A Literature Review of Entertainment in Teaching – Is It Really Necessary?

1 Running head: LITERATURE REVIEW ENTERTAINMENT IN TEACHING

Literature Review

Master Teacher Program

MAJ Jay Maroney Brend, M.Ed.

United States Military Academy

“This paper was completed and submitted in partial fulfillment of the Master Teacher Program (MTP), a two year faculty professional development program conducted by the Center for Faculty Excellence (CFE), United States Military Academy (USMA), West Point, NY, 2020.”

2 LITERATURE REVIEW ENTERTAINMENT IN TEACHING A Literature Review of Entertainment in Teaching – Is it Really Necessary?

Abstract

To entertain, or not to entertain, that is the question. The United States Military Academy’s (USMA) mission is to educate, train, and inspire the Corps of Cadets. USMA is a strict college with demanding policies, rules, and guidelines for Cadets and Faculty alike. At the same time, it is the role of the educator to impart knowledge and inspire students to understand abstract, complex, and challenging subjects. There are varying pedagogical techniques, tips, and tools in delivering this knowledge, regardless of the subject or background of the student. One of the sneered and jeered techniques is that of being an entertaining educator, especially from the lens of a strict military institution. The purpose of this literature review is to identify how an educator can be entertaining and if there are any benefits to this delivery method, even in a not so entertaining environment.

Keywords: entertainment, educators, pedagogy

“Rosebud” (Introduction of Entertaining Students) Alexander Hamilton, the first Secretary of Treasury and a Founding Father, sits at his desk intensely writing down, what will be, his final letter before his impending death. In the blink of an eye, Hamilton finds himself in a rap battle and duel with Vice President Aaron Burr. As Hamilton makes it through the lyrics of the Ten Duel Commandments and The World was Wide Enough, it becomes clear, Hamilton is not going to make it out alive (Miranda, 2015). Before being shot, he rips into an eloquent final monologue, modulating the key, reviewing his life stanza by stanza, as if his life is flashing before his eyes. At the end of the song, the Richard Rodgers Theater on Broadway in New York City, packed at a capacity crowd of 1,300, is silent; only broken by the occasional cry or snivel. The Broadway musical, Hamilton: An American Musical, wraps up and Lin-Manuel Miranda (who plays Alexander Hamilton) comes out with his entire cast to a raucous standing ovation (Miranda, Hamilton: An American Musical, 2020). At the completion of the three hour musical, audience members leave the theater amazed. So amazed, Hamilton, is now a smash success on its fifth year on Broadway with no end in sight. In addition to box office success and music sales, a resurgence in history about Alexander Hamilton has manifested in purchases of famous Hamilton biographies (Monteiro, 2016). Moreover, student bodies in New York City are trying to send students to the live musical. Seth Andrew, a founder of Democracy Prep Public Schools, said “[i]t was unquestionably the most profound impact I’ve ever seen on a student body” (Paulson, 2015; McClurg, 2016). So, how did an entertainer, such as Lin-Manuel Miranda, pique world-wide interest in his subject for this story? How can he entertain a wide variety of audiences with rap music, generally more popular with the younger generation? Is he also educating these people too, regardless of some of the inaccuracies in the musical? (Paulson, 2015; McClurg, 2016) On the surface, it appears that any form of sparked intellectual curiosity is a good thing. It is a great thing when this intellectual curiosity can resonate with people of all generations and can span world-wide (Shankar & Zurn, 2020). This literature review hopes to examine the definition of entertainment and its value when grabbing the attention of students. Can an educator enhance content delivery and increase student comprehension by being entertaining? What are some of the tools, tips, tricks, and techniques that educators can use to be effective? Or, does being an entertaining educator have 3 LITERATURE REVIEW ENTERTAINMENT IN TEACHING more drawbacks? Furthermore, at the United States Military Academy (USMA), is it appropriate to be an entertaining educator? Can this teaching style fit in an environment this is governed by strict rules, policies, and new instructor trainings? Ultimately, should educators be entertaining students in the classroom? Or as the cool kids say, is the juice worth the squeeze?

“Are you not Entertained?” (Defining Entertainment) As you read the section title above, “Are you not Entertained?” your mind likely went off to a gladiator movie, TV show, or 6-second cat video you saw on your phone before reading this literature review. Even amid reading this very literature review about pedagogy and its relationship with entertainment, your mind is conditioned to thinking of entertainment as a larger industry (Alford, 2018). But this literature review will expound upon the areas you were not thinking about and hope to challenge your preconceived notions. To confirm some preconceived notions, Merriam-Webster defines entertainment as “…an amusement or diversion provided especially by performers” (2020). The Oxford English Dictionary doubles down and defines entertainment as “…the action of providing or being provided with amusement or enjoyment” (2020). A precursory glance at these definitions likely confirms any bias that a reader may have (see, I told you); specifically, that entertainers are solely for performers on TV, in movies, or on Broadway. Even if a biased reader equates an educator to a “performer,” there is still the problem that the entertainment is meant to be a “diversion.” Most educators probably do not get into the profession to be considered a court jester or a distraction to a student’s daily life (Ornstein, 1982). Hence, the negative connotations and theories written to discredit the idea of entertainment in learning (Stephenson, 1967; Jones, 1978; Bates, 2014). But, upon further review of both definitions, a performer provides amusement or enjoyment. Another way to put this is, an educator provides engaging and exciting content. Taking this a couple of steps further, the educator inspires and motivates students to be intellectually curious for a lifetime. Educators want their students to be life-long learners who go on to succeed in whatever subject or field they decide on (Sinclair, Dowson, & McInerney, 2006). And per several articles and studies, educators are commonly referenced as the most influential people in a student or person’s life (Davis, 2003; Marshall, 2017; Jackson, 2018). To help frame this definition clearer, entertainment is “...the action of occupying (a person’s) attention agreeably” (The Oxford English Dictionary, 2020). With this definition in mind, maybe educators can be entertainers? Or maybe a better way to put it is, educators should entertain their students to grab their attention and to impress them with the essential point of the lesson.

You Have to Read this to Find Out the Top 5 Reasons People can Live Longer!!! (Grabbing Attention) Yes, the subtitle here looks like click-bait, but that is why click-bait is so successful in drawing readers to websites (Buky, Schwartz, & Einsohn, 2019; Dvorkin, 2016). It is also why you clicked on that article about, “What celebrities look like now compared to 20-years ago,” as you took a break reading this literature review. Or, it is why you stopped speed reading this literature review and took time to check this section out. Outside of the internet click-bait traps, actual media outlets pour time and effort into curating the perfect headline (Buky, Schwartz, & Einsohn, 2019; Ludlow, 1988). Whether it is a local news station reporting on a murder in the community or the firing of a corporate CEO for 4 LITERATURE REVIEW ENTERTAINMENT IN TEACHING embezzlement, the headline can affect the spread of information for who will read the story. Case in point, which article are you more likely to read: “Broccoli is Healthy” or “This Vegetable can Save your Life” Likely the latter. More importantly for educators, grabbing attention is critical for communicating with students (Proctor, Weaver, & Cotrell, 1992; James, 1985). Although most students only have about 15-minutes of attention at a time before they start to lose interest or daydream (Wankat & Oreovicz, 2003), this initial attention grabbing moment induces engagement. This engagement period is the time students are most interested and receptive to any new ideas, new concepts, or subjects that challenge their preconceived notions (Proctor, Weaver, & Cotrell, 1992). Ideally, educators can find a method to easily grab a student’s attention every class, and then follow it up with productive content that works towards answering lesson objectives. This is where entertainment in the classroom comes in to play (theatrical pun intended).

“Welcome to the Party, Pal!” (Entertainment in the Classroom) To highlight entertainment in the classroom, no better place to look then the subject of erosion. Yes, that erosion (the one with the wind, rocks, water, and soil). Likely the most boring topic, but can be surmised in this statement by Bill Nye, “…every rock on the Earth’s surface, will be different tomorrow from the way it is today” (Gross & Suto, 1996). Bill Nye, or as he is well-known, “Bill Nye the Science Guy”, tackles the topic of erosion in an episode for 23- minutes and 5-seconds in his syndicated and popular TV Show that ran from 1993-1998 (Gross & Suto, 1996). Throughout the episode, the show constantly changes screens, plays sound effects, and interjects non-stop humor. However, at each critical transition and scene change, Bill Nye educates the viewer on fundamental and basic concepts so simply, that even a child can understand, and an adult can love (Rockman, 1998). Even today, his charismatic and passionate zeal comes through TV screens and lecture halls all throughout the nation (Staff, 2019). Obviously, not every educator is going to have a nationally televised and syndicated audience at their disposal. But there are some entertaining options, tips, tricks, and techniques that researchers have studied and recommended as options to try and implement in the classroom. These range from modifying the delivery of lectures, leveraging technology, playing games and simulations, or even modulating one’s demeanor in the classroom. Lectures. A course has set objectives or outcomes that a student hopefully understands at the completion of the course. Generally, a course has 30-40 individual classes that vary in duration from 45-75-minutes. Each of these lessons has individual lesson outcomes that build towards accomplishing the greater course outcomes. To tackle all these lessons, most educators across the nation use lectures to achieve every lesson and course outcome; almost like a checklist of sorts (Messineo, 2018). Lectures are generally one-directional, meaning the educator speaks in front of the class the entire lesson. During these lectures, educators will usually take questions and try to address any student gaps in understanding. Not only are lectures the most popular form of delivering information in the classroom, but they are popular outside the classroom in the form of Technology, Entertainment, Design (TED) conferences, well known as, TED Talks (Jones, 1978; Pike, 2018; Di Carlo, 2014). However, research shows student and faculty perceptions of lectures are wide ranging. Generally, they are, “…dry, boring, and monotonous” (Proctor, Weaver, & Cotrell, 1992; Pike, 2018). Educators feel pressure to pack and simplify complex and abstract ideas into a tight timeline to meet each day’s lesson objectives. Students feel a disconnection from the material 5 LITERATURE REVIEW ENTERTAINMENT IN TEACHING and lose sight of the purpose of the knowledge they are struggling to understand. On the other end of the debate, some educators find the lecture format essential to imparting critical information and helping to bridge the understanding between the textbook and the student. And some students agree; lectures are necessary to be successful at mastering a subject (Pike, 2018). But, since lectures are the most popular and used mode of content delivery by educators across the nation, it does not mean they have to be the same old, same old. As Thiagarjan highlights, “[i]f you are stuck with lectures as your instructional strategy, you have more degrees of freedom than you think” (1986). His robust list includes 25 different styles and techniques that range from flipping the classroom to a press-conference lecture. With these varying options, it is important to understand that not one size fits all (Thiagarjan, 1986). In the world of kinematics, repetitive quality psychomotor practice of a skill is the number one determinant to achieve excellence in a skill. The key is that every repetition matters and is attempted at best effort. If not, then the skill becomes average to below average and suffers in practice. This leads to poor form (Posner, 1966). Think of the father who is terrible at throwing a baseball and never plays catch with his child. If he teaches his child to never throw, or to throw like him, the child will build countless repetitions of terrible attempts, thus leading to awful throwing and catching form; this was highlighted in a famous car commercial (Volkswagen, 2013). This can be applied to other areas in pedagogy, to include public speaking and teaching. Educators publicly speak all day and attempt to deliver knowledge to their students. If educators build a habit of delivering the same lesson plan, with the same medium, and the same delivery method year in and year out, those very same educators are helping establish the ideas that lectures are “…dry, boring, and monotonous” (Proctor, Weaver, & Cotrell, 1992). However, with Thiagarjan’s 25 different styles and techniques, educators have an array of options to pick and choose from. Constant trial and error will help lead instructors to their favorite and most effective forms of communication that fit the individual educator. One technique might be effective for an extroverted and high-energy educator, while the same, is not for a more introverted and calmer educator. If the educator varies the lectures and programs them appropriately, students will have the perception that the course as a whole is exciting and entertaining (Proctor, Weaver, & Cotrell, 1992). Proctor, Weaver, and Cotrell used a survey of satisfaction that addressed this student perception. Although, students believed that entertainment and teaching did not work together, the same students’ answers confirmed the opposite (1992). Overwhelmingly, students felt like they learned more and enjoyed the class more when the teacher delivered material in an entertaining matter. Technology. Over the last 20-years, technology in and outside of the classroom has changed drastically. It has developed from chalk boards to smart boards, overhead projectors to computer projectors, transportable televisions to YouTube, and even live in-person class to asynchronous virtual classes. Every generation of educators is going to see some drastic change to content delivery methods in their lifetime of teaching (McCorkle & Palmeri, 2016; Joo, Park, & Lim, 2018). Most recently in 2020, the idea of teaching all kindergarten through post-doctoral studies via asynchronous virtual classes would be laughed out of the room. In the matter of a couple of weeks, the pandemic of a new strain of coronavirus, dubbed “COVID-19,” struck the world (Klimburg, Faesen, Verhagen, & Mirtl, 2020). Every institution, to include places like USMA, were forced to execute and teach classes in social isolation via the world wide web. Although 6 LITERATURE REVIEW ENTERTAINMENT IN TEACHING anecdotal to every one-hundred-years, this event does highlight the need to be technologically fluent in all mediums of content delivery (Miller, Carver, & Roy, 2018). Even now, Dr. Miller, a psychology professor from Harvard, states that students are complaining about the lack of motivation to learn and engage with pre-recorded or even some live sessions on mediums such as Zoom, Microsoft Teams, or Blackboard Collaborate (Miller, 2014). However, this wave of negative feedback can be approached with some unique technological feats. Some include PowerPoint, YouTube Videos and Ted Talks, Podcasts, and technological assignments. PowerPoint. Because lectures are the number one mode of communication for educators to teach their students (Thiagarjan, 1986), educators tend to rely on PowerPoint as the medium to guide and organize their thoughts and key lesson objectives (Kozimor-King & Chin, 2018). However, PowerPoint cannot be used with an overwhelming amount of text or be presented as if the educator is reading directly from the slides. This creates a “fragmentation of the narrative” and distracts the student from the point of the presentation (Hertz, Brigitte, Woerkum, & Kerkhof, 2015). Specifically, educators that are stuck on reading the PowerPoint, lose contact with their audience, and divide the student’s attention between trying to listen and trying to take notes on what they think is important (2015). Instead, educators need to learn to be precise with what is on the presentation and to effectively include images, videos, or appropriate memes (2015). When educators include short and concise bullet points per slide, students tend to spend less time copying down the slide’s content, and more time listening to the teacher (Kozimor-King & Chin, 2018). A well placed image or video clip during a lecture can re-capture a classroom’s attention and help focus on the takeaway lesson of the class. However, if used loosely and sporadically throughout a presentation, this can be just as bad as having a PowerPoint slide filled with text (2018). YouTube & TED Talks. Generally, most educators that use PowerPoint, try to link a key theme or message to a video from YouTube (Trier, 2007). These videos can relate an educator’s point succinctly and supplement the lecture which goes into the minutia. Generally, educators like to link to TED Talks and Khan Academy, as these are focused on educational material (Prensky, 2011). Moreover, these are usually “fun” videos that present material in a different medium that educators may not have the capacity to produce or to create (Hertz, Brigitte, Woerkum, & Kerkhof, 2015). The biggest distractor when using these videos comes down to an untrained educator who does not properly queue the video and struggles finding the video in front of the entire classroom. Or the educator who plays the video, but then ends up not having their computer or the audio working; never a confidence building look. Podcasts. Additionally, educators can use podcasts to entertain and educate their students. Like YouTube or Khan Academy videos, podcasts can be used to supplement lectures and course curriculums (Ng'ambi & Lombe, 2012). In this study, the researchers compared podcasts used tightly and loosely in the same course curriculum. In the end, if the podcasts were structured into lesson plans and focused on building the previous lesson’s knowledge, then the podcasts were extremely successful (2012). Like the Khan Academy, these podcasts can transform a subject matter expert in a field from across the world into an educator’s classroom. The podcasts also keep the class fresh and add variety to the way students are intaking information; thus, giving students different learning style opportunities (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014). Technological Assignments. Finally, within technology, educators can create some atypical assignments that require creativity from students, thus forcing some more engagement. 7 LITERATURE REVIEW ENTERTAINMENT IN TEACHING Educators can ask for students to turn in their own podcasts or YouTube video assignments. This is flipping the entertainment portion in the classroom. After educators have worked hard to try and synergize several different techniques, it is now the turn of the student to submit an assignment via some form of media other than a word document. Students can film a class commercial selling a certain idea or concept. Students can record a song or radio advertisement doing much of the same. In this form, educators are forcing their students to attach the subject from a unique lens (Trier, 2007). More so, educators benefit from seeing how the students understand the concept or problem and get to enjoy a product from the story-telling nature of most students (Prud'homme-Généreux, 2016). This is another excellent example of entertainment in the classroom, although this time it is coming from the students’ perspective. Games and Simulations. Generally, teachers and students are not going to have enough time to play Monopoly or Sorry, nor will these board games even address course objectives. But there are games and simulations that are excellent for driving home key points and concepts (Maynard, 2019). Dr. Doug Maynard, a psychology professor from the State University of New York (SUNY) New Paltz lectured on this exact topic (2019). Dr. Maynard’s lecture highlighted that the best of these games are ones that have minimal rules and set-up and make the point without the educator having to lecture. For example, a great way to break the ice and learn about your students and classmates is a simple game called Happy Salmon. The game does not relate to any course objectives but is an instant activity that takes no time for even the shiest person to come out of their shell. Games and simulations do not have to be confined to icebreakers and instant activities. Games and simulations can be applied to statistics, American politics, history, and even engineering. Take for example, Prisoner’s Dilemma; this is a classic negotiation game used by social science professors to highlight the importance of leveraging and bargaining. Specifically, students learn about the, “…conflict between social incentives to cooperate and private incentives to defect” (Holt & Capra, 2000). The rules are simple, and the activity takes little time to organize and prepare. By the end of the game, there are clear connections made from the game to the course, whether it be macroeconomics or social sciences. Simulations like Man, A Course of Study is a simulation game played in the behavioral sciences to evaluate and explore the studies of human and animal behavior. Opposed to games which generally have a clear set of rules and answers, simulations progress based off decisions and shared responses by the students (Cruickshank & Telfer, 1980). This leads to more peer-peer learning and enables educators another way of teaching information. And, these games and simulations are not made for solely the subjects of humanities. New digital games on mobile applications help students visualize complex formulas and compounds. Recently, the mobile application Foldit, helped students and players visualize a complex protein enzyme that causes a disease similar to AIDS in monkeys (Tobias, 2015). This mobile application allowed students to map the enzyme, connect the proteins and sub-molecular chemicals, to “solve” the problem. Overall, these games and simulations are an excellent way to teach students and engage them from a different angle. Demeanor. “Bueller…Bueller…Bueller” (Hughes, 1987). Not every educator can be serious and dry like Ben Stein; this is probably a good thing since extraverted teachers likely cause more engagement in the classroom. Extraversion is a high concern and evaluation characteristic when students grade or give feedbacks to their teachers (Fisher & Kent, 1998). Fisher and Kent evaluated college professors’ personalities and their impacts on student classroom perceptions using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). They found a high 8 LITERATURE REVIEW ENTERTAINMENT IN TEACHING correlation of student-teacher cohesiveness and similar perceptions in the learning environment for teachers who had an extroverted personality. However, this study fell short of comparing this cohesiveness to final student grades (1998). Included in extroversion is being engaging, open, and even including humor. Like extroversion, appropriate humor can help close the teacher-student divide and help reduce student stress (O'Neil, 2019). But once again, there is no clear research or studies that show a correlation between student happiness due to humor in class and the effectiveness of understanding and learning material. Besides humor, Tonelson focused his research on educator personalities and found that these personalities can affect the environment of the classroom and the performance of the students (1981). Basically, attitude of the educator matters too. Entertainment. From the above, notice the techniques revolved around the content delivery of lectures, the integration of technology, the integration of games and simulations, and the educator’s demeanor or personality. None of these techniques are all or nothing, nor do any of these tips require educators to be a court jester or comedian. These techniques can be blended and tailored appropriately by each educator.

“She doesn’t Even go Here!” (Negative Impacts of Entertaining Educators) Still not convinced that entertainment and can work in the classroom? Well, you are not alone. There is research that shows the negative impacts of being an entertaining or distracting educator. Negative effects include distraction to the point of missing the actual concept for the lesson (Gorham & Christophel, 1990). Even worse, any misunderstood or misperceived joke or engaging technique can negatively impact the relationship of the student and teacher (1990). Additionally, poorly rehearsed and poorly presented material is about as bad as reading every word on a PowerPoint slide (Kozimor-King & Chin, 2018). Additionally, an entertaining educator does not have the best perceptions from peers in the same field. The peer-perception is that entertaining educators are show-boaters, indulgent, and selfish. These perceptions can damage an educator’s reputation and relationships with peers (Proctor, Weaver, & Cotrell, 1992). In a small study led by Brodmerkel, he studied his personality during lesson one of the same military instruction course to two different classes. In one class, he was extremely strict and only focused on the syllabus and lesson objectives. In the other class, he was more open, jovial, and included humor and icebreaker activities to introduce the class to the materials. In the end, the “serious” class performed better on assignments then the “fun” class (Brodmerkel, 2019). In short, seriousness and directness led to better student results. It is not wise to jump into a subject or new technique without understanding the potential negative impacts and shortfalls. Much of this negative research towards being an entertaining educator above is anecdotal. Most of the negative research points out one class and one professor. These studies do not approach a varying set of topics, grades, or fields of study. But it is good to know there are issues when attempting to be an entertaining educator.

“Why so Serious?” (Entertainment at USMA) So, even if the leap of faith is made, and everyone agrees that entertainment in the classroom is essential to being effective, how can educators incorporate these entertaining techniques in a strict and rigorous environment at USMA. USMA is a college with demanding policies, rules, and guidelines for Cadets and Faculty alike. On last count, there are 23 United States Corps of Cadets (USCC; governing body of Cadets) policy memorandums that govern the way of life of Cadets. 9 LITERATURE REVIEW ENTERTAINMENT IN TEACHING These policy memorandums range from when Cows (juniors) can bring their cars to school after Spring Break, to when all Cadets must have their lights out and go to bed (2330…11:30 p.m.). Because of these precise strict rules and procedures, it is necessary to bring entertaining educators to the classrooms. Teachers and Instructors at USMA can be the light of the day for every Cadet. We act as a respite from their daily military duties (while also still being a majority military faculty). Refer back to the definition from Merriam-Webster, entertainment is “…an amusement or diversion provided especially by performers” (2020). Except, it is the responsibility of USMA educators to inspire, train, educate these very same Cadets. We as educators are constantly vying for their time in each of our individual areas of expertise. If we can find ways to make them laugh, distract them from their daily stress, while also imparting the concept or lesson objective of the day, then we are meeting the USMA mission statement every day. Examples of entertaining educators are evident throughout USMA. Academic Individual Advanced Development (AIADs) are high profile field trips that enable Cadets an escape from the everyday grind at USMA and allow Cadets to see course concepts in real life and implementation. There are current demonstrations in the Physics department where instructors release a bowling ball on a pendulum and swing them at a Cadet’s face to see them flinch; even though knowing the ball will not hit their face. Tactical Decision Games are incorporated into the Department of Military Instruction (DMI) classes to force Cadets to make tough decisions on a map. The Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering (GENE) uses the Augmented Reality Sandtable (ARES) to demonstrate erosion and water run-off and its effects on different environments. And most recently, some instructors have found ways to make even the new virtual classrooms more exciting by spending the first ten minutes conducting a show and tell from each Cadet’s personal home (O'Connor, 2020); these included instrumental recitals and virtual tours of cattle ranches. Beyond these tools and ideas, every instructor can share self-disclosures that relate military failures and successes in careers to highlight that those instructors are indeed, a human being and not a robot. Although Cadets of a different age generation may have a different value proposition of service, these real experiences and stories can help shape and mold Cadets into future leaders of character. And sure, all instructors can incorporate some form of humor, whether it be dry-pan or slapstick; as long as it is appropriate. What is important to know, is that being an entertaining educator is not only possible at USMA, but it is a critical characteristic to grab the attention of stressed Cadets, who need an escape, and to learn how to be better future Leaders.

“That’s All Folks!” (Summary) Overall, being an entertaining educator is not necessary, but it does amplify your abilities and can help connect with students. An entertaining educator does not have to be a comedian, instead they can work to improve their content delivery through improvements in lectures, technology, games and simulations, and their personalities in the classroom (Thiagarjan, 1986; Pike, 2018; Hertz, Brigitte, Woerkum, & Kerkhof, 2015; Holt & Capra, 2000; Tonelson, 1981). Survey studies have shown the positive effects entertaining teachers have on students (Proctor, Weaver, & Cotrell, 1992). Student attention may only be 15-minutes (Wankat & Oreovicz, 2003), but this time is critical to imparting key concepts and bridging the knowledge gap between educator and student (Proctor, Weaver, & Cotrell, 1992). Although there are some negative studies that show entertainment can be a distractor or negatively affect educator-peer perceptions, these are anecdotal and require more research (Gorham & 10 LITERATURE REVIEW ENTERTAINMENT IN TEACHING Christophel, 1990; Brodmerkel, 2019; O'Neil, 2019). Even at USMA, educators need to find their best fit medium to be entertaining, so they can engage and inspire future students towards excellence.

11 LITERATURE REVIEW ENTERTAINMENT IN TEACHING References Alford, M. (2018). The propaganda model today: Filtering perception and awareness. London: University of Westminster Press. Retrieved April 20, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv7h0ts6.12 Bates, T. (2014, July 27). Why lectures are dead (or soon will be). Online Learning and Distance Education Resources. Retrieved April 20, 2020, from https://www.tonybates.ca/2014/07/27/why-lectures-are-dead-or-soon-will-be/ Brodmerkel, C. (2019). Set the tone on lesson one: An action research study on a teacher's first day of class. West Point: Master Teacher Program. Retrieved April 29, 2020, from https://s3.amazonaws.com/usma-media/inline- images/centers_research/center_for_teching_excellence/PDFs/mtp_project_papers/2019_ papers/Brodmerkel_19.pdf Brown, P., Roediger, H., & McDaniel, M. (2014). Get beyond learning styles. In P. Brown, H. Roediger, & M. McDaniel, Make it Stick (pp. 131-161). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Retrieved April 28, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wprs3.9 Buky, E., Schwartz, M., & Einsohn, A. (2019). Beyond grammar. In E. Buky, M. Schwartz, & A. Einsohn, The copyeditor's workbook: Exercises and tips for honing your editorial judgment (pp. 139-156). Oakland: University of California Press. Retrieved April 20, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvh1dx58.20 Cruickshank, D., & Telfer, R. (1980). Classroom Games and Simulations. Theory Into Practice, 75-80. Retrieved April 28, 2020 , from www.jstor.org/stable/1476290 Davis, H. (2003). Conceptualizing the role and influence of student-teacher relationships on children's social and cognitive development. Educational Psychologist, 207-234. doi:DOI: 10.1207/S15326985EP3804_2 Di Carlo, G. (2014). The role of proximity in online popularizations: The case of TED talks. Discourse Studies, 591-606. Retrieved April 20, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/24441889 Dvorkin, J. (2016, April 27). Why click-bait will be the death of journalism. Retrieved April 20, 2020, from Public Broadcasting Service (PBS): https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/what-you-dont-know-about-click-bait- journalism-could-kill-you Entertainment. (2020). Merriam-Webster. Retrieved April 20, 2020, from webster.com/dictionary/entertainment Entertainment. (2020). The Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved April 20, 2020, from https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/62856?redirectedFrom=entertainment#eid 12 LITERATURE REVIEW ENTERTAINMENT IN TEACHING Fisher, D., & Kent, H. (1998). Associations between teacher personality and classroom environment. The Journal of Classroom Interaction, 5-13. Retrieved April 29, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/23870338 Gorham, J., & Christophel, D. (1990). The relationship of instructors’ use of humor in the classroom to immediacy and student learning. Communication Education, 46-62. doi:doi.org/10.1080/03634529009378786 Gross, M., & Suto, D. (Directors). (1996). Erosion: Bill Nye the science guy [Motion Picture]. Retrieved April 9, 2020, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HkralMlDmSA Hertz, Brigitte, Woerkum, C. v., & Kerkhof, P. (2015). Why do scholars use PowerPoint the way they do? Business and Professional Communication Quarterly, 273-291. Retrieved April 28, 2020, from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2329490615589171 Holt, C., & Capra, M. (2000). Classroom games: A prisoner's dilemma. The Journal of Economic Education, 229-236. doi:doi:10.2307/1183093 Hughes, J. (Director). (1987). Ferris Bueller's day off [Motion Picture]. Retrieved April 09, 2020, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f4zyjLyBp64 Jackson, C. (2018). What do test scores miss? The importance of teacher effects on non–test score outcomes. Journal of Political Economy, 2072-2107. doi:https://doi.org/10.1086/699018 James, W. (1985). Attention. In W. James, Psychology: The briefer course (pp. 84-105). Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. Retrieved April 20, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvpj751t.9 Jones, E. (1978). Teacher education: entertainment or interaction? Young Children, 15-23. Joo, Y., Park, S., & Lim, E. (2018). Factors influencing preservice teachers’ intention to use technology: TPACK, teacher self-efficacy, and technology acceptance model. ournal of Educational Technology & Society, 48-59. Retrieved April 28, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/26458506 Klimburg, A., Faesen, L., Verhagen, P., & Mirtl, P. (2020). Pandemic mitigation in the digital age: Digital epidemiological measures to combat the coronavirus pandemic. Hague: Hague Centre for Strategic Studies. doi:doi:10.2307/resrep24010.4 Kozimor-King, M., & Chin, J. (2018). Scribes in the classroom: effectively using PowerPoint to enhance the classroom experience. In M. Sylvia, & B. Kirby, Learning from each other: Refining the practice of teaching in higher education (pp. 150-160). Oakland: University of California Press. Retrieved April 28, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctv3znxq0.15 Ludlow, L. (1988). Headlines: The unappreciated art. A Review of General Semantics, 236-245. Retrieved April 20, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/42582014 13 LITERATURE REVIEW ENTERTAINMENT IN TEACHING Marshall, K. (2017). The big picture: How many people influence a student's life? The Phi Delta Kappan, 42-45. Retrieved April 20, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/26388271 Maynard, D. (2019). Using games and play in the classroom to enhance engagement and learning. Master Teacher Program. McClurg, J. (2016, June 22). Two books about Hamilton get Tonys boost. USA Today. Retrieved April 20, 2020, from https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/books/2016/06/22/hamilton- lin-manuel-miranda-ron-chernow-usa-today-best-selling-books/86177750/ McCorkle, B., & Palmeri, J. (2016). Lessons from history: Teaching with technology in 100 years of "English Journal". The English Journal, 18-24. Retrieved April 28, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/2635925 Messineo, M. (2018). (Re-)Creating your course: Backward design and assessment. In M. Messineo, Learning from Each Other: Refining the Practice of Teaching in Higher Education (pp. 275-290). Oakland: University of California Press. Retrieved April 20, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctv3znxq0.24 Miller. (2014). Motivating Students. In Miller, In minds online: Teaching effectively with technology (pp. 165-195). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Retrieved April 28, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qdsqd.11 Miller, T., Carver, J., & Roy, A. (2018). To go virtual or not to go virtual, that is the question: A comparative study of face-to-face versus virtual laboratories in a physical science course. Journal of College Science Teaching, 59-67. doi:doi:10.2307/26616271 Miranda, L.-M. (2015). Hamilton: An American Musical [Recorded by L.-M. Miranda]. [MP3]. New York CIty, NY, USA: Atlantic Records. Miranda, L.-M. (2020, February 22). Hamilton: An American Musical. (T. Kail, Director, & L.- M. Miranda, Performer) Richard Rodgers Theater, New York City, NY, USA. Monteiro, L. (2016). Race-Conscious casting and the erasure of the black past in Lin-Manuel Miranda’s Hamilton. The Public Historian, 89-98. Ng'ambi, D., & Lombe, A. (2012). Using podcasting to facilitate student learning: A constructivist perspective. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 181-192. Retrieved April 28, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/jeductechsoci.15.4.181 O'Connor, B. (2020, April 8). Goats, cows and music help cadets adjust to learning remotely. US Army, p. 1. Retrieved April 09, 2020, from https://www.army.mil/article/234366/goats_cows_and_music_help_cadets_adjust_to_lea rning_remotely O'Neil, S. (2019). Humor in the classroom: A review of current literature. West Point: Master Teacher Program. Retrieved April 09, 2020, from https://www.westpoint.edu/centers- and-research/center-for-teaching-excellence/mtp-project-papers 14 LITERATURE REVIEW ENTERTAINMENT IN TEACHING Ornstein, A. (1982). Motivations for teaching. The High School Journal, 110-116. Retrieved April 20, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/40365451 Paulson, M. (2015, July 12). ‘Hamilton’ Heads to Broadway in a Hip-Hop Retelling. The New York Times, p. A(1). Pike, D. (2018). Without apology: Reclaiming the lecture. In D. Pike, Learning from Each Other: Refining the Practice of Teaching in Higher Education (pp. 133-149). Oakland: University of California Press. Retrieved April 20, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctv3znxq0.14 Posner, M. (1966). Components of skilled performance. Science, 1712-1718. Retrieved April 20, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/1718352 Prensky, M. (2011). Khan Academy. Educational Technology, 64. Retrieved April 28, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/44429962 Proctor, R., Weaver, R., & Cotrell, H. (1992). Entertainment in the classroom: Captivating students without sacrificing standards. Educational Horizons, 146-152. Retrieved April 09, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/42924947 Prud'homme-Généreux, A. (2016). Student-Produced videos for the flipped classroom. Journal of College Science Teaching, 58-62. Retrieved April 28, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/43748444 Rockman. (1998). A study of Bill Nye the Science Guy. Seattle: University of Washington. Retrieved April 20, 2020, from https://depts.washington.edu/sthp/files/original/48bcfa916990328e5a3619a8836cb2f0.pdf Shankar, A., & Zurn, P. (2020). Curiosity studies: A new ecology of knowledge. Minneapolis; London: University of Minnesota Press. doi:doi:10.5749/j.ctvzpv67w.19 Sinclair, C., Dowson, M., & McInerney, D. (2006). Motivations to teach: Psychometric perspectives across the first semester of teacher education. Teachers College Record, 108(6). Retrieved April 20, 2020, from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dennis_Mcinerney3/publication/249399908_Motiva tions_to_Teach_Psychometric_Perspectives_Across_the_First_Semester_of_Teacher_Ed ucation/links/5a7016b80f7e9ba2e1c923b2/Motivations-to-Teach-Psychometric- Perspectives-Across Staff, G. (2019, April 3). Bill Nye wows crowd at Weber State University. Gephardt Daily, p. 1. Retrieved April 20, 2020, from https://gephardtdaily.com/local/bill-nye-wows-crowd-at- weber-state-university/ Stephenson, W. (1967). The play theory of mass communication. Chicago: University of Chicago. Thiagarjan, S. (1986). 25 Ways to improve any lecture. Performance and Instructio, 22-24. Retrieved April 09, 2020, from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ328433 15 LITERATURE REVIEW ENTERTAINMENT IN TEACHING Tobias, S. F. (2015). Digital Games as Educational Technology: Promise and Challenges in the Use of Games to Teach. Educational Technology, 3-12. Retrieved April 28, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/44430402 Tonelson, S. (1981). The importance of teacher self concept to create a healthy psychological environment for learning. Education, 96-100. Retrieved April 29, 2020, from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ256851 Trier, J. (2007). "Cool" engagements with YouTube: Part 2. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 598-603. Retrieved April 28, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/40012344 Volkswagen. (2013, January 8). Volkswagen Commercial - Father Son Baseball/Catch. Retrieved from YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VxAo8_JySkM Wankat, P., & Oreovicz, F. (2003). Teaching: Breaking the 15-minute barrier. American Society for Engineering Education, 40. Retrieved April 9, 2020, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/24160755