The University of Dodoma University of Dodoma Institutional Repository http://repository.udom.ac.tz
Social Sciences Master Dissertations
2013 Influence of in-laws towards married women’s fertility: a case of Kaliua district in Tabora region
Nyanza, Richard E.
The University of Dodoma
Nyanza, R. E. (2013). Influence of in-laws towards married women’s fertility: a case of Kaliua district in Tabora region. Dodoma: The University of Dodoma http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12661/926 Downloaded from UDOM Institutional Repository at The University of Dodoma, an open access institutional repository. INFLUENCE OF IN-LAWS TOWARDS MARRIED WOMEN’S
FERTILITY: A CASE OF KALIUA DISTRICT IN TABORA REGION
By
Nyanza Richard Ezekiel
A Dissertation Submitted In (Partial) Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of
Arts in Demography of the University of Dodoma, Tanzania
The University Of Dodoma
October, 2013 Certification
The undersigned certifies that she has read and hereby recommends for acceptance by the University of Dodoma a dissertation entitled Influence of In- laws Towards Married Women’s Fertility in Kaliua District in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Demography of the University of Dodoma.
………………………………………………………..
Dr.Theodora Axweso Luxuma Bali
(SUPERVISOR)
Date ……………………………
ii Declaration and Copyright
I, Nyanza R. Ezekiel, declare that this dissertation is my own original work and that it has not been presented and will not be presented to any other university for a similar degree award.
Signature: ------
No part of this dissertation may be reproduced or stored in any retrievals system or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission of the author or the University of Dodoma.
iii Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge the people who contributed much in the accomplishment of this dissertation. My first gratitude should go directly to the co-coordinator of Geography and Environment Studies Prof. A. Kaswamila for all the contribution he has in accomplishing this dissertation and my M.A. studies. Prof. D.Mwamfupe for the knowledge that he imparted to me and enabled me to accomplish this study. Iam thankful to Dr.V.Krishnna,
Dr.A.Tenge, Dr. Songoyi for editing this work, and my supervisor Dr.Theodora
A. L. Bali for her exceeding patience and more responsible one in every issue that I was not aware.
I kindly pray to God to meet them at the point of their needs.
I also thank all respondents who participated in this study, my classmates M.A.
Demography students for the help and support they provided in one way or another.
Also, I thank my family my wife Agnes Jackson Ndihagati, my son Richard a.k.a Richpreacher and my daughter Rightness for their patience during the course of my studies.
iv Dedication
This work is dedicated to the living God, my wife Agnes Jackson Ndihagati for caring me all the time tirelessly and to my children Richpreacher and Rightness who missed me for a long time during my studies.
v Abstract
The influence of in-laws towards married women’s fertility seems to be trivial to many scholars, particularly in Tanzania. This work examined the influence of in- laws towards married women’s fertility in Kaliua District in Tabora Region. It examined the factors affecting married women’s control of their fertility including the influence of in-laws, and extended family on the husband’s decision on the number of children to have and on couple’s decision-making process on how many children to have during the reproductive age.
The study used questionnaires, interviews guide, and documentary reviews in collecting data. The findings of the study show that the mothers-in-law, fathers- in-law, sisters-in-law, and brothers-in-law have influence towards the married women’s fertility. These results are consistent with Germany data, which shows that women residing close to parents or in-laws are more likely to have children in close intervals (Mor an, 2012).
It is recommended that more research in this area should be done, especially on population policy formulation. If the truth comes in correlation with the findings obtained then it will be more delighting on tackling population issues.
vi Table of Contents Certification...... ii Declaration and Copyright ...... iii Acknowledgements ...... iv Dedication ...... v Abstract ...... vi CHAPTER ONE ...... 1 INTRODUCTION...... 1 1.0 Overview ...... 1 1.1 Background of the Study ...... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ...... 4 1.3 Objectives of the Study...... 5 1.3.1 Broad Objective ...... 5 1.3.2 Specific Objectives ...... 5 1.4 Research Questions...... 6 1.5 Significance of the Study...... 6 1.6 Delimitation and Scope of the Study...... 8 1.7 Operational Definition of Key Terms...... 8 1.8 Chapter Summary...... 10 CHAPTER TWO...... 11 LITERATURE REVIEW...... 11 2.0 Introduction ...... 11 2.1 Review of Theoretical Literature...... 11 2.2 Review of Empirical Studies ...... 12 2.3 Synthesis and Knowledge Gap ...... 19 2.4 Conceptual Framework...... 19 2.5 Chapter Summary...... 21 CHAPTER THREE...... 22 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...... 22 3.0 Introduction ...... 22 3.1 Research Design ...... 22 3.2 Study Location...... 23 3.3 Target Population and Sampling Techniques...... 24
vii 3.4 Sampling Procedure...... 24 3.4.1 Sampling Frame...... 25 3.4.2 Unit of Analysis ...... 25 3.4.4 Sample Size...... 25 3.5 Sampling Procedures/Techniques...... 26 3.6 Methods of Data Collection...... 27 3.6.1 Interview ...... 27 3.6.2 Questionnaires...... 28 3.6.3 Documentary Review...... 29 3.7 Data Processing, Analysis and Presentation...... 29 3.8 Reliability and Validity ...... 30 3.9 Limitations of the Study ...... 30 3.10 Ethical and Human Subject Protection Issues ...... 31 3.11 Chapter Summary...... 32 CHAPTER FOUR...... 33 PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ...... 33 4.1 Data Presentation and Analysis ...... 33 4.2.1 Characteristics of the Respondents...... 33 4.3 Factors Affecting Married Women’s Control of their Fertility...... 34 4.3.1 The factors affecting married women’s control of their fertility ...... 34 4.4 The Influence of In-laws on Married Women’s Fertility Control ...... 48 4.5 Influence of extended family on the husband’s decisions on the number of children to have...... 52 4.6 Couples on Decision-Making Process on Number of Children to Have During the Reproductive Age...... 57 4.7 Discussion and Interpretations...... 64 4.7.1 The factors affecting married women’s control of their fertility ...... 65 4.7.2 The influence of in-laws on married women’s fertility control...... 65 4.7.3 The influence of extended family on the husband’s decisions on the number of children to have ...... 66 4.7.4 The Influence of extended family on the husband’s decisions on the number of children to have ...... 67 4.8 Assessing the Conceptual Model...... 67
viii 4.9 Assessing the Research Questions...... 73 4.10 Implication of the Study Findings ...... 74 4.11 Chapter Summary...... 74 CHAPTER FIVE...... 75 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 75 5.1 Overview ...... 75 5.2 Summary...... 75 5.3 Conclusions ...... 76 5.4 Recommendations ...... 77 5.5 Areas for further research ...... 78 REFERENCES ...... 79 APPENDICES...... 83 Appendix-1(a)...... 83 Interview guide sheet (For in-laws)...... 83 Appendix-1(b) ...... 85 Interview guide sheet (For husbands)...... 85 Questionnaire for the study...... 85 Appendix-2 ...... 87 Questionnaire for the study (For married women) ...... 87 Appendix-3 (a)...... 90 Introduction letters for Data Collection...... 90 Appendix-3 (b) ...... 91
ix List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual framework on the influence of in-laws towards married women’s fertility...... 20 Figure 2: Normal Plot...... 70 Figure 3: Scatter plot...... 71
x List of Tables Table 1: Distribution of the Sample Size According to the Sample Unit and Technique Employed to Select the Sample...... 26 Table 2: The general level of distribution of education overall 140 respondents .....33 Table 3: Respondents’ Locality...... 34 Table 4: Responses for the question about childbearing...... 35 Table 5: Responses on the colleague who faced influences from their in-laws...... 36 Table 6: Number of children that married women had as influenced by in-laws .....37 Table 7: The reasons that make women not to have autonomy over their fertility...38 Table 8: Responses on whether husbands’ wife was ever asked about child bearing ...... 39 Table 9: Father-in-laws on giving advice to their daughter-in-laws on childbearing40 Table 10: Mother-in-laws on giving advice to their daughters-in-law on childbearing ...... 40 Table 11: Fathers-in-law decision in- case their daughters-in-law does not bear child/ren...... 41 Table 12: Fathers-in-law on if husbands (their sons) support their advices...... 42 Table 13: Mothers-in-law decision in-case their daughters’ in-law does not bear child/ren...... 42 Table 14: Sister-in-laws’ decision when their sisters-in-law has no children...... 44 Table 15: Responses on brothers-in-law on if they give advice to their sister-in-law ...... 47 Table 16: Married women on the number of children that they had...... 48 Table 17: Married women on whether they are satisfied with the number of children ...... 49 Table 18: Married women on whether they were convinced by any of their in-laws49 Table 19: Husbands’ responses on the number of children that they have ...... 50 Table 20: Husbands on if the number of children they had was a desired one...... 51 Table 21: Husbands on why the number of children is not the desired one ...... 51 Table 22: If husbands have ever been convinced by any of their relative ...... 52 Table 23: Married women on whether they were living with their in-laws...... 53 Table 24: Married women responses on whether they make family planning decisions with their husbands...... 53
xi Table 25: Married women responses on the number of children that they had ...... 54 Table 26: Responses on whether husbands and wives live with their parents...... 55 Table 27: Responses on whether husbands and wives make family planning decisions together...... 55 Table 28: Responses on the number of children planned by the couple ...... 56 Table 29: Responses on the number of children that they had...... 57 Table 30: Married women on the methods they use to control the number of children ...... 58 Table 31: Married women responses on women who are likely to be influenced more by in-laws ...... 59 Table 32: Married women reasons for in-laws to intervene the couple’s decision...59 Table 33: Husbands on methods used by their wives to control number of children60 Table 34: Husbands’ responses on who taught them about family planning/birth control...... 61 Table 35: Responses from mothers-in-law...... 62 Table 36: Responses from the mother-in-law on the above question ...... 62 Table 37: Responses from fathers’ in-law...... 63 Table 38: Fathers-in-law about those who do not follow parent’s advices...... 64
xii CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Overview
In this section, the researcher highlights the background of the study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study, research questions, significance of the study, delimitation, and scope of the study, and lastly operational definition of key terms.
1.1 Background of the Study
The desire for childbearing for married couples in Africa and Tanzania in particular, is not trivial. Most couples enter into marriage expecting to have children to bring happiness in their marriage relationship. However, this sometimes brings bitterness to the married women. She can receive positive or negative pressure towards childbearing from the people who are living close to her and even the husband too. Most of these married women who are predictable to be under intense pressure are those who stay in extended families. Various studies have been conducted cycling under this type of family. For example, Chen et al
(2011) approached the question on the influence of fertility by parents; Kabeer
(1996) discovered that husbands and in-laws were found to influence fertility of the married women, and Tsay and Chu (2003) carried their study on the impact of an extended family- just to mention a few. Therefore, this study is going to explore the influence of in-laws towards married women’s fertility between those who co- reside with their in-laws and those who do not.
Biblically for those who believe in it, God is their father as He created Adam in his own image and in his likeness. From that point of view, he created Eve to be his
1 wife by withdrawing one of Adam’s ribs Genesis 2:21. Thereafter, He {God} commanded them to procreate, which means he influenced them to have children.
Not only that, but also to fill the earth (Genesis 1:27-28, Genesis 9:1, Genesis
22:17-18, Psalm 127:3-5 and Leviticus 26:9). For instance, Genesis 1:28 says; and
God said to them “Be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth…” and also, Psalm
127:3-5 is influencing by stressing much on verse five that “Blessed is the man who fills his quiver with them! (fills the quiver with children). He shall not be put into shame when he speaks with his enemies at the gate” and Proverb 17:6, which says, “Grandchildren are the crown and the glory of children is their fathers” (all these citations are from ESV-International Bible, English Standard Version).
For Muslim societies, women gain respect and status within their own kin group and community when they have children (Iyer, 2002 from Youssef, 1978). Mostly, what people do now as husband and wife is procreation (to be get and conceive off-spring or to produce or create; originate). Many people, both husbands and wives when their in-laws have faith, that faith originates from religion point of view that guides their parents or in-laws and hence they influence the women’s fertility through the use of scriptures as presented by their mentors on each doctrine concerning children and probably this influences fertility.
There is also great emphasis in Hindu philosophy on having children and especially the role for surviving sons where their scriptures speak of the three debts that they have to pay: to the sages and to the gods by sacrifices, and to the ancestors by offspring (Iyer, 2002). Husbands and mothers-in-law play an important role as counselors, motivators, and sometimes barriers to women’s ability to take advantage 2 of the opportunities for participation in various domains of development activity including childbearing (Chizorozoro et al.,1999)
According to Chen et al (2011), demographers approached the question of the influence of fertility by parents towards the decision on the number of children in two different perspectives. The first inquiry was focusing on the less developed areas which was being traced back to writings by Lorimer and Blake, from that it was argued that parental influence came through living arrangements, that is living with parents (i.e., extended family households) was conducive for higher fertility because the cost of children and child care was shared by other members of the household, rather than by the children’s parents exclusively and the proposition was widely discussed and tested empirically, especially in countries experiencing simultaneous transitions in fertility and family structure (Chen et al., 2011)
The other perspective focused mostly on the developed countries. There they examined the intergenerational transmission of fertility behavior/preference by emphasizing the role of parental values, norms and socialization in shaping their children’s family size preferences (Chen et al 2011)
They continue by saying that a rapidly developing economy may leave little room for parents to play any role in their adult children’s fertility decisions. On the other hand, it was evidenced by research to the persistence of the historically strong parent-child relationship and the filial norms throughout the life course of parents and children alike in China (Chen et al 2011)
They also continued by saying that the nuclear household was the dominant family form, co-residence with parents remains common in China. They further reasoned
3 that it was reasonable to expect parents to exert a certain degree of influence on their children’s fertility preferences.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
According to UNFPA (2003) growth rates and fertility were reported to be falling slowly in the poorest countries than elsewhere. Tanzania is among the listed poorest countries with that trend of fertility, though it is the country with a huge number of exceptional natural resources in different regions (IMF, 2008).
Despite the efforts that Tanzania is using to ensure that the population growth rate falls at the desired rate, fertility rate is falling slowly. Different organisations both
Governmental and Non-governmental are trying to pull down fertility rate but they dwell much on some factors like:-preference for male children, low levels of education, the low status of women, the large age difference between spouses, and a positive attitude towards large families (Ngalinda,1998), while overlooking the influence of in-laws.
Studies have shown that Egyptian women who co-reside with in-laws have a more rapid progression to third birth, an effect that was more pronounced in rural populations (International Conference on Family Planning, 2011). Another study shows that the duration to first birth is shortened by co-residence, simply because women who tend to co-reside with their husbands’ parents are the women who tend to give earlier birth (Cyrus et al., 2012). Indeed, different studies show that the in- laws influence fertility of the married woman in either increasing rate or reducing rate even through the use of contraception (Ngalinda, 2012). Though different efforts in Tanzania are made to ensure that family planning is favored to pull down the fertility rate, the influence of in-laws that might be among the factors that keep
4 fertility high seems ignored. Therefore, because of that there is a need to study the influence of in-laws towards married women’s fertility.
This study mainly focused on comparing fertility rates of married women who co- reside with their in-laws and those who reside away from their in-laws. Hence, this study dwelt on examining and seeing if the influence of in-laws towards married women’s fertility exists or co-exists. From this, we could be in a position to recognize which one between the two influences more in terms of fertility than the other. Knowing all is thought, the Tanzanian Government and NGO’s will be in a position to find some measures to confront this situation from the family level to the community.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The study was guided by the following objectives:-
1.3.1 Broad Objective
To examine the influence of in-laws towards married women’s fertility.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
To investigate the factors affecting married women’s control of their fertility.
To assess the influence of in-laws on married women’s fertility control.
To assess the influence of the extended family on the husband’s decisions on
the number of children to have.
To assess the couple’s decision making process on how many children to
have during their reproductive age.
5 1.4 Research Questions
What factors influence married women control of their fertility?
To what extent do in-laws influence married women’s fertility?
To what extent do extended family members influence the husband’s
decisions on the number of children to have?
What decision-making process do couples employ on the number of children
to have during their reproductive age?
1.5 Significance of the Study
An anonymous philosopher said that “everything exists for a purpose,” likewise this study had the reason behind that pushed the researcher to carry it out in this area.
Not only to the researcher himself but also to the community where the study was conducted, to the researchers who wish to do more studies relating to this study, to the government of Tanzania in the formulation of population policy, and to the
University. Therefore, the following are the significance of the study.
1.5.1 To the researcher
This study is an important part of the researcher’s award of the degree of Master of
Arts in Demography. The researcher also gained skills through interviewing the respondents by knowing exactly about their behaviors toward the research. The study is also a cornerstone towards further researches in the similar field. Thus, other researchers will consult the study in libraries and the researcher himself for further knowledge.
6 1.5.2 To the University
Since, the course of demography is relatively new in the ears of Tanzanian scholars and neighboring countries then this study is an essential tool to publicize the course as an invitation to new students. Thus, the study will make the university to be known to the people and areas where it is not known.
1.5.3 To the Government through formulation of population policy
The government of Tanzania does its development programs based on data that it has. The data always come from various researches, sample surveys and the like.
Therefore, from that perspective, this study is helpful in the formulation of the
Tanzanian Population Policy. Hence, the influence of in-laws towards married woman’s fertility can be prevented through different strategies, thereby taking control measure(s) as the result the national goal would be achieved.
1.5.4 To the Community
In order to create room for further research to be carried out, in continuation, in this area; then once the problem is truly found in this area, suggested solutions should be real. This would be done by giving feedback to them through sharing with them, through presentation and clear clarification to the local government around the community. Therefore, the government would be in a position to take measures in line with the suggested solutions. Because this study is going to be documented in
English, the researcher would translate it since the language may become a barrier to them.
7 1.6 Delimitation and Scope of the Study
The study covered seven villages all of which are situated within Kaliua District.
Therefore, the study recruited respondents from these villages including; -
Kazaroho, Igagala number 9 and 10, Igwisi, Imalamihayo, Usimba, Usinge, and
Kaliua town. The married women/men, mothers-in-law, fathers-in-law, sisters-in- law, brothers-in-law, and the widows from those villages were included in this study. This was because the study was more purposive- and needed appropriate data, the proper group that was knowledgeable with marriage and child bearing.
1.7 Operational Definition of Key Terms
Education level
Education is the process of teaching, training, and learning especially in schools or colleges, to improve knowledge and develop skills (Oxford Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary). Thus, educational level is the capacity that a person has reached or attained from the process of teaching, training, and learning basically as formal, to improve knowledge and develop skills. It is the one that will enable him or her to judge accordingly and come up with a good solution to the pressing challenge at any time. For instance, in this study respondent with proper education on childbearing will have a sound decision on these issues.
Influence
According to the Web’s Largest Resource for Definition & Translations (2012), influence means capacity or power of persons or things to produce effects on others by intangible. In this study the word influence means capacity and ability to intercede the married women to change their decision to less autonomous on their fertility. 8 In-law
According to the Free Dictionary (2012), in-law means, a relative by marriage.
According to this study, in-law means the husband’s relatives.
Married women
The Free Dictionary (2012) defines married woman to mean a man's partner in marriage or a wife. Therefore, the married women in this study mean all married women regardless of their age.
Respondent’s Place of Domicile/Residence
According to the Advanced Learner’s Dictionary: location is a place where something happens or exists; the position of something. Therefore, the term location in this study means the place where respondent leaves within the Kaliua district i.e., in the village or ward.
Husbands
A husband is a male lifetime partner in a marital relationship (Husband, 2012).
Widow
A widow in this study was the woman whose spouse was dead and has enough information to tell in this study (Widow, 2012).
Therefore, the researcher used the above defined words as key terms in this study.
The key terms together would show how the in-laws influence the married woman towards their fertility. Thus, the study interrogated the married woman/husbands, widows, and their in-laws. The aim here was to examine the capacity or power that the in-laws have towards the married woman and the capacity or power for the
9 married woman to resist that influence. The researcher used the number of children that they bear as the indicators towards their fertility, thereby comparing the desires of their in-laws.
1.8 Chapter Summary
This chapter outlined an overview, the background of the study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study, research questions, significance of the study, delimitation and scope of the study, and operational definition of key terms.
10 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This section reviewed different related literature and studies that were carried out by different scholars on the related subjects. It includes, review of theoretical literature, empirical studies, synthesis and knowledge gap, and conceptual framework.
2.1 Review of Theoretical Literature
Davis (1958), in the Theory of Unidirectional Effects of co-resident seniors on fertility said that may require modification in modern societies where co-residence also implies an extended duration of demands for care from younger women and the role of the extended family in enabling fathers to migrate. This is evidence that older strains of the demography literature posit that the presence of older kin in the household would increase fertility by subsidizing the burden of childcare.
Demographers said that living with an extended family is viewed to increase fertility because superfluity of surrounding adult relatives would help a mother to take care of the infants as well as small children.
From the Wealth Flow Theory as quoted by Nisa (2007) from Caldwell that he combined the economic and sociological approaches. He said that changes from large families to nucleated family in societies would only be existed if the family is largely nucleated both emotionally and economically, also quoted by Nisa (2007) from Caldwell. Nisa continues by saying, that movement is resulted from the social rather than economic change, though the social changes have economic implications. According to Nisa (2007), in the theory that generally explains
11 fertility decisions in all societies that decisions are rational responses to familial wealth flows. Therefore, in that theory, economic rational decision is to have as many surviving children as possible. This is because each additional child adds positively to parent’s wealth, security in old age, and social and political well-being.
But for societies with net downward wealth flows where parents are expected to provide for their children’s economic well being (the developed societies) is centrally, where they have to bear fewer children. Therefore, in economic rational, decision to have children is either not to have children or to have the minimum number as allowed by psychological disposition that derives pleasure from children and parenting.
2.2 Review of Empirical Studies
There is some evidence in the qualitative data that, despite strong social pressures for early childbearing, empowered mothers and mothers-in-law often successfully encourage their sons, daughters, and daughters-in-law to delay the birth of their first child and to space subsequent births. They cited economic welfare of the family and maternal/child health concerns as reasons for postponement of birth. This is evidenced by an 18-year-old daughter-in-law who testified that:-
My mother-in-law…told my husband that if a young girl like me gets pregnant I would not survive, so he should use methods to prevent pregnancy… My husband agreed and I was allowed to stay with him. He used condoms for two years. Then my mother-in-law advised him to have child, and he stopped using the condoms (Population Reference Bureau, 2005:2)
In Hindu families in India, it was quoted that a family without a son was said to be subjected to defamation and insults. Married women who are unable to bear a son face the most severe hardship and psycho-social trauma. Because of the great value
12 placed on having a son, women who do not produce a son are said to be niputra
(woman who don’t have sons or sonless), others do call them a banjho bote (tree without fruit) or nirbansha (no family lineage), even if they have daughters and women who have many sons are called jhyammiyeko rukh (trees with numerous fruits). Besides that, we have to face our neighbors’ insults. -Husbands’ group,
Yadav, Dhanusha calls women of that kind kulangarni and alchini [ill fortune] because they don’t have a son. -Women’s group, Brahmin/Chhetri, Gorkha, followed with a testifying of –Yadav woman, Dhanusha:-
When my first daughter was born, all of the family members were happy. But after a second daughter was born, my in-laws began to nag me. They used to make very sarcastic comments to me. Often I had to tolerate abuse from my husband and brother-in-law for being unable to have a son. My brother-in-law harassed me the most (UNFPA, 2007:13).
The discussion groups’ views on the social advantages of having a son were similar across the surveyed, communities. The main reasons given were old-age security, respect enjoyed by the family, and continuing the family legacy.
Research that was carried in Vietnam shows that Vietnamese have son preference trauma, and hence men are pro-natalist. It was researched and reported on the occasional paper done in Vietnam that husbands needed sons to carry on the family line, as women pointed out that they were not part of the family line and, therefore, they were indifferent to the gender of the child. As they were interviewed, they strongly agreed that gender costs of high fertility; thereby pointing out by saying that those men could afford strongly to be pro-natalist, since they did not have to bear the pain of childbirth and the frequent health costs of child bearing. This research to them was a help. For the policy of two children they expected from it to increase
13 their own ability to say no to the higher fertility goals of husbands and in-laws who wanted them to continue child bearing (Kabeer,1996).
Moreover, the research on the impact of an extended family structure on the fertility behavior of married women in Taiwan discovered that the married women who stay with their husbands’ parents at the time of marriage it only affect the earliest stage of fertility behavior for married woman (Tsay and Chu 2003). Germany data shows that women residing close to parents or in-laws are more likely to have children.
The researcher suggests that this could be because this particular form of co- residence often arises because of the need for intensive care. Hence, the married spouses who dwell in the same house with parents or in-laws increase the odds of having children but to a lesser extent than living in the same neighborhood or town
(Mor an, 2012).
On the decision to have children, couple’s autonomy was influential. For instance, at one time, the wife a baby but she felt that her husband did not want, and when her husband felt for it then the wife did not. Therefore, decision on the number of children is based on who is more autonomous. Also, on the part of the in-laws, the women were found to be receiving a lot of pressure from their in-laws for additional children (Anonymous, 2009). In Bangladesh nonetheless, many of the more empowered mothers and mothers-in-law spoke spontaneously of the importance of birth spacing and, in a few cases, about the importance of limiting family size.
Many mothers-in-law said they provided contraceptives for their daughters-in-law.
There were also several cases in which mothers-in-law encouraged their sons’ involvement in family planning (Population Reference Bureau, 2005)
14 It was also asserted that, in Bangladesh, a woman of 19 years old was saying that her mother-in-law cried, “That you need not use these methods… (i.e. methods of contraceptives), we need grandchildren” (The Population Reference Bureau, 2005).
From Marshall and Jones (2012) they found that, an Indian a mother-in-law was saying that, if the in-law is not educated, then everybody at home feels that she should have one child.
Apart from that, another married woman gave what she experienced from her sister- in-law who used to tell her that: Get the first child and then use them (the pills). If your narhi- noshto (uterus/fallopian tube) is damaged, you‘d lose everything
(Population Reference Bureau, 2005)
According to Jan and Akhtar ( 2008), in their research about women’s decision- making power related to their fertility the results showed that 68 per cent of married women possess feminine decision-making power for participation in family planning and 28 percent was for the masculine together amounts to 98 percent in the decision making for their family planning.
Contextually, African married couples are always under immense pressure from their in-laws and even family members, if they fail to bear any child immediately after marriage because a childless marriage is regarded as a shame in the family
(Nengomasha et al., 2004). Nisa (2007:9) added the following:
The study conducted by McNicoll and Singarimbun (1982) found that the increase on contraceptive use and on age at first marriage have significantly influenced the fertility decline in Indonesia. Furthermore, another study by Nisa quoted from Agust that, in East Java province using the data resulted from IDHS 1994. The study identified the strong negative relationship between the numbers of child ever born. Both contraceptive use and age at first marriage, while the relation between the number of child ever born and socioeconomic factors tended to be moderate 15 quotation by Nisa from Agust ( pg.60). However, another study also found statistically weak negative relationship between the first age at marriage and the number of child ever born. Also Nisa quoted from the study conducted by Bhakti that, in North Sulawesi it was identified that, there were negative association between the first ages at marriage. The number of children ever born also tended to be insignificant particularly in urban areas. While the socio-economic factors tended to give influences to the numbers of child ever born also quoted by Nisa from Bakti (pg. 59-62).
A report promoting healthy timing and spacing of pregnancy with young married women in Northern Nigeria as shown below:
Nearly all of the young women were not actively trying to become pregnant, stating that they would like to wait one to two years before becoming pregnant again. Yet about two-third were not currently using any modern or traditional FP method to prevent or space the next pregnancy. Of those who were using a method, injectable or pills seemed to be favored, with two young women reporting abstinence. A few women also mentioned the calendar method, IUDs, withdrawal, or “Allah’s method.” When the Federation of Muslim Women Association of Nigeria (FOMWAN) asked young women why they were not using a contraceptive method, they mentioned pressure from a mother-in- law or spouse to become pregnant again, religious beliefs, and cost. Nearly all of the young women mentioned their concerns over the side effects of contraceptive methods. Interestingly, the men also expressed concern over side effects. Anecdotal evidence also suggests that once young women in Northern Nigeria marry, they face tremendous pressure from their husbands and family members to become pregnant and bear several children right away (Lane et al., 2012: 2).
In the barriers to adolescents’ use of contraceptives, as emotional and interpersonal barriers to the uptake of family planning services stem from the attitudes and desires of young women‘s families and friends. Married girls’ access to contraceptives, and their beliefs regarding need, was largely determined by the adults in their marital families – their husbands and their in-laws – who most often encourage early fertility. And the unmarried girls, on the other hand, are often stigmatized for their sexuality, their contraceptive access constrained by embarrassment and shame born 16 of hypocritical social pressures that both require virginity and expect them to service men (Marshall & Jones, 2012).
The research conducted in Zimbabwe when women were interviewed about participation in family planning, one woman described that her in-laws tried to interfere with their decision. This was also the case to almost all women, as the researcher articulated that women said they received advice and opinions from their relatives, but employed women in urban areas seemed more likely to resist that pressure. The comparisons of comments from women in urban and rural areas suggest that the shift of responsibility and power from the extended family to the nuclear family may be greater in urban areas where kinship norms and the demand for large families are weaker (Chizorozoro et al., 1999).
Chizorozoro et al. (1999) also articulated that women frequently explained that if a woman was unable to bear children or have had only one or two; her in-laws would pressure her and her husband to produce a larger family. One rural woman with three children described the phenomenon by telling the interviewer that her husband was being pressurized to take another wife so that she can bear him children. When they were asked whether mothers-in-law influence couples’ reproductive decision- making, a married man replied, “Yes, they intervene. He said that they usually cause misunderstandings because they don’t want daughters-in-law to use family planning methods and to have fewer children. Others were asking the sons, “Why are you staying with a wife who has only one child – she is of no use.” Interestingly, in both interviews and focus groups, mothers-in-law nearly always maintained that they did not interfere in their children’s reproduction decisions, yet many said they hope their
17 daughters-in-law will have large families, especially to have more sons. Thus, their rationale here focused primarily, on children’s contribution to increasing the mother’s claim to inheritance, assisting with household chores, and caring for parents in old age. Not surprisingly, the large family expectation was more pronounced among rural women than among their urban counterparts. Mothers-in- law interruption frequently admitted that they often disagree with the younger generation on the desired number of children for their family. Among the mothers in-law expressed that she had two married sons who had already 12 children.
On the decision about family planning, it was researched that women generally agreed the decisions from their husbands because men are the ones who work to provide for the family. Therefore, they have the right to make the final decisions on the number of children to have. This is because women feel that they are not contributing to household income. Men as well as mothers-in-law acknowledge the value of family planning for better health and for economic benefits, but they tended to think that a woman should prove her fertility first by having a desired number of children and then later use family planning. This was for most mothers-in-law who expressed approval of family planning use, but only after reaching the desired family size. A rural mother-in-law with nine children illustrated this position by saying that for young women, I feel they should have more children before they start to use family planning. It is good to have a big family – you might get one good child or one bad child. (Chizorozoro et al., 1999). Hence husbands also have the role to trigger or to allow those pressures from their family members.
18 2.3 Synthesis and Knowledge Gap
Looking into the various related literature, studies showed that there are few studies like the current study, which were carried out to explore about the influence of in- laws towards married women’s fertility. This was vividly shown in the analyzed factors for fertility which are: - preference for male children, low levels of education, the low status of women, the large age difference between spouses, and a positive attitude towards large families (Ngalinda,1998). Moreover, to be specific,
Ngalinda (1998) looked at age at first birth, fertility, and contraceptive use in
Tanzania without considering the influence of in-laws. Looking at different studies from different countries by different researchers and institutions as cited in the literature review, there is no study that directly relates with this study but relates only to some aspects like factors for contraception use and the like all of which dwell of controlling fertility. Therefore, there was a need to go about examining the influence on fertility of married women by their in-laws.
2.4 Conceptual Framework
Figure 1 portrays the way married women’s fertility can be influenced by in-laws.
The influence is attributed to some factors that make the influence to be alive like:- the demand for children, child preference, compensations after bride price as the returns, religiosity, social-cultural influence, women status/honor and the children to inherit the properties after the death of his or her father. Thus, all these contribute to the in-laws to influence fertility of their daughters-in-law.
Apart from that, the influence also can be mediated by the number of factors like the financial status of the couple, husband decision towards received pressure from his kin, education of the couple on childbearing decision, biological and physiological
19 capabilities of the woman. Therefore, if the above factors are penetrative they lead to high fertility and the opposite is true if they are less influential.
Independent Intervening Dependent Variables Variables Variables
Social-Cultural Influences
—Demand for children
—Women’s status
—Family heir —Financial status of the couple
—Couple’s educational level
—Wife’s educational level High or Low Influence of the In-laws —Husbands educational Fertility level —Mother in-law —Biological/physiological —Father in-law capabilities of the woman —Brother in-law (o/y) —Extended family —Sister in-law (0/Y) residence
—Other in-laws
Figure 1: Conceptual framework on the influence of in-laws towards married women’s fertility
Source: Modified from Nisa (2007)
20 2.5 Chapter Summary
This chapter reviewed the relevant literature related to this study; it also provided the theoretical conceptual framework on which this study was based.
21 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This part contains the general approaches, research design, study location, population and sampling techniques, general approaches, methods of data collection, questionnaire method, interview, documentary review method, research instruments, data analysis method, reliability and validity, delimitation and scope of the study, limitations of the study, ethical and human subject protection issues.
3.1 Research Design
This study was a onetime case study design. Thus, the researcher was in a position to examine in-depth on the influence of the in-laws towards married women’s fertility. It was chosen because it allows the researcher to explore in depth a program, an event, an activity, a process, or one or more individuals (Khumwong,
2004). The study used both qualitative and quantitative approach to gather data.
Hence, the qualitative approach gathered an in-depth understanding of the respondents to come up with a high level of reliability in the collected data. The quantitative approach was also not ignored. The qualitative approach aims to obtain expressed data in non-numerical terms while quantitative aspects aim to measure and analyze variables with statistical procedures. A cross-sectional survey was also employed in this study simply because it was simple to use and it enabled the researcher to ask questions to the representative sampled population at only a single time, where self-administered non-structured questionnaire and structured together were used.
22 3.2 Study Location
The study was carried out in Kaliua District, in Tabora Region. The historical background of the area of study can be traced back to villagilization namely,
“operation Vijiji” in 1972, whereby that time there was one man called “Kalyubha” to mean sun. This person lived in that area alone as the founder of the center.
Therefore, the area became famous by his name. But because of differing in pronunciation there, the name started to sound as Kaliua. Currently Kaliua is a district gained status with its newly established Region of Tabora which was established in July 2012. Formerly Kaliua was on debate as whether to be part of
Katavi region or Tabora. However, during data collection in the area, it was announced to be in Tabora region.
Kaliua was purposely selected because the some couple lives with their parents and some do not live together. The major tribes that live there are:-Nyamwezi, Sukuma,
Ha, Fipa, and Sumbwa. Other tribes they are very few. Therefore, the following villages provided the respondents for the study namely Kazaroho, Igagala number 9 and 10, Igwisi, Imalamihayo, Usimba, Usinge, and Kaliua town.1
Kaliua is central for railway transport, where it channels the route going to Mpanda and Kigoma as you come from Urambo district.
1 The time the researcher was proposing to go to those villages for data collection they were still villages but when he reached there, he found some villages have gained new status from villages to ward and some to suburb. For instance, Kazaroho was a ward but now a Suburb, Igwisi is now a ward, Usinge is also a ward. Therefore, Kaliua, Kazaroho, Igwisi, and Usinge are wards where Usimba, Imalamihayo, and Igagala are the only villages. The population for Kaliua District is 393,358 with an average household of 5.2, this is according to the 2012-census records (Source: National Bureau of Statistics-Tanzania)
23 Kaliua people engage themselves in the subsistence agriculture, with tobacco as a cash crop, honey harnessing, and livestock keeping all these are the chief economic activities in the area.
3.3 Target Population and Sampling Techniques
Sampling is defined as the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample.
Specifically, it is the act, or process, or technique of selecting a representative part of a population for determining parameters or characteristics of the whole population
(Webster Unabridged Dictionary, 2012).
The sampling technique that was used to get respondents was purposive sampling.
The reason of using this technique was that it targeted the respondents who would give the relevant data as this study involved the respondents have experience on marriage issues. Thus, the target population in this study was the women/husbands, mothers-in-law, fathers-in-law, sisters-in-law, brothers- in-law, and widows. These respondents were targeted because they were knowledgeable on this issue.
The advantage of this technique was that it assigned certain status of respondents to be subsets of the reference population that were easier to be involved in the study.
Moreover, this technique could include geographically isolated areas of respondents.
The limitation of this technique was that useful inferences for under-sampled population subsets might be impossible (Rust, 2004).
3.4 Sampling Procedure
The sampling procedure for this study included sampling frame, sampling unit, unit of analysis, and sample size.
24 3.4.1 Sampling Frame
The sample frame in this study was a household with married women/husbands, mothers-in-law, fathers-in-law, sisters-in-law, brothers-in-law, and widows. These were more considered because they were the ones who were knowledgeable in one way or another; for instance, others influence women’s fertility and others were influenced, i.e. the married women. Thus, they were in a position to provide the true picture pertaining to the influences of in-laws towards married women’s fertility.
3.4.2 Unit of Analysis
In this study, the unit of analysis was all married women. This group was selected because it was the one being influenced by the in-laws.
3.4.4 Sample Size The sample size was estimated by using the following formula:
N / PP
Where:
N = Sample size, P= Percentage of respondents, and Maximum error: since P was not known for the study population, its value was assumed to be 50% as it ensures maximum sample size (Nwoke et al., 2011). The confidence interval was
95% for the estimated population proportion, maximum error of 10% and a non- response rate of 5%, a final sample size involved in a study was 140 respondents.
25 Table 1: Distribution of the Sample Size According to the Sample Unit and
Technique Employed to Select the Sample.
Sample Units Sample size Techniques to be used Married Women 20 PS Husbands 20 PS Mothers-in-law 20 PS Fathers-in-law 20 PS Sisters- in-law 20 PS Brothers-in-law 20 PS Widows 20 PS Grand Total 140 PS
Key; PS=Purposive Sampling
3.5 Sampling Procedures/Techniques
Sampling is defined as the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample; specifically: the act, process, or technique of selecting a representative part of a population for determining parameters or characteristics of the whole population
(Webster Unabridged Dictionary, 2012). In this study, respondents came from four wards. The respondents were obtained through purposive sampling technique throughout the wards. Then the same technique was used to select seven villages, where each village was selected according to proximity, this helped the researcher to avoid some other transport cost. Furthermore, equal number of respondents was selected from seven selected villages, of which all available married women/husbands, mothers- in-law, fathers-in-law, sisters-in-law, brothers-in-law, and widows were obtained through purposive sampling. This technique was chosen because it provides the researcher with the justifications to make from the sample that is being studied, where such justifications are based on the collected data. The
26 limitation of this technique is that useful inferences for under-sampled population subsets may be impossible (Rust, 2004).
3.6 Methods of Data Collection
This section introduces the methods of collecting primary data. Therefore, the methods that were used in collecting data were interviews, questionnaires, and observation that were based on experience of the researcher. This was due to the limit of time, which was very short to observe and come up with a sound argument.
3.6.1 Interview
Interview depends on what we want to know. It is thus, a process of finding out what others feel and think about their world. The result is to understand the major points of their message and how it compares [similar & different] to your own situation (Rubin et al., 1995). As this study was qualitative one, it was therefore, extensively on in-depth interviewing (Marshall, 2006). The method was chosen because of the number of its strengths articulated as follows: - it was a good approach of gathering the in-depth attitudes, beliefs, and anecdotal data from individual persons. Participants with this method do not need to be able to read and write so as to respond. Above all, personal contact with respondents elicited richer and more detailed responses. However, anything good has some weaknesses as described down here, it requires staff time and area to conduct interviews, where it requires special equipment to record and transcribe interviews.
The study interviewed respondents based on interviews guide sheet. The interview contained both open and closed ended questions in the data collection instrument as shown on Appendix-1. All respondents were interviewed except married women who were to fill questionnaires. This was because some in-laws might be illiterate 27 especially mothers-in-law and fathers-in-law. The advantage of using this method was that it favors flexibility towards response of respondents to the open questions.
Moreover, this aroused active participation and a wide chance to express everything that they know about the study.
3.6.2 Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a tool that is used to measure knowledge, attitudes, emotion, cognition, intention, or behaviour (Rattray & Jones, 2007). Therefore, it is a tool for gathering information to satisfy the curiosity of the study. Questionnaires typically entail several questions that have structured response categories; some open-ended questions may also be included (Marshall., 2006). Thus, questionnaire is a tool that is in form of paper document and it contains a number of questions that are targeted to answer the research questions as shown on Appendix-2. Advantages of using this tool in collecting data is as follows: it helps to learn about the distribution of characteristics, attitudes, or beliefs of the respondents. A method makes the researcher to rely totally on the honesty and accuracy of participants’ responses.
Thus, researchers made one critical assumption that, a characteristic or belief of a respondent can be described or measured accurately through self-reporting
(Marshall, 2006).
The questionnaires were administered to married women, and widows and were all filled. Moreover, the data showed that in-laws had an influence towards married women’s fertility. This is because they were the ones affected directly by their in- laws especially those who stay together with them.
28 3.6.3 Documentary Review
This study used secondary data. Which were obtained from a variety of books both soft and hard copies, journals, magazines, presented papers, newspapers, speeches, and films, all of which depend on their accessibility. These documents were useful as they stood as a platform for this study. A documentary review checklist on
Appendix-3 was be used to obtain the requisite data.
3.7 Data Processing, Analysis and Presentation
Data processing is a document containing information organized in a narrative, graphic, or tabular form, prepared on ad hoc, periodic, recurring, regular, or as required basis (Business Dictionary, 2012).
According to Levine (1997) data analysis is a body of methods that help to describe facts, detect patterns, develop explanations, and test hypotheses; it is used in all of the sciences, business, administration, and policy. The data were collected and being edited so as to detect errors and omissions to some data. Then, it was coded prior to analysis, using the Software Package for Statistical Studies (SPSS) version
16.0. Therefore, computer software was used to enter the data collected from respondents using questionnaire. Percentages, frequencies worked out in relationship and comparisons among variables established. Data are presented by using, scatter plot tables, and percentages for quantitative data. Furthermore, qualitative data collected from the field through employed techniques and tools, were subjected to thematic analysis, which were carried out by designed detailed descriptions of the case study and using coding to put themes into categories.
29 3.8 Reliability and Validity
The information obtained in this study is reliable and valid. The questionnaires were constructed and tested in a pilot study to married women and widows. Then when they were found ambiguous, they were rectified to maintain its validity and reliability. Thereafter, the instruments were retested to see if they were reliable and valid to this study. Thus, the only respondents to be involved in the study were purposively sampled and not otherwise. Therefore, truth is the foundation of this study to ensure internal consistence.
3.9 Limitations of the Study
Anything that we do here on Earth, there are forces that restrict the progress of our efforts towards the success of our target. Likewise, the researcher was aware that there were some setbacks in the process of data collection, processing, towards data publication. They were the forces, which were resisting the success of this study.
An anonymous scholar says that individual habits changes overtime and spaces so, the respondents might have changed in terms of their perception. For instance, some thought that the researcher was gaining money from doing the study; therefore he should pay them for their participation while the amount of money and ethical issues did not allow him to do so.
Sometimes, the respondents were not around for the first visit, hence it needed the researcher to revisit the respondent to participate in the study, and then it was laborious or time consuming for the researcher. Also, it was challenging for the married women to disclose what they face from their in-laws to the researcher.
Thus, some were tempted to give socially desirable answers that were misleading.
The researcher then left them to keep the data valid. Many questions were not
30 answered this was because of the nature of the study which is too sensitive and too personal. Thus some respondents could not reveal everything concerning what they face in their families concerning childbearing.
Time was limited; therefore, the researcher faced difficulties to make sure that the research is well handled within the time frame. In addition, there was a possibility of some questionnaires to be filled erroneously because of carelessness in filling them. Therefore, the researcher was required to give the questionnaire for the second time hence this was wastage of resources.
3.10 Ethical and Human Subject Protection Issues
The study followed all ethical issues from the beginning to the end. That way, one can find from the beginning there are different citations to show that the ethics of acknowledging other scholars is considered. Also, the respondents were protected by putting into account about asking them to volunteer in giving information about this study. Not only that but also they were not required to mention their names and even knowing their names, the researcher asked them in the beginning so as to create privacy. A brief introduction was given to the respondents by introducing even where the researcher was coming from as well as the purpose of the study in their area in order to prevent vagueness.
All respondents, after they agreed to participate in this study, were given a consent form to read. The information that they gave remained to be a secret between the researcher and the respondents. Because of the nature of this study, the researcher decided not to do group discussion to ensure privacy and secrecy. Moreover, the respondents were assured the right to decline at any time during the research process. 31 3.11 Chapter Summary
This chapter outlined the research methodology and techniques employed in this study. The items included in the chapter are: an introduction, research design, study location, target population and sampling techniques, sampling plan, sampling frame, unit of analysis, sample size, sampling procedures/techniques, methods of data collection, interview, questionnaires, documentary review, data processing ,analysis, and presentation, reliability and validity, limitations of the study, ethical and human subject protection issues.
32 CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
4.0 Overview
This chapter displays data analysis and discussion of the data findings. The data collected have been presented in frequencies, percentages and chart to elaborate such data. The data were collected by means of the data collection methods as mentioned in chapter three from various respondents of different villages of Kaliua
District. The data collected have been presented in frequencies, and percentages, and scatter plot, where tables are used to elaborate such data. The questions which were not answered were omitted though they are found in the questionnaire. The questions asked were based on examining the influence of in-laws towards married women’s fertility in accordance specific objectives.
4.1 Data Presentation and Analysis
4.2.1 Characteristics of the Respondents
Table 2: The general level of distribution of education overall 140 respondents Responses Frequency Percent Informal 11 7.86 Primary 128 91.43 Secondary 01 0.71 Total 140 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012 Thus, the general table above portrays that, the level of education of majority was
91.43% out of the 100% of the respondents was primary school. However, primary school education has included even those who could not complete standard seven, but got at least part of it. Therefore, the whole picture shows that 7.86% of the
33 respondents did not attend any level of primary education, 91.43% of the respondents attended primary education level, 0.71% of the respondents had attended secondary education which is equivalent to 1 respondent who acquired that level.
Table 3: Respondents’ Locality Responses Frequency Imalamihayo Village 20 Igagala no.9&10 Village 20 Usimba Village 20 Igwisi Ward 20 Usinge Ward 20 Kaliua Ward 20 Kazaroho Ward 20 Total 140 Source: Field Research 2012
4.3 Factors Affecting Married Women’s Control of their Fertility
The first objective of this study was to find out the factors affecting married women’s control of their fertility. This objective was realized from the relevant questions asked to different respondents through questionnaires, interview guide, and documentary reviews. The series of questions were asked to the married women, husbands, fathers-in-law, mothers-in-law, brothers-in-law and sisters-in- law, widows, religious leaders, and Local government leaders. The responses from all respondents are clearly tabulated, explained, and discussed as follows:-
4.3.1 The factors affecting married women’s control of their fertility
Married women were asked, “Have you ever being asked about child bearing by any of your in-laws.” Because the factors that affect married women’s control of their
34 fertility in Tanzania are unique from one another. However, mostly the in-laws play part in the control. The responses were given by 18 respondents and remained had nothing to fill as tabulated below:-
Table 4: Responses for the question about childbearing Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid Yes 5 25.0 27.8 No 13 65.0 72.2 Total 18 90.0 100.0 Missing System 2 10.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012 Table 4 implies that, five 27.8% of 18 respondents said yes and 72.2% of 18 respondents said no on the question that was asking them “have you ever been asked about child bearing by any of your in-laws.” and 10% of 20 respondents did not respond.
To meet the same objective when respondents were asked as to whether they have any colleague who is also married 90% of 20 respondents said yes they have while only 10% said no. And those who said yes they have had their colleague, when asked do their colleague face anything from their in-laws concerning having children, the results were as follows;-
35 Table 5: Responses on the colleague who faced influences from their in-laws Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid Yes 4 20.0 28.6 No 10 50.0 71.4 Total 14 70.0 100.0 Missing System 6 30.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012 From Table 5 one can see that four 28.6% of 14 respondents confirmed that their colleague faced the challenge of influences from their in-laws. The remaining
71.4% of 14 respondents said no the rest 30% of 20 respondents did not respond.
Some of them said it is difficult for one who is married to expose what she faces to people who are not close to them.
When asked about their decision on that influence they said that all those who were influenced accepted the influence. Thus, their in-laws influence was successful by
100%.
All women who received influences were living together with their in-laws; therefore, social distance is a factor to get influence. The question about living with their in-laws revealed that 50% of the married women were living together with their in-laws and another 50% were not living together and received no influences.
When they were asked about number of children that they had the result is tabulated below:-
36 Table 6: Number of children that married women had as influenced by in-laws Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid 1-Child 1 5.0 5.3 2-Children 6 30.0 31.6 3-Children 4 20.0 21.1 4-Children 3 15.0 15.8 5-Children 1 5.0 5.3 6-Children 1 5.0 5.3 7-Children 3 15.0 15.8 Total 19 95.0 100.0 Missing System 1 5.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
Table 6 shows that, 100% of 19 women have had children at least one to four
children, which made up to 78.9%, while 21.1% of 19 women had more than five
children, and 5% of 20 respondents did not respond to the question. Thus, their entire colleagues had children including those who were influenced by their in-laws.
When the respondents were asked on the reasons that make a woman not to have
autonomy over her fertility, the responses were as tabulated below:-
37 Table 7: The reasons that make women not to have autonomy over their fertility Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid Emotions for desire to have children 7 35.0 36.8 Misunderstanding and lack of 3 15.0 15.8 knowledge Because of patrilineal/husband rule 6 30.0 31.6 Don't know 3 15.0 15.8 Total 19 95.0 100.0 Missing System 1 5.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
Table 7 shows that the reasons that make a woman not to have autonomy over her fertility are: 36.8% of 19 respondents said emotions for desire to have children,
15.8% said misunderstanding and lack of knowledge to the married woman is a cause, 31.6% said patrilineal/husband rule where the husband become dominant in everything including marital affairs, 15.8% said they didn’t know any reason and
5% of 20 respondents did not respond to the question.
From documentary review, a pastor testified saying:
One married woman was complaining to the Pastor for being stopped to continue conceiving pregnant with her husband, while the husband was found having relationship with another woman and as the result the woman became pregnant. Then because of that, the wife refused to stop conceiving (31.12.2012). Also, a local government leader testified that:
A husband was chasing his wife because she had seven children. He was complaining that the woman was giving birth to too many children. In stopping that, he told his wife to go to the hospital and have her in berg tied, but the
38 wife refused and she conceived from another man and added another child. Therefore, here what is seen is misunderstanding and lack of knowledge to couple is a cause of that problem (05.01.2013) Another case, from the district social welfare they received a complaint from a wife of a primary school teacher:
The wife gave birth to nine children of her husband. The husband told her to stop. The wife stopped while the husband was continuing do what he stopped his wife to do. When the wife discovered it, she conceived from her husband. The husband vacated from the house and left the wife (12.01.2013).
Husbands were interviewed on whether their wife (wives) has ever been asked about child bearing by any of their in-laws. The responses were as shown in Table 8.
Table 8: Responses on whether husbands’ wife was ever asked about child bearing Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid Yes 6 30.0 31.6 No 13 65.0 68.4 Total 19 95.0 100.0 Missing System 1 5.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
It shows that 31.6% of 19 respondents agreed that their wives were asked about child bearing by any of their in-laws, where as the 68.4% of 19 respondents said that their wives were not asked such questions. The questions also asked respondents whether their wives informed them. A hundred percent (100%) of them agreed that they were informed and 5% of 20 respondents did not respond to the question
When father-in-laws were interviewed, the following were their responses:
39 The father-in-laws were asked to know if it happened that they gave advice to their daughters-in-law on childbearing and the responses were as tabulated below:-
Table 9: Father-in-laws on giving advice to their daughter-in-laws on childbearing Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid Yes 6 30.0 31.6 No 13 65.0 68.4
Total 19 95.0 100.0 Missing System 1 5.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
Table 9 portrays that 31.6% of 19 respondents give advice to their in-laws while the rest 68.4% of it did not give advice to their daughters-in-law and 5% of 20 respondents did not respond to the question. The reason for their failure is that it is not easy for them to go and advice them directly; instead, if they find a need they use their sons (husband) to advice the wife, therefore they influence them indirectly.
The same question was asked to mothers-in-law and the result was as tabulated below:-
Table 10: Mother-in-laws on giving advice to their daughters-in-law on childbearing Frequency Percent Valid Percent Yes 10 50.0 50.0 No 10 50.0 50.0 Total 20 100.0 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
40 Thus, as can be seen from Table 10, 50% of the respondents agreed that they happened to give advice to their daughters-in-law. The remaining 50% said that they never advised their daughters-in-law.
On the question of social distance when they were asked where their daughter-in- laws are, living the response was 75% stay away from them and only 25% were living together.
When asked about their achievements suggesting the number of children to be born, their responses are as presented in Table 11. Fathers-in-law for the question of in case daughter-in-law do not bear child/children what could they do, their responses were as tabulated below:-
Table 11: Fathers-in-law decision in- case their daughters-in-law does not bear child/ren Frequency Percent Valid Percent Advice to go to hospital 17 85.0 85.0 Advice to go to other places 3 15.0 15.0 Total 20 100.0 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012 It shows readiness to face the challenge of having no child/children to their daughter in-law. Where 85% of fathers-in-law said they would advice them to go hospital for solution and 15% would advice them to go to other places like witch doctors for solutions. Therefore, (100%) of the father-in-laws showed readiness to attend to the problem. And when they were asked whether their husbands (sons) back their advices, the result was as tabulated below:-
41 Table 12: Fathers-in-law on if husbands (their sons) support their advices Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid Yes 12 60.0 85.7 No 2 10.0 14.3 Total 14 70.0 100.0 Missing System 6 30.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
Table 12 reveals that 85.7% of 14 fathers-in-law their sons backs up the advices on childbearing from their parents, 14.3% do the opposite, and 30% of 20 fathers-in- law did not respond to the question. Some of them were boasting themselves boldly that they have never advised their children and end up in vein.
When the same questions were asked to mothers-in-law the following were their responses;-
Table 13: Mothers-in-law decision in-case their daughters’ in-law does not bear child/ren Frequency Percent Valid Percent Advice to go hospital for solution 18 90.0 90.0 Advice to go to other places 2 10.0 10.0 Total 20 100.0 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
Table 13 indicates that 90% of the respondents (mother-in-laws) were ready to give advice to their daughter-in-laws to go for solution, 10% to advice them to go other places for solution. Some of them said that, when such a case comes to their daughters-in-law they usually use traditional treatments called “nyengo” to get out of barrenness. The evidence is reflected in naming of children; for instance, children born in Nyamwezi and Sukuma tribes are named after such treatments. If the child is a baby boy, his name is “Maganga” to mean that he came from traditional healing.
42 If the child born is a baby girl then her name is “Nyamizi” to mean that she originate from plant roots while for “Ha” people in Kigoma the female who originates from roots is called “Chinkuli” and in Kiswahili they are called them “Mwadawa.”
Interviews were also done with widows for the question that demanded them to answer on what did in-laws do in-case it happened that their daughter-in-law don’t bear children, their responses were follows:
Nineteen respondents’ equivalent to 95% of the widows confirmed that for the problem like that they were advised by their in-laws to go for solution. For instance, one widow testified that:
I, myself when I got married three years passed without conceiving. Then my mother-in-law gave me herbs to drink, I used them and I conceived (02.01.2013) Another widow testified like this:
The issue happened to me personally when I had difficulty in conceiving. My sister-in-law advised me to go for solution and sometimes she was furious on my delay, as a result I, decided to be married to another husband (05.01.2013) Also another said that:
They were giving advice and medicine to use to get the problem resolved. The medicine that they used to give is called (Nengo) which was helping women with problem of conceiving. However, some succeeded when they used it and some did not (02.01.2013) Yet other respondents said that the daughter-in-law happened to have no child and the solution of that was to marry another wife.
Sisters-in-law when asked the question, “do you advice them/her on the issue of family planning, child spacing and number of children?” the responses was: five
43 respondents which is equivalent to 25% said yes, and 15 respondents which is equivalent to 75% said No, therefore the influence here is by 25%.
Also, when they were asked on what aspect they gave an advice the results were: out of five responses, three said it was on the number of children 60%, one response was on child spacing 20%, and the last one said it was on finding solution for married women with problem for them to conceive 20%. Therefore, all five respondents proved that they gave advice on the issue of childbearing.
When the sisters in-law were also asked if they agreed to their advice; 80% said they agreed, and 20% said the respondent did not agree with the advice.
When they were asked, “in case it happened that your sister-in-law has no any sign of pregnancy as well as the number of children is not adequate, what is the solution?” Their responses were as tabled below;-
Table 14: Sister-in-laws’ decision when their sisters-in-law has no children Frequency Percent Valid Percent I advice her to go for solution 13 65.0 65.0 If no solution then I leave it to her husband 3 15.0 15.0 If no solution I advice my brother to marry 2 10.0 10.0 another wife I leave it to God 2 10.0 10.0 Total 20 100.0 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
Table 14 shows that 65% said they would advice her to go for solution, 15% said if they advice the woman to go for solution and nothing to show up then the decision is to her husband. 10% said they would leave the issue to God. 10% if no solution
44 then they would advice their brother to marry another wife. This can be supported with the documentary review data from the Ward Executive:
In (1997) I met a case, where a husband received pressure from his relatives to divorce his wife because she did not bear any child. Even after she was being given traditional medicine which proved no success and they ended in a divorce (02.01.2013)
This has appeared also in Chizorozoro et al (1999) found that if a woman was unable to bear children or have had only one or two; her in-laws will pressurize her and her husband to produce a larger family. A woman explained that her husband was being pressurized to take another wife so that she could bear him children.
Another street leader testified that:
In (2012) he met a similar case where the husband went with his wife to him and informed him to legalize his divorce. This came because they spent six years in marriage without getting a child. Therefore, his relatives convinced him to divorce her and get married to another woman. He confirmed this himself by saying that; “even my relatives have advised me to leave her” they therefore, ended in a divorce (06.01.2013)
A pastor testified for the issue that supports the same case that:
In (2011) a couple that stayed for ten years without having children the husband started beating his wife. This was accompanied with counsel from his relatives who were saying “how can you stay with a woman who is unprofitable ( the one who don’t bear any child)” the husband did as advised up to that moment of the testimony they don’t have any child (31.12.2012).
A sheikh also testified that a believer (a married woman) went to him and complained by saying that:
45 The relatives (in-laws) were annoying their daughter-in- law by saying that she was just filling the toilet because of not having a child, and that was her work as they mean. The husband started quarrelling with his wife because of that, even beating her and telling her the same words as of his relatives (31.12.2012).
For the issue of unsatisfying number of children a pastor gave it like this:
The married woman came to him complaining who was wedded in (1997) in that church and in (1999) they got a child. Since that time till (2011) nothing was showing up, where the child was in standard seven. The husbands’ relatives started rejecting the wife of their relative by saying that, they need the wife who can bear children. There was a day, she went to her in-laws and it showed they didn’t mind her by following their own business. The husband reached a stage he told his wife to go to her home to rest. The husbands’ mother advised her son to leave that woman because of that problem and did so. Thus, these people have had influence on that couple’s life (01.01.2013)
A testimony from what the pastor faced:
There is case that he met where the couple stayed for one year and half without a child. Husbands’ parents advised him to find another woman and he accepted and he has two children. Because of that, they are advising him to divorce that previous wife. It has reached the sisters’ in- law go to their sister-in-law and take some property without consent from her, when she stop them from taking them they tell her that, if we don’t take them who will use them if she (sister-in-law) has no even a single child (31.12.2013)
From the priest (padre):
In 2007 the married woman complained to him wanting resolution to her marriage, when he was resolving it he found the husband seem to be well with his wife. But the in-laws were the cause because they didn’t get any child for three years and they started insulting her for that.
46 When they were counseled they agreed to settle as the couple from there they started having children, till the time he was testifying the couple has had three children. The in-laws are silent when they saw that (02.01.2013) The brothers-in-law were also asked various questions including, do you advice them/her on the issue of family planning, child spacing and number of children? The responses were as follows:
Table 15: Responses on brothers-in-law on if they give advice to their sister-in- law Frequency Percent Valid Percent Yes 13 65.0 65.0 No 7 35.0 35.0 Total 20 100.0 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
Table 15 shows that 65% said yes to mean they give advice to their sisters’ in-law, and 35% disagree that they do not give advice to their sisters-in-laws.
When they were also asked if their sisters-in-law agreed with their advices? These were their responses:
Four respondents which is equivalent to 80% said that they agreed and one respondent equivalent to 20% of five respondents said they didn’t agree with them.
Thus, the brothers-in-law have influence to the married women on child bearing.
From documentary review data, the church leader (a pastor) testified that:
A couple was giving birth to albinos, the woman’s relatives advised her to have sexual intercourse with another man so as to give birth to normal child, the woman did so and her husband noticed it and he told his wife okay let us wait for the baby. When she delivered, the baby was an albino. From there the issue started, the brothers-in-law advised their brother to do the same and he agreed, when the woman gave birth the baby came normal. Therefore, they concluded that the problem was his wife so he 47 would marry that woman who gave birth to a normal child (01.01.2013).
4.4 The Influence of In-laws on Married Women’s Fertility Control
Objective two under this study was on assessing the influence of in-laws on married women’s fertility control. The questions here were asked to the married women, fathers’ in-law, mothers-in-law, brothers-in-law, sisters-in-law, and widows. The results were as follows by starting with the married women:-
For the question of: - knowing the number of children that they have, this was their responses as shown in Table 16:
Table 16: Married women on the number of children that they had Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid 1-Child 1 5.0 5.3 2-Children 5 25.0 26.3 3-Children 4 20.0 21.1 4-Children 3 15.0 15.8 5-Children 2 10.0 10.5 6-Children 1 5.0 5.3 7-Children 3 15.0 15.8 Total 19 95.0 100.0 Missing System 1 5.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
Table 16 shows that 5.3% of 19 married women had one child, 26.3% two children,
21.1% three children, 15.8% four children, 10.5% five children, 5.3% six children, and 15.8% seven children. When they were asked, is it the number that you desired?
100% of 19 married women said no and 5% of 20 married women had no child.
48 When they were again asked if they are not satisfied why it is so, their responses were as tabulated below:
Table 17: Married women on whether they are satisfied with the number of children Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid God's willing 5 25.0 26.3 In continuation 14 70.0 73.7 Total 19 95.0 100.0 Missing System 1 5.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
Therefore, Table 17 shows that, 26.3% of 19 married women said God’s willing to mean that God is responsible to stop them conceiving or to continue until where he stops them, 73.7% said were in continuation of giving births and 5% of 20 married women did not respond because she had no child.
When they were asked on if they have been convinced by any of their in-laws to have a certain number of children, their responses are tabulated below:-
Table 18: Married women on whether they were convinced by any of their in- laws Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid No 14 70.0 100.0 Missing System 6 30.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
Table 18 reveals that 100% of 14 respondents said, they have never been convinced by any of their in-laws concerning the number of children and 30% of 20 married women did not respond. Most of the respondents said that, most of the in-laws
49 especially fathers and mothers-in-law are always not after the number of children.
Therefore, if they see their daughter-in-law is bearing child/children they are satisfied to see she bears children to the end. Therefore, the father and mother-in- law see that she bears few children they can now start intervening to ensure that they see grand children.
On the side of husbands to meet the demand of objective number two the following were collected. When they were asked about the number of children that they had their responses were as shown in Table 19.
Table 19: Husbands’ responses on the number of children that they have Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid 1-4 Children 9 45.0 50.0 5-10 Children 8 40.0 44.4 Above 10 1 5.0 5.6 Total 18 90.0 100.0 Missing System 2 10.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
It shows that, the 50% of 18 husbands had one to four children, 44.4% had five to 10 children, 5.6% had above 10 children and 10% of 20 husbands had no child.
When they were also asked if that is the number that they desired to have, their responses been are tabled below:-
50 Table 20: Husbands on if the number of children they had was a desired one Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid Yes 1 5.0 5.6 No 17 85.0 94.4 Total 18 90.0 100.0 Missing System 2 10.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
The responses on the Table 20 shows that 94.4% of 18 respondents said that it is not the number of children they desired where as the remaining 5.6% said yes it is the number desired to and 10% of 20 husbands did not respond to the question because they had no child. Again, a question came to that group of 94.4% by asking them if the answer is no why was it? their responses were:-
Table 21: Husbands on why the number of children is not the desired one Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid -am in continuation up to 4 3 15.0 18.8 -am in continuation up to 5 1 5.0 6.2 -am in continuation up to 6 or 7 4 20.0 25.0 -am in continuation with God's will 8 40.0 50.0 Total 16 80.0 100.0 Missing System 4 20.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
Table 21 reveals that 50% of 16 husbands said they were in continuation until God says stop 25% they were in continuation up to six to seven children, 6.2% in continuation up to five children, 18.8% in continuation up to four children and 20% of husbands did not respond to the question.
51 When they were asked, if they got convinced by any of their relative to have a certain number of children, below is how they responded:-
Table 22: If husbands have ever been convinced by any of their relative Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid Yes 4 20.0 30.8 No 9 45.0 69.2 Total 13 65.0 100.0 Missing System 7 35.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
Table 22 reveals that, 30.8% of 13 husbands agreed that they have been convinced by their relatives on the number of children, and 69.2% were not convinced and 35% of 20 husbands did not respond to the question.
Therefore, it is difficult to measure the extent of their influence but this shows that they have influence.
4.5 Influence of extended family on the husband’s decisions on the number of children to have.
The objective three was assessing the influence of extended family on the husband’s decisions on the number of children to have. Extended family is much common in our community where in some cases one can marry and continue living with his relatives. On the questions of whether married women were living with their in- laws, their responses were as shown in Table 23.
52 Table 23: Married women on whether they were living with their in-laws Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid Yes 6 30.0 33.3 No 12 60.0 66.7 Total 18 90.0 100.0 Missing System 2 10.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
It shows that, 33.3% of 18 married women who were asked and responded that they were living with their in-laws. Where 66.7% of the married women were not living with their in-laws and 10% of 20 respondents did not respond to the question.
On the question of what do their husbands say when they hear those advices from their relatives to their wives? The responses were: one respondent whom her husband heard those advices to his wife he accepted and it was only 5%. Whereas the majority 95% of the respondents did not hear any advice given to their wives therefore it was nothing response.
The married women when asked about whether they used to plan together for the number of children (the husband and the wife) the responses were as shown in the table below.
Table 24: Married women responses on whether they make family planning decisions with their husbands Frequency Percent Valid Percent Yes 6 30.0 30.0 No 14 70.0 70.0 Total 20 100.0 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
53 Table 24 above reveals that only 30% said that they plan together for the number of children, whereas 70% said that they don’t plan together on the number of children.
When they were asked on the number of children that they had presently this was their responses as indicated in the Table 25.
Table 25: Married women responses on the number of children that they had Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid Between 1 and 2-Children 7 35.0 36.8 Between 3 and 4-Children 7 35.0 36.8 Between 5 and 6-Children 1 5.0 5.3 More than 6-Children 4 20.0 21.1 Total 19 95.0 100.0 Missing System 1 5.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
It shows that 36.8% of 19 married women had the number of children between one to two, 36.8% three to four children, 5.3% had five to six children, 21.1% had more than six children and 5% of 20 married women did not respond to the question.
On the question of social distance when the mothers-in-law were asked where their daughters-in-law were living the response was 75% stay away from them and only
25% were living together.
Also, interviews were done to husbands to meet objective three, questions were asked and responses were obtained.
For the question, as to whether they were living with their parents. Their responses were as shown in the Table 26:
54 Table 26: Responses on whether husbands and wives live with their parents Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid Yes 10 50.0 55.6 No 8 40.0 44.4 Total 18 90.0 100.0 Missing System 2 10.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
It shows that 55.6% of 18 husbands said they were living with their parents, 44.4% said they were not living with their parents, and 10% of 20 husbands did not respond to the question.
On the question whether the husbands and wives plan together on the number of children, the responses were as indicated in Table 27.
Table 27: Responses on whether husbands and wives make family planning decisions together Frequency Percent Valid Percent Yes 12 60.0 60.0 No 8 40.0 40.0 Total 20 100.0 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
It reveals that, 60% of couple claimed to plan together on the number of children, whereas 40% said they do not plan together.
From the documentary review data, the District Health Centre officer gave data on family planning. This was to examine if the husbands are also involved. They said that some of the husbands do not plan with their wives. Therefore, the married women go secretly for family planning when they receive opposition from their husbands. The three months report indicated that i.e., (June, July, and October).
55 The records for those who underwent for Implants were 207 women, injectables 795 women, pills 438 women, and for condoms only 63 men collected condoms from the health centers as new and second visitors, though it was not known as to whether the men were using those condoms for family planning with their wives or not.
Therefore, women seem to be more responsible for family planning than men are.
When they were asked (husbands) on how many children they planned the responses were as tabled below:-
Table 28: Responses on the number of children planned by the couple Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid 4-Children 4 20.0 33.3 5-Children 4 20.0 33.3 6 to 7 Children 4 20.0 33.3 Total 12 60.0 100.0 Missing System 8 40.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
Table 28 reveals that 33.3% of 12 husbands planned to have four children, 33.3% planned to have five children, 33.3% planned to have six to seven children and the rest 40% of the husbands did not respond to the question. When they were asked
(husbands) the number that they had, the answers are as tabled below:-
56 Table 29: Responses on the number of children that they had Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid 1-4 Children 9 45.0 50.0 5-10 Children 8 40.0 44.4 Above 10 1 5.0 5.6 Total 18 90.0 100.0 Missing System 2 10.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
Table 29 displays, 50.0% of 18 husbands had one to four children, 44.4% five to ten children, and 5.6% had above ten children and 10% of 20 husbands did not respond to the question.
4.6 Couples on Decision-Making Process on Number of Children to Have
During the Reproductive Age.
In objective four, the decision-making process for the couple on how many children to have during their reproductive age was assessed.
Starting with married women, their responses are as follows:
When they were asked on what method they used to control the number of children, the responses are indicated in Table 58.
57 Table 30: Married women on the methods they use to control the number of children Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid Implants 2 10.0 16.7 Injection 7 35.0 58.3 Natural methods(calendar) 2 10.0 16.7 Don't use any 1 5.0 8.3 Total 12 60.0 100.0 Missing System 8 40.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
It reveals that 58% of 12 married women who filled questionnaires were using injection/Depo-Provera, 16.7% were using implants, 16.7% were using natural methods (calendar), 8.3% do not use any, and 40% of 20 married women did not respond to the question.
On the question of who made them known the method the responses was 90.91% said they knew it from hospital specialists like nurses, doctors and the like, where
9.09% knew it at school as it was taught.
For the question which was asked: how do you categorize the married women who stay with in-laws and those do not stay in terms of influence on their fertility? And, it is this question that appears in the statement of the problem. Their responses were as shown in Table 31.
58 Table 31: Married women responses on women who are likely to be influenced more by in-laws Frequency Percent Valid Percent Women who stay with in-laws 19 95.0 95.0 It depends 1 5.0 5.0 Total 20 100.0 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
It reveals that, 95% said those who stay with their in-laws are likely to be influenced more on child bearing, and five percent 5% said it depends with the relationship that they have i.e. if their relationship give room for interruption then it will be and the opposite is true.
When they were also asked, why it is so for the in-laws to intervene in decision making about child bearing as a result of staying together with them, the responses were as shown in Table 32.
Table 32: Married women reasons for in-laws to intervene the couple’s decision Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid Living together allows interactions 5 25.0 31.2 The husband is under parent's voice 1 5.0 6.2 Become closer to them 6 30.0 37.5 Traditions and norms to be followed 1 5.0 6.2 Their kinship to expand 3 15.0 18.8 Total 16 80.0 100.0 Missing System 4 20.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
Table 32 reveal that 37.5% of 16 married women said because they become closure to the in-laws hence it give room to intervene in their marital affairs, 31.2% said
59 living together allows interactions because of social distance, 18.8% said that because, they want to expand their kinship, 6.2% sais that, because the husband become under the parents voice and 6.2% said that, because of traditions and norms they need to be followed by their descendants and 20% of 20 married women did not respond to the question.
The husbands when asked about meeting the demand for objective number four; two questions were interviewed as follows with their responses:-
On the decision making process on controlling the number of children, the husbands were asked about method they use to control the number of children. Their responses were as shown in Table 33.
Table 33: Husbands on methods used by their wives to control number of children Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid Injection 5 25.0 29.4 Implants 3 15.0 17.6 Pills 1 5.0 5.9 Natural methods(calendar) 4 20.0 23.5 Local methods 4 20.0 23.5 Total 17 85.0 100.0 Missing System 3 15.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
It shows that 29.4% of 17 husbands’ wives use injection/Depo-Provera, 23.5% of the husbands’ wives use natural methods (calendar), 23.5% of husbands’ wives use local methods, 17%.6% of husbands’ wives use implants, 5.9% use contraceptive pills and 15% of 20 husbands did not respond to the question.
60 When they asked who made them known the method of family planning/birth control/contraceptive the responses were as shown in Table 34.
Table 34: Husbands’ responses on who taught them about family planning/birth control Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid Hospital specialist 12 60.0 75.0 At school 1 5.0 6.2 Church leader 1 5.0 6.2 Parents(elders) 2 10.0 12.5 Total 16 80.0 100.0 Missing System 4 20.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
It reveals that 75% of 16 husbands said they were taught by hospital specialists,
12.5% said they were taught by parents (elders), 6.2% were taught by their at school,
6.2% by their church leaders and 20% of 20 husbands did not respond to the question.
To meet objective four, the mothers-in-law were asked two questions. The responses were recorded as follows:
The first question asked to them was as follows:
In case the husband and wife are satisfied with the number of children that you advised, what method would you advise them to use in controlling the number of children?
Their responses were as shown in Table 35.
61 Table 35: Responses from mothers-in-law Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid -To go hospital for control method 10 50.0 66.7 -Leave it to God 2 10.0 13.3 -Natural methods control (calendar) 3 15.0 20.0 Total 15 75.0 100.0 Missing System 5 25.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
It reveals that 66.7% of 15 mothers-in-law said they were ready to advice their daughter to go hospital for modern contraceptives, 20% were ready to advice them to go for natural method control, 13.3% were ready to advice them to leave it to God and 25% of mothers- in-law did not respond to the question.
When they were asked what they could say about those who do not follow in-laws counseling including husbands. Responses were as follows in Table 36.
Table 36: Responses from the mother-in-law on the above question Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid -I leave them to follow their decision 10 50.0 58.8 I see them as people without discipline 5 25.0 29.4 I see them as people without wisdom 2 10.0 11.8 Total 17 85.0 100.0 Missing System 3 15.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
It reveals that 58.8% of 17 mothers-in-law said they would leave them to follow their own decision, 29.4% said they see their children who do not do what they want
62 them to do as people without discipline, 11.8% said they see them as people without wisdom and 15% of 20 mothers-in-law did not respond to the question.
For the fathers-in-law the responses were as shown in Table 37.
Table 37: Responses from fathers’ in-law Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid -To go hospital for control method 14 70.0 82.4 -Look for natural method control 2 10.0 11.8 -I leave them 1 5.0 5.9 Total 17 85.0 100.0 Missing System 3 15.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
It shows that 82.4% of 17 fathers-in-law would advice them to go hospital for modern contraceptives, 11.8% would advice them to go for natural control method,
5.9% would leave them and 15% of 20 fathers-in-law respondents did not respond to the question.
On the question of what can you say about those who do not follow in-laws counseling including the husband? Their responses were as shown in Table 38.
63 Table 38: Fathers-in-law about those who do not follow parent’s advices Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid I leave them to follow their decision 8 40.0 47.1 I see them as people without discipline 7 35.0 41.2 I see them as people without wisdom 2 10.0 11.8 Total 17 85.0 100.0 Missing System 3 15.0 Total 20 100.0 Source: Field Research 2012
It shows that 47.1% of 17 fathers-in-law said they would leave their children to follow their own decision, 41.2% they see their children as people without discipline, 11.8% said that they see their children as people without wisdom and
15% of 20 fathers-in-law did not respond to the question.
4.7 Discussion and Interpretations
This section is giving out the discussions on the findings. As we have seen the data collected have been presented in description and tables displaying frequencies and percentages. The questions were based on examining the influence of in-laws towards married women’s fertility.
As it has been stated from the beginning of this chapter on the distribution of the respondents on collecting data that, 20 married women, 20 husbands, 20 mother-in- laws, 20 father-in-laws, 20 sister-in-laws, and 20 brother-in-laws were responsible in the primary data they also included: religious leaders, local government street leaders, and hospital specialists by providing documentary data.
64 4.7.1 The factors affecting married women’s control of their fertility
Data show that mothers-in-law had influence towards their daughters-in-law. 27.8% of married women affirmed that, mothers-in-law have had influence to their fertility.
For instance, one widow testified that:
When I got married three years passed without conceiving pregnant, then my mother-in-law gave me herbals to drink, I agreed to use them and I conceived (02.01.2013)
Also data revealed that: mothers-in-law involved by 40% in asking their daughters- in-law about child bearing. Other women mentioned both the fathers and mothers- in-law were involved by (20%), sisters-in-law involved by (20%), and brothers-in- law seem to be involved by (20%).
Other factors as revealed by key informants are: patrilineal rule (husband rule), misunderstanding, and lack of knowledge among couple are a cause of married women’s lack of control of their fertility.
The husband and his family are guided by culture, traditions, customs, religion, and norms that everyone grew in them. Once these are entered in them they affect the way they live. But mostly it is a change within that brings a change without to mean, changing the mind of a person is equally to change the way to act physically.
Thus, the husband and his family need to be transformed mindfully to be able to cope with the daughter-in-law who will come.
4.7.2 The influence of in-laws on married women’s fertility control.
Most respondents said that the in-laws do not disturb their daughters if they see their daughter-in-law is bearing children. The thing that bothers their mind is limiting child bearing. Thus, what they want to see is unlimited number of children. 65 Therefore, when they see no child is when they can start intervening to ensure that they see their grand children.
Thus, in-laws affect the number of children, this is seen in their mind that they have unlimited number of children. Therefore, whenever they find their daughters-in-law with less number of children or no child they intervene by doing whatever they can to ensure their daughters-in-law bear children.
4.7.3 The influence of extended family on the husband’s decisions on the number of children to have
Husbands accepted the advice that was given by his relatives to his wife; one respondent, which is 5%, reported the advice.
Husbands back up the intervention of mothers-in-law by supporting their advices where six respondents (mothers-in-law) equal to 66.7% said the husband trust their advices and only three respondents equal to 33.3% affirmed not to be backed by their sons. Fathers-in-law also intervene as shown in Table 43.
The husbands also affirmed by 50% that they plan together for the number of children and 50% do not.
The nurse from District Health Centre affirmed that some of the husbands do not plan with their wives. The married women go secretly for family planning when they receive opposition from their husbands. Three months records, i.e. (June, July and October) showed that, those who underwent for implants were 207 women, injection 795 women, pills 438 women, and for condoms only 63 men collected condoms from their health centers as newly and second visitors. It is also possible
66 that men use condoms with partners other than their wives. Therefore, women seem to be more responsible for family planning than men are.
The ratio between husbands and wives on family planning is not evenly distributed.
There is a need for the government and Non-governmental organizations to take more accountability to persuade men to make the balance between the two.
4.7.4 The Influence of extended family on the husband’s decisions on the number of children to have
Married women mentioned some methods that they used in decision-making process on the number of children to have during their reproductive age as implants, injections, natural method (following calendar of menstrual cycle), and others do not use any. The percentages for each method can be reviewed in Table 30.
Husbands responses on the methods used to control the number of children are injections, implants, pills, natural methods, and local methods. This is shown and clarified on Table 33.
In response to natural method, some husbands clarified on following calendar of menses that they usually wait for 16 days to pass before having sex with their wives to prevent unexpected pregnancies. Therefore, more knowledge is needed to these people to avoid them pirating outside their marriage (having extra marital affairs), which might cause divorce and hence street children.
4.8 Assessing the Conceptual Model
The conceptual model was tested using regression analysis. The independent, intervening, and dependent variables were coded in the SPSS. Then they were
67 commanded in linear regression to get the analysis. Moreover, they were described to match with the conceptual model.
The dependent variable is the fertility rate; as 2= high or 1=low. The remaining are the independent and intervening variables. Low fertility was one to four children whereas high fertility was above four children.
All these are as tabulated and plotted below.
Model Summaryb
Change Statistics
R Adjusted Std. Error of R Square F Sig. F Model R Square R Square the Estimate Change Change df1 df2 Change
1 .254a .064 -.403 .53596 .064 .138 4 8 .964
a. Predictors: (Constant), Extended family residence, Women status, Family heir? Demand for children? b. Dependent Variable: Fertility Rate
68 ANOVAb
Mean Model Sum of Squares df Square F Sig.
1 Regression .158 4 .040 .138 .964a
Residual 2.298 8 .287
Total 2.456 12 a. Predictors: (Constant), Extended family residence, Women status, Family heir?, Demand for children? b. Dependent Variable: Fertility Rate
Residuals Statisticsa
Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation N
Predicted Value .9714 1.4003 1.2377 .12055 14
Residual -.40031 .74945 -.01029 .41999 13
Std. Predicted Value -2.542 1.195 -.221 1.050 14
Std. Residual -.747 1.398 -.019 .784 13
a. Dependent Variable: Fertility Rate
69 Coefficientsa
Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients
Std. Model B Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) 2.225 1.521 1.463 .182
Demand for children? -.150 .400 -.155 -.374 .718
Family heir? -.056 .155 -.142 -.362 .727
Women status -.179 .372 -.186 -.481 .644
Extended family -.261 .856 -.129 -.305 .768 residence a. Dependent Variable: Fertility Rate
70 Figure 2: Normal Plot The relationship in the Figure 2 above shows no linear relationship.
71 Figure 3: Scatter plot
The scatter plot above shows that the relationship between the standardized residual and standardized predicted value is when one increases the other one decreases and the opposite is true. Thus, this shows that the relationship between the independent and dependent variables is inverse and not significant.
Regression analysis
Overall, the model is not significant .On the demand for children, the result is insignificant with unstandardized coefficient (b= -0.150, p= 0.718). This shows that the demand for children is rejected in the model; thus, it is not significant. Also on the family heredity as one of social-cultural factors, the result shows to be insignificant unstandardized coefficient (b- value of -0.056, and p-value of 0.727).
Thus, this shows family heredity is not among the social-cultural influence of
72 fertility to the married women. The women status is also insignificant. The unstandardized coefficient value for (b= -0.179 with a p-value of 0.644). Since the p-value is greater than the standard error 0.05 then the women status is also under rejection.
Extended family residence seems to be rejected in the model that is not an intervening factor for married women’s fertility. This is because of the unstandardized coefficient (b- value of -0.261with p-value of 0.768). For the influence of the in-laws as an independent variable, its unstandardized coefficient b- value is 0.268 and p-value of 0.126. Which means it is not significant or it does not support the model that it is a factor towards married women’s fertility.
The above significance levels may be explained by coverage of the samples and the method used to collect data. Thus, more studies should be carried out by covering a big sample size to reduce outliers. Rigorous methods and techniques should also be employed. For instance, using random sampling of the respondents might help. The current study used purposive sampling due to nature of the problem, limited budget, and time.
4.9 Assessing the Research Questions
The questions asked to the respondents some were answered and some were not answered. Thus the researcher dropped the unanswered one. Therefore, they do not appear in the presentation of the data. Also, the researcher was involved fully in the collection of data therefore, whatever question that was not clearly understood to the respondent, instant clarification was given.
73 4.10 Implication of the Study Findings
This study has contributed knowledge about influences of the in-laws towards married women’s inability to decide on issues pertaining to their fertility control.
Example: 95% of the widows affirmed that when they were found with difficulties to conceive they were advised by their in-laws to go for solution i.e. one of the widows testified that when three years passed without having children her mother- in-law gave her herbs to drink as the result she conceived. Married women also confirmed by 95% that the women who are likely to be influenced by their in-laws are those who stay with them.
Population Control Policies may benefit from this knowledge of in-laws influence on married women’s fertility rates, thereby taking into account about this influence by setting policies that will secure the married women to be free minded on issues of childbearing. Thus, this will ensure them to meet their desired fertility rates.
Practically, married men and women may benefit from the awareness created regarding influence of the extended family on married women’s inability to control their fertility independently. Thus, married men may establish independent nuclear families away from in-laws’ influence.
4.11 Chapter Summary
This chapter presented the research findings and discussion of the data in view of the research questions. The items included in this chapter are;-an overview, data presentation, results, analysis, and discussion, characteristics of the respondents, discussion and interpretation and testing of the conceptual model, and assessing the research questions.
74 CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Overview
The major objective of the study was to examine the influence of in-laws towards married women’s fertility; a case of Kaliua District. The specific objectives were to investigate the factors affecting married women’s control of their fertility; to assess the influence of in-laws on married women’s fertility control; to assess the influence of extended family on the husband’s decisions on the number of children to have; and to assess the couple’s decision making process on how many children to have during the reproductive age.
This chapter presents the summary, conclusion, and recommendations based on the findings collected from the respondents. Also, the chapter presents suggestion for the areas for further research.
5.2 Summary
Through questionnaires, interviews, and documentary review many responses from various respondents revealed that the in-laws have influence towards married women’s fertility control. They confirmed that, these influences are many but most of them are informal to mean most of the cases solved end up in homes. In Kaliua
District, most of the people who live there imitate their parents. Thus, parents play a big role in counseling their children, therefore counseling concerning childbearing depends on their exposure. If their exposure is limited then they might spoil their adult children’s marriage and the opposite is true.
75 Family planning; when the government is trying to create awareness knowledge on childbearing it should consider the aspect of preparing the knowledge that targets directly the in-laws. It should be considered that when it comes to the case of in- laws women differ with their sisters-in-law, the same applies father and mothers-in- law differ with their daughters-in-law when what they want to be produced by her is not achieved. This applied to all groups in all families but what makes them judge rightly without affecting others is knowledge that transforms their mind. Therefore, the fathers-in-law, mothers-in-law, brothers-in-law, and sisters-in-law should be targeted when addressing issues of family affairs especially family planning.
5.3 Conclusions
Documentary research data suggests that women, who live with their in-laws are likely to be influenced more on child bearing, Ninety five percent of married women also supported this observation. Thus, the researcher suggests that men who wish to marry should stay away from their parents to create independency.
This can be achieved with the help of the Government; through formulating population policy and should take into account about the influence of in-laws towards married women’s fertility. Special programs should be initiated addressing control of fertility rate. Through mass media, films, books, pamphlets, and the like, awareness can be created. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) should play part in educating the in-laws, husbands, and wives. This should be done in a strategic way that is directed towards achieving the national goal. Husbands should be motivated to settle away from their parents, to have their own decision on child bearing, child spacing and decision on the number of children to have during their reproductive age. This will enable them to have a peace of mind, focus, and
76 decision for what they see that it is profitable for them towards the prevailing situation.
An important contribution of this research is that it reveals the influence of in-laws on married women’s fertility and highlights areas for further research and investigation.
Documentary research according to Chizorozoro et al. (1999) found that women frequently explained that “if a woman was unable to bear children or have had only one or two; her in-laws will pressurize her and her husband to produce a larger family.” Therefore, Tanzania through Tanzania Bureau of Statistics (TBS) on formulating population policy and other scholars should work on this rather than concentrating only to the husband and wife concerning family planning, and formulation of population policy but should include the in-laws in a more practical ways.
5.4 Recommendations
The researcher recommends that more research on this area, especially on population policy formulation. Thus, if truths come in correlation with the findings obtained; then it will be more delighting on tackling population issues.
This work is only a benchmark for other new research; there is a need to go for further research to exhaust more on this area. This is because the sample drawn was small and the method used was purposive sampling. To a great extent, generalizations based on the findings may not give a true picture of the problem.
Extended families are more obvious in many Tanzanian tribes, eg. the Sukuma,
Nyamwezi, Ha people, Kurya, Haya, Fipa, and others. Therefore, there is a need to
77 start with these societies. This study has extracted information from a small part of the mixed tribes namely the Sukuma, Nyamwezi, Ha, Fipa, Sumbwa as dominant societies in Kaliua District. Thus, there is a need to extend this study by recruiting a big number of respondents in the area.
From the documentary data the nurse affirmed that mostly women apply family planning secretly because the husbands are not ready. Therefore, decision on the number of children is supposed to be undertaken by both the husband and wife.
Patrilineal rule in homes should be abandoned; this is by education programs to enable their mind to stand firmly in their marriages. There is a need for them to plan together on the exact number that they need during their reproductive age. Thus, in- laws can only take part when they are asked to do so. The population policy implementers should consult religious leaders, discuss the issue, and agree to the best they can.
5.5 Areas for further research
Since the problems of childbearing are recognized internationally, then Tanzania
Population Policy makers are supposed to carry out research on the areas mentioned, and others that can emanate from this. Therefore, research should be done in the following areas:-
(i) Factors affecting married women’s control of their fertility at community level.
(ii) The influence of the married women’s parents towards their fertility.
(iii) Examining if childbearing challenges are resolved by parents of both spouses.
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82 APPENDICES
Appendix-1(a)
Interview guide sheet (For in-laws)
Educational level: (1) Informal (2) Primary (3) Secondary (Cross the ones not needed ie.informal)
What factors influence married women control of their fertility?
1. Do you have any daughter-in-law (Yes/No)
2. We know children are the gift from God, do you advice your daughters-in-
law to bear children? (Yes/No)
3. If Yes, what number did you suggest?
4. Did she agree? (Yes/No)
5. If Yes, how many children does she have?
6. Where is she living? (……………………………….)
7. In case she doesn’t bear children what could you do?
………………………………………………………………………………………
8. Do their husbands agree with your advice? (Yes/No)
To what extent do in-laws influence married women fertility?
9. It is answered in the question number 5.
To what extent do extended family members influence the husband’s
decisions on the number of children to have?
10. It is answered in question 3, 5, and 8.
What decision-making process do couples employ on the number of children
to have during their reproductive age?
83 11. In case they are satisfied the number that you advised, what method do you advice them to use in controlling the number of children?
………………………………………………………………………………………
12. What can you say about those who do not follow in-laws counseling including the husband?
84 Appendix-1(b)
Interview guide sheet (For husbands)
Questionnaire for the study
Educational level: (1) Informal (2) Primary (3) Secondary (Cross the ones not needed ie.informal)
What factors influence married woman’s control of their fertility?
Are you married? (Yes/No)
1. If Yes, have your wife (wives) ever been asked about child bearing by either of her in-laws? (Yes/No)
2. Did she tell you? (Yes/No)
3. If Yes what did you do?
………………………………………………………………………………………
To what extent do in-laws influence married woman’s fertility?
1. Do you have child/children? (YES/No)
2. If YES how many are they?
3. Is it the number that you desired to have? (YES/No)
4. If No Why is it so?
………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Have you ever being convinced by any of your relative to have a certain number of children? (Yes/No)
6. If YES how many did they prefer?
7. What was your decision?
85 ………………………………………………………………………………………
8. Does your wife knows about it? (Yes/No)
9. If YES what was her response?
…….…………………………………………………………………………………
10. So, what are the reasons that made her in-laws to demand for that number of children?
………………………………………………………………………………………
To what extent do extended family members influence the husband’s decisions on the number of children to have?
11. Are you living with your parents? (Yes/No)
12. Do you plan together for the number of children (you and your wife)
(Yes/No)
13. If yes how many did you plan?
14. How many do you have now?
What decision making process do couples employ on the number of children to have during their reproductive age?
15. What method do you use to control the number of children?
………………………………………………………………………………………
16. Who made you known this method? (……………………………………….)
86 Appendix-2
Questionnaire for the study (For married women)
Educational level: (1) Informal (2) Primary (3) Secondary (Cross the ones not needed ie.informal)
What factors influence married woman’s control of their fertility?
Are you married? (Yes/No)
1. If Yes, have you ever being asked about child bearing by either of your in- laws? (Yes/No)
2. If Yes, who did it? (…………………………………)
3. Do you have any colleague who is also married? (Yes/No)
4. Does she face anything from her in-laws concerning having children?
(Yes/No)
5. What does she says?
………………………………………………………………………………………
6. Is she living with her in-laws? (Yes/No)
7. How many children does she have?
8. So, what are reasons that make a woman not to have autonomy over her fertility?
………………………………………………………………………………………
To what extent do in-laws influence married woman’s fertility?
9. Do you have child/children? (YES/No)
10. If YES, how many are they?
11. Is it the number that you desired to have? (YES/No) 87 12. If No Why is it so?
………………………………………………………………………………………
13. Have you ever been convinced by any of your in-laws to have a certain number of children? (Yes/No)
14. If YES
(a) Whom one? (Tick one)
(1)Mother-in-law
(2)Father-in-law
(3) Sister-in-law
(4)Brother-in-law
(b) What was your decision?
………………………………………………………………………………………
15. Does your husband know it? (Yes/No)
16. If YES what was his response?
………………………………………………………………………………………
17. What are the reasons that make married women not to have the last say over the number of children to have? (...... )
To what extent do extended family members influence the husband’s decisions on the number of children to have?
18. Are you living with your in-laws? (Yes/No)
19. What does your husband say when he hears these things?
20. Did you plan together for the number of children (you and your husband) to have? (Yes/No)
21. If yes how many children did you plan to have?
88 22. How many children do you have now?
What decision-making process do couples employ on the number of children to have during their reproductive age?
23. What method do you use to control the number of children?
………………………………………………………………………………………
24. Who made you known this method? (………..………………………….)
25. What group of married women that is likely to be influenced more by in- laws, between those who stay with in-laws and those who do not stay with?
26. Why is it so?
89 Appendix-3 (a)
Introduction letters for Data Collection
90 Appendix-3 (b)
91