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Report, Volume 2, Issue 1 (Fall 2011) Report West Point Undergraduate Historical Review Fall 2011 Volume 2, Issue 1 Report West Point Undergraduate Historical Review Volume 2, Issue 1 Fall 2011 Report West Point Undergraduate Historical Review Volume 2, Issue 1; Fall 2011 Editor-In-Chief Acknowledgments The Editorial Board would like to thank the Steven Stringfellow faculty of the History Department for their Military History submission recommendations, all the students who submitted papers, and Major Gregory Editors Tomlin for his extensive guidance and technical support. Without their help, Report would not Ellen Chamberlain have been possible. Literature; Russian Tara Lacson About The Review International History Report is a non-profit publication produced by undergraduate cadets at the United States Sean McQuade Military Academy. It accepts and encourages International History submissions from undergraduates year-round. Reproduction in whole or in part without written Sara Roger permission is prohibited. Military History On The Internet Kevin Rutherford Military History http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/report.html Julia Schemel Disclaimer American History The contents of Report, including words, images, and opinions, are unofficial and not to Founder be considered as the official views of the United Karl Schoch States Military Academy, the United States Class of 2011 Army, or the Department of Defense. Readers accept and agree to this disclaimer in the use of any information obtained from Report. Copyright and photocopying © 2011 Department of History United States Military Academy West Point, New York 10996 Table of Contents From The Editor Steven Stringfellow 1 THE MYTH OF THE RWANDAN GENOCIDE: WESTERN PERCEPTIONS OF AFRICAN TRIBALISM AND ETHNICITY Natalia Gruenbaum 3 LUPAE ET LENA: SEXUAL MORALITY IN THE ROMAN REPUBLIC Peter Mitchell 9 AMERICAN PHOENIX: THE RESPONSE TO ALEXANDER HAMILTON’S DEATH Shelton Proctor 15 THOUGH WAR BREAK OUT AGAINST ME: THE COURSE AND EFFECTS OF RELIGIOUS REVIVAL IN THE CONFEDERATE ARMIES Brian Sears 21 MONMOUTH: BATTLING THE ELEMENTS James Byrn 27 FAILURE TO FREE AN ENEMY: HOW THE DYNAMICS OF WWII PREVENTED THE SUCCESS OF OSS OPERATIONS IN HUNGARY Diane Leimbach 33 THE POWER OF INSPIRATION: HOW JOAN OF ARC TURNED THE TIDE OF THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR Thomas Richardson 49 From The Editor The cadet editorial staff is pleased to present the second issue of Report. Founded last spring, the journal seeks to provide a creative outlet for exemplary cadets whose work is unique in scope, skill, and ambition, encouraging the study of history as a medium through which we can better understand our own time. We hope that Report furthers West Point’s mission of producing creative and thoughtful leaders who can adapt to the challenges that face our army and nation. More so than perhaps ever before, our army relies on extensive cultural awareness, in tandem with conventional military techniques, to meet its challenges. In the words of this fall’s Thayer Award recipient, former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates: “language, regional and cultural skills are enduring warfighting competencies that are critical to mission readiness in today’s dynamic global environment.” Successful officers must understand their unique historical setting and appreciate the tremendous weight that their decisions may carry, addressing problems not with ingrained biases but, rather, with as clear and comprehensive an understanding as possible. In the words of our Cadet Prayer, we must simply endeavor “never to be content with a half truth when the whole can be won.” It is our hope that Report will do justice to our colleagues around the world who already epitomize this maxim. The following articles reflect this dedication. Natalia Gruenbaum’s novel analysis of the Rwandan Genocide reveals the grave consequences of making assumptions about the past in order to shirk one’s own responsibility for prior events. Peter Mitchell and Shelton Proctor investigate the intransience of cultural convictions, noting that no popular judgment is eternal. Brian Sears and James Byrn reevaluate such convictions in papers unique to the United States Military Academy: narratives of wartime events that grant credence to subjects who might otherwise have been forgotten. Finally, we present two award-winning senior theses from last year’s graduated class, the authors now both serving as lieutenants. Diane Leimbach’s study of the Office of Strategic Services in World War II and Thomas Richardson’s original work on Joan of Arc exemplify the depth of research and quality of writing that the best of history scholars strive for. We would like to thank the History Department, led by Colonel Lance Betros, for its continued leadership and financial support that allows cadets each year to pursue their passions and broaden their intellectual horizons. Steven J. Stringfellow Editor-in-Chief West Point, NY 1 THE MYTH OF THE RWANDAN GENOCIDE: WESTERN PERCEPTIONS OF AFRICAN TRIBALISM AND ETHNICITY BY NATALIA GRUENBAUM Natalia Gruenbaum is a senior studying International History at the United States Military Academy. She wrote this paper to fulfill her research requirement for a senior faculty course titled Race, Ethnicity, and the Nation. Her thesis will focus on gender and sexual violence during the Rwandan genocide. Gross international confusion occurred as a result of culturally- skewed reporting, and this constitutes one of the many tragedies of the 1994 Rwandan genocide. Headlines for major western newspapers reduced the complex nature of the conflict into simple terms that aligned with cultural bias and implied African primordialism.1 According to Allan Thompson’s The Media and the Rwanda Genocide, foreign correspondents, unable to communicate in the local language and ignorant of Rwandan culture, relied on phrases like “ancient ethnic warfare” and “tribal conflict” to describe the slaughter they witnessed but could not understand. Thompson argues that the international community understood Rwanda as “little more than brutal tribalism [since] words like ‘ethnic’ or ‘tribal’” appeared interchangeably in almost all major news sources. 2 He suggests that the media “fixated on tribal differences because that reinforced ideas about African primitivism.”3 In their rush to publish stories, journalists failed to uncover the root of the conflict and hastily summarized the genocide as the remnants of pre-colonial conflict.4 The careless use of terms like “ethnic” and “tribal” played into stereotypes of inherent African weakness and created a discourse for the Rwandan genocide that journalists and historians alike cannot escape. The western media misrepresented the Hutu-Tutsi conflict as ancient or pre- colonial when, in fact, it sprung directly from European racialization practices during the twentieth century which resulted in the creation of a Hutu ethnicity. 1 See The New York Times Archives for a listing of headlines concerning the 1994 Rwandan genocide to include “Terror Convulses Rwandan Capital as Tribes Battle,” “Peace Talks a Casualty of Tribal War in Rwandan Capital,” and “Tribes Battle for Rwandan Capital.” Available at : http://query.nytimes.com/search. 2 Allan Thomas, The Media and the Rwanda Genocide (London: Pluto, 2007), 265. 3 Ibid. 4 Ibid., 263. 3 4 : Report In the media, the word “tribal” was most often used to describe the Rwandan genocide since it fit nicely into European stereotypes of non-Arab Africa. In his chapter titled “Terminology Chaos,” the political scientist Walker Connor addresses the common misuse of this term and attempts to deliver a clear definition. He explains that, in its application, tribes more closely resemble nations than ethnicities since tribalism “constitute[s] separate nations or potential nations in and by themselves.”5 In addition, Connor makes the claim that separate tribes are as psychologically and tangibly different as France and Germany, for example.6 According to the Rwandan scholar Peter Uvin, the Hutu and the Tutsi could not qualify as tribes since they “spoke the same language, believed in the same god, shared the same culture, and lived side by side by the time Europeans arrived.”7 Even though the contemporary western media perceived the genocide as remnants of “ancient tribal warfare,” the homogeneity of pre-colonial Rwandan society disproves this assumption since clear distinctions between the two groups did not exist. Although Hutu and Tutsi labels existed prior to colonialism, they indicated class rather than ethnic difference. After the fourteenth century, Hutu and Tutsi developed into labor titles as the state expanded and groups “were incorporated as Hutu if they were predominantly farmers, or as Tutsi if they were predominantly herders, and aristocrats of both ‘groups’ were assimilated and intermarried with the old aristocracy.”8 Classification did not hold political implication and the two groups assimilated thoroughly through marriage. The author of “Contested Identities,” Villa Jefremovas, concludes that pre-colonial Rwanda “was never one single coherent unit with two tribes, but rather a state created by conquest and assimilation.”9 For tribalism to have existed in pre-colonial Rwanda, it would have required that each group retain its distinctiveness and avoid amalgamation, neither of which occurred. Since ancient Rwanda did not contain two separate tribes with distinct differences, it could not have experienced pre-colonial tribal warfare as journalists in the 1990s reported. Although anthropologists, social scientists, and historians
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