Running head: Impact of ball-colour on visual-motor behaviour

The Pink Ball in Cricket: A Call to Investigate the Impact of Ball-

Colour on Visual-Motor Behaviour

Vishnu Sarpeshkar and Aishwar Dhawan

Department of Biomechanics and Performance Analysis, PODIUM Program, National Sports

Institute of Malaysia, Bukit Jalil, Kuala Lumpur, 57000 Malaysia

Address of Correspondence:

Dr. Vishnu Sarpeshkar

Department of Biomechanics and Performance Analysis,

PODIUM Program, National Sports Institute of Malaysia,

Bukit Jalil, Kuala Lumpur,

57000 Malaysia

Email: [email protected]

Ph: +60 03 8991 4552

Word count: 3075

Citation: Sarpeshkar, V. & Dhawan, A. (2018). The Pink Ball in Cricket: A Call to Investigate the Impact of

Ball-Colour on Visual-Motor Behaviour. SportRxiv.

This is a pre-print manuscript. http://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/DGAQT

1 AUTHORSHIP STATEMENT

Manuscript title: The Pink Ball in Cricket: A Call to Investigate the Impact of Ball-Colour on Visual-Motor Behaviour.

All persons who meet authorship criteria are listed as authors, and all authors certify that they have participated sufficiently in the work to take public responsibility for the content, including participation in the concept, design, analysis, writing, or revision of the manuscript.

This statement is signed by all the authors:

Author’s name (typed) Author’s signature Date

Vishnu Sarpeshkar______06-01-2018______

Aishwar Dhawan______06-01-2018______

2 Abstract

The sport of cricket has recently undergone a unique transformation with the introduction of day-night test cricket, where the traditional red ball has been substituted with a fluorescent pink ball. Although the concept continues to gain popularity among the wider population, there are growing concerns regarding the visibility of the fast-moving ball along with seemingly little knowledge on how ball-colour may influence the visual-motor behaviour of the players. This paper seeks to highlight some of these concerns by exploring how the pink colour may influence colour contrast and perception, and visual perception. By better understanding the influence of ball-colour on visual-motor behaviour, sporting administrators and researchers alike can work towards further progressing the sport without impacting player safety and/or performance.

Keywords: Sports; Cricket; Ball-colour; Visual-motor behaviour; Colour perception

3 Introduction

Sporting administrators from around the world are constantly seeking to evolve their sport to draw more interest from the wider population. Recently, the sport of cricket has seen an exciting change with the introduction of day-night test cricket in an attempt to revitalize the highest (and most traditional) form of the sport (Lalor, 2015). Although the advent of day-night cricket (i.e., when the duration of the game progresses from the afternoon to the evening) has been around for more than 30 years, playing test cricket (which is usually only played during the day) during the twilight hours is a new concept that has raised conflicting reviews from both traditionalists and futurists (Jackson, 2015; Pringle, 2017). The biggest talking point however has been the introduction of a fluorescent pink ball substituting for the traditional red ball that has been synonymous with test cricket for nearly 150 years (Berry,

2015). The fluorescent pink ball (compared to the red ball) is proposed as the optimal colour that allows both players and spectators to clearly see the ball under natural and artificial lighting (Kookaburra Australia, 2016). With only nine day-night test cricket matches played to-date, the novelty of the pink ball is slowly being replaced by serious concerns regarding the visibility of the ball from the players (see Lalor, 2016). Considering the highly demanding spatial (see McLeod & Jenkins, 1991) and temporal (see Regan, 1992) demands experienced by cricket batters during competition, changing the colour of the ball with little empirical knowledge on how this may impact the visual strategies and/or movement coordination of the players warrants further attention. Here we seek to elaborate on some of these concerns and call for a thorough investigation exploring the influence of colour on visual-motor behaviour when hitting a fast-moving ball.

Traditionally, test cricket is played under natural sunlight for up to five consecutive days with a ball that is predominantly dark red in colour. Furthermore, the player’s attire, and sightscreens (located opposite the batter in the background) are largely white, providing a

4 visible contrast for the players during play. During the 1970s, the sport evolved with the introduction of a new format (coined ‘one-day’, or ‘day-night’ cricket) that was played over several hours, often resulting in half the game being played under natural sunlight and the other half under artificial lighting. This evolution not only saw the players change their attire to reflect the colours of their representative teams, but also the introduction of a white ball and black sightscreens. Although the white ball was subject to discoloration because of contact with an abrasive playing surface and grassed outfield, it allowed for sufficient contrast for players and television cameras to locate the ball throughout the game. The recent introduction of day-night test cricket in 2015 saw players maintaining their traditional white attire and white sightscreens, but the red ball was replaced with a fluorescent pink ball.

Although it may seem poetic that the red ball from test cricket is merged with the white ball from day-night cricket to result in a pink ball for day-night test cricket, this view is not necessarily shared by all the players.

The manufacturers of these pink balls have stated that they have developed the colour of these balls following extensive research and feedback provided by the players and administrators (Kookaburra Australia, 2016). However, only 24% of the provincial level players who used the pink ball during competition believed that these balls should be used for international level day-night test cricket in the future. Furthermore, nearly 50% of the players reported difficulty in seeing the ball whilst batting or fielding, with 75% of the players no longer believing that the pink ball promoted an equal contest between the two teams (see

Coverdale, 2014). Although further research has since led to minute changes to the colour of the seam on the ball to improve visibility (Moonda, 2016), the pink colour itself is still proposed as the optimal ball-colour for day-night test cricket (a finding that is neither published nor publicly available; see Kookaburra Australia, 2016). Given the significant resource and financial investment made in the evolution of the game around the world, the

5 fundamental question is whether changing the colour of the ball, the pink colour itself, or both, are likely to influence the visual-motor behaviour, and ultimately the performance, of the players.

This is not to say that the ball manufacturers and/or sport administrators have jeopardized the safety of the players by making the ball difficult to see. Instead, we argue that the change in ball-colour, and/or the pink colour itself, may influence player performance due to its impact on two key areas: (i) colour contrast and perception, and (ii) visual perception.

Colour contrast and perception

Determining the exact reasons behind the reports of difficulty seeing the pink ball is difficult because every individual perceives colour differently based on their unique optical physiology. However, a low luminance contrast between the pink ball and the white background may play a role. For instance, Arthur and Passini (1992) proposed a mathematical formula for calculating colour contrasts, with sufficient contrast only achieved when the brightness differential between the two distinct colours was 70% or higher. If considering the combination of red against a white background (such as a red ball in front of a white sightscreen), the brightness differential is calculated to be 84%. Similarly, a white ball in front of a black sightscreen would calculate to 91%. However, a pink ball against a white background reveals a differential of 65%. Furthermore, contrasting the pink ball with the brown turf playing surface (53%) or the green grassed outfield (43%) also sheds light towards the reports of difficulty in seeing the ball. Although this approach is admittedly rudimentary at best, and that these values may vary depending on the source of illumination

(e.g., sunlight or artificial lighting; McAuliffe, 2015) and the overall brightness of the environment (Brown & MacLeod, 1997), this does tentatively support the initial concerns regarding the visibility of the pink ball (Koslow, 1985).

6 Another key factor to consider is whether the individual experiences a form of colour blindness. The most common form of colour blindness is red-green colour blindness (Gordon,

1998), like Australian test cricketers Chris Rogers and Matthew Wade who experience difficulty distinguishing between different shades of red and green. To them the blue sky is likely to appear more pale blue, the green outfield brown, the brown turf is of a darker shade, and the pink ball is likely to appear light grey (Collins, 2015). This is critical since Rogers is an opening batter, and Wade is a wicketkeeper; both are specialized roles where success is highly dependent on these players accurately tracking the flight-path of the fast-moving ball.

In fact, Rogers withdrew from a provincial day-night match publicly stating that the visibility of the pink balls was ‘challenging’ and that ‘there are still a lot of unknowns and doubts about it from my perspective’ (Smith, 2014). Wade further added that the pink ball ‘takes a little bit longer to work out the depth of where it's coming [from]’ and that ‘it takes just a little bit longer to pick the actual length of the ball’ (Australian Associated Press, 2016).

The other challenge faced by the players, and umpires, is the visibility of the ball during certain times of the day. Professor Derek Arnold wrote an interesting piece outlining his concerns over the use of the pink ball during day-night matches in Australia, particularly during dusk. He noted that as the day progressed from midday to sunset, the fluorescent pink ball appeared brighter relative to the grass and the turf pitch; whereas this effect was reversed when the artificial lighting in the stadium took effect. The hypothesis that there is likely to be a period of time when this difference in contrast is minimal was supported when he observed that the brightness of the pink ball was nearly equal to that of the grassed outfield and the turf pitch just prior to sunset (for more information, see Arnold, 2016). Considering that similar conditions may also arise during different times of the day around the world, this may represent a time when players and umpires may not be able to clearly view the ball, affecting their speed and depth perception (also see Adie & Arnold, 2017). In fact, 70% of all the

7 players involved in the first international day-night test match reported difficulty seeing the ball at dusk (Morris, 2016). This means that on the one hand, the bowling captain can bring on the fastest bowler in the team during this time to take advantage of the batter’s perceptual difficulties. On the other hand, difficulty viewing the ball raises serious safety issues that need to be carefully considered by the umpires and administrators. Although the time of sunset varies around the world, it usually coincides with the scheduled dinner break

(6.20pm). As a result, a possible yet simple solution could be to alter the timing of the dinner break to correspond with the time of sunset to minimize the likelihood of play during this time. If the spectacle of day-night test cricket is to play under artificial lighting, then extending the evening session would ensure more play is possible during this time.

Visual perception

Successful interception depends on accurately obtaining perceptual information through intricate visual strategies that allow performers to coordinate their movement to be positioned at the right place at the right time (Sarpeshkar & Mann, 2011). It is well established that cricket batters adopt a unique gaze (e.g., Land & McLeod, 2000) and movement (e.g., Weissensteiner, Abernethy, & Farrow, 2011) strategy when hitting a ball, with a growing number of studies extending these findings and highlighting differences across skill levels (see Mann, Spratford, & Abernethy, 2013; Sarpeshkar, Abernethy, &

Mann, 2017; Sarpeshkar, Mann, Spratford, & Abernethy, 2017). Unfortunately, a significant gap in the literature is the extent to which the ball-colour may influence these visual-motor strategies observed when hitting a ball. Although these studies have significantly progressed our understanding of visual-motor behaviour, neither discuss the role that ball-colour may have played in the strategies observed.

Studies examining the visual-motor behaviour of cricket batters generally do so with the batters hitting a synthetic composite yellow ball (commonly used during practice

8 sessions), and not the red or white cricket balls used during competition. Although these synthetic balls mimic the ball-flight characteristics of cricket balls, the colour is significantly different to those used during competition. In that case, assuming that the performance of cricket batters when facing the pink ball will be similar to facing the red or white cricket balls may be a tenuous one. To highlight this point, Lenoir, Vansteenkiste, Vermeulen, and de

Clercq (2005) examined the effects of different colour patterns on the surface of a volleyball on the movement patterns of the players when receiving sidespin serves. They reported that when the colours on the ball greatly contrasted each other, the players were better able to perceive and predict its future location, thus promoting fewer lateral corrections in their movement (also see Montagne, Laurent, Durey, & Bootsma, 1999; Sarpeshkar, Mann, et al.,

2017). Recalling that the pink cricket ball is thought to contrast poorly against the white background, grassed outfield and the turf playing surface (see previous section), batters may find it difficult to accurately perceive the future location of the ball and efficiently coordinate their movement to be positioned at the right place at the right time (Arnold, Petrie, &

Johnston, 2017).

The pink colour itself is also interesting considering the limited exposure to this colour during the development of a cricket player. That is, players are exposed to the red cricket ball and the yellow synthetic ball from the grassroots through to the international level, whilst the white ball is mostly introduced during the adolescent years. A pink coloured ball on the other hand, apart from recreational use by children during unstructured play, is only introduced at the provincial level. Although players are able to practice with the pink balls during training sessions prior to competition, it is possible that they may not have developed sufficient memory-based models, or visual priming, to adopt similar behaviours to those seen when facing the red or white coloured balls (Dobell, 2017). Maljkovic and

Nakayama (1996) proposed that priming towards a particular colour of a target can slow

9 down the response time when the target colour changes, which may be due to the establishment of internal memory-based models (see Hayhoe, 2008). As a result, it could be argued that the visual processing time for the batters, fielders, and umpires when viewing the pink ball may be slightly longer. This increased processing time may also help explain why the provincial level cricket players were initially critical towards the pink ball during competition. If sporting administrators were to continue using the pink ball at a provincial and/or international level, then introducing these balls at an earlier stage in development may help establish sufficient memory-based models to reduce the influence of ball-colour on performance.

Introducing the pink ball at the provincial and international level also relies on the assumption that the players’ skill levels are adequate to cope with the change in ball-colour.

For the most part, this is a fair assumption as studies like Morris (1976) show that the interceptive performance of young children catching different coloured balls improved with an improvement in skill level, and that the catching performance of professional cricket players showed no differences when catching red or white coloured cricket balls (Scott,

Kingsbury, Bennett, Davids, & Langley, 2000). However, the fact that players continue to report having difficulty seeing the ball suggests that the pink ball-colour is having a noticeable impact on these highly skilled players (see Coverdale, 2014). With little knowledge in the current literature exploring the influence of the pink colour on the visual- motor behaviour of performers, any decisions made to help improve the visibility of the ball in the near future is likely to be speculative in nature. By scientifically examining the influence of the pink ball on the visual-motor behaviour of the players, sporting administrators will be in a better position from which to make informed decisions that aid in player performance and/or safety, and an overall enjoyment of the sport.

10 Future directions

It is clear that a greater understanding of the influence of ball-colour on visual-motor behaviour is needed to fully understand whether the new fluorescent pink ball may be contributing towards the issues of visibility reported by cricket players. The findings from these investigations would clearly be of interest to sporting administrators and the ball manufacturers to ensure that the sport can continue to progress forward to broaden interest across the wider population. Although it is understandable that the ball manufacturers may not want to disclose their research findings to maintain a market advantage or niche within the cricket community, understanding the influence of ball-colour on visual-motor behaviour should appeal to the greater scientific community. Furthermore, there has been a continuous call for studies to more closely examine visual-motor behaviour under conditions that better replicate the competition environment; a call that can be argued extends to the consideration of ball-colour (Araújo & Davids, 2009; Araújo, Davids, & Passos, 2007; Dicks, Davids, &

Araujo, 2008; Sarpeshkar & Mann, 2011). With limited knowledge on how colour may influence perceptual and motor skills, the findings from these studies can have significant applied and theoretical applications to progress our understanding of the factors underpinning successful performance.

A potential avenue for future studies is exploring the influence of visual priming on the establishment of memory-based internal models when performing an interceptive task.

Granted that priming towards a particular colour may slow the response time if the target colour changes (Maljkovic & Nakayama, 1996), the nature of this influence on gaze and kinematic behaviour in situ however, remains largely unclear. With the pink ball only introduced at the provincial level, it is possible that reports of difficulty seeing the ball may be due to poorly established memory-based internal models (Diaz, Cooper, Rothkopf, &

Hayhoe, 2013; Hayhoe, 2008; Hayhoe, Mennie, Sullivan, & Gorgos, 2005). If priming to a

11 specific colour does play a role in influencing visual-motor behaviour, then sporting administrators may need to consider the introduction of the pink ball at a much earlier stage of development. On the other hand, if it is found to have minimal influence, then this in and of itself is an important finding that can significantly contribute to the literature.

Advances in technology have also progressed our ability to more closely examine the underlying process of successful performance. For instance, eye trackers and motion capture systems provide an interesting insight into the gaze behaviour and movement coordination of performers respectively. The introduction of immersive virtual reality provides a promising new medium from which to examine visual-motor behaviour and understand how players respond to different situations under different conditions. This approach has previously been applied in different sports including soccer (e.g., Craig, Berton, Rao, Fernandez, & Bootsma,

2006), rugby (e.g., Brault, Bideau, Kulpa, & Craig, 2012), handball (e.g., Bideau et al.,

2004), baseball batting (e.g., Gray, 2002), and cricket batting (e.g., Dhawan, Cummins,

Spratford, Dessing, & Craig, 2016). With studies arguing that the behaviours observed in the virtual environment are similar to those observed in situ (Bideau et al., 2003; Bideau et al.,

2010), this provides an ideal environment to examine an unlimited number of combinations of ball-colour, lighting conditions and background contrast levels to better understand how these factors may collectively influence the visual-motor behaviour of the players (see Gray,

2017; Miles, Pop, Watt, Lawrence, & John, 2012). These findings can help sporting administrators make more informed decisions to further progress the sport without impacting player safety and/or audience enjoyment. This also provides an exciting opportunity for the scientific community to better understand the influence of ball-colour on visual-motor behaviour; a fundamental question that is yet to be fully understood.

12 Conclusion

The introduction of the pink ball has clearly revolutionised the sport of cricket and raised interest in the wider population. However, claims that it is the optimal colour for day- night test cricket need to be further supported by sound scientific evidence along with studies exploring the influence of colour on the visual-motor behaviour of the players. There needs to be extensive in situ research superseding the subjective feedback by the players regarding safety and performance for sporting administrators to make more informed decisions. Now may be an appropriate time to address these concerns and establish a gold standard for testing new and innovative means to promote the popularity and global interest in the sport into the future.

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19