling the by vigorouslypursued politics ethnic an in itself found hascountry the core, its atTPLF the with coming the Since wayand power topower retainsthis for such purpose major The Tigr the group, and failed factions ethnic different succeede that war civil bloody a of decades two than more after which Ethiopia of case the at looks research The forpolitical conflictand political why action. orhow ethnic groups mobilize be can identityDiffe action. political this for mobilized which to extent the and identity ethnic their with identification masses of aims their behind group ethnic their mobilize disadvan numerical its despite power seek to minority ethnic an to come to minorityethnic Th whichtake as ratifies theriska principle ofdemocratization rule. majority to unlikely are regimes these majority, the with conflict and subordination of history past their suffer regimes these authoritarianism Since possible. as much as power of circle of

Donald L.Horowitz, ETHNIC GROUPS IN CONFLIC IN GROUPS L.Horowitz,ETHNIC Donald John Abbink John Horowitz, Ibid e research question for this thesis is thesis this for question research e ., 15 ., p. Supra note 2 note Supra

, ,

Ethnic h rln pry a as succ also has party ruling the ay People‟s Liberation Front ( Front Liberation People‟s ay 8 comes as a natural consequence of their rule. Lack of legitimacy added with with added legitimacy of Lack rule. their of consequence natural a as comes

d in d to power of the Ethiopian People‟s Revolutionary Democra Revolutionary People‟s Ethiopian the of power to - based federalism and ethnicity in Ethiopia: reassessing the experiment after 20 years 20 after experiment the reassessing Ethiopia: in ethnicity and federalism based linguistic ethno on based structure federal a of creation the from Starting of the research is to explain in what manner such a minority has sought its its sought has minority a such manner what in explain to is research the of , , p.23 toppling a military regime; military a toppling

power?

The question addresses the specific historical routes that drive drive that routes historical specific addressesthe question The

rent theories compete to explain this phenomenon of ethno of phenomenon this explain to compete theories rent now power power now - , 618, 2011, 618,

what does determine such an unlikely phenomen unlikely an such determine does what ee i mkn pltcl at frain f formation party political making in eeded a long period starting froma long 1991 TPLF T 2 , University of California Press, 1985, p.500 1985, Press, California of University , p.596. exercising political power political exercising

is exercised by elites from a minority ethnic ethnic minority a from elites by exercised is

the initial attempts of power sharing between sharing power of attempts initial the ) , representing the ethnic group called group ethnic the representing ,

tage. The elites‟ ability to to ability elites‟ The tage.

5 a

depends 6 lack of legitimacy, legitimacy, of lack

. tic Front (EPRDF) Front tic

much

on of an an of on , Journal ,

Tigre. on the on ollow ollow 7 -

CEU eTD Collection 13 19 3, No. 12 11 Framework Quarterly 10 113 12, Vol. Studies, in Development Progress 9 According majority. a over ruling group ethnic minority a of persistence and incidence the both conflicts ethnic causing in discrimination ethno of Harff incidence Barbara and Gurr Robert Ted by provided framework theoretical societies. divided ethnically in conflict of history specific the under in sequences conditions and patterns of instance distinct a as analyzed be can that context phenomenon This ofthe importanceapprehension involved feeling inethnicconflictsdomination ofthe and L.Horowitz tofor thatpoints andas by resourcesDonald thepsychologicalpropounded approach rol the emphasizes that approach instrumental the follow groups ethnic of leaders members and leadership provide a elites how give over to complexity seems conflicts theories ethnic these to explanation of comprehensive None are psychological. literature and conflict ethnic instrumental, of field primordial, the in approaches main The conflict. political ethno a and theories different the examining critically by action political for mobilized This without politics ethnic an propagate population incurring therisk ofh the of percent 10 only with group ethnic still it However lines. ethnic

Assefa Mehretu, Mehretu, Assefa

Gurr and Harff, Harff, and Gurr Haklai, Oded Horowitz, Lipset, Martin Seymour and RitaJalali

eerh rces y idn ot h seii pattern specific the out finding by proceeds research 10 - , Vol. 107, No. 4, No.4, 1992 107, Vol. , 50, 2000, p. 20 2000, 50, . I . , Journal of Global Change and Governance, Vol. 3, No. 1, 2009, p. 2. No.1, 2009, 3, Vol. Governance, Change and ofGlobal Journal , Supra note 5 note Supra n lig n A minority rule over a hostile majority: The case of Syria case of The majority: hostile a over rule minority A Supra note 1 note Supra ht of the particular question the research the question particular the of ht Ethnic Federalism and its Potential to Dismember the Ethiopian State Ethiopian the Dismember to its Potential Federalismand Ethnic

- of a minority rule will not happen by a simple turn of events but within a a within but events of turn simple a by happen not will rule minority a of political conflicts in general and the central importance of persecution and and persecution of importance central the and general in conflicts political , p.140 ,

ostile reaction fromethnic othergroups ostile that arerelatively insize. bigger

- 93, p. 600 ; quoted in Bojan ; quoted p. 600 93,

remains

Racial and Ethnic Conflicts: A Global Perspective, Global A Conflicts: Ethnic and Racial

to be answered be to - 133, 2012, p.116 2012, 133, ,

Oded Haklai Oded e of elites in directing conflicts over competition over conflicts directing in elites of e 3

ht r vre i t in varied are that a Blagojevic a

how did the TPLF representing a minority minority a representing TPLF the did how

addresses the author will follow both theboth follow will author the addresses has devis has , Nationalism , and , Causes of Ethnic Conflict: A Conceptual Conceptual A Conflict: Ethnic of Causes , s

ht mnrt ehi gop is group ethnic minority a that ed a theoretical framework for for framework theoretical a ed

heir cause and internal internal and cause heir y xedn up extending By , Sage , publications:

Ethnic Politics, Vol. 6, 6, Vol. Politics, Ethnic 13

Political Science Science Political

ht xlis the explains that pproaches to to pproaches . 11 n the on

CEU eTD Collection 14 to According majority. conditions the dominated and power to came whatexactly minorities ethnic in explain to down narrowed be still can theory the believe I rule, minority of issue the understand to framework general a gives theory Haklai‟s Oded though Even Hypothesis ruling ethnic minorities. countries different compare will research the rule minority ethnic an of phenomenon the in For majority. a favors that international, and national both context, a within power their maintain group such from elites the how and action political for mobilized is ethnicity way the group, ethnic minority a of power to ascendance for causes root explain will it Ethiopia, of case the on focusing by research The system. undemocratic an in rule to continues and 1994 in rule majority Hutu deposed regime present the that colonization colonization that though proves Rwanda in regime Tutsi present of case the colonized, been not a has Ethiopia, that in country rule minority present the Besides rules. minority ethnic of feature common a t differsfrom Ethiopia in ruleminority The that wouldconceal ethnictensions. of legitimization ma to according rule minority ethnic an prolongs that condition third The rule. this of stabilization the third, and colonizers; of manipulation the through happens experienc collective to due cohesion Oded to

Haklai, jorities to establish group cohesion, dominance of the army by the minority, and and minority, the by army the of dominance cohesion, group establish to jorities

Supra note 12 note Supra Haklai

s hoy he sae rcse big bu sc a ioiy ue Frt group First, rule. minority a such about bring processes stage three theory ‟s

ethnic , p. 23 ,

nesfe ehiiy n spotd us mnrt, t s og after long is it minority, Tutsi supported and ethnicity intensified

minority rule through emphasizing national identity and common goals goals common and identity national emphasizing through rule minority

e of persecution; second, seeking and attaining power that power attaining and seeking second, persecution; of e he explanation that commonly regards colonization as commonly colonization that regards explanation he 4

the sake of inferring common causes common inferring of sake the Oded ali r iaiiy f the of inability are Haklai Oded Haklai, Haklai, ethnic ethnic

with

the CEU eTD Collection exist British the then Dutch first colonization of case direct a is this but minority white the by rule minority ethnic an era? modern the in power to come minority ethnic an does how question, research the explaining in serve not will monarchies modern pre from privilege its continued S Arab the during dominance Sunni the of continuation a is way same the in which rule minority Sunni pre of monarchy afte monarchy constitutional Burundi in rule minority ethnic Tutsi the reason this For monarchies. modern pre ratherthan citizenship equal and sovereigntypopular of time the in and governments in interested min Tutsi and Syria, different s different most the use will I research this of purposes the For Methodology and selection Case to power ofethnic an by followed is that dominance political majority the by persecutionfacespast the in privileged status a had that group ethnic an when power cometo s to minority the help that conditions (3) and, power obtain to group the stimulates that legacy colonial (2) persecution, of experience collective by about brought identity cohesive or formation identity (1) of, process mino ruling of emergence the to contribute factors of number a

in the same political systemst politicalor the same in ni toa rlr. h rao f reason The rulers. Ottoman unni

countries .

y uh ma that mean I such By o ehi mnrte cm t pwr n t in power to came minorities ethnic how - colonial times is not covered by this thesis. The same holds true for the Iraqi the for true holds same The thesis. this by covered not is times colonial

that are experiencing are that minority tay in power. in tay rt rl i Rwanda in rule ority .

C olonization is not a result of ethnic of result a not is olonization independence r .

In this research I make the hypothesis that hypothesis the make I research this In

piiee sau i ete hvn lcl autono local having either in status privileged a ate which on account of their difference in cultural or other or culturaldifference in their accountof on whichate

persecution an ethnic minority rule. minority ethnic an r hi ecuin s that, is exclusion their or .

s etoe i t in mentioned As n 1962 in 5

leads to resistance to leads

which e oen eid f bureaucratic of period modern he conflict between conflict ystems design by co by design ystems rities and this takes a three stage stage three a takes this and rities

s cniuto of continuation a is

The countries include Ethiopia, Ethiopia, include countries The e begi he

that constituted itself as a as itself constituted that n tnc ru ta has that group ethnic an that results in the coming coming the in results that nning the research is is research the nning South South

ethnic groups that groups ethnic ethnic minorities ethnic Africa also had also Africa mparing three three mparing h Tutsi the y r a or my

by the the by

CEU eTD Collection Rwanda ethnici Ethiopia of as minorities these labeling in used is that trait ethnic ascriptive differ also they countries, these in had colonization impact the in difference the Besides evencolonizer. a maj hegemonic the with power for competition of history long a after power to came minority ethnic ruling the research, 1959 in q research the to interesting is What hierarchy. this solidified and came for colonizers Belgian the before centuries classes ruling of group privileged a were countries these in Tutsis The status. privileged the p to come to wher Syria in as power to coming their to contributing directly without groups ethnic some to privilege of status a given cases some in has Colonization propose. to seems Haklai Oded as power to minorities sing the as colonization take to mistake been colonized. have that countries all cover to has also but conflict, ethnic rule, minority ethnic of phenomenon of ingredient main the miss only not will analysis the rule minority ethnic as colonization differentiate that criteria But in comparing these countries selected fo selected countries these comparing in But

ooies hn n Syria in than colonizers ty is defined in terms terms in defined is ty

, the Tutsis wereethn Tutsis the , only to come back and rule again rule and back come to only ,

ethnicity is basically based on the language difference between th between difference language the on based basically is ethnicity ower uestion in this thesis this in uestion

e it was long after the French colonization the Alawi minority group succeeded group minority Alawi the colonization French the after long was it e

. The cases in Rwanda and Burundi also reveal an even minor role played by played role minor even an reveal also Burundi and Rwanda in cases The s ority of the Amhara ethnic group. In the case of Ethiopia there was not not was there Ethiopia of case the In group. ethnic Amhara the of ority

their identi their

ically different because of their racial background and the historicalthe and racialbackground their of because icallydifferent of religious of n iig upr t ehi mnrte ad etn te w them vesting and minorities ethnic to support giving in

is that the Tutsi the that is ty enter into antagonism into enter ty

difference between the minority and minority the between difference

e n ncsay atr ht ruh rln ethnic ruling brought that factor necessary and le in 1994 in r analysis part of my argument my of part analysis r 6

s . In Ethiopia, which will be the focus of the of focus the be will which Ethiopia, In . in Rwanda in . If one takes outside domination or domination outside takes one If .

lost power to the majority Hutus majority the to power lost ethnic groups. While in the case case the in While groups. ethnic

will be will e groups, groups, e h aoiy In majority. the

that it is a a is it that in Syria Syria in in the in t a ith the the

CEU eTD Collection deni that discriminations legal and systematic and genocide of caseRwandan take can Persecution majo ethnic minority the means status privileged a in be to Hence minorities. ethnic with case the usually fro groups these differentiate to used is group ethnic minority a for status privileged a in being of concept The (3). rule minority a There of Vari Operationalization result inethnicminority rule. not did but occurred have might instances similar where cases negative and cases positive both picking randomly not in justified is variable dependent the on based cases the selecting of choice minorities this of goal The means. minori the leads finally majorities the by groups ethnic these of persecution later the by compounded minorities ethnic According regimes. ethnic minority of countries these in factors similar specific how us show countri these in majorities the by played role historical the as well as minorities ethnic respective the by faced persecution of types the mi and majority betweenthe relationship ethnic the in differences other and above The were that Tutsis the herders. and peasants were that Hutus, majority the between role occupational rity. have might ethnica Orenjoyed uponthemajority. group statusofdomination the group has group re three variables at use in this in use at variables three re

rather than providing a general theory of how ethnic minority rules arise. Hence arise. rules minority ethnic how of theory general a providing than retained a self a retained

many different forms from from forms different many ties to seize power away from the majority and retain it through d through it retain and majority the from away power seize to ties

hss il e n o epann te hnmnn f uig ethnic ruling of phenomenon the explaining of one be will thesis

- ables and Indicators ables m the ones that are normally in a status of subordination as is as subordination of status a in normally are that ones the m rule

or autonomy and autonomy or

research; privileged status (1), persecution (2), and ethnic and (2), persecution (1), status privileged research; to the hypothesis made hypothesis the to s hc ae o experiencing now are which es 7

vivid types such as physical attacks as in the the in as attacks physical as such types vivid

has managed to avoid domination by the by domination avoid to managed has contributed to this unlikely phenomenon phenomenon unlikely this to contributed

the prior privileged status by the the by status privileged prior the

minority rule, would would rule, minority es the ethnic groups groups ethnic the es nority and and nority ifferent

my my CEU eTD Collection government mov resistance organized of 15 variable third the For majority. the and minority ethnic ruling the between relationship priv of sources secondary on depends basically research The minority. group Or group. minority ethnic an from people of up made as leadership and membership of basis its by identified be can that group organized an s such is gain there whether be majority will rule the minority ethnic for of indicator basic chances the Hence leadership. the limiting by rule its sustain to tries group ethic organized this that case the be also should it but groups, ethnic other with democratically a since sufficient, group ethnic minority the by action organized an is only Not group. ethnic minority the of part the poweron control to attempt organized an is there where cases upon research looks ethnic i and real no an is there though even minority from people of number disproportional exhibiting leadership political country‟s a of coincidence the confusing of mistake the avoid To offices. political major or all control group variable third The ethnocraticregime? an forms majority the and citizens of class subordinated a be to taken is minority ethnic the that w question basic The power. political to access denied systematically been has minority ethnic the if be will focus the research this self their exercising in equality

I use the term political organization interchangeably with political party because in some cases there will be an will be cases there some in partywithbecause political interchangeably organization political use I theterm ileged status and persecution will be analyzed by using historical background of the specific specific the of background historical using by analyzed be will persecution and status ileged ,

this organization this political party can be formed on ethnic basis and compete for power equally and and equally power for compete and basis ethnic on formed be can party political 15 .

, minority ethnic rule ethnic minority ,

ement or something similar that later on turns itself to political party once it be once party political to turnsitselfon that later similar something or ement

or political party proclaims itself as a representati a as itself proclaims party political or

- determination rights to promote their culture. For the purposes of of purposes the For culture.their promote to rights determination ill be, has the majority controlled political power in a way a in power political controlled majority the has be, ill ,

identifies such a regime where me where regime a such identifies

in additio in ntentional hegemony by the minority ethnic group, the the group, ethnic minority the by hegemony ntentional 8

to the leadership by people form the ethnic ethnic the form people by leadership the to literature ;

especially the variables of of variables the especially mbers of the minority minority the of mbers ve of a named ethnic ethnic named a of ve c political uch comes a comes a CEU eTD Collection majority dominant past the between relationship past This minority. ethnic dominant present the espec focusing groups ethnic between majority of dynamics backgroundhistorical the bygiving Ethiopia scenein political the entered has politics ethicized way the discuss will chapter third and second The realm ofand ofpolitical theforms action and meaning the enters ethnicity how explain that theories contending the of some sketch briefly also will It politics. state modern in ethnicity of relevance the discuss briefly and issue the raise will chapter dominant where states modern pre of regimes hierarchical and aristocratic to opposed as sovereignty popular state bureaucratic with significance conceptual and practical the explaining a of importance and justifications the reader the give to attempt anway a in Itis ethnicity. of politics the and state nation modern the between relationship the for framework conceptual general the give will chapter introductory first The Overview minorityru a is there say can we then affirmative the in are organization political the concerning questions above the to answers the If group? political a such of founding the for objectives proclaimed a group such led present and past the in has who asking by organization such in leadership assuming for criteria the and group organized an such of composition ethnic the see to be will tasks basic the Among used. be will sources minority ethnic ruling a as group organized politically a identifying mnrt ehi group ethnic minority a le.

- uodnt rltosi o rlr ad ujcs a b te om Hne this Hence norm. the be can subjects and rulers of relationship subordinate

exists and equal citizenship and democracy are considered the tenets of of tenets the considered are democracy and citizenship equal and exists ‟s

dominance and control of power in a setting where a modern modern a where setting a in power of control and dominance ially on the implications of such undemocratic past upon past undemocratic such of implications the on ially nd on what basis were selections made. What were the the were What made. selections were basis what on nd nalyzing ethnicity and ethnic conflict by way of of way by conflict ethnic and ethnicity nalyzing 9

in discussing these issues. This thesis deals thesis This issues. these discussing in ethnicethnicity. group and both primary and secondary secondary and primary both - minority relationship minority

CEU eTD Collection recommend thelessons fro an conflict underlying interethnic and the democracy of infer future overall to the seek for regimes also such of will implications conclusion This hypothesis. our of claim the upon wil thesis the Finally how past for privilegepower the isdecisive ethnic ascendanceof minorities. to explain to groups ethnic minority and majority the between domination, or subordination power, these be will of focus the again setting Here countries. geographical and political historical, different the despite outcome this similar to led have that aspects common specific the know to is comparison the of purpose The and contrast differentiate to utilizes thesis the cases comparative the to devoted be will four Chapter govern of theTigremobilization minoritypurports torepresentnow. ethnic groupuntil it the against struggle its particular in the party on the recounting for by provided ethnicity TPLF, significance of power to ascendance the on be will focus main w that approaches theoretical the of light in discussed be will group minority dominant present the and ere explained in the preceding chapter and the hypothesis posed by this thesis. Here the Here thesis. this by posed hypothesis the and chapter preceding the in explained ere

in order to reach out to the common causes of causes common the to out reach to order in l conclude by analyzing the findings over the comparative cases by drawing drawing by cases comparative the over findings the analyzing by conclude l m pastand present scenarios. to observe the relationship or constellation of political of constellation or relationship the observe to 10

the phen the omena of ethnic minority rule. rule. minority ethnic of omena

ment and the the and ment d CEU eTD Collection 19 18 17 2 p. 2002, Press, CambridgeUniversity 16 within everyone bringing expansion imperial in keen were that empires Old matter. people these ruled that states new the by replaced were manner hierarchical in governed and God of grace the by ruled forms” ethicized and nationalist in moderniza political of effect an rather but of result direct away wear to managed a yet not has modernity politics which pattern archaic “an of not and modernization ethnicization makes what is Wimmer, Andreas argues This, gover a byreplaced be to have caliphs and kings that now ruled, be should state the name which in and law the before rights equal enjoy that people the to belongs “who of exclusion and inclusion of and egalitarian as mod of theories grand the asuniversalistic not was participation equal and citizenship democracy, of features main features” cultural shared and destiny political common by differentiated as not pr and honor of participation distinctions by “undifferentiated citizens as but subjects, and rights equal enjoying and procedure democratic of sove th to contrast in states nation Modern 1.1 Chapter1:

Ibid Ibid Ibid MODERNITY, OF SHADOWS CONFLICT, ETHNIC AND EXCLUSION NATIONALIST Wimmer, Andreas

The Nation State and Ethnic Politics Ethnic and State Nation The reignty of the people defined as a people exercising its sovereign power through some form form some through power sovereign its exercising people a as defined people the of reignty ., 52 ., p. 113 ., p. 3 ., p. nment representing the nation” nment representing

in the name of the people and now that like should be governed by like, the identity of of identity the like, by governed be should like that now and people the of name the in

Ethnicization ofPolitics in the Modern State

19 . . What has replaced the former empires and kingdoms that kingdoms and empires former the replaced has What . 17

pe oen mie drv ter eiiay from legitimacy their derive empires modern pre e tion itself” tion ernization claimed. Rather the nation state has its logic its has state nation the Ratherclaimed. ernization 11

or in other words “modernity itself is cast is itself “modernity words other in or 16 . But the modern nation state with its with state nation modern the But .

estige but held together held but estige

the CEU eTD Collection 192 23 22 21 9 p. 1993, Press, ofWisconsin TheUniversity the 20 between hegemony for competition the which in civilization earlier this upon anchored 19 the in state modern a of formation the towards Ethiopia Tigray. of expansion of province the now is what in is center Et The to defend their self tension largest the that conflicts ethnic widespread conceded” universally now is pluralism cultural mobilized and politicized of force potent po and economic of currents by latter the lands, many in cleavages cultural deepening by former the interrogation: relentless to subject now were “b says Young as world, que the of regions many in conflicts ethnic recurring into put was state nation the in found polity unified a of certainties the war 1990‟s. the of aftermath the in unfolded what by question in put be to gravely be natio that prominence ideological and zeal The participation. and democracy, citizenship, equal of goods collective the with endowed be to such as and state the of owners rightful the be to were who defining was stat the rather alone, citizenship civic their by interact groups interest different where stage universalist republican neutral a not was state nation The Thailand,Japan, cultur or ethnic their for regard without dominion their into reach their

John Young, Young, John Harff, and Gurr Ibid BAY?, AT STATE NATION THE PLURALISM, OF CULTURAL TIDE RISING THE (ed.) Young Crawford

., 3 ., p. hiopian state traces its roots to the Axumite civilization in the first millennium B.C, whoseB.C,millennium first the inAxumitecivilization roots to the its traces state hiopian

between

enu arcte o gncd wr aog te reasons other among were genocide of atrocities heinous Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia in Democracy and Regionalism Supra note 1 note Supra

states that want to extend their hegemonic powers and ethnic groups that wanted wanted groupsand that ethnic hegemonicpowers their toextend thatwant states and Ethiopia - determination rightsandprotectdetermination their identity. n building and national integration received before the 1960‟s were later to to later were 1960‟s the before received integration national and building n

, p. 13. , p.

reinvented

began in the 1960‟s and 1960‟s the in began

themselves as nationstates.themselves , 12 Third World Quarterly, V.19, No. 2, 191 2, No. Quarterly, World V.19, Third litical liberalization now girdling the globe. The globe. the girdling now liberalization litical

23 e was captured by a nationalist project that project nationalist a by captured was e

h sbeun cnuis ht a the saw that centuries subsequent The after the cold war exploded into one of of one into exploded war cold the after 22

rsl o the of result a

al similarity al th oth the nation and state and nation the oth

century was basically was century -

204, 1998, P. P. 1998, 204, After the cold cold the After , like China, China, like , to b the by stion

perennial 21 . The . CEU eTD Collection 26 143. p. 20, note Supra 25 105 24 completed. Adwa in expansionary conquest IIMenelik Amhara(1889 of (1855 Gondar of II Tewodros Emperor are actors main Three state. new the over power large consolidated encompassing a to Amhara the state of ascendance the saw Ethiopian East and West and modern South the to territories the of creation final the in culminated What aregreat of considered assimilators tobethe Amhara the and dynasty, imperial the state, the church, Orthodox Ethiopian “the historians by stated been repeatedly has what in expressed itself polity the of creation the in role them st antagonism between latter the and language groups significance two ofthe This conquest.conquerand through included werelatter that ethnic lattergroups the than politics earlier the wi country from the of history polity Ethiopian the of core basic the constituted that groups language two these that is import to wants thesis this analysis subsequent the for important basically is What h in hand went also religion Christian Orthodox common and ancestor linguistic Semitic common a from descending groups language Tigre and Amhara

Sarah Vaughan, Vaughan, Sarah (ed), Young in Cited Crawford ETHIOPIA, IN CONFLICT ETHNIC AND NATIONALISM Gashaw, Solomon p. 2003, ofEdinburgh, TheUniversity thesis, PhD ETHIOPIA, IN POWER AND ETHNICITY Vaughan, Sarah

the process of territorial expansion and the creation of the modern empire state had been been had state empire modern the of creation the and expansion territorial of process the eeirtn atoiy f hi taiinl einl ues n the and rulers the regional in traditional centralization their state Amhara of of their impact authority the deteriorating with felt cen increasingly junior the unequally within peasants as status served and but positions Tigray for counterparts from directly nobility the partners…competing while regions new these over power of exercise and resources of control the over beneficiaries the 26

This expansionII by Menelik Amhara, made from the particularly Shoa those Supra note 24 note Supra

ll continuously play a big hand in hand big a play continuously ll all corners and within two years after defeating the Italianat colonizers the years defeating after two within cornersandall , p.104 , -

1913). Menelik from his 1913). Menelik from

1868), the Tigrayan Yohannes IV (1872 IV Yohannes Tigrayan the 1868),

the peripheralthe regions”. 13

at the forefront of this modern state building state modern this of forefront the at

base pursued inShoa a vigorous and with this state formation project. formation state this with and

the drive to the ethnic the to drive the rl tt [n] the [and] state tral 25

and conflictual conflictual and ems from their ems from - Tigre culture culture Tigre -

1889) and 1889)

policy of policy of ,

CEU eTD Collection Studies, Social for Forum HISTORY, 29 28 ideological 27 mere for be might it that fact the from aside rebellion TPLF the by mobilization groups national ethno independent of autonomy the wa question the whether over movement student the of participants the exercised that division deep the of segment nationalist ethno the on dwell regime Hailesellassie the against movement student the by question‟ „national th was what to reaction Their 1960‟s. the in then by had country the university only the join to chance the got that few the among were state, federal ethno an govern presently successful a through arrangement t state revolution modern this changed dramatically that elites The others conflict andpotential its for ethnocratic wasarrangement. inits based st the of integration nationalist the of course the throughout since conflict ethnic for potential the of seeds the had century twentieth the in consolidated was that state bureaucratic the that clear point the make to the of loss the also s a instilled that status and privilege but historical state, the by pursued governance extractive and undemocratic the The status. privileged its securing in success insists that group ethnic minority historical a a of by product a antagonism is rule minority present the that point central the make will thesis con the in force driving the been has Tigre and Amhara the between hegemony for competition of historicity above The

Bahru Zewde (ed) ,DOCUMENTING THE ETHIOPIAN STUDENT MOVEMENT: AN EXERCISE IN ORAL ORAL IN EXERCISE AN MOVEMENT: STUDENT ETHIOPIAN THE ,DOCUMENTING (ed) Zewde Bahru Vaughan, Sarah , Young John ful mobilization of mobilization ful f hi poic ws asd y h Ahr ad specifically II power of Menelik and Amhara the by caused was province their of the depicting most result Amhara a As term language). the of (derivative Amharigna of imposition hey led from their home base of the Tigre region, organized under the TPLF, and and TPLF, the under organized region, Tigre the of base home their from led hey Supra note 23 note Supra Supra note 24 note Supra t, h culture the ate,

flictual history of the modern state and in the following chapters the the chapters following the in and state modern the of history flictual , 192 , p. the masses the , p.103 , . 27

2010, p. p. 105 2010,

Tigrayans concluded that the general decline general the that concluded Tigrayans f h epr bidr ws taken was builders empire the of

by the elites the by

ense of injustice of ense 14 s one of class in a multi ethnic empire or over over or empire ethnic multi a in class of one s

of their ethic group was not only grounded on onlygrounded not was group ethic their of . 29

hs rfrne o eho national ethno for preference This .

But for the present it is essential essential is it present the for But

h rs to rise the s n moiin y the by imposition an as 28

(1930 en termed as the as termed en - 74)

was to was CEU eTD Collection 69 No. 1, 16, 32 31 30 Ethiopia T chapters later the in shown be will As ethnicity. to gave it relevance status psychological and primordial the from stems democratically govern ob describes: German one As itself. for power political huge a sustaining co which EPRDF, party ruling the or party, coalition a runs TPLF that above said been has what in lies answer the of Part competition. and formation party based ethnic an propound to chooses it time same the at and power controls still TPLF how to own state and Derg the of regime militarythe toppling after TPLF madeconsiderations andclear of founder as one TPLF saying: member instrument for or persuasion The TPLF The

Siegfried Pausewang, Pausewang, Siegfried Vaughan, Sarah Ibid

creation ,

p. 106 p. (OPDO) and the Amhara Nati(OPDO) andAmhara the Organization Democratic People‟s Oromo the wereprocess to this from arise important most The parties. new into groups ethnic other from war of agains war the of years last the during TPLF, the minority, powerless a as aside Amhara whereas people, Ethiopian shoved being avoid To 40%. the to 30 Oromo the and 25% of possibly comprise 7% only up make Tigre the a in them occupies It addressed. being it easilyfelt as amongst ordinary a mainslogan people, without mobilized o be concern primary the was it manner; fundamental to going not they because it are on of focus to have forefront you and minds the people‟s in is in It mobilization. for being basis couldn of they that sense such Tigray, the in minds in people‟s contradiction primary the was Nationality

, in ethnic terms unequalled even by other African countries that face the same problems problems same the face that countries African other by even unequalled terms ethnic in

it has it

- 8 rule

5, 2009, p. p. 2009, 71. 5, . The Tigre comprising less than 10 percent of the population creates a dilemma as as dilemma a creates population the of percent 10 than less comprising Tigre The . t the military regime of Mengistu Hailemariam, organized prisoners prisoners organized Hailemariam, Mengistu of regime military the t s Supra note 24 note Supra sought the alleg the sought

the country no matter how its numerical minority can compromise its appeal to appeal its compromise can minority numerical its how matter no country the Ethiopia: Political View From Below From View Political Ethiopia:

, interview, (TPLF founder member, Mekelle, 8 October 1998), p. p. 164 1998), October 8 Mekelle, member, founder interview, (TPLF ,

l esn t sie power seize to reasons al iance of different ethnic based ethnic different of iance onal Democratic Mov 15

PLF , South African Journal of International Affairs, Vol. Vol. Affairs, ofInternational Journal South , African

(1974

after its takeover of power of takeover its after ‟t get beyond it to consider any other other any consider to it beyond get ‟t f the majority of the population: it was it population: the of majority the f - 1991) ement (ANDM) -

opts elites of other ethnic groups but but groups ethnic other of elites opts 30 much moreclass issue thanthe , parties which in most cases are cases most in which parties

t a as ld y practical by led also was it and controlling the govern the controlling and evr f tipa politics Ethiopian of server

32 .

has stru has

ctured 31 ment

its its CEU eTD Collection 35 34 33 engendering conflict the in literature scholarly the in interest an Such tools. theoretical for need the and realityempirical this explaining in interest new a to rise given has conflicts these explain theo of lack the and 1960‟s the since conflicts ethnic of explosion The 1.2 political action? question the with deal that theories the of some minorit a such from elite an of power on grip relentless and fierce a face now that groups ethnic minority other and majority the but toppled it regime the only not of demise the to power seize and succeeded to rebellion its for ethnicity minor a on resting TPLF how in ,and Ethiopia in state the against opposition and competition of scene the entered politics ethicized how of process the into delving Before center” intend regions all in parties) political satellite called (also organizations branch framed have and power of division in interested seem “hardly they system federal and consociational a building of claim their despite in this state modern already was citizens” Ethiopian as second only g „ethnic their of member as foremost and first Ethiopians declared that ethnicization was says come not did politics. their in tribalism and conflict ethnic of

Andreas Wimmer, Wimmer, Andreas Abbink, Jon Young, John

Ethnicity Theorizing . 35

“ a process accompanied by a tortuous and to many people a painful rhetoric of of rhetoric painful a people many to and tortuous a by accompanied process a Supra note 8 note Supra Ethnicity and PowerEthiopia in and Ethnicity visible, as Andreas Wimmer, Wimmer, Andreas as visible,

naturally but with the heavy hand of the victorious rebellions victorious the of hand heavy the with but naturally

Supra note 16, note Supra ed to prevent the development of political dynamics independent of the new new the of independent dynamics political of development the prevent to ed troductory section referred to to referred section troductory , , p.597

p.110

. 34

hs edny f xlsvl cnrlig oiia power political controlling exclusively of tendency This , Review of African Political Economy, No 70, 531 70, No Economy, AfricanPolitical Review , of whose a whose y ethnic group, next will be a short summary of of summary short a be will next group, ethnic y 16 33 ,

Creating such an ethicized polity, one can say can one polity, ethicized an such Creating in what sense ethnicity becomes ethnicity sense what in pointed ccount of the roots of ethnic of roots the of ccount out his concern that the Tigre rebels Tigre the that concern his out retical frameworks that that frameworks retical

which as Pausewang as which ity platform used used platform ity

- oiis n the in politics 42, 1996, p.531 1996, 42, relevant for for relevant roup‟ and roup‟

CEU eTD Collection 38 37 No.3, 451 43, Vol. 36 material creating through identities ethnic of effect the neutralizing than rather modernization modernizatio conflictual called so the with started was theorizing reverse this of beginning the And conflicts. ethnic of reality empirical of face the in analysis their of center the at ethnicity reconstituted theo modernization pot melting above The unimportant anddysfunctional. identifications” primordial of series a by created conscience collective a by …united society or of qualities the are that relationships contractual Such autonomy. individual and contract of basis the on citizen other every on depend and loyalty ethnic and kinship immediate their transcend integrated organically an with society society” integrated mechanically a replace to potential the has which labor of division a to leads “modernization that argued hand other the on Durkheim andmodernization theculminati processof the disappearthrough would domination class of form anyotheras nationalism Ethnic consciousness. false a under groups these tying by exploitation underlying the masking of way Durkheim Emile and Marx Karl of writings the to roots its traces modernization economic of forces the by methodologic rational a transformation to subject phenomenon aethnicity as of studyapproachthe This to individualism. by identity ethnic irrational the replace would modernization as people of relations political and social the in identity ethnic of relevance the of away fading the began was ethnicity of aspect

Ibid Ibid Saul Newman ganically interrelated societies in a modern world will render “a mechanically integrated integrated mechanically “a render will world modern a in societies interrelated ganically ., 454 ., p. 454 ., p. . 37 . For Marx, religion, ethnicity religion, Marx, For .

h bss f hs the this of basis The

tere. hs mdriain hois f tnct age ht economic that argue ethnicity of theories modernization These theories. n , Does Modernization Breed Ethnic Politic Ethnic Breed Modernization Does , - 478, 1991, p. 451 p. 1991, 478,

against a backdrop of modernization theories that rather predicted rather that theories modernization of backdrop a against 38

on of exploitation of the proletariat.

r i ta, cnmc oenzto rqie idvdas to individuals requires modernization economic that, is ory ,

and nationalism are nationalism and is ee elcd y te tere ta now that theories other by replaced were ries 17 al Conflict? Conflict? al

Cambridge University Press, World Politics Politics World Press, CambridgeUniversity

used by the dominant classes as a as classes dominant the by used 36

al CEU eTD Collection 378 p. 1996, Press University 41 40 39 pri other criticize also to wants Cohen being. into comes action political in factor relevant a as ethnicity way cultural available the of int their articulating of means a use as markers make unconsciously, rather will, way formal a in themselves view explicitlythis Cohen, puts confl ethnic to approach instrumental this of proponent prominent A something as but markers mal ancestral and racial religious, cultural, to tied identity fixed a as vi interest economic of terms in mobilization ethnic of formulation This goals. political of instrument ratheran but societymodern a in people of interaction driven that is premise basic som the not argument is ethnicity this In terms. ethnic in people the mobilize and group position job get to the that propose ethnicity of theories Instrumental 1.2.1 ethnic theories. el totheroleespecially of thatpoints theone incongruent and differential the and elites of role the emphasizing by premises, two of either on rest conflict ethnic to modernization relate that theories These resources. economic same the for competition the in together brought be will exis that groups Ethnic divisions. ethnic invigorates it interactions, based interest

Abner Cohen, in Werner Sollors (ed.) , THEORIES OF ETHNICI OF THEORIES , (ed.) Sollors in Werner Cohen, Abner Saul Newman, Horowitz, leable and changeable

Instrumental Ethnicity of Theories Supra Supra note 36 note Supra

note s

5, p. 101 5, tig rmril n taiinl ht a n ro i te ainl interest rational, the in room no has that traditional and primordial ething in accordance with their educational background will return to their ethnic ethnic their to return will background educational their with accordance in

, p. 456 , p. createdrecreated and according tocircumstances.

bysaying

mordial theories of ethnicity of ethnicity of theories mordial

that erests and the organization of their group. And in this this in And group. their of organization the and erests

oenzto o ehi groups. ethnic of modernization

ites is most capturedare most whatites is by

members of an interest group that cannot organizecannot that group interestan of members 18

elites in the bureaucratic state who are unable unable are who state bureaucratic the in elites TY; A CLASSICAL READER, New york New READER, CLASSICAL A TY;

their incapacity to explain to incapacity their 41 c ad oiis Abner politics, and ict

yhligti view this holding By 40 39

called instrumental called instrumental

ews ethnicity not not ethnicity ews hs arguments These ted in isolation in ted

and materialand

CEU eTD Collection 44 43 42 more is which them of one approaches, other propose to others led have criticisms other and such So, alone. benefits material by explained properly be cannot allegiances ethnic elicit that claims, Horowitz unions, trade just not are groups ethnic that Remarking feed” groups the stuff the of nature the is discuss not does Cohen “what imperative tha and immutable ethnicity of theories primordial the criticizes way this in and organization of needs contemporary and functional of result a are identities ethnic that argues conflicts. ethnic accompanies that passion exuberant and intense the of actors result the of a promotion interest as strategic lines and calculating ethnic along politics of mobilization taking theories instrumental blin supporters of masses the elites the of interest economic the promote to circumstances the to suited recreated and economic no be will there ma the then is it why of explanation sufficient a give to unable being However and metaphoric kinship”. ci nevertheless is which resources, scarce over competition for instrument an is “ethnicity that being argument basic the others, of silence the and identifications ethnic some of salience the explain can that aspect this is it u a also and destiny and origin, of questions the to meaning extending both of purpose dual a provide things such and religion ethni

Eriksen, Wimmer, Andreas p.45 1993, PERSPECTIVES, ANTHROPOLOGICAL NATIONALISM: AND ETHNICITY Thomas H.Eriksen, c identities in their relevance for politics. According to Cohen, ethnic identity, culture, culture, identity, ethnic Cohen, to According politics. for relevance their in identities c 44

or the emotional strength ethnic movements dependor the ethnicmovements upon. emotional strength , Supra note 42, note Supra

instrumental th instrumental Supra Note 16 Note Supra

p. p. 55

42 eories have been criticized for criticized been have eories

gain for them. The question is, question The them. for gain

dly follow? One of the most widely held criticism has also been that beenalso has criticism widely most held the of One dlyfollow? , p. 45 ,

tility for political action. As Thomas As action. political for tility

rcumscribed by ideologies of shared culture, shared origins origins shared culture, shared of ideologies by rcumscribed 19

their insistence on the role of elites and and elites of role the on insistence their

even if ethnic identities can be created created be can identities ethnic if even ,

fail to give enough reason for the the for reason enough give to fail

H. Eriksen says, for Cohen, Cohen, for says, Eriksen H. sses follow the elite even if if even elite the follow sses Eriksen says Eriksen t take ethnic identities as as identities ethnic take t

the intense passions intense the ,

while Cohen while ,

how can how

CEU eTD Collection 47 46 45 Edward that: whowrote Shills was primordialism of concept this propound to person first The identities. ethnic solidifying in coerciveness biological and natural its in ethnicity explained first theories primordial categories, movements. ethnic of depth and strength the determining in markers ethnic and ideological and identities ethnic str this from suffering while primordialism opposite, the In circumstances. different in recreated and created been have identities ethnic but salient become always not does ethnicity that and mutable are t in lies theories instrumental the of strength The 1.2.2 necessarily the without whole importing using theoretical framework. be will thesis this arguments whose Horowitz by propounded approach psychological the to on I terms,ethnic in politics mobilization of discussion the in stake at is exactly what emphasize also and clear theories symbols primordial pursued” instrumentally is which interest through tie‟ „affective of force the explaining by instrumentalism completes usefully chos have some theory single one in blended be not instrumental could primordialism the and instrumentalism to strands, two opposite the Because theories. direct a seems which approach primordial the and Horowitz, thes this by made hypothesis the to congruent

Saul Newman, Saul Newman, Eriksen, Young, Crawford

Primordial Ethnicity Theories of Supra note 42 note Supra nt o isrmna tere, t an is tegh n xliig the explaining in strength its gains it theories, instrumental of ength Supra note 36 note Supra Supra note 20, note Supra 47

, p. 55 , p. 55

o pltcl strategy political for eoe hy oe t icue te ctgre o ehi mar ethnic of categories other include to moved they Before

will in the following look upon the primordial theory and qui andtheory primordial the upon look following the in will , p. 467 , p.

.23

n o ae cmail agmn hlig “primordialism holding, argument compatible a make to en 45

or by saying that leaders obtain followers by using using by followers obtain leaders that saying by or

46 A a a o mkn te ipt bten these between dispute the making of way a As . 20 heir recognition of the fact that ethnic identities ethnic that fact the of recognition heir

s te scooia apoc pooe by proposed approach psychological the is,

aine of salience ckly move cklymove es and kers

of CEU eTD Collection 51 50 183 Issue. 2, 16, Vol. Studies, Racial and Ethnic 49 p. 150 1990, mod explanatory and towards solidarity: group ethnic to approaches 48 the natural of order things in be to conflicts resulting the and primordial be to attachments ethnic taking by that is criticism cannot constant a that arguing some attachments, ethnic of nature changing the explain to questionable view this makes circumstances changing to response cr natura and immutability of view this grounds two On mereits rational the instrumental aspect, assumes wrongly and Eller to according affectivity, ethnicity, Coughlan, to endows primordialism quality third The group. a of members individual over overpowering and irreducible and innate unaccountable, immut and ascriptive are they natural being by and interaction all preceding given naturally are ties ethnic that means Apriori ineffable. and affective apriori, are they that ties, ethnic explaining in qualities three emphasizes preced given naturally and underived as ethnicity of view a Such

Eller and Coughlan, Coughlan, and Eller Sc M. George Coughlan, M. Reed and Eller David Jack Jr, Scott, M. in 122) Cited George p. Shills(1957, A. Edward iticized. First, the fact that ethnic identities are called upon in different times and situations in in situations and times different in upon called are identities ethnic that fact the First, iticized. oppression of others. excuse ideological powerful a have benefiting will inequalities those resultant the also from but race, and ethnicity upon founded antagonism mutual t limits be there will only Not

whi tie ofblood as significant certain described a because is It especially interaction…. be certain only of of function a just not is group kinship one‟s of possessor could member another to attachment a which as qualities but relational person a as merely member family other the to only not was attachment the that apparent became abou thought one As ot, ot, le it correctly acknowledges the emotional element in social interactions beyond interactions social in element emotional the acknowledges correctly it le Supra Note 48, Note Supra Supra note 49 note Supra . 48

prevents theinstitutional amelioration conflicts. of ethnic

51 149

, p. 186 ,

able. Ineffable, as the term indicates takes ethnic ties to be be to ties ethnic takes indicates term the as Ineffable, able.

te tegh ad esos n aiy tahet, it attachments, family in tensions and strengths the t The Poverty of Primordialism: the demystification of ethnic attachments ethnic of demystification the Primordialism: of Poverty The

o the capacity effectively to challenge patterns of patterns challenge to effectively capacity the o - 202, 1993, 191 p. 1993, 202, 21 ineffable

A resynthesis of the primordial and circumstantial circumstantial and primordial the of resynthesis A

e ns o ehi atcmns has attachments ethnic of lness significance is attributed to attributed is significance y l, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 13, No. 2 2 No. 13, Studies,Vol. Ethnicl, Racial and are fixed. naturaland xli a variable. a explain n ay oil interaction social any ing

primordial. primordial. 49 for their for 50

h second The

The The

the

been been , CEU eTD Collection 53 52 them taking theories instrumental and primordial the between balance a as many by regarded is to it makes that ethnicity of fo the and leaders the both of component interests economic and rational the overwhelm psychological the is it him For conflicts. ethnic grassroots the and action suppor political for identities ethnic incite to leaders of role the congruence between the explaining in above discussed approaches the in weaknesses the of Because 1.2.3 inopposition him to the instrumentalist view,such as held Co by places temporarily, aside set be cannot identifications ethnic such and them in ascribed group the ide non and members of bordering or dichotomization the servein asthat cultures packagesand organizations social asethnic groups taking instrumentalist rather that others givens objective and them between differentiating in groups ethnic serve that boundaries view w boundaries the of salience the to shift and identities given natural the deemphasize to some led has This instrumenta unconvincing. is interests elite to by identities these of creation the attributing claim the reclaimed, affinities old others in and formed being identities new cases some in and well as changing also identities ethnic territories of redrawing the with r fact the though Even

Ibid Vaughan, Sarah ntities sustained by these cultural boundaries have a constraining strength upon members of of members upon strength constraining a have boundaries cultural these by sustained ntities

., 464 ., p. propounded by Fredrick Barth that takes ethnic identities as enclaves of relevant cultural relevant of enclaves as identities ethnic takes that Barth Fredrick by propounded t that ethnic conflicts envisage, Donald L.Horowitz looks at the psychological dynamic of of dynamicpsychological the at looks L.Horowitz Donald envisage, conflicts ethnic that t PsychologicalThe Dynamic Conflicts Ethnic of

Supra note 24 note Supra r nat are emains that ethnic groups are changeable as it has been seen in Africa in seen been has it as changeable are groups ethnic that emains

, p. p. 48 , ural in and of themselves. Barth‟s view is nearly taken as being being as taken nearly is view Barth‟s themselves. of and in ural

es f rmril tahet ad utrl otn o ethnic of content cultural and attachments primordial of ness 22

hich demarcate ethn demarcate hich -

ebr. But members. hen cited above.

i argument his llowers. cgop.Ti s a is This groups. ic 52

This view This

that the the that than lists ,

CEU eTD Collection 57 56 55 54 can etc., habit eating styles, cloth groups, social between arise that life of habits in dissimilarities says Weber relationship. blood necessary no is there though even dissent common in members their among belief subjective the s he which in Weber Max by taken one the to similar is groups ethnic a using idiom. kinship emotional solidarityblood relationships entail that of field w and changed the with commensurate more no is ties blood kinship of reach of the where form relations another just is ethnicity view, this In members. the of consanguinity blood extended are affiliations ethnic him for since primordialism, of side the on more but theories, different the of blending a is This Saying suggests: such, he flexibility immutabilityethnic or canbe ownwords: identities of summarizedinhis w interactions of range the as recreated opposites. than rather poles as

Ibid Ibid Horowitz, Coughlan, and Eller ., 78 ., p. .,

p. p. 66 f ofit t oe epaie h ohr s o is oppo miss to is other the emphasize innovation over to the conflict, of of sense a is emphasiz over To therefore manipulated. easily not are that necessary affinities antecedent is on dependence their yet what and boundaries group of putty…. mutability nor stone neither of of understanding proper to important pros the and conflict ethnic are changes boundary of processes The overnight.no „bi Therecan be and sort sifting of process the in rest, the changes for But, such quickly. happen salient, may identity highly as regarded formerly identity subgroup or group of level lower or higher some reactivate to as so changes context and likeness relative of judgments on founded play into call cannot leaders therefore, general In

interactions Supra note 5, note Supra

ing takes time. Wholly new ethnic groups do not come into being being into come not do groups ethnic new Wholly time. takes ing

. Supra note 49, note Supra 56

tnct tks vr I sot ehiiy il tl hv t dpn o the on depend to have still will ethnicity short, In over. takes ethnicity

p.70

p.191

interactions based on kinship ties albeit without the necessary necessary the without albeit ties kinship on based interactions

Horowitz takes the view that ethnic identities are created and created are identities ethnic that view the takes Horowitz pects for accommodation. Group boundaries are made made are boundaries Group accommodation. for pects be turned into differences of custom and shared value and and value shared and custom of differences into turned be

g bang‟ theoryethnogenesis. of idened

23 and contracted. His contracted. and

difference. If the perceptual perceptual the If difference. e the one is to mistake the basis the mistake to is one the e an

dniy ht s not is that identity view 55 tnte fr policy for rtunities

ays ethnic groups rest on on rest groups ethnic ays 57

regarding this point of of point this regarding

This understanding of

ider ider CEU eTD Collection 60 59 58 purpose the and conflict of causes the groups, the between relationship of type differentiatingthe ser distinction This systems ofsocial they form takerevolutions. the e t against be can they when even pursued are conflicts cases some in and interests economic overwhelm cross are groups o ethnic coincide distinctions class basic The non systems. or coincidence group the is ethnic difference unranked and ranked are types ideal two These conflict. an conflictsthese natureof the regardto with conflictsethnic between differentiates it that is classification this of utility The conflict. in groups ethnic the Horowi conflicts. ethnic of aspect emotional the is which above, sketched theories the in argument of point a been has which aspect one the to insight add and, conflict ethnic of types differing the of description s as theories of blending this to addition in But political sphere parti kind any of formation the facilitates but group a constitute not does later…it “prec in kinship from different is identity ethnic says Weber such, As dignity. and honor of sense and worth group of comparisons to leading groups between disaffinity and affinity of sense a induce thnic group systems. On the other hand, e hand, other the On systems. group thnic

Ibid Horowitz, in MaxWeber, ., 30 ., p. isely by being a presumed identity, not a group with a concrete social action like the the like action social concrete a with group a not identity, presumed a being by isely tz classifies between types of ethnic conflict in accordance with the social composition of of composition social the accordancewith in conflict ethnic of types betweenclassifies tz he economic interest of the participants is the conflict that occurs within the unranked the within occurs that conflict the is participants the of interest economic he

Supra note 5 note Supra

” Supra note note Supra . - 58 class it is unranked ethnic group system. group ethnic unranked is it class

, P. 22 , P. e t cpue h pyhlgcl ieso o ehi cnlcs by conflicts ethnic of dimension psychological the capture to ves

41,

pp. 55 pp.

- 56 rigins one can speak of ranked ethnic groups and where the the where and groups ethnic ranked of speak can one rigins

- oniec o soci of coincidence thnic conflicts thnic 24 60

c, ooizs an seto le i his in lies assertion main Horowitz‟s uch,

59 that l ls wt ehi identities ethnic with class al

The situation where ethnic conflicts ethnic where situation The d the goals perused by the groups ingroups perused by goals the the d occur among ranked ethnic group ethnic ranked among occur cularly in the the in cularly where , CEU eTD Collection 64 63 62 61 ethn majority the with relationship their in status privileged a had studies case the in minorities ethnic privileged their minorit ethnic „ruling that thesis this by made hypothesis the of basis the is groups ethnic unranked between conflict ethnic of type This by suppression and others”. domination prevent to as well as effort differences, an suppress entails to usually environment, threat averting and status “confirming of tool a as Power end. an as itself of and in but resources and goods economic other to means a as sought Horowit emotion. with participants the involve that considerations interest overwhelming with thethese uniquecharacter take ethnicity conflicts explicitly by onesystemsconflict of is the in expressed revolutions social form the take conflicts systems ethnic ranked in While different. also is systems two these among groups difference such of Because level ofreciprocity p higha establish to authoritysufficientwhere“a therelacksone is relationship this systemsethnic unranked in But acknowledged. inherently is others the to opposed as one the of status social a in systems ranked in groups ethnic between relationships inferiority”. of ideology an and relations clientage ranks, lower and upper of establishment the to itself lends domination “the which in one as characterized syst ranked in groups ethnic the between relationship This conflicts. these with goes that

Horowitz, Horowitz, Saul Newman, Ibid Ibid ic group ic ., 28 ., p. 29 ., p. 64 cam ta i cnlcs ht rs i urne ehi gop systems group ethnic unranked in arise that conflicts in that claims z

Supra note 5 note Supra

that led them to counter majority domination by controlling power. It will also be also will It power. controlling by domination majority counter to them led that Supra note 36 note Supra statuses remised oninequality”.remised , p. 187 , I te olwn catr, t il e hw hw h seii ruling specific the how shown be will it chapters, following the In .

, p. 465 , p.

the cause and direction of the conflicts that arise between ethnic ethnic between arise that conflicts the of direction and cause the

e htdmnt h aoiisse oe o protect to power seek majorities the dominate that ies

terms of ideological division of class, in unranked unranked in class, of division ideological of terms 62

way that the political, economic and and economic political, the that way 61

Inequality is ingrained in the in ingrained is Inequality

o oiae the dominate to ,

63 power is not not is power

nti way this In ems is is ems CEU eTD Collection 65 relationship historical the to limited be will status privileged this defend to sought statusprivilegeda discussion ethn the bestowed has dominance and autonomy in coexistence of this relationship that shown be will It dominance. times at and autonomy of relationship a in Ethiopia of rulin the by represented group minority ethnic Tigray the how answering at targeted Ethiopia in relations ethnic of background historical the highlight will chapter this by covered part first the Thus, of ethnic conflict Ethiopia. in wil chapter this L.Horowitz, Donald by propounded approach psychological particul and chapter first the in discussed been have followi rule minority ethnic Ethiopian the of aspects main three to devoted be will chapter next the and This Chapter 2: exclusive democracy power group ethnic et unranked of typical is that coexistence of relationship incr that state bureaucratic centralized that made be will point Thus dominant the altered ranked if even shown

Ibid ., 34 ., p.

tnc eainhp asd o nakd tnc ru system group ethnic unranked to passed relationship ethnic g ethnic party, TPLF, has in the past coexisted within and among the multiethnic polity multiethnic the among and within coexisted past the in has TPLF, party, ethnic g

ng the hypothesis set out in the beginninthe in out set hypothesis the ng

to react to Tigray, Coexistence and Autonomy inMulti there existed a relationship of subordination of relationshipa thereexisted -

subordinate relationship subordinate with a sense of dominating the state and retaining its rule for fear of the of fear for rule its retaining and state the dominating of sense a with

endows the majority . Faced with domination by the majority Amhara ethnic group it has has it groupAmhara ethnicbydomination majority the Facedwith . the changed circumstances where the majority exercised power in a a in power exercised majoritythe where circumstanceschanged the

easingly controls the whole fabric of society putting the the putting society of fabric whole the controls easingly by mobilizing by between the dominant ethnic group of the Amhara the of group ethnic dominant the between

as Horowitz argues has happened in some cases some in happened has argues Horowitz as 26

n such divided societies g.

In line with the theoretical approachesthat theoretical the Inwith line ry h oe hs hss a ado has thesis this one the arly an ethno nationalist resistance. nationalist ethno an hnic groups in threat, leads threat, in groups hnic

of the minority ethnic group how this how group ethnicminority the of - Ethnic Ethiopia

hog colonialism through . .

l discuss the history the discuss l ic group under under group ic the minority minority the

This part part This td the pted,

that . 65

CEU eTD Collection 66 colonialism of case the in happens it as group one of domination the by integrated are that groups discrete culturall and multiple of composed are societies plural holds, that theory pluralist Furnivall‟s anti the are groups ethnic unranked way, this in Understood und groups ethnic coexistence of autonomous isthe ethnic unrankedgroups of Horowitz‟s features basic One the of 2.1 ethnic parties, sectio this of participation political autonomous and genuine the repressing and/or coopting by so does it that showing by and regime the of party ruling facto de the is TPLF that arguing politica exercising be to said be can EPRDF, Front‟, Democratic Revolutionary People‟s „Ethiopian of party coalition umbrella an within works that TPLF the if answer to be will discussion this of goal main The et minority a represent to claiming by TPLF the invigorate been have formation political and regionalism ethnic how upon focus will discussion This rule. minority ethnic an of creation (1974 Derg the of regime military the socialist the toppling in by TPLF led revolution successful the of discussion a by followed be will This people. Tigray and organizing the leading, shaping in TPLF the by played role the on focus then will chapter next The group. ethnic Tigray the of rule minority ethnic its with replaced and dispelled has regime present the

Andreas Wimmer, Wimmer, Andreas Tigray, Ascendance and Decline and Ascendance Tigray,

. 66 Tigray people‟s revolution by capitalizing upon the ethno national sentiment of the of sentiment national ethno the upon capitalizing by revolution people‟s Tigray

Horowitz has argued that this is not alwayscase theory and Smith‟s thatposits the not has Horowitz is argued thatthis Supra note 16 note Supra r snl plt wtot cmlt dmnto o oe y h other. the by one of domination complete a without polity single a er l power to the exclusion of the other ethnic parties within this coalition. By coalition. this within parties ethnic other the of exclusion the to power l n will arguen will for

, p. 49 ,

d by the TPLF and how in such arena of ethnic of arena such in how and TPLF the by d the existencea the of

27 hnic group pursues its strategy of domination. domination. of strategy its pursues group hnic

n ethnicrule. minority - - hss f .. mt ad J.S. and Smith M.G. of thesis 91) and move o move and 91)

n to look at the at look to n t affiliate its politics, y CEU eTD Collection 71 (1975 70 ETHIOPIA IN MOBILIZATION AND IDEOLOGY P TIGRAY OF THE HISTORY POLITICAL 69 20 p. 1974, Press, ofChicago 68 67 dynasty, was Christia civilization anchored which inOrthodox conflict. future of seeds the sowed Markakis John to according which groups ethnic and tribes of multiple a Ethiopia within brought it also but Amhara, the of hands the to power pol of passing the seen only not has South the to expansion gradual This century. twentieth inclu were shape present its Ethiopia gave that borders provinc the in center its from kingdom the of expansion southward the with begins Ethiopia of history contested much the But known asand „Kutr‟owncalendar its inuse thatat present. arestill cradle a called be to it that things other Among Arabia. as far as extended territories its and Rome, and Greece India, Persia, to up extended that trade its through flourished civilization its which from Tigray Chinese” the of kingdom the is fourth the Axumites; of kingdom the is third the Rome; of kingdom the is second the Persia; and be (216 Mani prophet Persian The state‟. the makes „war dictum the of example prime a Ethiopia makes that manner a in invasion and wars successive by accompanied was society Conti Carlo historian 20 a by described aptly countries diverse ethnically most the of one is Ethiopia ethnic category coexistencenull aapparently “as a and logical impossibility” plural a in group cultural one of domination inevitable the

Sara FRONT LIBERATION PEOPLE‟S TIGRAY OF THE HISTORY POLITICAL A Berhe, Aregawi Mani (216 prophet Persian Donald Horowitz, en quoted as writing “there are four kingdoms on earth: the first is the kingdom of Babylon of kingdom the is first the earth: on kingdoms four are “there writing as quoted en - 1991): REVOLT IDEOLOGY AND MOBILIZATION IN ETHIPIA, 2008, p. 51 2008, ETHIPIA, IN MOBILIZATION REVOLTAND IDEOLOGY 1991): h Vaughan, hVaughan,

N. Levine, GREATER ETHIOPIA: THE EVOLUTION OF MULTIETHNIC SOCIETY, The University TheUniversity SOCIETY, OF MULTIETHNIC EVOLUTION THE ETHIOPIA: Levine, GREATER N. Supra note 5 note Supra Supra note 24, note Supra , p. 137 ,

Rosini as the museum of people. of museum the as Rosini

of civilization of -

276) quoted by the historian Kobishchanov (1979: 59) as cited in Aregawi Berhe as cited in 59) Aregawi (1979: by Kobishchanov the quoted historian 276)

p. p. 110

o Tga o Au i a rcs ta cniud ni te final the until continued that process a in Axum or Tigray of e 69

Ti Auie igo ws on i t in found was kingdom Axumite This .

EOPLE‟S LIBERATION FRONT (1975 FRONT LIBERATION EOPLE‟S is also its use of script called Ge‟ez and a number system number a and Ge‟ez called script of use its also is , 2008, 51 , p. 2008, 28

ded into its territories by Meneli by territories its into ded 68

But building up to such a multiethnic a such to up building But

society treating unranked systems of systems unranked treating society nity byadopted in340 KingEzana 70

- 1991): REVOLT, 1991):

e rsn rgo of region present he 67

to beuntenable. th

century Italian century 71

The Axum The - k II in the the in II k

276) has 276) bestows bestows , A , itical itical

CEU eTD Collection (1975 74 73 576 72 Tigreans” were terms its drafted who those that remains fact the Amhara, of kings the were covenant this of beneficiaries principal the though Levine, Donald says But, rulers. Amhara the legitimized and sanctified, Ethiopia of Sheba ori the ascribes that script as rig Zagwe their of of usurpers dynasty last the castigating also thereby and myth Solomonic a in power their of hands the in rested power manner a such In the Agaw f Southward shifted generally power state century tenth the from However, positio privileged a held have Tigrayans core Abissinian the of part as “historically Tigray. Zagwe history. Ethiopia‟s in place their of glorification sentimental a as Tigrayans the of struggles protracted ensuing the in recur to continue will that history a Axum, of demise Qu Agaw pagan a of scene political the in emergence the but Nothing South. the towards gravity political of shift the in process initial the about brought world the to door Sea Red northern Axum‟s closing by century eighth the 7 the in region the in Islam of spread The known Abissinia, an came end inthe to 10 AD, and regioncircumscribed its of ofinfluenceintheEthiopia, highlands ofpresent what day is

John Young, Young, John p. 141 20, note Supra in Gashaw Solomon Berehe, Aragawi

- 1991), 73 dynasty of the Agaw ended around 1270 by th by 1270 around ended Agaw the of dynasty

, and then to the Amhara lands, culminating in Shoa inthe inShoa late nineteenth tothe Amhara, and culminating then lands, century”. on on a itra o te PF umrzs hs rnae hsoy y saying by history truncated this summarizes TPLF the of historian a Young John

Addis Ababa University: Cambridge University Press, 1997, p. 38 p. 38 1997, Press, University: CambridgeUniversity Ababa Addis PEASANT REVOLUTION IN ETHIOPIA: THE TIGRAY PEOP TIGRAY THE ETHIOPIA: IN REVOLUTION PEASANT The Origins of the Tigray People‟s Liberation Front, African Affairs, African Front, Liberation People‟s Tigray the of Origins The htful claim to the throne. The The throne. the to claim htful

gin of Menelik I to the union of king Solomon of Israel and queen queen and Israel of Solomon king of union the to I Menelik of gin

een by the name Yodit in the 10 the in Yodit name the by een th th

century. century and the destruc the and century 29 succe

and their contest for the throne considered as as considered throne the for contest their and Kibre N Kibre ssive kings of Amhara rulers Amhara of kings ssive

e joint collaboration of the Am the of collaboration joint e egest , a fourteenth century Ethiopic Ethiopic century fourteenth a ,

LE‟S LIBERATION FRONT FRONT LE‟SLIBERATION tion of the port of Adulis in Adulis of port the of tion th

century has proven the the proven has century 103/413, 569 103/413, rom Tigray, briefly to to briefly Tigray, rom 72

The non Semetic non The

who affirmed who n in society. in n - 92, 2004, p. p. 2004, 92, hara and and hara “ even even 74

CEU eTD Collection 77 76 75 i He 1855. in II Tewodros Emperor himself renamed and princes of era the ending north the in lords feudal contending the all defeated origin humble of „bandit‟ Amhara an Hailu, Kassa exercised former by emperorsof times”. wi rulers its independent, virtually become to “Tigray left also has It politics. country‟s the in influence their loose to not Tigrayans the by resolve the shown p ordinary the where era treacherous this anything if But building. empire modern of beginnings early the and II Tewodros King by 1855 in power of centralization total the by era this of days the overthrown h replaced and Sehulking based Gondar Michael Ras prince Tigrayan 1789, In saga. this in players major the were Tigre the himself, to kingship of throne the claimed lord feudal everyera where this During provincialism and a competi fierce of legacy a left it Portuguese, the of assistance the with defeated eventually was Ahmed Though North. Gondarinthe center to of shift political the and rule Shoan themedieval the weakening of and Arabia in coreligionists of help the with east south the from army Moslem a lead who Gragn the Ahmed by 1527 in invasion the to due reasons, other among was, This diminished. greatly was kings Amhara Shoa the of power the where Princes” of “Era the termed historically is what during apex its reached especially dominance for competition This for competition of beginning the marked dominance betweenTigreanelites” Amhara and “also Young John of words the in has kings, its the to Tigray in Axum the from power of center of transplantation legitimate. eople of Ethiopia suffered the brunt of endless feud and war has left behind, it has markedly has it behind, left has war and feud endless of brunt the suffered Ethiopia of eople

Ibid Young, Levine, Donald ., 43 ., p. Supra note 74 note Supra 75

hs oooi nraie f eeiay ruler hereditary of narrative Solomonic This Supra note 68 note Supra , 42, p.

, p. p. 108 ,

im with his own puppet king and this was to last until the final final the until last to was this and king puppet own his with im tion betweenlordstion war orprinces. 77

30 76 .

- hp ht a euly olwd the followed equally has that ship elding power comparable to that to comparable power elding Amhara dominated south and south dominated Amhara

Turkey . This invasion saw saw invasion This . s known known s

as CEU eTD Collection 79 78 S dozen “a include to extended Tigre of core Abyssinian the in core Christian Orthodox its From polity. Ethiopian the of composition social the changed completely fighti died who IV, Yohannes of death the after Ethiopia of King as proclaimed being his before even pursued he that expansion vigorous His groups. ethnic of multitude a and territory vast its with Ethiopia modern of creation the over reigned that king to power. latter‟s willingness the strengthened II his Menelik Emperor finally Shoan the with and cooperate dominance Shoan the from hegemony Tigrayan the protect of death The 2.2 diminished amicabl power of exercise the But kings. of king of title the retains Yohannes while Shoa of king as Menelik of recognition Yohannes‟ by Menelik, contender Shoan his with sorts of pact a or alliance an forged Yohannes whi power of use sheer the than diplomatic more was such to approach his and Tewodros by began power state of centralizing Yohannes the continued IV. Yohannes Emperor of name the in 1889 until ruled who Tigray from Mircha self his But church. the of power the reducing and army, salaried a forming administration, state bureaucratizing rule, central one into country the unite to attempt his in modernity of harbinger the being for

Vaughan, Vaughan, Ibid Modernization and State Dominance in Multiethnic Ethiopia Multiethnic in State Dominance and Modernization ., 44., p y, the competition and mistrust between the rulers of the Amahara and Tigray has not not has Tigray and Amahara the of rulers the between mistrust and competition the y, Supra note 24 note Supra . 78 Emperor Yohannes IV in 1889 and his ally and war general Ras Alula‟s inability to inabilityAlula‟s Ras general war and ally his and 1889 in IV Yohannes Emperor

th - nlce et i 16 ruh about brought 1868 in death inflicted uh n h hns f Tgaa, n te iar o te w sre out sorted two the of rivalry the and Tigrayan, a of hands the in ough , , p. 108

emetic languages, twenty two Cushitic, eighteen Omotic and and Omotic eighteen Cushitic, two twenty languages, emetic - Amhara base in the northern highlands now its territories territories its now highlands northern the in base Amhara h a Twdo‟ isgi a wl a nemesis. as well as insignia Tewodros‟s was ch 31

ng with the Mahadists in Sudan, has has Sudan, in Mahadists the with ng the ascendance to power of Kahsai of power to ascendance the

Menelik i Menelik s a s CEU eTD Collection 82 P 81 80 state. the territories rich inr in dynamics conflictual future entailing divisions, class with political dynamicswhich between ethniccorresponded dominant andsubordinate divisions under th over Amhara Shoa the of domination The the of 1960‟s intermsof self intelligentsia the by opposed was economically and culturally both them subjugating and inequality the not, or colonialism exploitation Whether II. Menelik by conquest the before even single a as existed Ethiopia that argued has Levine Donald it, with coincided the in place taken having to the is it if or contenders, European ofcolonization alienautonomous people. and his to proclaimed once himself Menelik as Ethiopia on was expansion Menelik‟s whether question the over is contentionThe andbetweenstatethemselves. the against both revolutionary a struggle on thefuture within embarked split elites that ideological ofcontention groundpoint inan andbattle also but Ethiopia multiethnic mosaic a for stone the set has Menelik by expansion This Christianity”. and Islam Judaism, “animism/paganism, categories four of religion a and Sharan” Nilo eighteen ress, 1974, p. 23 cited in Vaughan, cited 23 p. 1974, ress,

Vaughan, Vaughan, John Ibid ., 105 ., p. Markakis, ETHIOPIA, ANATOMY OF A TRADITIONAL POLITY, ADDIS ABABA: ABABA: ADDIS POLITY, TRADITIONAL OF A ANATOMY ETHIOPIA, Markakis, gave him outlets to the sea which were independent of Yohannes‟s sphere sphere Yohannes‟s of independent were which sea the to outlets him gave south significant most the control to him enabled conquests latter These possession. his to Harar and Arusi Gurage, added east and south the to territories Oromo by18 west, and south attention his turned he then Wollo, conquering in succeeded Menelik 1876, and 1868 Between Supra note 24, note Supra

by the ruling class of the Shoan Amharas that subordinated the conquered people by people conquered the subordinated that Amharas Shoan the of class ruling the by 80

esources becameeconomic exploitation andcultural a siteof domination.

- p. 106 p. determination. determination.

Supra note 24 note Supra same way and parallel with Europe‟s expansion in Africa that that Africa in expansion Europe‟s with parallel and way same

, 115 , p. e newly annexed lands in the south brought about a about brought south the in lands annexed newly e 81 . By the end of 1887, Menelik had had Menelik 1887, of end the By .

32 Against theview that Ethiopia‟s expansion holds

2 having conquered Somali and Somali conquered having 2 o te eliig f ot ertre of territories lost of reclaiming the of e - easterly trade route and route trade easterly 82

Oxford University Oxford

cultural hs annexed These

became a a became

society society

CEU eTD Collection 86 85 84 p.527 1981, 549, 83 peasants Tigrayan supremacy”. old centuries their of families leading its deprive or it control fully to able ever never were they but region, You John As marriages. dynastic through mostly emperors rulers hereditary the traditional these subjugation, with total alliance buying of on depended want For people. their governed still rulers hereditary remained Tigray corners, all to extended rule Amhara Shoa While 1943. in revolution first their into well and Menelik of time this in Tigre in were different Things inferi of ideology an and relations clientage , ranks lower and upper of establishment the to itself “lend Such a dominant subordinatecharacterizes findsto relationship therankedthat Horowitz systems adoption o their of rulers. Christianity “Thesefluency inthe Amhariclanguage, adherence included and toOrthodox up set cultural the adopt and assimilate to required were rulers new the of ranks the under groups religious and ethnic diverse the of „Amharization‟ by accompanied was This labor. extracted also and relationship tenant lord created Amhara Shoa the from mostly and north the from coming soldiers and class ruling wer tendencies predatory These generals. Menelik‟s to distributed eie cnrbtn t te iiay tegh f eei, h anxd territories annexed the Menelik, of strength military the to contributing Besides

Young, Young, Horowitz Vaughan, Ethiopia: J.Keller, Edmond ority for the subordinated groups”, which he says is the product of conquest and capture. and conquest of product the is says he which groups”, subordinated the for ority holdings…. By 1890 and 1906, he added the Ogaden, Bale, Sidamo, Sidamo, Bale, present toits Ethiopia configuration, Except Eritrea. for Ogaden, the added holdin his to Illubabor he and Kaffa Wollamo, 1906, and 1890 By holdings…. western and southern his in obtained coffee and ivory gold, of wealth vast of Supra note 74 note Supra , Supra note 5, note Supra , influence. With this route under his influence, he was able to exploit the exploit to ablewas influence,he route his under this influence.With Supra note 24, note Supra f a ofAbyssinian setcodes ofnorms styles”. and

allowed the provincial nobility to successfully defend their autonomy, it has it autonomy, their defend successfully to nobility provincial the allowed , 47, p.

p.29

p. 113 p. n

Revolution, Class, and the National Question, Question, the National Class, and Revolution,

g says, “Shoan empero “Shoan says, g 86

Even though as John Markakis says the fanatical provincialism of provincialism fanatical the says Markakis John as though Even

subordination where by their elites who wanted to join join to wanted who elites their by where subordination 33 rs reduced Tigray to a semi a to Tigray reduced rs

gs, thus stretching the state of state the stretching thus gs, 84

83 Afri

canAffairs e widely practiced where the the where practiced widely e autonomous where their own own their where autonomous , Vol. 80, No. 321, 321, 519 No. 80, Vol. , - autonomous buffer autonomous ‟

lands were were lands 85 - -

CEU eTD Collection p. 3 2002, Rights, Human and Studies Development Institute Michelsen 89 88 87 r elite Horowitz, to according And Tigre. the for so not administrators as accepted be to Amharized become or cultural rulers their the of manner in themselves mask to able were system they if communities unranked their leading and of status ranked the of one manifestly is co regions new the in elites the that considers other one when so, is This consecutively. the on Tigray and hand one th that region. the in revolution popular first the sparked that people Tigray attempt of days final Horowit of systems unranked the by implied as rather, But dominance. and subordination of one into relationship their altered not completely has Amhara the of hands the in and south the to power of shift and dominance such But Israelthe historian from vis regions annexed other the and Tigraybetween i of resentment economically the socio and but impoverished 1930, in regime Hailesellasie‟s of times modern more the towards and cultural its of terms in Unscathed as place sourceruling class inEthiopia. of legitimate their of expense the at was Tigrayans most for advantage Shoa, This the Shoa. by enjoyed the by enjoyed being was that prosperity the coveting them left only

Lovise Aalen,Lovise Vaughan, Ibid ., 46 ., p. e interethnic relationship between the Amhara and those in the conquered territories on the the on territories conquered the in those and Amhara betweenthe relationship interethnic e institutions. Tigreinstitutions. incont cultural and the social political, to their for annexed repercussions inevitable been …, empire had regions southern Ethiopia‟s Menelik… under power of centralization a underwent Shoa Ethiopia. in regions other than slo mush were changes political Socio times, modern During Supra note 24 note Supra

Ethnic Federalism in a Dominant Party Stat Party Dominant a in Federalism Ethnic

, 158 , p. by king Haileselasie (1930 Haileselasie king by ,

Haggaiwrote; Erlichwho

rast, was barelyaffected. 87

ts people for the Amhara rule growing. The contrast contrast The growing. rule Amhara the for people ts admi z, turned into a relationship of coexistence until the until coexistence of relationship a into turned z, n 34 istrative -

- à 74) to 74) e: The Ethiopian Experience 1991 Experience Ethiopian The e:

- vis the Amhara dominance is well caught by by caught well is dominance Amhara the vis

88 quell the autonomy of self of autonomy the quell needne Tga mvd forward moved Tigray independence, l i aohr a b wih n can one which by way another is ole

The discussion so far shows shows far so discussion The wer in Tigre Tigre in wer - 89 2000

while this was this while uld only enjoy only uld ,Chr. - rule by the the by rule the CEU eTD Collection 91 90 continuing the is perennial first The Tigrayan Amhara. Shoa arousing the in by controlled relevance state central continual the of of disaffection factors as out stand things Two of con and dominance of threat the common denominator and worth place says isthe contest “the for exercising As Horowitz power. of averting the at directed is systems unranked the in conflict th for pursued is groups ethnic ranked the among conflict the While exploitation. class of revolution social of form the takes which systems ranked between conflict the than pronounced highly element psychological its eng say, would Horowitz as conflict, ethnic of type real the captures that one the is systems unranked the in groups ethnic between place takes that conflict century, ethnic the again, once twentieth ourselves remind To 1960s. the the of movement student of the by propounded end the towards state the against groups ethnic different the by waged is that conflict ethnic of direction and cause differing in result also will chapter opp of constellation This as continues Tigre Ethiopia. of parts other in people the the and class ruling the of relationship „ranked‟ the and to opposed class ruling Amhara the between coexistence „unranked‟ This 2.3 ethnicis foundinranked He explains dominance by this systems. which saying; and class of coincidence the of criteria main the besides systems two the between differentiate

Ibid Horowitz The onset of Revolution in Tigray in Revolution of onset The ., 186 ., p. flict among unranked groups”.flict amongunranked unranke in group possesses the of each contact whether differently, point the put to or, statuses of complement full a has whethereach is question keyA unranked. rankedor relat ethnic all nearly blurring, the Despite , Supra note 5 note Supra ,

d 90

, p. 25 ,

osed relationships according to the explanation given in the theoretical the in given explanation the to according relationships osed

legitimately a

ups fbekn tete o cnmcepotto, ethnic exploitation, economic of ties the breaking of purpose e 91

eonzd lt. f o h sse is system the so If elite. recognized

ionships can be identified as as identified be can ionships ulfs its participants with emotion and emotion with participants its ulfs

mainly mainly CEU eTD Collection 93 92 geographicallyagricultureafora in locatedarea suitable is which Shoans the of prosperity growing the to opposed as poverty facing now were power, of source historical the as privilege historical their of loss the above and than more people Tigray The that had already grown up” resentment the entrench to onlyserved which perfidy, Shoan of instanceseminal the nationalists, Tigrayan of side the in thorn a been long “has that say would some as decision a is It colonialist. destin and contenders time long his marginalize to action deliberate a was Menelik by decision this others, for But him. weakened already has region the hard hit has succes of hope dim a had Menelik says simply reason second The ago. decades establishedalready hold strong a has Italy where Italian the with north the to war his extends he if territories resourceful Meneli the say of Some people core. speaking Abissynian „Tigrigna‟ the reunite and Italians against victory his on capitalize to Menelik of failure this for historians and scholars by forward put are justifications Different Italiansof thisarea suzerainty tothe which later part leaving highlands Tigrean the in territory Ethiopian the of ends the to victory his pursue not agai war did Menelik But a defeated. Italians the and waged over was battle the Menelik year a almost in country.and colonialists the of hinterlands the into deep encroaching were Italia, through pass should relation foreign Ethiopia‟s that version Italian the in inserting t called 1889 in treatysigned a theyof terms the over Menelik Italians and betweenthe disagreement a causedby wasbattle This Adwa. of battle the during Italians the of hands the in territories Tigryannorthern And population. Tigray the of impoverishment

Vaughan, Vaughan, Keller, s since the war taking place after a long journey from the south and a severe drought that that drought severe a and south the from journey long a after place taking war the since s Supra note 83 note Supra Supra note 24 note Supra e ray f uhl. h Iain nt epcig h trs f hs ray and treaty this of terms the respecting not Italians The Wuchale. of treaty he , p. 528 , , 108 , p.

ws fad f eelo i te ot ad osn his loosing and south the in rebellion of afraid was k 36

became the colonybecame ofEritrea. the

h scn i Mnlks bnoig f the of abandoning Menelik‟s is second the nd also being sole beneficiariessole being also nd e them to the control of a of control the to them e 92

nst the the nst CEU eTD Collection 97 96 95 94 Ti the divesting power of centralization stronger a of Hailesselassie to respond thecall to and rebels reform ofthe itself”. of out only “not began hegemo Amhara from Tigray liberate “to also Reda,but desperation Maraim Haile Blata leader its to according which Woyane rebellion as to referred regime Hailesellassie‟s against rebellion a waged peasants, Tigrayan l Years power. from marginalization of feeling perennial their quench alone let beginning rising the famines th of power to coming starting famines recurrent The and impoverishment of theregion taken is tobe famine the people Tigray the for troops, his of withdrawal Menelik‟s for true holds justification highlands, Tigray the of part up give and Adwa at victory p this and region, the devastated that 1882 s a and famine recurring a by hit also was Tigray 1935 of invasion Italian the and (1896) Adwa of battle the between time the in Tigrayan on fought were battles major twenty about Erlich, Haggai to According gateway. repercussion the all suffer and soldiers the feed to had who region the of peasants the weakened and region the devastated that battles major of place a been always has Tigray expansion. southward the from extraction the of mn ohr atr ta sre t peiiae h Wyn rvlto ws h issec by insistence the was revolution Woyane the precipitate to served that factors other Among

Aragawi, Aragawi, Young, Vaughan, Young,

Supra note 74 note Supra 74 note Supra that

Supra note 70 note Supra Supra note 24 note Supra in f h Tge gis te eta state. central the against Tigre the of

devastated Tigra devastated 1930, did nothing to redress the economic calamity befalling the Tigrayan people people Tigrayan the befalling calamity economic the redress to nothing did 1930, , 49, p. 46, p. , 54, p. , Interviews with Tigrayan farmers, p. 108 p. farmers, , withTigrayan Interviews TL wih codn t Jh Y John to according which TPLF e

y added to their loss of power and influence have all combined in in combined all have influence and power of loss their to added y s of war because of its location as an outlet to Ethiopia‟s northern Ethiopia‟s to outlet an as location its of because war of s from the time of Yohannes IV and up until the final days of the the of days final the until up and IV Yohannes of time the from erhaps is said to be the reason the be to said is erhaps 37 caused evere rinderpest epidemic hit between hit epidemic rinderpest evere

96 97 h sbeun rgm o Hailesellassie, of regime subsequent The

by theadvent ofShoa Amhara state.

what is now Eritrea. But whichever But Eritrea. now is what oung ny if the central government failed failed government central the if ny ht by hit , grayan nobility the relative the nobility grayan .

94 for Menelik to curb his curb to Menelik for

And to make it wor it make to And oe hn seventeen than more ater in 1943, the the 1943, in ater

1888 and and 1888 95

se CEU eTD Collection 100 99 98 where motives different on based was rebellion the in partnership says, Tareke Gebru rebellion Woyane the of historian the case, the e being This unbearable. was wars numerous having of devastation Tigray which for state the by exploitation the from autonomy of preservation the said be generally can rebellion Woyane the of goals The form of their making kind, in lev not the and “raised has cash This in harsher. livelihood tax subsistence pay to asked were now who peasants the also loyal but rebellion the led who elite to Tigrayan the by opposed only not it was king the by measure this gave and leaders lo the of hostility hereditary the aroused has it Shoa, from the coming many administrators, from powers regional when took rulers, hereditary its Haileselassie of autonomy the kept now until has regions other unlike Tigray Si Tigray. in Hailleselassie by pursued centralization of trend the was different Especially the Shoancharacter regime. of the fundamentally changed theand center strengthenedking,nothing peripheryof thepower and the chang manner large in have reforms administrative these though provinces. particular their over ruling exercised they power and freedom their curtail to able was he family, aristocratic the from representatives these select to fo stillwas king the thecity.capitalThough in king eyesthe watchful of the under were kept and king the by nominated are nobilities where senate, and deputies of chamber like institutions bureaucratizat his of part as parts Hailes by retai far so have they independence

Young, Young, Keller,

Aragawi, Aragawi, Supra note 83, note Supra ethno nationalist Supra note 74, note Supra lsi b rdcn te oe o lcl oiiis o js i Tga bt lo n other in also but Tigray in just not nobilities local of power the reducing by elassie Supra note 70 note Supra

p.535 p. 27 p. , 53, p.

sentiment against theShoanruling class”.

ion project. This included the creation of quasi representative quasi of creation the included This project. ion 99

ned in running their own affairs own their running in ned 38

xperienced repeated famines and the the and famines repeated xperienced l f olcie eetet tkn the taking resentment, collective of el ed the relationship between the the between relationship the ed 100 98 . Centr .

u a Jh Yug says, Young John as But alization was pursued pursued was alization cal nobilities. But nobilities. cal rced nce nce CEU eTD Collection 103 102 2, No. 201 39, Anno l‟Oriente, l‟Africae per italiano dell‟Istituto 101 systems ethnic i unranked for coexistence indicator chapter, theoretical the in described as And south. the in Amahar‟s dominance of hallmark a was which subordination than rather coexistence of relationship its fall of the at facing were groups ethnic other that discrimination the to open equally them fated has Ethiopia throughout Haileselassie of regime the by intensified being was that and autonomy such keep to failure final their any But interference. against fought continuously have of they form and state relative dominated a Amhara the maintained amid discussion, autonomy the throughout shown been has as have people tha is rebellion Woyane the of fall and rise the from gathered be to thing one But „ init its changed 1979, in congress first its at TPLF did, it As struggle. their for precedent nationalist ethno an setting as propound leaders its and precursor its is claims avowedly TPLF the something is This Tigray. betw conflict historic the in resistance heroic of memories evoke to remains it defeat a was rebellion Woyane the though mentions, 1991 in state the of and before takeov its whilethestruggle was engagedGebru inarmed TPLF still Tareke writing military. equipped well state‟s the and bombardment areal British the forceof joint the by quashed immediatelywasrebellion this But hardships. their theirforwas it nobles the for Regional auto Regional hezbawi woyane harnet Tigray‟ harnet woyane hezbawi Tareke, Gebru Vaughan, Vaughan, Ibid ., this regime.this 102 p. 208 p.

Supra note24, Supra

Preliminary Histor Preliminary nomy ial name „ name ial

of Tigray that it has kept for so long has now been undermined, with it also it with undermined,been now has long so for kept has it that Tigray of

p. 159 p.

tegadelo harnet hzbi Tigrai‟ hzbi harnet tegadelo

fair share of power while for the peasants it was the amelioration of amelioration the wasit peasants the for while power sharefairof

y of Resistance in Tigrai, in Resistance of y

(Popular Revolution/Rebellion for the Liberation of Tigray). of Liberation the for Revolution/Rebellion (Popular hs rltosi bten tnc rus s ul upon built is groups ethnic between relationship whose 39

Africa: Rivista trimestrale di studi e documentazione documentazione e studi di trimestrale Africa:Rivista 101 - 226, 1984, p. 207 1984, 226,

Nevertheless, its legacy was imm legacywas its Nevertheless, (Tigrai People‟s Liberation Struggle) to Struggle) Liberation People‟s (Tigrai een the Amhara dominated nation and and nation dominated Amhara the een

the

accompanying centralization centralization accompanying

time and after the the after and time t the Tigrayan the t s a main main a s ense, asense, 103 er er

CEU eTD Collection 104 andrevolutions theforecontrast Marxist to theories thebehavioralist to thatignore in role. this bee have theories These revolution. explaining in peasant factors structural of importance the to point that war Vietnam the of wake the in developed 1970‟s the of theories revolution peasant the to attention draws especially Young mob in bourgeoisie petite the of role the of significance the and Tigray book Jo 3.1 Chapter 3: anpower a ethnoismaintaining minority onthenationalconflict grounds of rule.ethnic als will it Finally Tigray the of history past the upon capitalizing by people Tigray the of masses the of support the mobilized regime fol will chapter following The power. assuming systems p a had having minority a such when is minority powe to ascendance the to leads what argues thesis this by posed hypothesis the As of itsinternal enjoyed autonomyfor it centuries. Reda Halemariam aftermath its in when rebellion subordination. to opposed as autonomy

hn Young whose study of the revolution led by TPLF is the most extensive to date starts his starts date to extensive most the is TPLF by led revolution the of study whose Young hn Gebru, Gebru, TPLF from Revolution to State Control to State Revolution from TPLF

Paat eouin n Ethiopia‟ in Revolution „Peasant ,

Supra note 101 note Supra and facing persecution by a majority it retaliates by trying to avert this threat through threat this avert to trying by retaliates it majority a by persecution facing and Ethnic Resistance and Minority Rule b son ht h peet eie f h TL wih a cnrle state controlled has which TPLF the of regime present the that shown be o in solitary confinement, renouncing t renouncing confinement, solitary in , 208, p. people and their discrimination and waged and discrimination their and people

alslsi to hrh retaliator harsh took Haileselassie

y nelig h rvl ptnil f h paat in peasants the of potential revolt the underlying by hs eainhp was relationship This n valuable in bringing the role of peasants in in peasants of role the bringing in valuable n 40 104 low this discussion and explain how the present the how explain and discussion this low rivileged status as one finds finds one as status rivileged

he regional leaders and divesting and leaders regional he

suppresse an ethno an maue with measures y ilizing such revolution. such ilizing - wt te W the with d nationalist struggle. struggle. nationalist in unranked ethnic unranked in r of an ethnic an of r

the holding holding the

Tigray oyane

CEU eTD Collection 108 107 106 105 state. the in group ethnic dominant the particularly others, to relationship their and minorities aw cultural the increase will that communication and transportation in advancement p revolutionary by labor wage allow hiring against prohibition the and market and trade on restriction of policies regime‟s Military the against opposition peasant the to responding was province the liberating in involvement people‟s the economy. of commercial restriction state‟s the of because but landlords, the or state and peasants the between conflict class fostered that commercialization or capitalism of changes t due not was Tigray in revolution the Young, to According region. the in figured have imperialism nor commercialism agricultural neither Tigray in revolution the resistance. promote state a Young the by taxes more or landowners the by rent more for demands to due peasants within tension bringing by imperialism of impact the that hold approach structural commercializ of face the in life of way traditional their protect to want that state or market or lord land the of constraints the from freedom relative a have that peasantry peripheral or middle the in lies potential revolutionary commercialization” are agricultural by ineffective made relationships or upended and institutions traditional when ways old maintain to revolt peasants that the pea explain sufficiently not do theories structural these track, right the on though argues, Young But,

Ibid Ibid Ibid Youn n cmeca economy. commercial ing ., ., 23 ., 23

106 sant revolution led by the TPLF. This he says is because “peasant revolt theorists contend theorists“peasant contend isbecauserevolt by Thishesays TPLF. revolution led the sant g 23 , rgues these are not applicable for the revolution in Tigray. This is because at the time of time the atbecause is Tigray. This in revolution the applicablefor arenot thesergues Supra note 24, note Supra

otential of other non economic non other of otential

107 21

n f In

c oe f h frt eom b te PF n t frt er of years first its in TPLF the by reforms first the of one act 108

ation or proletarianisation. Similarly, others within the same the within others Similarly, proletarianisation. or ation y mhszn uo eooy hs tere ms the miss theories these economy upon emphasizing By

factors. One such factor is modernization through modernization is factor such One factors. 41

o the disruptive impact of structural of impact disruptive the o 105 . Struc . tural theories hold that hold theories tural areness of of areness CEU eTD Collection 112 111 p. 29 Ibid., state”, Ethiopian single withina autonomy nation than nationalist ethno is revolution Tigray peasant paragraph 110 109 by coup a was It revolution. creeping a as to refer some what by ousted was 1974 to 1930 from lasted that regime Haileselassie The psychological ethnic conflicts. dynamics in sustained that still but atrocities, its to revoluti exposed less no were Derg the of regime military the under and exploitation economic severe more to victims also were South the in people other be long had and heritage their in pride deep a had Tigrayans that not it were movement, nationalist a to form given have not dominance]…may “[Amhara bysaying; thesis revolution peasant the of evaluation concludeshis pronounc is conflict ethnic that discussing, been has thesis this approach theoretical the to important more But TPLF. the formed later that 1960s the in movement student the of participants the constituted bourgeoisie petite This peasantry. mobiliz in played has apparatus state dominated Amhara with contact in more was which bourgeoisie petite the that role leadership the of significance the to points Young Rather, respectled by revolution by saying: ofthe TPLF Tigray. in rebellion sectio the in discussed as and policy centralization Haileselassie‟s of advent the after Tigray in underway well was that something is process This

Ibid same this in says Young whichas revolt peasant the Tigray to notapply does nationalist termuse ofThisthe Ibid Ibid ., 30 ., p. 30 ., p. ., p. .,p. 31 regularly grievances. national voiced b era modern the to prior However, nationalist giving of capable beings political not but beings, economic be to peasants recognize thus they life; of major way their when undermine economy rebel the in peasants changes that hold thesis revolt peasant of Exponents on to these regimes came from Tigray proves the higher explanatory power of the the of power explanatory higher the proves Tigray from came regimes these to on

110 109

interpretations to changes in their economy and way of life. of way and economy their in changes to interpretations

John Young thus concludes his evaluation of peasant revolt theories in theories revolt peasant of evaluation his concludes thus Young John

en ruled by people from their own community” own their from people by ruled en

2 lw akn mltr ofcr cle the called officers military ranking low 120 oth the nobility and peasants of Tigray Tigray of peasants and nobility the oth

111

d ihn nakd ytm, on Young John systems, unranked within ed ns above has triggered the first Woyane Woyane first the triggered has above ns alist since “Tigrayan rebellion wasethnic for “Tigrayanrebellion since alist 112 . Even though Even .

ing the Tigray Tigray the ing Derg

(in (in CEU eTD Collection 4 No. 6, 113 esposhaped by was movement student The tiller‟. the to “land slogan the under 1965 February25, in place took Itintelligentsia. yearsfive against the first theking demonstration wasafter thiscoupthat student part were who Neway Germame educated American and Neway Mengistu General brothers, two by coup aborted the by sparked itself was king the ofregime old age the against movementThis movement. student student oriented radicalMarxist moveme political organized the of any as foundation its owes TPLF The parties party. coalition inthis constituted ethnically other of expense the at Ethiopia in government led EPRDF the in power a as TPLF of roots the discuss the toppled finally which TPLF the is struggle armed into resistance its took and movement student the in roots these drove warfare. guerilla start or underground go Party) to forces opposing Revolutionary People‟s (Ethiopian EPRP the especially forces political into country drudgery”. the “drove says, time the of atrocities horrendous the describing the measures harsh dif the with power movement, student th st the Military a by steered movement of popular backdrop provisional a against „The Haileselassie ousted for Derg The name (PMAC). Committee shorthand Adminstrative is which committee) meaning Amharic kn‟ rgm. T regime. king‟s e

Teshale Tibebu, TeshaleTibebu, , 345 , 113 - 371, 2008, p. 356 2008, 371,

hs eg o tro a the as terror of reign This using different and at times opposition perspectives of Marxixt Lenninist perspectives Marxixt idealsand of at different of opposition using times Modernity, Eurocentrism and Radical Politics in Ethiopia (1961 Ethiopia in Politics Radical and Eurocentrism Modernity, ferent political parties that were contending for power at the time. Rather the the Rather time. the at power for contending were that parties political ferent Derg Derg Derg Derg og i aotd h rdcl axs ielg ta ws espou was that ideology Marxist radical the adopted it hough by 1991 and rules the country since then. The following paragraphs will will paragraphs following The then. since country the rules and 1991 by

took against these political parties, as the Historian Teshale Tibebu in Tibebu Teshale Historian the as parties, political these against took

was not willing to give up give to willing not was

iryn tn ntoait oeet n is oe xrie of exercise sole its and movement nationalist ethno Tigrayan udent movements of the 1960‟s that has already weakened already has that 1960‟s the of movements udent Derg 43

ald t rd err wih agtd opposing targeted which terror‟ „red it called

power to a civilian government nor share nor government civilian a to power f h aitcay i alac wt the with alliance in aristocracy, the of One such organization which has its has which organization such One - 1991), nts in Ethiopia to the to Ethiopia in nts

African Identities, Vol. Vol. AfricanIdentities, bottomless a sed by the the by sed CEU eTD Collection 114 the towards progress and Tigray of area rural the general a with up came then by group This students. university seven by 1974, 14, September in movement student the of part as formed natio ethno an from evolved TPLF Berhe, Aregawi founder and chairman TPLF former to According Ethiopia. be within is to sought solution which in national is issue the that claimed question the of side nationalities and nations the is of solution one its and is colonialism question national the claimed WSLF and OLF question, the nationalities on and pressed nations that three these Of (WSLF). Front Liberation Somali Western (OLF), Front Oromo (TPLF), Front Liberation People‟s Tigray include, view latter this with line in formed organizations Those nationalities. of house prison a as Ethiopia depicting nationalities th side, other the On Movement). Socialist Ethiopian (All AESM and Party) Revolutionary People‟s (Ethiopian EPRP the were line this along formed parties Political resolved. be will ethnicity or nationality ex class in rests question fundamental the The debate„nationalTwo first perspectives inthe question‟. outofsays developed been this have participationas ofotherswell as opportunity culture. topreserve their Amhara non of suppression w piece a Ababa, Addis of Union Students University the by journal 1969 a in publication a by stirred was debate studen the within split ideological and debate fierce the set which question‟ self national

Ibid nalist association called Tigrayan National Organization (TNO). This association was was association This (TNO). Organization National Tigrayan called association nalist ., ., 347

- determination. These perspectives took on what came to be known as the „national the as known be to came what on took perspectives These determination. ritten by an Amhara student Wale student Amhara an by ritten ere were those who thought the fundamental question is one of nations and and nations of one is question fundamental the thought who those were ere

ainlte b te Amha the by nationalities 114

breakup guideline that guideline

liain n b slig this solving by and ploitation f tipa O te othe the On Ethiopia. of 44 ur

lign Mekonen. Walelign‟s piece describes the the describes piece Walelign‟s Mekonen. lign ban area ban a rul ra

declared, to wage an a an wage to declared, ,

and TNO to be in charge of leading leading of charge in be to TNO and n cas n cls o te equal the for calls and class ing

hn TL sil n the on still TPLF hand r ,

te qetos of questions other mvmn. The movement. t rmed struggle in struggle rmed Liberation CEU eTD Collection Yo also, See 2009; 153, No Report Africa Group, Crisis International also, See 398; p. Young, John and Authoritarianism 118 117 116 115 the coalition were underformed TPLF the the coali tutelageand joined the of to member parties political the All parties. coalition the between relationship power unbalanced Tigrayan a hands the as position minority its to legitimacy of movement. semblance a give to TPLF the by TPLF the EPR government, coalition the formed transitional the forming and 1991 in power assuming Before 1991. the oust to able was TPLF years sixteen of struggle protracted a After 3.2 ofminister fromdeath Ethiopia his 2012). 1995until in Abbay Tsehay,HailuLegesse Zenawi (Seye) Mengesha, Sahle(future Abraha and prime (Meles) include Dedebit, in group TPLF first the formed and Front), Liberation People‟s (Eritrean EPLF controlled then Asmara,Eritrea, for training military for sent TNO the that people few struggle. armed an of beginning the declared and Dedebit called place a at 1975 popula local the mobilizing and soldiers future recruiting by struggle armed an for work ground the leveling after ethnicity. politicizing repercussions future the comprehend to failed also has TPLF “ethno an effective most the as use mobilization nationalist to preferring by that says Aregawi struggle. armed an of beginning the until this

Lovise Aalen,Lovise Ibid Ibid Aregawi, TPLF: ., ., 76 ., 77

of the TPLF is supported both by the process of the creation of the EPRDF and the the and EPRDF the of creation the of process the by both supported is TPLF the of Supra note 70 note Supra 118

, Northeast African Studies, Volume 2, Volume Studies, African Northeast , This conclusion to see EPRDF as a facade behind which real power is exercised inexercised is power real which facadebehind a as EPRDF see to conclusion This Dominant Party of a Minority Ethnic Group Ethnic Minority of a Party Dominant TPLF: Reform or Decline, or Reform TPLF: Supra note 89 note Supra tion of Tigray, TPLF was formed by a small band of ethnic Tigres in Febbruary in Tigres ethnic of band small a by formed was TPLF Tigray, of tion , 64, p.

DF in 1989 in what is taken to be by most observers as an instrument an as observers most by be to taken is what in 1989 in DF , p. 45; See also, Marina Ottaway, Marina also, See , 45; p.

Review of African Political Economy, Vol. 30, No. 97, 389 97, No. 30, Vol. Economy, Political African Reviewof

Number 3, 67 Number3, 45 d shortest d

Ethiopian Transition: Democratization or New or Democratization Transition: Ethiopian 117

way to way - 87, 1995, p. 73; See also, Medhane Tadesse Tadesse Medhane also, 73; See p. 1995, 87,

uproot the oppressive system”, system”, oppressive the uproot

ung, Derg Supra note 33 note Supra tion respectivelytion as,

military regime in regime military 116

Among the Among - 115 403, 2003, 2003, 403, , p. 532 ,

by the the by Thus

CEU eTD Collection 120 p. 116 2003, 10, No 119 as TPLF criticized that statement joint a in participating for government of out thrown was SEPDC TPLF. of independently elites region‟s the by formed was also which SEPDC, the with after TPLF bydetained were soldiers thousand twenty than more OLF‟s and OPDO war of prisoners of party satellite its formed thus TPLF 1986. in ended cooperation the and wings its under it bring to tried latter strateg a had time the at organization other any Democratic People‟s than Oromia in Ethiopian roots stronger with and time long a for established OLF The (SEPDC). Southern Coalition South, the in party another and Front Liberation should It

Lovise Aalen,Lovise Tronvol, Kjetil and Vaughan Sarah 3. 2. 1.

PF eta cmite assig h rgoa peiet n cif xctv, Abate Kisho executive, chief and president regional the assisting committee, central TPLF of member Belay… Bitew man, specific one through “Personalized interference literal TPLF. by chosen leaders its had and trained recruited, together, put was parties, small numerous of coalition a itself SEPDF The south. the in found groups ethnic multiple represents party This (SEPDF). Democ People‟s Ethiopian Southern was 1994 in EPRDF join to last The the sameof Derg ofwarTPLF; waycomposedcaptured soldiers prisoners by the in 1990, in (OPDO) Organization Democratic People‟s Oromo is EPRDF join to Second armed clash in1979; TPLF by defeated was EPRP after war of prisoners were or TPLF to defected who members EPRP former of out formed was party This (ANDM). Movement Democratic National Amhara as renamed later (EPDM) Movement Democratic Peaople‟s Ethiopian

also be pointed out pointed be also . 120 Supra note 89, note Supra

the disagreement escalated into armed conflict. The same thing happened thing same The armedconflict. into escalated disagreement the

p. 91, 91, p.

that EPRDF has been working with tw with working been has EPRDF that The Culture of Power in Contemporary Ethiopian Political Life Ethiopian Contemporary in Power of Culture The

119

The formation of this later organization later this of formation The 46 ic cooperation agreement with TPLF before the the before TPLF with agreement cooperation ic

o other parties the Oromo the parties other o

was made in a in made was , Sida Studies Studies Sida , ratic Front Front ratic

in an an in

CEU eTD Collection 124 African on Center University ofEdinburgh: 51, Papers Occasional Sarah 123 122 121 hand its bycompeting through upper an TPLF give to designed intentionally were „kilils‟ or Zones gerrymandered these says, state the of viability future the upon federalism ethnic of impact the studying Mihretu Assefa demarcated Ethnic groups aredefined „Kilils‟ or regions. by charter non excluding by and b dominated and controlled wholly was regions. that process making constitution demarcated a Through ethnically assigned their representing parties opposition with compete w of base secure a TPLF give to designed was group ethnic every for parties political of structuring This coalitionandEPRDF consequently TPLF dominated by members coalition other region. the in f population coalition the of part uneducated the mostly from TPLF of tutelage c etn ppe ehi pris a parties ethnic puppet reating

EFDRE Constitution Article 39, sub article 10 sub article 39, Article Constitution EFDRE Afr Group, Crisis International Ibid Ibid Vaughan, Vaughan, ., ., 89 ., 7 123 miles to the north of Addis Ababa, the primacy of ethnic di ethnic of primacy the Ababa, Addis of north the to miles of hundreds center geographical only its and population the of with percent 10 about Ethiopia in tribe minority a represents which TPLF the for … - 8 , the former non ethnic administrative regions of Ethiopia were redrawn into ethnically into redrawn were Ethiopia of regions administrative ethnic non former the ,

nig lcin i al ein o Ehoi i te ae f hs ehi pris that parties ethnic these of name the in Ethiopia of regions all in elections inning re i ti way this in ormed The Addis Ababa Transitional Conference of July 1991, its origins, history and significance‟ and history its origins, 1991, of July Conference Transitional Ababa Addis The an identifiable, make psychological common a identities, related or common a in belief language, of intelligibility mutual customs, similar or culture common a of measure large a share or have who people of group a -

ethnic political organizations from the making of the transitional transitional the of making the from organizations political ethnic

t h time the at ica Report No 15 No Report ica ,

predominantly contiguous territory. affiliate ethnic pa h AD rltvl sekn big etr organized better being speaking relatively ANDM the d hs t a rpae b SEPDF by replaced was it thus nd ,

PO n SPF r te weakest the are SEPDF and OPDO

3, 2009, p. 4; See also, p. also, See 3, 2009, 4; 47 rties thatpresides it over.rties

. Studies. 122

the constitution as:the constitution Aalen,

124 Supra note 89 note Supra -

up, and who inhabit inhabit who and up, iini its in vision

omd ne te direct the under formed

at f th of part

, p. 41 , - y the TPLF TPLF the y

48; See also, also, 48; See

hn the than ruling e 121

The CEU eTD Collection 127 126 125 in fact a constitutes minority, hence she says; it while politically dominate to TPLF the by design a is terms those in parties of creation the and organization”. i senior the is TPLF the Level, i this says party based national a by controlled is government central the but level regional the at independently run that bet analogy make to try some though Even Front Unity Democratic People‟s and(BPDUF), GambelaPeople‟s Democratic Party(GPDP). Benishangul/Gumuz (HNL), League National Harari include, regions”. the in cadres structure administrative “TPLF second where constitute regions these in government dual a created has TPLF, upon positions where parties, ethnic independent nominally these of activities day to day the control cadres TPLF the where relationship This cadres. TPLF cases all almost in are advisors these apparently and „advisors‟ as known EPRDF Theseare a EPRDF. supervised partiesallied tothe de facto are but coalition umbrella the outside stand that regions peripheral the in parties ethnic other created p for the which elections, contest that region every for parties ethnic assigning is that end, this achieve To

Ibid Aalen, Assefa, ., p. p. governing model appears to have been an ingenious divide and rule rule and divide ingenious an been have political strategywhich TPLF enabled power tolegitimize its to appears model governing ast four elections since 1992 EPRDF and its affiliate parties have not lost, TPLF has also also TPLF lost, has affiliate not have parties andits EPRDF elections sinceast 1992 four Supra note 89, note Supra Afar National Democratic Front (ANDF), Somali People‟s Democratic Party (SPDP), (SPDP), Party Democratic People‟s Somali (ANDF), Front Democratic National Afar Supra note 9 note Supra 80 nt th not s

o h n n Canada in one the to 127

To this Marina Ottaway adds Ottaway Marina this To e case. A case. e , p. 117 ,

p. 87 p.

lthough EPRDF members are members EPRDF lthough

t was the creator of other parties and is the strongest political political strongest the is and parties other of creator the was t in turn these parties rely on TPLF for the maintenance of their of maintenance the for TPLF on rely parties these turn in Lvs ae ls bevro tipasfdrl system federal Ethiopia‟s of observer close a Aalen Lovise , ween this ethnic arrangement of parties in Ethiopia Ethiopia in parties of arrangement ethnic this ween

48 ,

the division of the country into into country the of division the

“equal 126

nd controlled by party officials of controlledofficials byof partynd hs s cle stlie parties satellite called so These

coalition partners on nationa on partners coalition .

125

ethnic regions ethnic l CEU eTD Collection EPRDF. party, withthe ruling in deput was Minster current Prime question.The 129 Numbe Volume2, 128 has created a country centralizedregionalfiscal dependenceand the of system economic and political the dominating by TPLF the how of ways center of in studied be should devolution fiscal Ethiopia‟s of effectiveness the of evaluation the that Chan Paulos regions, to power of devolution than rather deconcentration of one be to W the with agreeing While

Whether the death of Prime Minster Meles Zenawi, Tigiyan Zenawi,Tigiyan Meles Minster ofPrime the Whether death Ottaway, Marina y before assuming his current post. The transition was the result of the constitution than a political bargain bargain political a than the constitution of thewas result Thetransition current post. his assuming ybefore - region political power relationship of the political parties. As such he points out four four out points he such As parties. political the of relationship power political region 3. 2. 1.

o pltcl edr o TL hv a e at mnae o eet and select to forappoint individuals party regional positions. leadership mandate facto de a have TPLF of leaders political Top in Ethiopia], the of size the to due parliament the in bloc largest the constitutes OPDO that fact the despite is [this all at leadership top in involved not were SEDM and OPDO ANDM. theoffice, TPLFwerefromthe nine seven from membersand whotwo led EPR the administered and managed veterans …TPLF since deathminister his 2012 1995,until in (1991 Period transitional the during president was who leader, TPLF the by led been has EPRDF formation its since a enjoying party the dominationof communist districts, and by politically together republics held firmly but autonomy ethnic administrative of degree into imitate country to the appeared of division country dev ethnic model multi the a consciously govern to approach This r 3, 67 3, r

Ethiopian Transition: Democratization or New or Authoritarianism Democratization Transition: Ethiopian - 87, 1995, p. p. 73 1995, 87,

orld Bank report in 2001 that concluded the Ethiopian federal system federal Ethiopian the concluded that 2001 in report Bank orld

who stepped in the place of the deceased Prime Minister ofthe deceased in thewho place stepped

region it represents, Oromia, the largest ethnic group ethnic largest the Oromia, represents, it region sd y h Sve Uin n h ps; the past; the in Union Soviet the by ised 49

a system by origin by . 128

, 129 , will result in a s a will in result ,

of clienteleof parties; –

95), and has been prime been has and 95), F fie Among office. DF , Northeast African Studies, Studies, African Northeast ,

h ift of power is an open is an open power of ift

is from SEPDF from is

i e writes writes e

and and

light CEU eTD Collection 641 4, No. 5, Studies,Vol. critical 133 132 131 No.3, 355 45, Vol. 130 decision making,as oppos respects many ill TPLF‟s affairs. national country‟s the in maker decision sole the it makes centralization democratic of principle its wings, its under create it where TPLF by practices above the Besides and they control the country end. tothis people Tigrayan the of will the of representatives the foremost and first as themselves consider oligopolistic an such handing by group ethnic constituent their of development the towards favor lopsided of form has above mentioned w economy Ethiopia‟s in player huge a EFFORT, members. committee central TPLF of composed are directors of board and leadership executive h mjr prpra‟ s nomn Fn fr eaiiain f iry EFR) whose (EFFORT), Tigray of Rehabilitation for Fund Endowment is „parapartal‟ major The

EPRDF statute 5 statute EPRDF Group, Crisis International Tronvol and Vaughan Chanie, Paulos review of EPRDF‟s conception of revolutionary democracy in post 1991 Ethiopia 1991 post in democracy revolutionary of conception EPRDF‟s of review 4.

e b dmcai picpe ad hs wih epc demo respect which those and principles centralism democratic by are led which those are umbrella EPRDF under come that organizations All in parapartals managing and agricultureproduction, t trade,cement owning power, economic dominant a is TPLF The industries. giving service and manufacturing in engaged are businesses) managed and owned party political (ruling parapartals The ot the than power economic greater remarkably enjoys TPLF Clientelism and Ethiopia‟s post Ethiopia‟s and Clientelism - - 384, 2007 p. 363 2007p. 384, 8., Cited in Jean Nicholas Bach, Nicholas Jean in Cited 8., its 2010partyits declares statute , Supra note 119 note Supra , ed to liberal democracy liberal to ed been privileged with privileged been

- 663, 2011, p. 647; See also, Aalen also, See 647; p. 2011, 663, oto o te onys cnm aie fo TL‟ mmes who members TPLF‟s from arises economy county‟s the of control

. Supra note 123 note Supra 133

, p. 78 , , 6 , p. - eie ielg o rvltoay eorc ta i in is that democracy revolutionary of ideology defined 132

1991 decentralization 1991 monopolist trade practices by the ruling party. ruling the by practices trade monopolist Abyotawi Democracy: neither revolutionary nor democratic, a democratic, nor revolutionary neither Democracy: Abyotawi ,

champions democratic centralism as its principle of of principle its as centralism democratic champions 50

;

, ith an oligopolistic control of crucial sectors sectors crucial of control oligopolistic an ith

Supra note 89 note Supra extiles, transport, bankingextiles, transport, … , utrs n cnrl pltcl parties political controls and nurtures s, , The journal of Modern African Studies, ofModern Thejournal , , 84, p.

, Journal of East African African , ofEast Journal her parties. parties. her 130 cratic cratic

131

This

CEU eTD Collection p. 647 2011, 663, Ethiopia, 1991 post in democracy revolutionary of conception 135 1, 27 No. 9, Vol. Science, 134 close a Abbink, Jon says This members. TPLF by held are security and army, the in posts important Other Gebreyesus. Adhanom Tedros member TPLF another by headed is ministry si Mesfin, Seyum TPLF, in leader erstwhile an Tigrayan, a by years nine for headed been has ministry foreign like posts other 2012, in death his before years seventeen for served who Zenawi, Meles Minister Prime its top hegemony, the of charge its in been also exert have leaders to Tigrayan TPLF by utilized mechanisms control other and these of top On in whichthefindsa rulingpartypowerfulwaycontrolling the affiliatedparties” of of TPLF center the at the now is [and] from struggle the during organization inherited internal practice a is “it says Nicholas Jean As cadres. EPRDF controlled through go also members their EPRDF, of formally are they since independent, be to supposed are regions peripheral the of parties satellite the though Even misconduct. for evaluated are EPRDF under party‟s all of members of concept the ideology,is guiding internal its Leninismas Marxism follows whichTPLF typicalof elite”. Tigrayan the of interests Mere to according which hands, t in decisions all take to committee central or politbureau the constituting people of circle inner TPLF‟s the served has accountability upward promoting by such as centralism Democratic

Jean Nicholas Bach, Bach, Nicholas Jean Gudina, Merera „gemgema‟

or cri or Competing Ethnic Nationalisms and Democratization Democratization and Nationalisms Ethnic Competing Abyotawi Democracy: neither revolutionary nor democratic, a critical review of EPRDF‟s EPRDF‟s reviewof critical a democratic, nor revolutionary neither Democracy: Abyotawi ticism. ticism. - 50, 2004, p. 33 p. 33 2004, 50,

nce the start of the regime in 1991 until 2010. At the moment this this moment the At 2010. until 1991 in regime the of start the nce „Gemgema‟

134

a Gudina, ra

Related with the structure of democratic centralism which is which centralism democratic of structure the with Related

is a widely as well as strictly practiced method where by where method practiced strictly as well as widely a is gimgema 51 [a] en ahoe t sre h hegemonic the serve to fashioned been “[has]

Journal of East African Studies, Vol. 5, No. 4, No.4, 641 5, Vol. Studies, Journal African ofEast

positions of the executive. Beside the late the Beside executive. the of positions

and are held accountable to the TPLF TPLF the to accountable held are and in Ethiopia, in the administrative system administrative the

African Journal of Political ofPolitical African Journal 135 .

not part part not heir heir -

CEU eTD Collection 139 138 13 No. 2, 10, 137 p. 156 13, Vol. Studies, African Contemporary 136 formerto his of such castigationAm a concept as contrast in II, Menelik of achievements past lauding Ethiopianism on drumming public in appear (EFFORT)” Tigray of Rehabilitation as well th under as companies Tigrayan war, of consortium a by dismantle to devastation planning its to due Tigray to accorded advantages special the to end national for anput to attempting [is] “Meles that wasdissenters responsible bythe accusations the of one such As affairs. is minster prime a as who Meles than region Tigray based the firmly in more backing a had dissenters called on later or group Tewolde‟s catalyst. a as served Eritr with relationship this Besides place. first the all an want not did pressure international to due part his on who Eritrea on lenient Tewold Eritrea. with war the of course the group‟s over disagreement two the to due public came conflict The other. the on faction his and Zenawi Meles Woldem Tewolde leadership, TPLF the Ethio In the of survival. aftermath their for TPLF upon parties regional ethno these of dependence the reveals E of as party the by called formally or purge the than other Nothing whereby the in assume pivotal positions Tigrayans country inallsectors. Ethi of observer

Ibid Ibid Milkias, Paulos Abbink, John RF ebr ate ad h stlie ate floig slt ihn h TL ranks TPLF the within split a following parties satellite the and parties member PRDF ., ., 26 ., 18

- 66, 2003, p. p. 2003, 18 66, Breaking and Making the State: the dynamic of ethnic democracy in Ethiopia in democracy ethnic dynamicof the State: the Making and Breaking Ethiopia, the the TPLF, Ethiopia, opian politics, is a „Tigrayanization‟ of general power structures in Ethiopia Ethiopia in structures power general of „Tigrayanization‟ a is politics, opian eans. - rtenwrta rk u i 19,tofcin devel factions two 1998, in out broke that war Eritrean

137 ,

Meles‟ contenders accused him that his leniency is due to his blood his to due is leniency his that him accused contenders Meles‟

But their antagonism has been brewing for a long time and the war war the and time long a for brewing beenhas antagonism their But

and the Roots of the 2001 Political Tremor Political the 2001 Rootsof the and ariam‟s group on the one side and the then prime minister prime then the and side one the on group ariam‟s 138

Tee cuain wr rie we Mls re to tried Meles when raised were accusations These . 52 hara chauvinism.

e‟s group accused Meles of being being of Meles accused group e‟s tehadsso 139 , Northeast African Studies, Vol. Vol. Studies, African Northeast ,

e Endowment Fund for the for Fund Endowment e 136

or reform or

, Journal , of oped within the within oped - out conflict in in conflict out

upon leaders upon CEU eTD Collection 142 141 389 97, No. 140 summarized by an Paulosanalys Milkias, well as puppets them makes Tigray, of people the constituents, its of interests the representing brea and TPLF inside power in is whoever with swing to parties satellite the and coalition EPRDF the within freedom” in live to chance a have will children [TPLF] you to cowering than “rather said has affairparty their in TPLFof meddling the resisting OPDO, an Jarso Shiferaw incident one in and Tigray, of development the to used being unfairly are resources Oromia, region‟s, their that split. the during Meles with side not did ANDM the unlike and dissenters the of purging the condemned who kisho Abate by led SEPDF, and republic, the of president then Gidada, Negasso by led OPDO especially were victims main parties. affiliate and coalition other the also but TPLF the to limited not were purges the But Defense. G Tsadkan General Lt. and imprisoned) and corruption with charged go their from members TPLF dissenter the purged TPLF, the dominated personally now and victorious out came who Meles stake. at interests Tigray‟s put dissensions these that explained and Tigray the of solidarity Tigray the Mekele, in place took that meetings these of one In debates. congress and committee central TPLF endless and groups two the by accusations t in But

Ibid Milkias, Medhane Tadesse and John Young, Young, John and Tadesse Medhane ., ., 28 e ia cut n 01 ee cm out came Meles 2001 in count final he

- Supra note 138 note Supra 403, 403, 2 Democratic Front (SEPDF), have proven beyond doubt what they really really they what doubt beyond proven have (SEPDF), People‟s Front Democratic Ethiopia Southern the And (OPDO), Organization Democratic People‟s Oromo The (ANDM), Movement Democratic National Amhara du true is It 003, p. p. 391 003, hn te ie f PF hc fo is rgn s n tn ntoait party nationalist ethno an is origin its from which TPLF of life the thing , p. 27,

ring the last decade, appendages of the TPLF, such as the the as such TPLF, the of appendages decade, last the ring

vernment posts including Siye Abraha, Minster of Defense (later (later Defense of Minster Abraha, Siye including posts vernment TPLF: Reform or Decline or Reform TPLF: t of TPLF ideologyt ofTPLF and history: 141 , I would rather die in order to make sure that my my that sure make to order in die rather would I ,

OPDO members had long ex long had members OPDO 142 53 . This manner in which the affiliate parties both affiliate parties the which mannerin This .

as the winner after numerous exchanges of of exchanges numerous after winner the as , Review of African Political Economy, Vol. 30, 30, Vol. Economy, Political Review , ofAfrican

capital, Meles had to appeal to the ethnic the to appeal to had Meles capital,

ebre Tinsae, Chief of of Chief Tinsae, ebre pressed their concern their pressed

The The 140

CEU eTD Collection 144 143 conflict Syria in T refuge of at lives, claim to continued in succeeded af countries other the in revolutions the countries the uprisings the throughout but Egypt, and Libya in leaders authoritarian of toppling the in resulting region o the to spread quickly has Spring Arab the beginning, its From 2011. January on down step to Ali Ben president its forcing 2010 in Tunisia in began first that Spring, Arab co the and catastrophic most the be to provenhas it 2010 sinceeast middle the swepthave that uprisings the all of 2011, March in started that regime Al‟Assad‟s Bashar against Syria in uprising the Since 4.1. Chapter 4 he Economist he

Amnesty International UK, UK, International Amnesty Ibid

., ., 25 Syria: T Syria: es in millions. in es

nflict long drawn. The uprising is part of part is uprising The drawn. long nflict

Ethnic a

control of the TPLF. As soon as they realized who was the person or or person camp. the was group‟s or who person that in realized firmly stood they hand, they upper the holding as group soon As TPLF. the of control are

change of government, most of them in less than a year, the conflict in Syria has has Syria in conflict the year, a than less in them of most government, of change as early as 2011 as early as

as opposed toother countries.as opposed he Perils of Minority Rule Minority of Perils he –

143 organizational autometons that are manipulated by whomever is in is whomever by manipulated are that autometons organizational

Minority Rule:

144 experienced a huge loss of lives and destruction of infrastructure. While infrastructure. of destruction and lives of loss huge a experienced

Campaign Lowdown: Syria Lowdown: Campaign

The following summarization of the de the of summarization following The

this moment the death toll qui toll death the moment this

shows the difference of the repercussion in the early days of the the of days early the in repercussion the of difference the shows

Sy etd y h Aa srn cm t a at r t least at or halt a to came spring Arab the by fected ria and Rwanda

, April 2014 ,

ein iervltos o nw s the as known or revolutions, wide region t

e surpassing 100, 000 100, surpassing e

ath toll in the Arab Spring by Spring Arab the in toll ath

ther parts of the of parts ther and the number the and se CEU eTD Collection 146 145 mas be likely will they Syria, the Assad post a in that know they that, because regime the with stick “ loyalists core regime‟s the Alawi, adding removal regimes those hastened that revolutions other the in case the been defection of chances the reduces regime the of nature sectarian „ al Hafiz of time the since po Syrian dominated have population Syrian the of 12% only representing Alawites The the military/security tied tothe structurethatis Alawites. and masses the within both Alawites of group ethnic his of loyalty the buying of means a as card sectarian the of use Assad‟s is uprisings massive these of face the in regime the of endurance Syria. wit cut that war civil a into turned been have uprisings the that is Syria in conflict the of longevity the for reasons the of One Table

Fareed Zakaria, Fareed 2011 Times, July York TheNew Shadid, Anthony te uig eie f ahr l ‟ al Bashar of regime ruling the h - 145

1 „Death Ara 2011. *Source

Among the reasons for the escalation of the uprisings in Syria into civil war and t and war civil into Syria in uprisings the of escalation the for reasons the Among

The case against Intervention in Syria in Intervention against case The -

The Economist, The Arab Spring Death Toll: theprice Economist,Toll: TheArabThe so far, ofprotest DeathJuly Spring b Spring Death Toll‟ b Spring across sectarian divisions where part of the population is being identified being is population the of part where divisions sectarian across

Assad sacred”.

, Bashar‟s , 146

Assad

The sectarian divide has both added to the resilience of resilience the to added both has divide sectarian The

father, sinc father,

55 , Time, June 11, 2 Time,June11, , and the opposition with the Sunni majority in in majority Sunni the with opposition the and

e 19 e

70.

012

of the regime‟s key figures as has has as figures key regime‟s the of According to Fareed Zakaria Fareed to According

litics litics ,

the the

he CEU eTD Collection 62 October p. 2013, No.4, 24, Vol. 150 149 148 104 P. 2013. Book, Review DILEMMA,Boston SYRIA 147 a from turned soon majority‟ a rule forever cannot minority „a slogan the on centered campaign Assad hasradical faced the al‟ with Hafiz this, Following Palestinians. Sunni stand the against Lebanon of minority Maronite to Christian regime Alawi the by act intentional an as Syrians by seen was This 1976. al ofthirtyHafiz Syrian soldiers precedents by thousand thesending theearliest to power.is Oneof coming Hafiz‟s of time the from right Syria in history long a have mistrust and divide Sectarian used loyal its as supportersa defensive bu and atrocities its for support sectarian exclusionary an mobilized has regime the divide, Sunni of prospects the weakened and e of one into protests Spring Arab the turned has fear of sense a instill protestors. the of repression its for support of base 10%) (about Christians minorities, other and community Alawite the of protector the be to claiming protestors. the against crackdowns the spearhead to them used and positions important to th maintained has Assad al‟ „ al Bashar movements theMiddleEast. in Spring Arab other the from Bashar, topple to unable still movement popular protracted its and u Syrian the apart setsminority, a of base social a from benefits Syria in regimethe which factor, this And war. civil a into it turning by uprising popular the stifled and regime Assad‟s -

Steven Heydman, Heydman, Steven I p. 50 2012, Press University Yale ASSAD, OF HOUSE FALL OF THE THE Lesch,SYRIA: W. David Zunes, Stephen Assad in support in Assad bid., 51 bid.,

n Due (%, gis a oeta Sni escto, h rgm hs eue a loyal a secured has regime the persecution, Sunni potential a against (3%), Druzes and

Assad Supporting Unarmed Civil Insurrection in Syria in Civil Insurrection Unarmed Supporting , who came to power in 2000 by continuing in the footsteps of his father Hafiz father his of footsteps the in continuing by 2000 in power to came who , Tracking the “Arab Spring”: Syria and the Future of Authoritarianism of the Future Syria and Spring”: “Arab the Tracking

Lebanon‟s war against the P the against war Lebanon‟s Islamist campaign and exacerbated animositytothe This regime. Sunni‟s

e Alawite dominance in the army and government by assigning them assigning by government and army the in dominance Alawite e

147 post

conflict democratization in the country. Using the Alawi the Using country. the in democratization conflict lwark.

56 150

149 alestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) in (PLO) Organization Liberation alestinian

, in Nader Hashemi and Danny Postel (ed.), THE THE (ed.), Danny Postel Hashemi and in , Nader The regime‟s use of Alawi insecurity to insecurity Alawi of use regime‟s The thno , Journal of Democracy, ofDemocracy, Journal , - sectarian civil war war civil sectarian

prising prising 148

By - CEU eTD Collection 42 pp. July 2011, 1, No Volume 3, Etütleri, 154 153 Domiance, 152 p. 2013, 151 first the Hama, in as same the and dynasty Assad the of years forty the in changed has Little sectaria of politics the by dominated was Syria of politics the forth moment that From Dynasty. Assad the with Alawis the of fate the tie “effectively to been has impact lasting troop Alawi of composed mainly forces armed the by perpetrated was Hama, in opposition Sunni the targeting 1982. February in some) by 000 40, than more be reported is number a made and heavily cost to going al Hafiz stronghold, Brotherhood Moslem Sunni the Hamma, of takeover the Fearing politics. sectarian also but gruesome most the as out stands event one spreadSyria,that throughout Islamistopposition Sunni andconflict sectarian such of apexthe At overthrowcollapsethe present or of regime” rank every of Alawis the fear strong among the is juncture present the at cohesion for “working says Batatu Hanna as which regime the to Alawi‟s the tied that sectarianism of element an was Fear insecurity. around built June in member 1979. staff Baathist Sunni a by assembled intentionally School Artillery Aleppo in officers cadet Alawi three eighty of slaughtering the was repression its increasing also thereby in regime‟s the increased that attack such One attack. violent and physical a into verbal

Leon Goldsmith, LeonGoldsmith, Lefevre, Batau, Hanna Press, University Oxford SYRIA, IN BROTHERHOOD MUSLIM THE HAMA: OF ASHES Lefevre, Raphael 151 73.

uh earl Such sa ueuvcly et h msae o h pol ta rssac t hs eie is regime his to resistance that people the to message the sent unequivocally Assad Middle East Journal, Vol. 35, No. 3, 331 35, Journal,East Vol. Middle

Supra note 151 note Supra Some observations on the Social Roots of Syria‟s Ruling, Military Group and the Causes for Its for Causes and the Group Military Syria‟sRuling, of Roots the Social on observations Some , nldn Hfzs rte Rfa i cag o te ees Biae. n its And Brigades. Defense the of charge in Rif‟at brother Hafiz‟s including s, Syria‟s Alawites and t and Alawites Syria‟s Jhds voet reaction violent Jihadist y , 77, p.

eape f aa y ascig oe hn 0 00 (the 000 20, than more massacring by Hama of example n ht ie osqecs o al lws ol ese rm an from ensue could Alawis all for consequences dire that he politics of Sectarian Insecurity: Sectarian of politics he - 43

- 341, 1981, p. 336 1981, 341, 152 rv te reg the drove . 57

ih ogtnig rcdn i Syria‟s in precedent longstanding with

m t itniy t Aai cohesion Alawi its intensify to ime

a Khaldunian perspective, Ortadoğu Ortadoğu perspective, Khalduniana 153

Such atrocity, besides its besides atrocity, Such n insecurity”. n security, security, 154

CEU eTD Collection 431 156 155 its of triad, divine a in adopted Alawis success the “paganism of form a first, Islam, from apart them set religion their of aspects Different heretics. as taken persecution perennial their of cause T and no Muhammad, but veil no Ali, but deity no is „there assert Alawis the prophet, his is Muhammad and God but deity no is „there saying faith their proclaim is “Muslim‟s where Muslims Ali, of deification other from difference crucial most Alawis‟ The Imam. Shi‟a eleventh the al Hassan of follower a Nusair, ibn Muhammed by doctrine a from derived Shi‟ism of prophet A Nusayris. as the of law in son Ali, to adherence known alsothey wereterm, this of use imposedFrenchthe the 1920 whenuntil but, Mohammed, Alawites the signifies that term a is Alawi 4.2 disdained by as inferior themaj people and persecuted been have Alawis history their of most for though even rule, majority a amid enjoyed it autonomy the in status privileged a of background a with power to came community chapter last the in as will section following The power? to come 70% of majority Sunni a of presence the in and population the of 12% merely composing minority religious Alawite the did how thesis, this of concern main the to important more But fireswith live from met were 2011 March in Daraa of town the in Syria in Spring Arab the started who protestors he Alawi are not even considered even not are Alawi he

Daniel Pipes, DanielPipes, Philips, Christopher

Alawi: bab ive manifestation manifestation ive

but Salman”.

history of Persecution of history The Alawi capture of Power in Syria in Power of capture Alawi The lawism as a separate sect within Islam dates from the tenth century as an offshoot an as century tenth the from dates Islam within sect separate a as lawism Syria‟s Torment, Survival Torment, Syria‟s Shabihha 156

in the seven cycles of world history, and of the transmigration of of transmigration the of and history, world of cycles seven the in

militia ofAssad‟smilitia Alawi to be true be to ority Sunni population. ority Sunni

: Global Politics and Strategy, Vol. 54, No. 67 No. 4, 54, Vol. Strategy, Politics and : Global , Midd , 58

followers of followers

le Eastern Studies, Vol. 25, No. 429 No. 4, 25, Vol. le Studies, Eastern

sect. 155

Islam and this has been the major major the been has this and Islam

olw h hptei ta Alawi that hypothesis the follow

- - 82, 2012, 67. p. 2012, 82, 450, 1989, p. 1989, 450, - Askari, Askari,

their

CEU eTD Collection 349 162 161 160 159 158 No.2, 133 20, Vol. 157 thing only The sword. to put be to them for ordered Alawis the by district Jabal in uprising an of hearing Cairo in Sultan the 1317, in Mukluks the during period same the In Tamya declared that: al Hafiz against resistance polytheists. or Christians Jews, than infidels and Muslims of enemies are they since lawIslamic to according persecution and war face should passing by Taymiya, ibn Ahmad Islam, of scholar the of time the 13 the as early As Mamluks. from marginalization and persecution of one been has history their heretic, and unorthodox being as religion Alawi the to ascribed features other and above the of Because their useand ofwine celebration of of becauseChristianity similarity to Alawis the is aspectlast A discrimination. their to added has es triad” divine a souls”

oteric religious knowledge knowledge religious oteric Yarin Friedman, Friedman, Yarin Lefevre, Pipes Ibid Ibid A.Fakfh, Mahmud - 63. 63. ., ., 136, ., 135 157 Cited in Cited Lefevre, , Supra note 156 note Supra , . Second “unlike Shi‟ites, Alawis believe that Ali was the incarnation of God himself in himself God of incarnation the was Ali that believe Alawis Shi‟ites, “unlike Second . Supra note 151 note Supra

158 Jews, nor Christians. Jews, They others. and Crusaders the Mongols, heretic the as such Muslims the against fight who infidels the of damage the than greater is […] community Muslim the to damage Their groups. heterodox several than more even and Christians T - hese people called Nusayriyya […] are more h more are […] Nusayriyya called people hese 153, 1984, p. 135 p. 1984, 153, ibn Taymiyya‟s Fatwa Against the Nusayri the Against Fatwa Taymiyya‟s ibn Tid Te lwts ae n nicoe rlgo because religion undisclosed an have Alawites The Third, . The Alawi Community of Syria, A New Dominant Political Force Political New A Dominant Syria, of Community Alawi The , p. ,

Supra note Supra , 75, p.

434

regime. his against war wage to ruling his used frequently Assad

ont eiv n o ….Te r ete ulm, nor Muslims, neither are They […]. God in believe not do th known

cen

151, 65 p. 151,

tury, the Alawi religion was declared a heresy by an influential influential an by heresy a declared was religion Alawi the tury, 162 Christian holidaysChristian likeChristmas.

only

a 160

few, a feature due to the uncertainty of their belief belief their of uncertainty the to due feature a few, 5

9 Tamya‟s

fatwa - Alawi Sect Alawi

(religious ruling) holding that, Nusayris that, holding ruling) (religious fatwa , Der Islam, Vol. 82, No. 2, 2005, pp. pp. 2005, No. 2, 82, Islam, Vol. Der , eretical than than eretical

was 159 so influential that I that influential so

, Middle Eastern Studies, Studies, Eastern Middle , Jews f hi belief their of

that save that

and the the and slamist d

them

161 in

CEU eTD Collection 156, note 165 164 163 dominate a majority, saying: theirsituation describes can minority a that Alawis, to regard with written had 1940 in who Weulersse, Jacques identity. o West North Latakia, of region mountainous inaccessible the in living by Syria of rest the from themselves isolated Alawis the persecuted, Insistently and Christians. o along the of precept any religion”. Islamic observe they do nor prayers, ritual the nor Ramadan of fast the practice required custom that held decree This Christians. and Sunnis of landlords absentee upon working cases most in farmers as area rural the in lived who Alawis the upon 1571 in Ottomans the by taxes extra of levying the in exhibited Sy of Sunnis majority the against status inferior an in kept while the all but religion own their practice to autonomy their keep to able extent some to were Ottomans, 1516 continu has persecution This tosecurethem is of theMuslims. thelivelihood saving land, the own who Muslims feed and farming the do who ones the are they since was,

Jacques Weulersse, Le pays des Alaouites (Tours: Arrault & Cie., 1940), Vol. 1, p. 54; 1,p. 54; Vol. 1940), Cie., & Arrault (Tours: Alaouites des Le pays Weulersse, Jacques Pipes, Batatu,

until 1918. During this period the Alawis although repressed by the Sunni empire of the of empire Sunni the by repressed although Alawis the period this During 1918. until ther religious minorities like the Druze by the Ottoman rulers as opposed to the Sunnis the to opposed as rulers Ottoman the by Druze the like minorities religious ther

Supra note 156 note Supra pp. 435 pp. Supra note 152 note Supra - h Aai bgn o ie u ter oiay ex solitary their hostile out a live repression. entirely doctrine, nofurther Their evolved formed, to by began surrounded Alawis world, the country, outside the with rough communications without in henceforth population, Isolated …. mountains surv to or disappeared renounced proselytism…The Alawisentrenched inthe silently themselves sects heterodox the persecuted and Defeated 36

164

The Alawis were also denied the status of Millet (a status of sect or religion)or sect of status (a Millet of status the denied also were AlawisThe , p. , , p. 333 , 434

ed throughout the Ottoman rulers Ottoman the throughout ed

hs ramn, xr tx bcue h Aai, “neither Alawis, the because tax, extra treatment, this 60 163

f Syria, which added to their cohesive their to added which Syria, f , who are themselves Sunnis, from from Sunnis, themselves are who , istence in secrecy and and secrecy in istence ria. Their subordination is subordination Their ria. as c 165 ited in Pipes, in Pipes, ited

ive ive Supra Supra CEU eTD Collection 169 168 167 166 (1963 power of consolidation Alawi and 63) (1920 mandate French stages, three in divided be can that century a half over process gradual a in place took power to ascendance Alawi‟s The 4.3 be section. theconcern next of the majori dominated a into turned Sunnis the and Syria of masters government. in predominant being elites their and structures administrative their into them integrated who O the and Mamluks the of time the at both privileged were hand other the on Sunnis The developed time against theiroppressors”. inthecourseSunnis, of helps “this had says community Alawi the Faksh that distrust and antagonism Mahmud resentment, seated deep as the understand And religion. their of because isolation sectarian and poverty their in domination class both faced Alawis live, Christians and Sunnis the mostly Becaus peasant. being with equated is Nusayri name the such, As well. as agrarians are who Hama and Homs of holds La of city capital the in but (62%) majority the in lived 000 175, about of population towns. a of out Alawis 771 only 1920 in over took French h it that extent the to life rural a lead Alawis all almost recently, until The

Pipes, Pipes, Haklai, Faksh, Haklai,

Alawi’s Ascendance toPower Ascendance Alawi’s escto fte Alawis the of persecution

true 166 Supra note 156 note Supra Supra note 157 note Supra Supra note 12 note Supra 12 note Supra

are and (75%) concentrated are Alawis the where region Latakia in even true is This to the small number of Alawites that live out of the mountains of Latakia in the plains the in Latakia of mountains the of out live that Alawites of number small the to 168

Such being the state of the Alawi community, since 1970s they have become the become have they 1970s since community, Alawi the of state the being Such e the rural area is the most impoverished compared to the urban centers where where centers urban the to compared impoverished most the is area rural the e , p. 437 , p. 31 , p. 31 , , 134 , p.

corresponded with class oppression as well. This was because, because, was This well. as oppression class with corresponded

- 1970). - 61 46), Sunni 46), takia they are still the minority (12%). The same same The (12%). minority the still are they takia

169

It has been argued in this thesis that the that thesis this in argued been has It

dominance after independence (1946 independence after dominance ty. What made this possible will possible this made What ty. 167 as been reported, until the until reported, been as

ttomans ttomans

to - CEU eTD Collection No.4, 693 14, Vol. 170 Caix, the proponent ofautonomyhad forargued; theminorities the of General Secretary then the Faysal, Emir Arab Sunni the supported that British the and elite Sunni majority the by opposed Though identity. national Chr a without country heterogeneous a and was Syria that argued have Druze government autonomous separate the Alawi, the Syria, in minorities the endowing of policy their for Syria. in majority the Islam, Sunni to linked intimately was which suzerainty their Minoritair Politique perusing the in French the to important more But society. traditional of preservation the and administration native towards oriented was which North ofAfrica colonies their usedrule in they Fre the Syria over Taking Faysal. Emir evicted and 1920 in Syria over took French the mandate Nations of League the by later and Britain of Agreement Faysal TheSyriaendedwith the Ottomanhelp Empire oftheBr in1918and the regional autonomy enjoyed inTigray. against Haileselassie of efforts centralizing the against reaction a was revolution future motion Woyan the that shown been has it Ethiopia In power. self in privilegetheir dismiss majorityto 20 of half first the until autonomy their keep to able were Ethiopia in Tigrayans way same the in of privilegea such Alawis dominat the autonomy,against is which privilege, their keep to resistance their by explained is minorities of power to coming

th Itamar Rabinovich, Rabinovich, Itamar

century. In both cases the two minorities have reacted similarly to the encroachment by the by encroachment the to similarly reacted have minorities two the cases both In century.

ok vr yi frig n rb ainls gvrmn i Dmsu. ih the With Damascus. in government nationalist Arab an forming Syria over took - 712, A Century of Conservatism, Part 2, 1979, PP. 695 PP. 1979, 2, Part Century A Conservatism, 712, of The Compact Minorities and the Syrian State, 1918 Syrian the State, and Minorities Compact The e‟

in Syria was to suppress and antagonize the Arab nationalist opposition to opposition nationalist Arab the antagonize and suppress to was Syriain

self

- ion and subordination by the majority. While colonialism gave the the gave colonialism While majority. bythe subordination and ion governance - governance, a process that finally led to their control of control their to finallyled that process a governance,

saving them from persecution by the majority Sunnis, Sunnis, majority bythe persecution from them saving 62

e rebellion in 1943 a precedent that set in set that precedent a 1943 in rebellion e nch pursued the same policy of indirect indirect of policy same the pursued nch

Mandatory government, Robert de Robert government, Mandatory - 45 - 698

, Journal of Contemporary History, History, , ofContemporary Journal

iti sh, the Hashemite Emir 170

The French The sin a istians

„La the the CEU eTD Collection 175 No.4, 624 29, Vol. 174 173 172 171 in successful and unity Syrian of enemy an but, 1943 in parliament Syrian the in elected was weapons. French of support the with and Alawis 000 5, by followed 1939 in independence 19 in soothsayer a as started first He politics. Syria‟s career adventurous his started he before shepherded a was family Alawi al Jabla in 1905 in born Murshid, domination. Sunni against al Suleiman named man a around rallying their was autonomy their protect to wanting in Alawis the of mobilization the to example clear A Speciales t except everything almost up gave French the 1936 in signed was Independence of Treaty the When nationalism. Arab their for trusted not were who Sunnis the than favored of Spe army French political the in the overrepresentation spurred their also that and people education the of and mobilization Alawis the of development social increased the Much consequential to administration. French the by treatment preferential and institutions their in representation own enjoyed territories,theirover controlAlawis hadthe local administration own their Through benefit immense brought that 1921 in Syria over control their from beginning state autonomous separate a as area Alawi the administered French The

Pipes, Pipes, al Suleiman Dan, Uriel and YaffeGitta Roberts, David Ibid Ibid ciales ., ., 704 ., 697 Supra note 156 note Supra were Alawis the and minorities the from mostly army their recruited French The . until theyuntil agreed theSyrian totransfer itto government 21,1945. onJune

gradually under the French supervision and guidance should should guidance and supervision French mature toward unity structur the political under gradually its that pluralism and terms Syr THE BATH AND THE AND BATH THE - 640, 1993, p. 625 p. 1993, 640, a a a eeoeeu country, heterogeneous a was ia , p. 439 , the later development of events to the control of power by the Alawis was the by power control of the to events developmentof later the Te ouin ol b a f a be would solution .The

23. - .

174 171 Murshid CREATION OF MODERN SYRIA MODERN OF CREATION

e e a eitne gis Sni oiain after domination Sunni against resistance a led He - : The Beginnings of an Alawi Leader Alawi an of Beginnings The : Murshid a leader i leader a Murshid 63

oh n eiiu ad ethnic and religious in both ederal organization which which organization ederal e should reflect this this reflect should e s to the historically persecuted Alawis. Alawis. persecuted historically the to s n their struggle for their autonomy their for struggle their n - naiy, n at aai t an to Latakia east in Ansariyya, , 1987, p. 27 1987, , , Middle Eastern Studies, Studies, Eastern Middle ,

173 he

Troupes Troupes 175

He 172

CEU eTD Collection 179 178 177 176 two ethnicrelationship groups between has turnedsystem. been toanunranked the Su resisted that leaders own their producing in experience their and Alawi the of youth the among education of level increased the and Alawis the to endowed French the domination. of system built the to submit longer no who leaders new of coming the and group subordinate the among education transformations” usually edifice the co system, ranked in cracks cement the “when changes significant through go can systems ranked in stratification rigid the says Horowitz as But ranks. lower and upper syst ethnic ranked of befo Alawis the upon Sunnis the by domination The unranked are basedand relationships apprehension. ethniconmistrust reciprocal groups environment” ideolog international an to itself lends subjection an and domination in state were they if as “act groups ethnic systems unranked in stratified, and rigid is group superordinate and subordinate re the systems ranked of case the in While lines. class with coincides that domination on based are systems ethnic ranked before said As Syria. in Sunnis and Alawis ch theoretical the in elaborated systems ethnic unranked and ranked between made distinction The house finally arrestSyrian forand months by hanged the 1946. governmentin th away keeping

lpe. hn tnc irrhe ae nemnd te my neg fundamental undergo may they undermined, are hierarchies ethnic When llapses. the between relationship the in French the by made change the understand to useful is apter Ibid Ibid Horowitz, Rabinovich, ., ., 32 ., 29

Supra note 5, note Supra Supra note 170 note Supra 178 e Syrian authorities out of the Alawi‟s region, he was seized in Beirut, put to put Beirut, in seized was he region, Alawi‟s the of out authorities Syrian e Sc cags a b bogt bu itrainl otc, increased contact, international about brought be can changes Such . em wher em

p.31

, 708 , p.

e subordinatio e

179

Hence by the new regime of autonomy and self and autonomy of regime new the by Hence n corresponded n 64

y of inferiority to the subordinate group subordinate the to inferiority of y re the time of French colonization French of time the re

class lines with clear stratification of stratification clear with lines class . 177

hl i rne systems ranked in While ainhp ewe the between lationship nni domination, the domination, nni 176

- governance

is a case a is ,

in in CEU eTD Collection 183 182 181 180 backLefevre oftheRaphael thehistorical Aalwis subordination as describes it; of when happened what threat is this And power. the seeks it domination averting of means a as and itself protect to minority a leads status privileged a follows that discrimination posits, hypothesis our As independence. followed that discrimination party. Bath the and Army the are Alawis the powerof to rise the in institutions important most two The 4.4 seat parliament in application and of the Alawi their units, military their state, Alawi the destroyed resistance, armed their quelled Damascus in government Sunni the mandate, French the of end the with over was status privileged Alawi‟s State. Sunni a creating literally in culminating leaders nationalist its by pursued vigorously again once domination Sunni the and destroyed was autonomy Alawi of state separate Alawi the of ambivalent government Sunni place immediately the status, special a upon Syria into area Druze and Alawi the of incorporation the for provided treaty 1936 the though Even a French the over took who leaders nationalist Arab The terms. ethnic in state nation the in belong not do who those excluded that nationalism upon cast rather but citizens of concept the upon founded neutral and bureaucratic chapt in beginning the in discussed As 1936. in independence h Aai rsse te rb un sae ht h Sra gvrmn ipeetd after implemented government Syrian the that state Sunni Arab the resisted Alawis The

Faksh, Pipes Lefevre, Rbinovich, Alawi Consolidation of Power Consolidation Alawi 183 , Supra note 156 note Supra ,

Supra note 157 note Supra And Supra note 151, note Supra Supra note 170, note Supra

n o te an factors main the of one hs a o cus, oehn te otifunil lw fgrs f the of po in againstDiscriminated […]. accept figuresto prepared not were region Alawi influential most the something course, of was This d Sunni nationalists in local leadership positions in these areas. these in positions leadership local in nationalists Sunni d , p. 440 , , 140 , p.

p. 66 p.

p.700

fter 1936 were less tolerant of the interest of the minorities. the of interest the of tolerant less were 1936 fter ht rv te lws o on hs isiuin was institutions these join to Alawis the drove that

laws of personallaws courts. statusin 65

the Sunni domination tried to bring bring to tried domination Sunni the er one, modern states were not were states modern one, er 181

It can It

182

180 be said that the that said be

litical,

By 1946 the 1946 By

the CEU eTD Collection 187 186 185 184 the in lived who families Sunni most to affordable easily but Alawi the of peasants poor the the from exempted or relieved be to required or fee, exemption the particular, In employment. for place attractive an as army the take to them pushed has time the at Alawi‟s the of condition economic 1945. 21, June on government Syrian the to over it handed Speciales the in French the by placement initial their than Alawis the of condition socioeconomic the for reason Another the was party the of branch Latakiabiggest. the interests political their channel to Alawis the for m political of forum a provided economically. and socially discriminate not does systemthat political a of creation the and dominance Arab Sunni the of elimination the advocating by minorities Islam encouraged party the of ideology secular The agrarians. were which of majority the Alawis the especially and minorities the of most for development social and state secular a in citizenship equal them promising in minorities the favored that aspects two and socialism rural inSyria.Bathoriented were minorities advocated secularism attractive tothe ideologically that elements main two had 1947, in party political a proclaimed formally Bath

Roberts, Roberts, Haklai, Faksh, Lefevre, 186 Supra note 157 note Supra Supra note 12, note Supra

Supra note 151 note Supra Supra note 173, note Supra

hc te rnh anand fe te needne gemn o 13 utl they until 1936 of agreement independence the after maintained French the which

armyand theBath party. which preva ultimately would inside power their and mobility upward with them providing institutions few countryside their left Alawi post immediate the during many terms, socioeconomic and religious , pp. , 140 pp.

p.33 , 67, p.

p. 27 p. lws ipootoae represent disproportionate Alawis

- 14

obilization for the educated youth and as the only organization organization only the as and youth educated the for obilization 184 - independence period in order to join two of the the of two join to order in period independence

military service which was beyond the capacity of of capacity the beyond was which service military 66

il after the coup of 8 March 1963: the 1963: March 8 of coup the after il to i te ry was army the in ation badal the unfettered membership of non of membership unfettered the 187

, 500 Syrian pounds that was that pounds Syrian 500 , h fi The 185

s rao i te poor the is reason rst As such the Bath partyBath the such As h prevai the Troupes ling ling - , CEU eTD Collection 192 191 190 189 188 the between be to came struggle following the way the of out are contenders Sunni their that Bat the in officers military 1963, In theBathhigher in positions partypower and inthe usetocontrol state. this al Hafiz including officers, military major role. a played coup 1963 the in on later who Cairo in based officers army Syrian Alawi by party Bath the within committee military clandestine a of establishment the is this for evidence to Alawis the by motive sectarian purposeful a was there that argue also would some party, Bath the and Army the in overrepresented Alawis the were only Not powerinto in1963 top to Alawi‟s prospered”. therefore latter the sect; a of members as entered Da as army, the in them c the used they way this in ranks higher to brought taking were struggle power this from apart standing Alawis the purges these by depleted were ranks top Sunnis‟ the While 1963. and 1943 between ranking high Sunni the among purges counter and purges struggles, power internecine the was army the in position top of control Alawi‟s the for factor decisive Another minorities. milit the this ranks lower the in representation large their for factor major a was cities

Pipes, Pipes, Lefevre, 441 Ibid., Pipes Batatu, 191

, Supra note 156, note Supra , Supra note 156, note Supra o hs ail ie as ad, clan adds, also Pipes Daniel this To Supra note 152 note Supra Supra note 151 note Supra

189

ary was perceived by the Sunni as a despised place for inferior people and and people inferior for place despised a as Sunni the by perceived was ary ple the Sunni government and dominate the ensuing coups that brought the party party the brought that coups ensuing the dominate and government Sunni the ple .

, p. 342; See also, Lefevre, also, See p. 342; , p.430 p.440 , , p niel pipes says, “S says, pipes niel . 69 .

h party staged a coup and Bath came to rule Syria but now now but Syria rule to came Bath and coup a staged party h - sa, hr te pand n o t big lw‟ to Alawi‟s bring to how on planned they where Assad, unnis entered the mili the entered unnis Supra note 151 note Supra etn meig o Aai eiiu laes and leaders religious Alawi of meetings destine 67

hance to bring their kin and selectively place place selectively and kin their bring to hance hi pstos We te Alawi the When positions. their , p. 69; See also, Pipes, Pipes, also, 69; See , p. 190

All these factors have helped the helped have factors these All tary as individuals while Alawi while individuals as tary control power. Most cited cited Most power. control

of 192

the army. the Supra note 156 note Supra officers in the army the in officers

188

Besides , p. 441 p. 441 , were s s

CEU eTD Collection Pol 196 Burundi 195 Hafiz‟s regime under Alawi 194 193 rather power controls Kagame Paul under RPF the genocide, 1994 the after where Rwanda on equal of ideal democratic the on based participation political and governments representative of politics modern in but kingdoms and pre monarchies in not modern minorities, ethnic of power into coming the with concerned mainly is thesis This monarchy theTutsi colonization, over waswhen colonizersleft inRwanda the party royalist the of Rwagasore prince and W countries. two the in paths different takes independence their after Tutsi and Hutu the between dynamics political the But Tutsi. and Hutu the between conflict ethnic bloody and destructive mandate. (1916 Belgium by War World First the after and colonizers German the by territory one as administered both were They 1%. Twa an language economy, agrarian topography, religion, ways, many in similar countries, neighboring are Burundi and Rwanda Rule: Minority 4.5 Tutsi towards the developmentofhissect thedisadvantagemainly to ofother sects and theSunnis. also were policies economic socio Hafiz‟s Army. the in all of most and government, in positions important all dominated Alawi the where politics Syria‟s in proportion unprecedented t deposed soon Sal 1966, February in Again Alawis. StefVandgnste, hile in Burundi, the Tutsi continued their colonial and pre and colonial their continued Tutsi the Burundi, in hile Peter Uvin, Peter Faksh Roberts, itics, Vol. 31, No. 3, 253 No. 31, itics,Vol. , Journal of Eastern African Studies, Vol. 8, No. 263 No. 2, 8, Vol. Studies, , ofAfrican Eastern Journal , Supra note 157 note Supra , 195 Supra note 173 note Supra

Ethnicity and Power in Burundi and Rwanda: Different Paths to MassViolence, to Paths Different Rwanda: and Power Burundi and in Ethnicity fe their After hrough a hrough Governing Ethnicity Unde Ethnicity Governing , p. 147; See, Batatu, 147;Batatu, , See, p. , pp. , 87 pp. - 251, 1999, p. 254 p. 1999, 254 251,

coup by coup needne n 92 bt cutis ae oe hog te most the through gone have countries both 1962, in independence -

92 Rwanda

d ethnic composition of Hutu approximately 85%, Tutsi 14% and 14% Tutsi 85%, approximately Hutu of composition ethnic d

Hafiz al Hafiz r Genocide: ethnic amnesia in Rwanda versus ethnic power sharing in in sharing power ethnic versus Rwanda in amnesia ethnic rGenocide: a h Jadid, came to power through a through power to came Jadid, h Supra note 152 note Supra

92 a Rwanda as 1962) - Assad in 1970. in Assad 68 Uprona

, p. 331 for government positions controlled by the the by controlled governmentfor 331 positions , p. - 277, 2014, p. 265 2014, 277,

won elections both before and after after and before both elections won 193 - rni y h Lau o Nations of League the by Urundi

citizenship. Hence its focus will be be will focus its Hence citizenship. Under Hafiz, sectarianism reached sectarianism Hafiz, Under - colonial privilege as a monarchy, a as privilege colonial

coup de ta de coup

in 1962.

Comparative

but he was he but 196

geared geared

194

CEU eTD Collection 200 199 p. 12 2002, Press, University Cambridge CENTURY, LATETWENTIETH 198 p. 44 2001, Press, University Princeton RWANDA, IN GENOCIDE 197 non the into colonized the categorizes racially that system t Mamdani, argues Racism, termsethnic in ofrace division suggesting also t history, its in time other any Tutsi. the spared and Hutu (1860 Rwabuguri polarized markedly This group. ethnic subordinate a Hutu the andrulers became Rwanda aristocratic in as power of centers Hutu became Tutsi the where colonization, and their before immediately Tutsi the between status social The the fifteenth century. fr beginning Ethiopia, southern from probably north, the from waves successive in Rwanda origin. their to as views tra to emphasize anthropologists colonial the that distinctions physical especially and occupational such of Because slender. and tall generally and pastoralists are Tutsi the shorter, physically and agriculturalists are Hutu the made are distinctions basic Two that. before present was Hutu the colonialists, the by constructed divide ethnic racial the to Burundi as Even Kingdom since the16 Burundi the of monarchy the of continuation a was rule minority Tutsi the where Burundi than

Mamdani, 13 Ibid., RE Pottier, Johan THE AND NATIVISM, KILLERS:COLONIALISM, BECOME VICTIMS WHEN Mamdani, Mahmood though most people trace the origin of violence that marked postcolonial Rwanda as well as Rwanda postcolonial marked that violence of origin the trace people most though

Supra note 197 note Supra ,

besides these ethnic differences colonialism brought another dimension to this to dimension another brought colonialism differences ethnic these besides - - IMAGINING RWANDA: CONFLICT, SURVIVAL AND DISINFORMAT AND SURVIVAL CONFLICT, RWANDA: IMAGINING 95) who imposed a serf like i like serf a imposed who 95) 198 th

197 century.

, p. , 66

One popular thesis called the migration thesis migration the called thesis popular One 199 e ooies sd s mas f rmtn ter niet ue a rule, indirect their promoting of means a as used colonizers he

he state of Rwanda appeared as a Tutsi power under Rwanbuguri”, under power Tutsi a as appeared Rwanda of state he

Mahmood Mamdani, holding the same view says that “more than “more that says view same the holding Mamdani, Mahmood

and an alienand

ce a separate origin for the two ethnic groups, there are different are there groups, ethnic two the for origin separate a ce - indigenous distinction indigenous 69 nstitution or Uburetw or nstitution

happened during the reign of Mwami Kigeri Mwami of reign the happenedduring

between the between - native subjects, a minority like the the like minority a subjects, native

. 200

a Hutu and the Tutsi, the and Hutu

that subjugated only the the only subjugated that says the Tutsi arrived inarrived Tutsi the says - Tutsi distinction Tutsi ION IN THE THE IN ION

w hile om CEU eTD Collection 97 204 2001 203 202 201 wayon its toKigali t more killed reportedly has also RPF the but genocide, the ending thereby andTutsi‟s m carrying Ha plane the 1994 6, April In Habyarimana. against war civil 1990 the started Tutsi‟s, exile of movement rebel the RPF, the when power to came Kagame Paul of regime present The 1994 thattriggered theRwandanGenocide. hi until reigned who Habyarimana Jovena defense, of ministry the RPF the bycoup a through formed Uganda.Kyabandaoverthrown was in based 1987 in Front) (Rwanda Patriotic on later who countries neighboring to Tutsis 150,000 than more of fleeing that killed were Tutsi‟s 10,000 1963, by and revolution, the with started that pogrom (1962 Kaybanda Gregoire under power Hut the been have who outsiders anti eliminating of ideology The nativist a on colonizers. waged was struggle Belgian departing the of help the with monarchy call been has what in 1959, In colonial conflict volatile. extent an pre the of relationship the solidified distinction a Such imposed. fully was rule colonial whom upon indigenous the rule colonizers the whom through Rwanda, in Tutsi

Rene Lemarchand, Lemarchand, Rene Rwanda, LineFront Uvin, Ibid yrmn ws ht on an down, shot was byarimana –

., ., 75 2004 Supra note 196 note Supra u

allowed social mobility, into an alien and indigenous relationship which made the post the madewhich relationship indigenous and alien an mobility, into social allowed hc was which ‟, 2005, p. ‟,p. 7 2005, oderate Hutus in matter in ofthree oderate Hutus Bearing Witness to Mass Murder, Mass Witnessto Bearing . „Disappearances, Arrests, Threats, Intimidation and Co and Intimidation Arrests, Threats, „Disappearances, 204 , p. 261 ,

agtd t h Tti I 16 a aia Ht party, Hutu radical a 1961 In Tutsi. the at targeted

201

ed a social revolution, a Hutu militant group overthrew the Tutsi Tutsi the overthrew group militant Hutu a revolution, social a ed imdaey e t the to led immediately d - 73). Kaybanda‟s regime continued upon the massive massive the upon continued regime Kaybanda‟s 73). 202

months.

African Studies Review, Vol. 48, No. 3, 93 3, No. 48, Vol. Review, Studies African 70

203

In controlled Kigali and RPF 1994, July eoie ht killed that genocide - option of HumanR of option s death in a plane crash in in crash plane a in death s - colonial period which to which period colonial han 200, han - Parmehutu ooil nationalist colonial

about ights Defenders Defenders ights - 101, 2005, p. 2005, 101, subjugating subjugating 000 Hutu‟s Hutu‟s 000 led to the to led

ae to came 800,000 - CEU eTD Collection 208 207 206 p. 187 2004, 205 an In imprisoned. and int corruption of accused soon was but reasons‟ „personal for resigned division. ethnic inciting and the time thestrong 1995. August in exile into Minister Interior and Movement) Republican (Democratic MDR party Minister Hutu Prime Prominent including politicians visible. already was elites Tutsi within power of centralization the toward tendency a and victimized being were elites Hutu power into coming RPF‟s of on early From divisionism. Tutsi promoting for tool its a power political of domination as criticized been has politics Rwanda‟s from identity ethnic of out name the in opposition been has Twa Tutsi, any Hutu, terms the of accuseuse The ideology. genocide promoting to and divisionism used is which Rwandans, only but ethnicities the by justified are suppressions These exile. into forced were most and killed harassed, were politicians Hutu and NGO‟s journalists, parties, political opposition where regimeauthoritarian an instituted RPF The

Feune Afrique Feune 12 Ibid., Rwanda, LineFront Reyentgens, Filip erview he tothe gave lawed by the 2003 Fundamental Law of Rwanda. But RPF‟s stance upon the elimination of elimination the upon stance RPF‟s But Rwanda. of Law Fundamental 2003 the by lawed

205

ethnic. You cannot run Rwanda with an army that is 100 percent Tutsi, Tutsi, percent 100 is while the 85percent populationis Hutu! that army an with Rwanda run cannot as You ethnic. Here … weapons their sharpen will Hutu the do been they as continue have things if we that convinced are but We … deceived RPF, the with change would things that believed We 2112 (3 2112

Rwanda, Ten Years on: From Genocide to Dictatorship Genocide From on: Years Ten Rwanda, est was genocidal challenger tothe banned RPF spreading ideology accused of

Supra note 203 note Supra P s het t is dooy f„wnaiiy,ta cam hr r no are there claims that „Rwandanicity‟, of ideology its to threats as RPF - 9 July, 2001); Cited in Filip Reyntjens, in Reyntjens, Cited Filip 2001); 9 July, Feune Afrique

206

In March 2003, a few months before the national election, MDR, at MDR, election, national the before months few a 2003, March In 207

nd not willing to respond to this to respond to willing not nd

, 8 , p. n h sm mnh ac 23 March month same the In

Faustin Tuagiramungu Faustin

in 2001, President Bizimungu has oncein 2001,President Bizimungu said: 71

Supra note 205, note Supra 208

n uud, h am i mono is army the Burundi, in

a Hutu a , African Affairs, Vol. 103, 177 103, Vol. African , Affairs,

criticism in t in criticism , President

p. 193 193 p.

leader of major opposition opposition major of leader

Send Sendashonga Send

he name of fighting of name he atu Bizimungu Pasteur

- 210, 210, fled fled CEU eTD Collection 209 T a RPF, the within power of centralization authoritarian this that suggesting politicians. opposition of disappearance and killing the with marred widesp of result a be to criticized been has victory Kadame‟s both 2010 and In 2003 of now. elections presidential until position this keeps and Bizimungu, Pasteur of resignation the following t of leader Kagame Paul 153, 2009,p.4 Affairs, Vol.103,177 * Source as acandidate presidential inJu Kagame Paul backing in RPF the Joined parties six when confirmed was platform informal This RPF/RPA. under includedare coalition RPF the joined having parties of wings or parties The (*) enterprises P CEO Army Command ofCourts Appeal and Court Supreme Judges, President‟s Parliament Ambassadors Governors Provincial Secretaries Permanent Government Institution Table 2: 2000. „T withi power Since

tiain. h tbe below table The utsization‟. Freedom House Rwanda, Rwanda, FreedomHouse

2000 ed ersin gis hs poet, h mda n cvl oit ad n ay cases many in and society civil and media the opponents, his against repression read

- „Distribution of„Distribution Key Offices, 2000‟ mid ublic/Mixed

Filip Reyentgens, Rwanda, Reyentgens, Genocide From Filip TenAfrican YearstoDictatorship, on:

, the RPF, was controlling almost all important political offices and consolidated its its consolidated and offices political important all almost controlling was RPF, the ,

n a small circle of Tutsi elites which by some people has been referred to as as to referred been has people some by which elites Tutsi of circle small a n

- 210, 2004, p. 189; See also, International 2004,p.189;See also, Africa210, Group, No Crisis Report 17 8 7 49 7 9 10 12 Tutsi Freedom in the World, the in Freedom

he RPF since the civil war became Rwanda‟s president since 2000 2000 since president Rwanda‟s became war civil the since RPF he

ly 2003. niae te us ba o governme of bias Tutsi the indicates 3 3 2 8 Hutu 5 0 3 25

2013

8 11 10 11 RPF/RPA 18 8 - 61 (*)

209

t ot i Rad a of as Rwanda in posts nt

Some observers are now are observers Some 2 1 2 part/no 9 party/unknown Other 4 0 - 13

ti dominated utsi

CEU eTD Collection 210 whenof background the lay to chapter, first the of subject main the been has foregoing The suppression. spell the under fell who people the group, latter the formed cases most in minorities st the of will the in interwoven is identity inclusion and exclusion of politics the of playground a be to state the set a identity,demos.This has thancivic the identity,ethnos,defined ofrather ethnic the interms resulting group ethnic dominant majority the with identified became state nation eq its underneath The protection, from but,protection what? self of principle the to given has world the war th and cold states of disintegration the conflicts, the ethnic by caused devastation the witnessed of end the After today. found are cases such of handful a only groups. ethnic powe into coming the for factors determinant the out find to out set thesis This Conclusion Ideologythe „Hutu Power‟ the coloni the of power‟ „Tutsi the to back country the taking by Mahmood to According persecution past Tutsi‟s the compensate Rwanda. to tries that justice victor‟s pursued in has RPF Mamdani, tensions ethnic perennial the exacerbate may party,

ual participation of the people, the logic of of logic the people, the of participation ual Mamdani,

modern ethnic politics of exclusion and inclusion became important and ethnic c ethnic andbecame important inclusion and exclusion of politics ethnic Supra note 197 note Supra

nation state that replaced the empires and kingdoms kingdoms and empires the replaced that state nation

Ru pri ling ethnic minorities are not a common phenomenon in the modern world and world modern the in phenomenon common a not are minorities ethnic ling nciple

, p. , 271 of citizenship and popular sovereignty popular and citizenship of

- determination

Interhamwe

ate and those who have yet to be assimilated. Ethnic assimilated. be to yet have who those and ate used to justify genocideused its to

especially for minority ethnic groups ethnic minority for especially common identity common 73

al and pre and al

expressed in the democratic and democratic the in expressed of the of f h pre the of

- against theTutsi against , of those whose national national whose those of , people of the nation. The nation. the of people colonial times, that led to to led that times, colonial

modern era had had era modern onflict suddenlyonflict

that sought its sought that r of minority minority of r in a nation nation a in of majority of e pri e . 210

macy

CEU eTD Collection toppling in succeeded they 1975, in region Tigray the nationalist ethno an waging By 1960s. the of movement r pa its losing state central the of authority the under put Tigray and defeated in Tigrayans, he of ties the breaking Tigray in government central the of authority the instituted 1940s the in began Tigray‟s s intact leaders hereditary its keeping affairs its of government the in autonomous government dominated Amhara this in But territories. new these over ethnic numerous brought and south the to expandedgovernment dominated Amhara century.The tenth the from beginning been that shown been has It hypothesis. the by made rule minority ethnic c second and first The domination suchcomparativelyfind outif to sought through threat this avert to try and discrimination this resists and majority the by persecution faces past the in status privileged that hypothesis the Following material of world modern the in place no instrumentalism. has ethnicity thought was it when appeared ssac ws continued was esistance tatus not enjoyedtatus not

eiay edrhp and leadership reditary h cne o pltcl oe utl oe sitd o h Amhara the to shifted power until power political of center the

autonomy was put into question whe question into put was autonomy

what has been known the Woyane rebellion of 1943. of rebellion Woyane the known been has what

in the capturedregionsin the ofthe south. and elaborated the sequence of factors tha factors of sequence the elaborated and atr eln wt Ehoi have Ethiopia with dealing hapter

groups under its rule forging a ranked relationship of subordination subordination of relationship ranked a forging rule its under groups this time time this

ethnic minorities come to power whe power to come minorities ethnic self - government lead by the elites who have joined the socialist student student socialist the joined have who elites the by lead aexists. pattern n Haile n Ti ws received was This . 74 , the Tig the

the second up to the fourth chapter have have chapter fourth the to up second the selassie‟s policy of state centralization that centralization state of policy selassie‟s

ay the military re military the

armed

minority icse te rgn o te present the of origins the discussed

struggle from their home base of base home their from struggle t led to this following the clai the following this to led t

n an ethnic group that had a had that group ethnic an n ethnic group has historically has group ethnic This resistance was quickly quickly was resistance This ih h rssac b the by resistance the with gime, Derg, gime,

aoiy tnc group ethnic majority iry a remained has Tigray t autonomy. st ,

that replaced that privileged a

But m

CEU eTD Collection alien rule (dominant) their Tutsi during the who intensified masters colonial the with affiliation their was massacre Tutsi the for af came that government resistance armed an as Tutsisof thousands of thelives took genocidethat the afte 1994 in power to came RPF party ruling Rwanda‟s under his finally president Aft 1963. in coup 1947 rebellions autonomy this away took government Sunni of measure large a enjoyed have who Alawi the especially Syria, in minorities the of interests the to opposed was nationalism Sunni the of part was which project nationalist a pursued French the over took that government Sunni The 1936. in independence until 1921 from autonomy with Alawi dominant Su the by Rwanda. chapter fourth The an authoritarianinstituted regimeconcentrated ofitsTigrayan whereinthehands is power elite. Haile -

selassie in 1974. Assuming power in 1991, the TPLF that led the struggle struggle the led that TPLF the 1991, in power Assuming 1974. in selassie indigenous relationship. indigenous relationship. and its Alawi its and

- The Alawi minority religious group has historically been persecuted and subordinated subordinated and persecuted been historically has group religious minority Alawi The son Bashar al nni majority who had controlled political power since the time of the Mamluks. the of time the since power political controlled had who majority nni subordinate relationship was changed after the French colonial system endowed the the endowed system colonial French the after changed was relationship subordinate until their compete domination in 1946 in domination compete their until

consolidating the Alawis the consolidating er two er

dominated military wing that toppled the Sunni government through its first its through government Sunni the toppled that wing military dominated a epoe te tnc ioiy ue o te lw i Sra n Tti in Tutsi and Syria in Alawi the of rules minority ethnic the explored has

in 1987 by Tutsi migrants who fled the country the fled who migrants Tutsi by 1987 in - Assad. ter the 1959 revolution began massacring the Tutsis. The main reason main The Tutsis. the massacring began revolution 1959 the ter consecutive

- uu sbriae ehi divide ethnic (subordinate) Hutu

self coups in 1966 and 1970, Hafiz al Hafiz 1970, and 1966 in coups ‟ -

government control of the state which has continued until this day this until continued has which state the of control ,

b 75 ut the Alawis resisted this through a number of of number a through this resisted Alawis the ut

. But finally But .

and moderateHutus and

under the French the under r a civil war that started in 1991 ending 1991 in started that war civil a r ,

it was the Bath party Bath the was it no rca distinction racial a into ant

when the Hutu nationalist nationalist Hutu the when . The . i - - Assad became Syria‟s Syria‟s became Assad . The RPF was formedwas RPF The . colonial post against Derg, has Derg, against -

independence struggle. But But struggle.

formed in formed This This

CEU eTD Collection 211 was placed arrangement by inthe political instituted regimes. these the three Syria Ethiopia, countries and Rwanda inthe w difference thereisastriking Although there ex elected president. Hutu the by Tutsis many of massacre killed was Nidadye and thwarted Forbedu Nidadaye Gorbache rul game. societies minorities as final and third The majority by hasa dominated become minority. to power them brought who elites their leadershipof the dominant group ethnic majority majority the by suppression this l the with faced were autonomy appe pattern similar a 1994, Rwanda 1991, Ethiopia diff in power to came that rule minority ethnic of cases three the all In

Uvin, Uvin, ing Tutsi minority Tutsi ing One can cite Burundi‟s experiment with democracy in the 1993, the in democracy with experiment Burundi‟s cite can One S , upra note 196, note upra

, for v o te aoiy f h sas n alaet B parliament. in seats the of majority the won

democracy expressed in the simple formula of majority rule can become a zero sum sum zero a become can rule majority of formula simple the in expressed democracy

ethnic groups have reacted to this threat of domination by mobilizing themselves with themselves mobilizing by domination of threat this to reacted have groups ethnic and a ihee ter rp n power on grip their tightened

uu politician Hutu

self his 211 ists a similar pattern to the coming into power into pattern ethnic of in tothecoming minorities a theruling similar ists -

government

uaiy o eom h sse truh hc h gie power. gained he which through system the reform to audacity

oss of such privilege under under privilege such of oss

p.262 regime regime et f hs rcs ta brought that process this of pect

utrl n pltcl urmc. h peiul atnmu and autonomous previously The supremacy. political and cultural

lead by President Pierre Buyoya Pierre President by lead o the won

and even political dominance in the case of Rwanda before they they before Rwanda of case the in dominance political even and

ethnic

fe a op y us mltr officers military Tutsi by coup a after majority that was that majority

group was tinged with a nationalist a with tinged was group presidential on

c 76 e they have assumed it. it. assumed have they e suppression by a majority a by suppression

lcin ed n ue 1993 June in held election ars. First these minorities had minorities these First ars. ,

angered by the loss of a democratically democratically a of loss the by angered turning the tabl the turning tnc ioiis n po in minorities ethnic t h eprmn ws immediately was experiment the ut ,

by so by

The B The

erent periods Syria 1966 Syria periods erent me compared to compared me a process initiated by the the by initiated process a e around so that now thenow that so arounde ath partyath its since

n tncly di ethnically In ethnic

Ti doe o the to drove This . stance e i ta, the that, is wer

group. Second, Second, group. n hs party his and

that ay ethnicity an extent of of extent an

Melchi

gave the gave Mikhail vided o r ,

CEU eTD Collection 212 that country only the Ethiopia made and objective sacred TPLF‟s of core the at been has groups Ethiopia. of groups ethnic minority the configuration ethnic t 25%, about Amhara and 30% minorities ethnic numerous and majority majority The ethnic identificationregime of the and tolegitimi population the majority single one an majority between configuration ethnic distinct the be can other the on Ethiopia and hand one the on Rwanda and Syria regimes on lin based ethnic be to formation party political and competition political encouraged and ethnicity law. by prohibited is to bannedbeen spherehas political the in pursued has platform manner like In legit Islam the Sunni of the identity majorityand it panits Arab regime ideology the inSyria upon theArab unity of formationwas secular was ona themain over based reasonfor representation ideology which the

Haklai, non imi - Islam zing its narrow its zing ethnic base. Supra note 12 note Supra es. A plausible explanation for the difference in the strategy pursued by these three three these by pursued strategy the in difference the for explanation plausible A es.

minorities intheparty.minorities - ioiy tnc opsto i Ehoi i hgl dispersed highly is Ethiopia in composition ethnic minority Ti mks t ifcl fr h rln mnrt ehi gop to group ethnic minority ruling the for difficult it makes This . , RPF, the ruling party in Rwanda which came to power on a Tutsi minority minority Tutsi a on power to came which Rwanda in party ruling the RPF, , , Sunni 70% and Hutu 85% respectively, 85% Hutu and 70% Sunni ,

of the peopleof the and deemph , p. 36 , the minority ethnic party TPLF can easily assume the role of a vanguard for for vanguard a of role the assume easily can TPLF party ethnic minority the To the contrary, in Ethiopia, TPLF Ethiopia, in contrary, the To a pan Rwandese ideology so called „Rwandanicity‟. Reference to ethnicity to Reference „Rwandanicity‟.called so ideology Rwandese pan a

here are more than 80 ethnic groups in Ethiopia. in groups ethnic 80 than more are here 212 d minority d Since thetimeal‟ ofHaffiz Assad

. Including the two majority ethnic groups Oromo about Oromo groups ethnic majority two the Including . The protection of the self the of protection The has sought to forge to has a sought unifying identity transcends that the extent that the use of the terms Hitu, Tutsi and Twaand Tutsi Hitu, terms the of use the that extent the s ownminority identity Alawi ethnic

asized in these countries these in 77 ze itself in the face of a hostile majority. itselfintheze face hostile ofa

the religious difference ofSyrians. ,

since its coming to power has fomented fomented has power to coming its since

that constitutes a large segment of of segment large a constitutes that . In Syria and Syria In . - determination right of et of right determination the regime

In such a diverse diverse a such In Rwanda there is there Rwanda ihu a clear a without

has emphasize as a meansas of pressed pressed

Through

hnic

the

CEU eTD Collection 193 120, No. 36, Vol. Economy, Political African Reviewof 213 a CUD 2003.The in Democratic(UEDF) ForceEthiopian of Union and 2004 in formed(CUD) DemocracyUnityand the from formed were parties potential threateningregime electoral competition where time only the was which ethnic of sustenance in worked has that factor main T the TPLF parties political opposition the among inability and wings its under parties ethnic numerous composition. ethnic cross a sustains Forum‟ Unity Democratic „Ethiopia them of one only and parties coalition two only parties political registered Ethiopia of Board Electoral National the to According lines. ethnic minor gr ethnic other over domination Amhara historical the breaking in achievement its displaying By of ending ethnic discrimination. groups ethnic all of politics determination guarantees constitutionally he lack of cohesion within cohesion of lack he

oups Lovise Aalen & Kjetil Tronvol, Tronvol, &Kjetil AalenLovise ities ,

TPLF has added to the to added has TPLF

immensely. , a situation visible in the divisive opposition political party formation formation party political opposition divisive the in visible situation a ,

rights being laudable, without a practical power shar power practical a without laudable, being rights s a coalition was coalition a s

with relatively free participation of civil society and the media attests to the attests tothe media the and ofparticipation civil societyfree relatively with ioiy eie. The regimes. minority

more than 90 % being ethnic based parties. At the moment there are are there moment the At parties. based ethnic being % 90 than more ,

of a of it becomes impossible to commend TPLF even by its own objective objective own its by even TPLF commend to impossible becomes it the the The End of Democracy? Curtailing Political and Civil Rights in Ethiopia, in Civil Rights and CurtailingPolitical Democracy? of End The the majority ethnic groups, which Oded Haklai endorses to endorses Haklai Oded which groups, ethnic majority the

ln udr coali a under uling formerly favor

non

unified since secession - cooperative stance between the Amhara, Oromo and Oromo Amhara, the between stance cooperative first of its kind to espouse non ethnic political program and and program political ethnic non espouse to kind its of first

of the Alawi dominance in Syria, is a major factor to t to factor major a is Syria, in dominance Alawi the of PD cm t pwr n 1991 in power to came EPRDF

opposition. rgetd parties fragmented over which it remains the dominant party, the party, dominant the remains it which over

ih o ehi groups. ethnic of right

third third 78

- in ltom f h ERF ad br and EPRDF, the of platform tion 207, 2009, p. p. 2009, 195 207, to unite under a common a under unite to 213 ainl lcin i election national

In the run up to this election two coalitiontwo election this to Inup run the

s el s e ones new as well as

ing and equal participation in in participation equal and ing

t cmimn to commitment Its Ethiopia n pr ,

esently loe a oe pre open an allowed

front has benefitted benefitted has front

Caiin for Coalition ,

held there are 79 79 are there that follows follows that

n 2005 in division

inging be the be

other other self he he - ,

CEU eTD Collection 173 Issue 419, 105, Vol. 215 689 (1991 Ethiopia in Democratization 214 of the ethnic inSyriaregimes minority and Rwanda. force of use unrestricted an on power their resting authoritarian them makes that regimes minority ethnic of character common the to parliament. in seat one win to able only was opposition the 2010 in held election result a As environment. political stifled and weak a has in resulted legislations restrictive of number a of passing the by society civil and media the as well 2005 post The sentenced terms released but in tolengthyprison and genocide inciting and treason of crimes over charged were journalists and society civil of take to refused who leaders CUD The supporters. protesters especially election rigged the accept to refused parties crackdown government the period, campaign the 2000. in seats seats parliamentary of number substantial a the since time first the For ethnic an maintained UEDF The c agenda. national Ethiopian pan a on foundation its base

omposition omposition

John Abbink, John Ibid - 690. , 194. See also, Asnake Kefale, Asnake also, Kefale, See , 194.

killing 193 civilians and imprisoning thousands of opposition party members and and members party opposition of thousands imprisoning and civilians 193 killing formed outof groups. ethnic based opposition

Discomfiture of Democracy? The Democracy? of Discomfiture

The CUD won 109 and the UEDF 52 seats, but this election free as it was d was it as free election this but seats, 52 UEDF the and 109 won CUD The election - 199, 2006, p. 186. See also, Aalen and Tronvol, Tronvol, Aalen and also, See p. 186. 2006, 199,

violenc upon opposition parties, civil society civil parties, opposition upon

holding post in - 2011),

e e and the government the and e h cptl Te oenet ok wf maue aant the against measures swift took government The capital. the - eto results lection The Unmaking of Opposition Coalitions and the Challenge of of the Challenge and Coalitions Opposition of Unmaking The election

of multiparty elections in 1995 the opposition was able to win to ablewas opposition the 1995 in multipartyelections of Journal of Eastern African Studies, Vol. 5, No. 681 No. 4, 5, Vol. Studies, ofAfrican Eastern Journal ,

which as the forgoing ch forgoing the as which

eid a floe by followed was period

2005 Election in Ethiopia and Aftermath Its Ethiopia and in Election 2005 , 174 out of a total of 547 of total a of out 174 , ,

79 hc ws followed was which

2007 uponpresidential pardon.

up their seats in parliament and other membersother and parliament in seats their up

‟

s harsh measures against the opposition as opposition the against measures harsh s

214 Supra note 213 note Supra

and the media the and apters have shown is a hallmark a is shown have apters ,

during the last parliamentary last the during violence and instability and and instability and violence

y ulc rtss against protests public by in , 197. , p. 2005 as opposed to 12 to opposed as 2005 . The two coalition two The . , African Affairs, African , Affairs, 215 -

701, 2011, pp. pp. 2011, 701,

This brings us brings This

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04. The Alawi captureThe Alawi ofPower inS

, Cambridge University Press,, Cambridge 2002. THE BATH ANDTHE THE BATH OF MODERN CREATION SYRIA

A POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE TIGRAY PEOPLE‟S LIBERATION HISTORY TIGRAY OF THE A POLITICAL PEOPLE‟S The Unmaking of Opposition Coalitionsandthe Opposition Challenge of Unmaking The ofDemocratization Ethnic Federalism toDismember Potential andits Ethnic State theEthiopian The Origins of theTigrayPeople‟s of Origins Front Liberation The - 2011) , The University Press, Wisconsin 1993. of NATIONALIST EXCLUSIONANDNATIONALIST OF ETHNIC SHADOWS CONFLICT, DOCUMENTING ETHIOPIAN STUDENT THE AN MOVEMENT: Causes of Ethnic Conflict: A EthnicCauses Conceptual of Conflict: Framework Syria‟s Torment ETHNIC GROUPS INETHNIC GROUPS CONFLICT Democracy inDivided Societi THE RISING THE TIDENATIONTHE OF CULTURAL PLURALISM, - THE FALL OFASSAD OF THEHOUSE , Journal ofEasternJournal Stud African , 1991): REVOLT IDEOLOGY1991): REVOLT IN AND MOBILIZATION ETHIPIA, , Campaign Lowdown: Lowdown: , Campaign Syria , Forum for Social Studies, 2010. Studies, for, Forum Social , Survival

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Disappearances, Arrests, Threats, Intimidation andCo Intimidation Disappearances, Arrests,Threats, A resynthesis andcircumstantialapproaches theprimordial of toethnic Abyotawi Democracy: revolutionaryAbyotawi neither nordemocratic, acritical an – ce

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