Plant Ecology Investigations in the Pacific Northwest

Robyn Wood, Hilary Brown, Michael Robinson, Cherri McGarvie Community College Science Department 1155 East Broadway, Vancouver, BC, V5T 4V5 [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract Through a series of three field trips along with corresponding classroom sessions, students are introduced to basic methods of understanding plant ecology. Field trip locations include Pacific Spirit Park and Lighthouse Park, which have primarily temperate rainforest ecology and Richmond Nature Park which has /bog-forest ecology. Students learn how to observe, describe, identify and measure plant life, and they also learn how to measure and relate abiotic variables to dominant vegetation patterns. Marked assignments include field notes and plant collections.

Introduction Purpose The purpose is to teach students about plant ecology through a series of three local field trips and corresponding classroom sessions.

Background Information Vancouver is on the south-west coast of , Canada. With a climate of mild wet winters and warm dry summers, plant growth in the coastal region is possible most days of the year. Abiotic factors and dominant conifer forest define the local biome as Coastal Temperate Rainforest, which is characterized by annual precipitation over 1400 mm and mean temperature between 4-12º C (Alaback, 1991). These forests sustain the highest levels of biomass of any terrestrial ecosystem (Coates & Mondor, 1978).

British Columbia holds one quarter of the remaining coastal temperate rainforest in the world, and is the largest intact tract left on earth (David Suzuki Foundation, 2009). Unfortunately, only about 3% of the original old growth forest in British Columbia remains unexploited (Ballin, 2004). British Columbia forests are divided into 14 biogeoclimatic zones, which classify areas of the province based on dominant vegetation, climate and local geology (British Columbia Ministry of Forests, 1991). The Coastal Western Hemlock (CWH) zone covers most of the Vancouver region, with the drier Coastal Douglas Fir (CDF) zone in small strips in several coastal locations and the Mountain Hemlock (MH) zone covering higher elevations.

Introductory level adult education biology (B0861) students at Vancouver Community College participate in a series of four hour long field trips to diverse coastal temperate rainforest habitats, including two forested locations (Pacific Spirit Park and Lighthouse Park), and one bog/forest location (Richmond Nature Park). The students discover and compare plant diversity as well as analyze and interpret relationships between abiotic characteristics and distribution of plant life. Students are provided pre and post field trip lessons in the classroom, and are given several corresponding assignments including field notebooks and plant collections. Students are encouraged to practise the scientific method as they make observations, identify patterns, and try to account for phenomena using hypotheses. For example, a bare forest floor might be a reflection of low light penetration, which is something measurable in the field using a photometer. Student Objectives To learn how to make good field notes To practice observation, identification and preservation of native plants To learn and observe characteristics of forests including old growth forests To learn and observe characteristics of bog ecosystems To learn about and observe succession To learn how to measure abiotic factors and relate them to plant growth To learn to apply the scientific method in the field and to collect and interpret results Observe and compare microhabitats and subbiomes

Materials Plant identification guides (Plants of Coastal British Columbia by Jim Pojar and Andy MacKinnon or Trees, Flowers and Shrubs to Know in B.C. by C.P Lyons and Bill Merilees) First Aid Kit Thermometer Field note books Mounted and preserved plant specimen examples Other ID guides, i.e. bird, fungi Wildlife scavenger hunt sheets (Lighthouse Park) Sampling ladders (Richmond Nature Park) pH test kit (Richmond Nature Park) Ropes (~10 m long) and flagging tape (Pacific Spirit Park) Light meter Pens and pencils

Field Methods Pacific Spirit Park Pacific Spirit Park is a 770 hectare (1900 acre) green belt in the city of Vancouver. A history of logging and fires has resulted in homogenous second growth stands of Western Hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii), interspersed with small pockets of old growth forest and other areas in earlier stages of succession. Second growth indicates that a disturbance destroyed the original, or first growth, which in this case was logging performed in the late 1800’s (Ballin, 2004). Because of its history of manipulation by man, Pacific Spirit Park is an ideal location to observe the process of ecological succession within a coastal temperate rainforest. On this field trip, students are introduced to field-note taking and observational skills through investigation of four sites (Figure 1). These sites were chosen because of the varying factors which contribute to their stage of succession. Upon analysis of the quality and quantity of vegetation at each site, students draw correlations to the predominant abiotic factors.

Figure 1. Map of B0861 field trip trails at Pacific Spirit Park, Vancouver BC. Study Area 1 is a mixed second growth forest. Study Area 2 is an older coniferous forest with low canopy light penetration. Study Area 3 is an open meadow area. Study Area 4 is a man made clearing.

Activity 1 (Study Area 1): Silent Observations Students first practice observation and note taking by sitting silently for 20 minutes and recording observations of their surroundings with emphasis on abiotic factors including light intensity, moisture level, and soil consistency. Students also note the various qualities of life within the site, such as sounds and colours produced by the local flora and fauna.

Activity 2 (Study Area 1): Vertical Transects Students are then split into teams, with each employing a 10 metre rope which is used to form a transect on the forest floor. Along each transect, flagging tape is tied to the rope at positions that correspond to the presence of interesting biological or geological features. These observations are recorded and then exchanged with another team. Comparison of results illustrates for students the diversity of the forest floor, and allows for correlation of abiotic and biotic factors and subsequent formation of hypotheses regarding distribution of life at this site.

Activity 3 (Study Area 1 and 2): Comparison of Light and Vegetation Students are then directed to make plots using the same rope. In these plots students record plant cover, plant species present and light intensity (using a photometer). Students are encouraged to look for relationships. The same approach is used at Study Area 2.

Activity 4 (Study Area 3 and 4): Qualitative Observations on Effects of Human Disturbance Study Areas 3 and 4 are visited and qualitative observations made. At these sites we discuss succession and the influence of man’s activities.

Lighthouse Park This location is a 75 hectare park in West Vancouver. It represents one of the few remaining natural sites in Canada featuring a transition from the moister Coastal Western Hemlock (CWH) zone to the drier Coastal Douglas Fir (CDF) zone (Berris and Breiddal, 2004). As it has never been logged, it

Figure 2. Map of B0861 field trip trails at Lighthouse Park, West Vancouver, BC. Activity locations are indicated. contains sections of old growth forest with stands of Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii ssp menziesii) and Western Redcedar (Thuja plicata) at least 500 years old (Berris and Breiddal, 2004, West Vancouver, 2002). A wide variety of other species can also be found. The great diversity of plants found at Lighthouse Park (over 250 species) along with the unique ecology make it an ideal location to teach students about plant identification and plant ecology (Berris and Breiddal, 2004).

Activity 1: Plant Comparison and Identification (Parking Lot Area) Students are divided into pairs and provided with several mounted, preserved plant specimens. They are then directed to compare and contrast the samples. They then switch partners and specimens and repeat the activity. This activity allows students to practice close observation of plant morphology which improves their ability to identify plant specimens.

Following the plant comparison activity students are directed to work in pairs to identify two different live plants of their choice using their plant identification guides. They then share this information with another student pair. The instructors circulate during this activity to confirm correct plant identification. Once all groups have completed the activity we then review the major plant species identified.

Activity 2: Old Growth Forest Scavenger Hunt (Juniper Loop Trail) We lead the students through a discussion of the characteristics of old growth forests. Such forests represent the final stage of forest development in which slower growing shade tolerant conifers (i.e. Western Hemlock) have replaced fast growing shade intolerant deciduous and coniferous species (Pojar and MacKinnon, 1994). As decomposition rates are slow in these forests, there is a large quantity and variety of dead, woody material which provides habitat and food for a large variety of organisms.

Students are directed to work in pairs or small groups on a wildlife scavenger hunt activity (Appendix B). They search for various features such as nesting cavities and nurse logs, working from the checklist provided. We conclude the activity with a discussion of their findings.

Activity 3: Observation of Succession on a Granite Rock Face (Shore Pine Trail) Midway along the Shore Pine trail there is a large granite rock face partially covered with vegetation that serves as an example for a discussion on early succession. Lichens act as pioneer species, colonizing this bare granite rock. In places, mosses are observed which represents the next stage of succession. Ferns and other plants can also be observed in certain locations growing on the substrate first formed by the lichen and mosses. Students make observations and take notes.

Activity 4: Transition between CWH and CDF forest (Shore Pine Trail) Moving down the Shore Pine trail towards Howe Sound, a transition emerges as annual rainfall levels decrease and more sun penetrates the canopy. Drier subzone species such as Saskatoon berry (Amelanchier alnifolia) start to appear. We also notice fewer Western Hemlock and more Douglas Fir. In this area, plant diversity is increased as plants from both zones can be found.

Activity 5: Identification of CDF species, observation of CDF zone (Shore Pine Point) This location, at the western edge of the park features species growing on a rocky outcrop adjacent to the ocean. The rainfall levels in this area (<130 mm/yr) are similar to that of the CDF zone (West Vancouver, 2002). Additionally, due to the shallow to non-existent nature of the soil, limited water availability, salty mists and strong winds, plants in this area are subject to harsh conditions. Plants typical of the CDF zone such as Arbutus (Arbutus menziesii), Saskatoon berry, Hardhack (Spirea douglasii), Shore Pine (Pinus contorta var. contorta) and Douglas Fir are all found. Here we discuss adaptations to low water and nutrient availability, as well as some of the characteristics of the CDF zone i.e. drier, more open canopy, plants adapted to disturbances such as fire.

Richmond Nature Park

Figure 3. Map of B0861 field trip trails at Richmond Nature Park, Richmond, BC. The light grey area is primarily bog, the medium grey area is bog forest, and the dark grey area is birch forest. Sampling locations are indicated.

The Richmond Nature Park consists of 200 acres of bog (City of Richmond, 2009). Hummocks consisting of sphagnum moss occur on the surface of this bog. Sphagnum moss grows in areas where rain water accumulates but does not get much inflow of waterborne nutrients.

Plant survival requires tolerance of high water table with low pH and low soil nutrient content. This provides good habitat for such heath species as Labrador tea (Rhododendron groenlandicum) and wild cranberry (Oxycoccus oxycoccus ) (Klinkenberg, 2008). Also well suited for are Cloudberries (Rubus chamaemorus) which are arctic remnants, and Sundews (Drosera rotundifolia), which are carnivorous plants that compensate for poor soil nutrients by trapping and digesting small insects. Shore Pine can tolerate the poor soils of the bog, but have a stunted and spindly appearance.

Human activities such as a nearby highway have lowered the water table which has reduced the growth of sphagnum moss. This in turn, has led to the colonization of Richmond Nature Park with plants that are not typical of a bog. These plants include Western Hemlock, Red Elderberry (Sambucas racemosa), Salal (Gaultheria shallon), Sword fern (Polystichum munitum), domestic cranberries (Vaccinium macrocarpon) and domestic blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum) (City of Richmond, 2009). These domestic varieties of berries come from local farms that spread to the bog by birds. Domestic varieties threaten the indigenous species by successfully competing for space and water (Klinkenberg, 2008).

Activity 1: Testing for Soil pH Soil pH is tested in the bog area and in the birch forest area (Figure 3). Students then compare the acidic soil of the bog with the less acidic forest soil, and discuss reasons for their findings. To test the bog soil, students wring out a handful of wet sphagnum moss into a vial and then use a pH paper strip to determine the acidity of this water. In the birch forest area, soil is placed in a vial along with some water, mixed, and after a few minutes the pH of the overlying water is measured.

Activity 2: Experiment Design (Ballin, 2004) Prior to the field trip to Richmond Nature Park students establish hypotheses to study the presence of vertical succession.

Example: Ho: If there is vertical succession then indigenous bog plants will occur at the bottom of the rope ladder while plants less adapted to bog conditions will occur further up the rope ladder because the soil substrate is less acidic at the top of the hummock.

Figure 4. Sampling ladder on a hummock. The dominant plant species in each section of the ladder is identified and noted (Ballin, 2004). Water content of the soil is the independent variable which in turn affects pH, micro-climate, microbes and plants found on the hummocks. Students record the dominant plant species found in each section of the rope grid that is laid across a hummock. The dominant plant species represents the dependent variable related to the water content of the soil.

This sampling method uses a rope ladder that is divided into sections. The purpose of this technique is to show students that plant populations vary according to their proximity to the acidic peat moss that forms the base of each hummock. Students will interpret their data in terms of whether their hypotheses are supported or rejected.

Activity 3: Observation of Transition from Bog to Forest As students progress through the bog they see changes in habitat. Plants change from a bog forest ecology, to a bog (site of experiment), and finally, to a birch forest (climax community). This horizontal succession progresses in a northeast direction away from the .

Student Assignments Field Notebooks We teach students how to take good field notes by showing them precisely what we expect (including sketches, summaries, and species lists.) (Appendix A). At the end of each trip, we have students turn in their notebooks for marking. Marks are awarded for proficiency in taking notes based on compliance with marking criteria. Students can make up for missed field trips by visiting the same locations, documenting their observations, and handing in their field notebooks for marks.

Plant Collections Students are required to create a 20 specimen plant collection using common species identified during the field trips. Although no plant collecting is permitted at the field trip locations, students are able to find specimens at similar locations. Students are shown how to identify, collect, preserve, label and mount their specimens. Each collection is turned in and marked several weeks after the last field trip.

Conclusion Students are introduced to forest and bog ecosystems. They learn how to describe ecological processes, measure abiotic and biotic factors, and identify plants within these ecosystems. Through the use of field notes and plant collections, students gain a deeper understanding of the plant biology and ecology of their local forest and bog habitats, and a heightened awareness of important environmental issues.

Acknowledgements Peter Ballin, retired VCC instructor, designed and lead these field trips for many years. Gordon McIntyre, current Science Department Head further developed and led these field trips.

Literature Cited Alaback, P.B. 1991: Comparative ecology of temperate rainforests of the Americas along analogous climatic gradients. Pages 399-412 in Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat, Volume 64.

Ballin P.J. 2004. Biology 061/071 Course Manual. VCC Press. Vancouver, BC, 277 pages.

Berris, C. and H. Breiddal .2004. Lighthouse Park Management Plan. Catherine Berris Associates Inc.http://www.westvancouver.net/uploadedFiles/Parks_and_Environment/Parks/ LHP_MANAGEMENT_PLAN.PDF. Accessed June 2, 2009.

British Columbia Ministry of Forests. 1991. Ecosystems of British Columbia. BC Ministry of Forests. http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Srs/SRseries.htm. Accessed May 30th, 2009

City of Richmond. 2009. Richmond Nature Park- About the Nature Park Richmond Nature Park, Richmond BC .http://www.richmond.ca/parksrec/ptc/naturepark/about.htm. Accessed October 24th, 2009.

David Suzuki Foundation. 2009. TemperateRainforests. http://www.davidsuzuki.org/Forests/Forests_101/Temperate_Forests.asp. Accessed May 27th, 2009.

Klinkenberg, B.2008.The Biodiversity of Richmond, BC. http://www.geog.ubc.ca/richmond/city/. Accessed October 20th, 2009

Pojar, J. MacKinnon, A. 1994. Plants of Coastal British Columbia including Washington, Oregon, Alaska. Lone Pine Publishing. Vancouver, BC, 527 pages.

West Vancouver. 2002. Lighthouse Park Guiding Trail. West Vancouver, BC

About the Authors Robyn Wood works at VCC as a Laboratory Demonstrator for Biology and Chemistry courses. Previously she worked as a Project Scientist in the Aquatic Toxicology labs at BC Research. She has a degree in Environmental Science and Toxicology from Simon Fraser University.

Hilary Brown graduated with a BSc (Biology) from Acadia University, Nova Scotia, specializing in microbiology and fish health. He works as a Laboratory Demonstrator at VCC in Biology, Chemistry and Physics.

Cherri McGarvie works as a Laboratory Demonstrator at Vancouver Community College (VCC) in the areas of Biology and Chemistry. Her passion for the Great Apes has led her to establish the Canadian version of the Great Ape Project (www.greatapeproject.ca). She has a degree in Biology with a major in Ecology.

Michael C. Robinson obtained a B.A. in Biology from the University of Western Ontario in 1969 and an M.Sc. in Zoology from the University of Alberta in 1972. Since that time he has worked as a professional biologist and educator. Highlights include beluga whale studies in the Beaufort Sea, salmonid enhancement projects on the west coast of British Columbia, environmental impact studies, pollution abatement studies, habitat creation projects and monitoring projects in various parts of Canada. He is currently teaching Biology courses at Vancouver Community College. Appendix A: Hummock Sampling Ladder Information and Field Note Outline

Hummock Sampling Datasheet Hummock Sampling Datasheet Group #: (w/example data) Names: Group #: Group 1 Names: Trial #: Top of Hummock Trial #:1 Top of Hummock Cultivated Blueberry Labrador Tea

Bog Laurel

Bog Cranberry

Hummock Sampling Ladder.

Created using 3mm rope and

Bottom of Hummock wooden doweling. The space Bottom of Hummock between each two dowels is 10cm.

Suggested Outline for Field Notes

Your Name Journal Page#

Year: Place, City, Region, Province:

Day and Month: Purpose of Trip:

Time: Weather Conditions:

Habitat:

Time: Describe what we are doing

If we do an experiment, describe, write hypothesis, methods and record data Time: As we move along, note any changes in location, habitat, conditions, activities Conclude trip, then summarize

Appendix 2: Wildlife Scavenger Hunt

Wildlife Tree Scavenger Hunt Old growth forests provide habitat and food for many animals. In this activity you will look for items listed on this checklist that represent habitat for wildlife.

 A nest (bird or mammal)  Woody debris  A perch for hunting birds  A tree with it’s top broken off, in use by wildlife  A fallen tree with evidence of animal use  Owl pellets  Lichen growing on logs  Lichen growing on other surfaces  Moss growing on logs  Fungi  Evidence of insect colonies/nests  Squirrel middens  Woodpecker holes  Nurse logs  Hollow trees with large cavities (habitat for animals?)  Wildlife tree in a sunny location\  Wildlife tree in a damp, shady location  Bird calls