BiocontrolNews and Information 2003 Vol. 24 No. 3 47N–62N

General News

Who Gains from Water Monitoring has been conducted since the • Fishing: more difficult to throw nets Hyacinth Biocontrol? project began and for many years impact was (48%), fish populations reduced (43%) uncertain. More recently Neochetina eich- and acajas destroyed (14%). A pioneering study* of the socio-economic horniae in particular has begun to reduce • Health (47%) including itching (32%), impact of water hyacinth (Eichhornia water hyacinth cover and formerly aban- malaria (11%) and aches and pains crassipes) and its biocontrol in Benin found doned fishing grounds have been reclaimed. (9%). that control had brought about substantial benefits for the local population and thus Local Opinion Rates Biocontrol Benefits • Water quality (33%). the nation as a whole. Perhaps as impor- Some positive effects were also recorded: tantly, it developed methodology that may Wetland systems are complex and so is their the weed is useful as a fertilizer (31%) and be adapted for assessments of other inva- economic valuation because different stake- helps conserve soil moisture (16%). Its sive species. holders may value them for different rea- medicinal value was recognized by 6% of sons and scientists place yet more values on • Participatory methods, including group respondents. them. This study focused specifically on the discussions and individual discussions, utilitarian value of the ecosystem to the The division of labour between men and were used in a preliminary, qualitative communities that rely on it. Based on the women is quite specific in this area: men do survey to assess where and how the results of a preliminary participatory study, most of the fishing and agriculture, while classical biological control programme a quantitative household survey was devel- women are responsible for transport and had made an impact. oped. The study area was defined as the trade. Agriculture was the most important • Based on the results, a socio-economic flood plain between the Sô and Ouémé activity for men (64% put it first and 10% survey was developed to record rivers in southern Benin and, using a two- second) followed by fishing (30% and perceptions on water hyacinth and stage random sampling design, a represent- 57%). For women trading is by far the most quantitative estimates of economic loss ative sample of 192 households from 24 vil- important activity, with food crops rated from a representative sample of lages was selected. In total, 190 men and mostimportantby54%andfishby23%, stakeholders living on the infested 171 women (one wife chosen at random while 18% give agriculture as their main waterways and deriving livelihoods from each household) were interviewed activity. It is not surprising, given these from farming, fishing and trading. concerning their perceptions of the develop- gender differences, that there were marked ment and importance of the water hyacinth discrepancies in how men and women Classical International Biocontrol infestation. They were asked what impact it described the economic impact of the weed. Cooperation had had on them and to rank these impacts More men than women perceived water Water hyacinth was first observed in West in importance. They were asked to name hyacinth to have an economic impact. Africa in the late 1970s and within a their major economic activities and indicate However, although 70% of men said it had decade it had become a serious pest. In par- whether water hyacinth had had an impact an impact on fishing, few reported any ticular it was a major threat to the highly on these. Lastly they were asked to estimate impact on trade and agriculture (6% alto- productive coastal creek and lagoon sys- how this translated into income before and gether). On the other hand women saw the tems from which many people derive a at the peak of water hyacinth infestations, greatest impact to be on trade, especially of livelihood, particularly in Côte d’Ivoire, and at the time of the survey in 1999. fish (19%) and food crops (9%). For Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria. women, the impact of water hyacinth was Although a number of reports and anec- The study area is a complex of rivers and mostly felt in the extra effort and time that dotal evidence suggest that there has been lagoons, interspersed with banks and eleva- they had to put in to take their little boats to a substantial reduction in water hyacinth, tions, and agriculture, fishing and trading the markets, through the mats of floating the efficacy of the control and its economic are the most important activities. Its shallow water hyacinth. They commented that benefits remain controversial. waters are amongst the most productive in although their income from trade did not the world, and over time the population has decrease much, it took a lot more time and This study focused on southern Benin, developed a system of artificial breeding effort to generate that income, and occa- where three natural enemies (Neochetina grounds, or ‘acajas’, consisting of wooden sionally they would lose their produce eichhorniae, N. bruchi and Niphograpta (= stakes sunk into the mud in the shallow when they could not get through. Sameodes) albiguttalis) had been released water. At harvest, these are surrounded by between 1991 and 1994. All the agents nets and the fish inside them trapped. With Similar gender differences emerged when were obtained from CSIRO (Common- few access roads to the villages, water is respondents estimated financial losses, wealth Scientific and Industrial Research also the most important means of transport with men mostly affected by fishing, and Organisation) in Australia, quarantined by and is thus vital to trading. women by trade. Summarizing the replies, CABI Bioscience in the UK, and released men’s annual income from fishing dropped by IITA (International Institute of Tropical The villagers’ dependence on waterways to 31% of pre-infestation levels at the peak Agriculture) together with the Benin Direc- was reflected in their perceptions of the of the infestation, but recovered to just tion de Pêche (Ministry of Rural Develop- effects of water hyacinth. Impacts in order under 60% of the pre-infestation level by ment) assisted by the Project Pêche of importance (% respondents) are: 1999, largely owing to reduced water hya- Lagunaire, which was supported by the cinth cover which allowed fishing grounds German aid agency GTZ (Gesellschaft für • Transport (70%) including increased to be exploited again. Women’s income Technische Zusammenarbeit). travelling time to market (30%). from trading fish and food crops dropped to

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26% and 62%, respectively, of pre-infesta- The benefit-cost analysis compares the This question has arisen in Queensland, tion levels. By 1999, trade in food crops financial benefits to the people of southern Australia, because the lantana treehopper, had largely recovered (to 92% of pre-infes- Benin with the cost of the international Aconophora compressa,hasstarted tation income) but fish trade was slower to research and implementation programme. attacking fiddlewood trees (Citharexylum re-establish, remaining at 34% of pre-infes- The study does not attempt to quantify other spinosum) in southeast Queensland and tation levels. benefits such as health and water quality. some regional areas of eastern Australia. Furthermore, like many classical biocontrol Fiddlewoods are West Indian trees that One unanticipated feature was a consistent programmes in Africa, the knowledge and were widely planted as shade and screen skewed distribution in income from dif- technology generated has been ‘exported’ trees in Brisbane and elsewhere in Australia ferent activities in these communities. along with weevils and adapted for other in the 1970s and 1980s. They are no longer Although most people earn very small countries at little additional cost. popular because they are untidy and history amounts a few make relatively large has shown that the roots damage pipes and incomes. This led to large variation, for This study has implications beyond the underground cables. They have, in fact, example with standard deviation of up to boundaries of biocontrol. The economics of been placed on the 'undesirable species’ list eight times the mean for women’s fish invasive species, of which water hyacinth is by the Brisbane City Council and other trading income. The study implementers a well-known example, are poorly under- local councils, as well as by several state notethatalargersamplesizewouldhave stood, but with international agreements authorities. The tree has also become an allowed the standard deviation to be such as the Convention on Biodiversity invasive weed in Hawaii and the environ- reduced: surveying 450 households, for now in place governments are faced with mentally sensitive Galapagos Islands. example, would bring standard errors responsibilities for managing them. They below 15% of the estimated value. need to be able to carry out impact assess- Lantana is a major invasive plant from Cen- Variation notwithstanding, the reduction in ments and estimate the effects of various tral and South America. It already affects water hyacinth and its benefits to the local strategies, yet there is very little guidance over 4 million hectares of coastal and sub- inhabitants are clear to them. The reason for available on how to do this. This study of coastal Queensland and New South Wales, the reduction is not so widely known, with the costs of water hyacinth and benefits of and is still spreading. It is toxic to stock and only about a fifth of the respondents aware biocontrol in southern Benin is the first displaces useful pasture species. Lantana is of the biocontrol programme. However, impactassessmentofbiocontrolthatuses spread by birds into native woodland, increased publicity about the biocontrol participatory methods and gender-specific where its dense thickets smother native success will bring better public awareness. data from household surveys. It is therefore vegetation and prevent rainforest regenera- significant and timely, providing novel tion. There has been an active biocontrol Benefits Outweigh Costs ideas and useful methodology. Thus, in programme against lantana in Australia answer to the question in the title to this 1 Using the results from the surveys and since 1914 . Aconophora compressa was article, many people in Benin and beyond knowledge of households gained from the introduced from Mexico as a biocontrol gained, and will continue to gain, from the survey and a recent census, the combined agent against lantana by the Queensland biocontrol programme against water hya- economic losses from water hyacinth at the Government in 1995. Releases of this agent cinth led by IITA. peak of infestation were calculated to be ceased in December 2001. US$2151 per household per year, and bio- *De Groote, H.; Ajuonu, O.; Attignon, S.; When this membracid was host-tested in control had an annual impact of $783 per Djessou, R.; Neuenschwander, P. (2003) 1993-4, fiddlewood, which is in the same household. Extrapolating these figures to Economic impact of biological control of family (Verbenaceae) as lantana, was not the entire region, the regional economic water hyacinth in southern Benin. Ecolog- included on the official or approved test list. loss was calculated to be $83.9 million/ ical Economics 45, 105-117. Under the Australian system, the test list year, and the increase following (and there- was approved by all states and territories as fore the benefit of) biocontrol $30.5 mil- Contact: Hugo De Groote well as by the federal authorities, none of lion. Because of the large variation between Current address: CIMMYT, whom suggested the addition of the genus households, the sampling error is large and PO Box 25171, Nairobi, Kenya Citharexylum. The plant was overlooked this figure must be treated with caution. Email: [email protected] possibly because it was no longer being sold However, the 95% confidence interval falls Fax: +254 2 52 4601 by most nurseries, the extent of its orna- between $17 million and $44 million. mental use was not known or documented, Extrapolating the annual benefit over 20 Peter Neuenschwander, and because it did not appear in regional years, with depreciation of 10% annually, a Plant Health Management Division, floras as it had not naturalized. Several other total benefit of $260 million is reached IITA, BP 08-0932 Cotonou, Benin genera in the family Verbenaceae were (with a 95% confidence interval of $145- Email: [email protected] tested, but only Duranta, another orna- 375 million). This is argued to be a good Fax: +229 350 556 mental genus from Mexico, and which is conservative estimate since the full effect ❑ also often weedy, supported development to of biocontrol may be to come. adulthood, albeit in very low numbers. The The costs of biocontrol are easier to esti- Putting a Price on Exotic one or two herbaceous species in the family mate. Rearing the weevils uses little space Ornamentals Verbenaceae possibly native to Australia and simple equipment, thus most of the were tested and not fed upon. The bug was costs were for labour. Between 1991 and How important is an exotic (i.e. a non- therefore approved under the national 1998, IITA, GTZ and local organizations’ native) ornamental tree in people’s back- system as safe to release in 19952. Females labour costs were some $2.09 million (cal- yards? The answer is “very important if it is lay a batch of eggs, containing between 30 culated with depreciation). Comparing this a large feature tree in your garden.” How- and 50 eggs, but stay with the developing to the estimated benefit of $260 million, the ever, what importance should it be given by nymphs until maturity before moving off to benefit cost ratio is 124:1 (or, taking the governments (state or federal) when making oviposit again. Nymphs take about 7 weeks 95% confidence interval into account, decisions regarding the importation of to complete development and adults live for between 69:1 and 180:1). organisms for biological control of weeds? up to 6 months. News 49N

After release, the bug established slowly on tool we have to manage serious environ- Email: [email protected] lantana in the Brisbane area, but large and mental weeds such as lantana. Biocontrol Fax: +61 7 3896 9623 damaging populations began to build up in programmes have led to the control of **Queensland Department of Natural spring in 2001 and 2002. Unfortunately, hot groundsel bush (Baccharis halimifolia), Resources & Mines, weather (daily maxima above 37ºC) in both rubber vine (Cryptostegia grandiflora), and Alan Fletcher Research Station, summers killed the bugs, and A. compressa the serious aquatic weeds water hyacinth PO Box 36, Sherwood, Qld 4075, Australia was thought to be a failure in the Brisbane (Eichhornia crassipes) and salvinia (Sal- Email: [email protected] or region. However, the 2002/03 summer was vinia molesta) in Queensland, among many [email protected] mild and the populations have steadily other successes in the last 30 years. Any Fax: +61 7 3379 6815 increased since on lantana. Whilst this gave cost-benefit study would probably have encouragement in regard to its value as a concluded that the damage to fiddlewoods, ❑ biocontrol agent for lantana in the Brisbane andthecostoftreatinghighlyvaluedtrees area, there was a significant escalation of by stem injection or other methods or Know your Foe: Closing earlier observations (1999, 2001 and 2002) replacing the trees by other more desirable the Net on a Thorny that fiddlewood trees also appeared to be an shade trees, would be far outweighed by the Invader attractive host plant. In many areas, much benefits from improved control of lantana. larger and more damaging populations of However, the identification of the fiddle- European blackberry (Rubus fruticosus the bug are occurring in 2003 on fiddle- wood tree as a host at that time may have agg.) occupies nearly 9 million hectares of woods than on lantana. It seems that fiddle- triggered specific research on stem injec- Australia following multiple introductions wood is less affected by dry conditions, tion or other treatment measures before the since the 1800s. This ‘Weed of National probably because it is a tree, with better release of the agent was made. Significance’ consumes land used for pas- sap-flow than lantana. ture, forestry, recreation and conservation In 1995-dollar terms, weeds cost Australia and is difficult to control. The European Fiddlewood trees planted 20 or 30 years approximately A$3.3 billion per year and leaf rust fungus, Phragmidium violaceum, earlier are now prized features in some gar- biocontrol is by far the most cost-effective was first reported in Australia in 1984 fol- dens, and the damage to the trees is causing weapon. It is also probably the only method lowing an unauthorized release of unknown a great deal of community concern and for environmental weeds such as lantana, origin. In 1991 and 1992, strain F15 of P. media interest. The large bug populations since use of chemical or mechanical control violaceum, collected from central France, are causing problems other than the is simply not feasible, economically or was released specifically for biological damage to the fiddlewoods: the abundant environmentally, over the huge areas control. The impact of the rust fungus has honeydew is killing lawns, damaging already invaded. Should damage to an been spectacular in some locations, but plants beneath the tree and staining laundry exotic ornamental such as fiddlewood even when the weather is favourable for (apparently, bugs are attracted to white (brought in to the country, sold and widely rust epidemics some blackberry biotypes clothes), and there have been reports that planted without any controls on the escape severe disease. the bugs are even taking sample bites from process) be allowed to prevent possible people if they land on them. They are also successful control of lantana? In Europe the R. fruticosus aggregate com- leaving the fiddlewood trees as branches prises numerous apomictic species (i.e. The question is difficult and depends on the die back and are moving onto adjacent they reproduce without fertilization) that perspective. We cannot ignore community garden shrubs, especially Duranta varie- are closely related. Phenotypic plasticity concerns – the political backlash has the ties. However, this spillover of the bug onto may be high and morphological variants potential to threaten future use of biocon- other garden plants should only be tempo- can arise by hybridization between species. trol. However, we need to learn from the rary. The bugs are not able to maintain pop- A consensus in the taxonomic treatment of Aconophora incident, and be better pre- ulations on these other plants, and should Rubus in Europe, let alone in Australia, has pared to respond to similar issues in the disappear once the nearby dense popula- not been reached. The increasing availa- future.Whenaninsectlikelytodamage tions on fiddlewood or lantana have stabi- bility of DNA tools was a prime reason for ornamentals is approved for release, an lized at lower levels. This kind of spill-over a revival of the biocontrol programme of appropriate communication plan and rec- damage happened when the cactoblastis weedy blackberry in 1996 by the Coopera- ommendations for control should be devel- moth (Cactoblastis cactorum) was first tive Research Centre for Australian Weed oped before any release is made. released back in 1930. Very large numbers Management (Weeds CRC). A primary of cactoblastis larvae developed in the 1Julien, M.H.; Griffiths, M.W. (1998) Bio- objective was the selection of additional prickly pear (Opuntia spp.) and in several logical control of weeds. A world catalogue rust strains in Europe to match the range of places there was damage to tomatoes, of agents and their target weeds, 4th ed. blackberry biotypes in Australia, a task that melons and pumpkins. Once the cactob- Wallingford, UK; CABI Publishing. depended on adequate characterization of lastis populations fell, there has been no the weed host and rust pathogen. 2Palmer, W.A.; Willson, B.W.; Pullen, more damage to tomatoes or other crops in K.R. (1996) The host range of Aconophora Weeds CRC researcher Kathy Evans and the 70 years since. compressa Walker (Homoptera: Mem- her colleagues made at least 200 collections Since host specificity testing aims to test bracidae): a potential biological control of the R. fruticosus agg. across Australia and species closely related to the target weed, if agent for Lantana camara L. (Verben- identified 49 DNA phenotypes using an the scientists had realized in 1993 that there aceae). Proceedings of the Entomological M13 RFLP (restriction fragment length pol- were considerable numbers of fiddlewood Society of Washington 98, 617-624. ymorphism) technique. A form of geno- trees in Brisbane, the tree would have been typing or DNA fingerprinting, the M13 By: Rachel McFadyen*, Michael Day** & included in the test list. The host tests probe detects length variants in minisatellite Bill Palmer** would have shown that the bug can develop DNA sequences when the probe is hybrid- and breed on fiddlewood, and this might *Chief Executive Officer, ized to genomic DNA digested with a have prevented the release of the agent. But CRC for Australian Weed Management, restriction enzyme. The term DNA pheno- would this have been right? Biocontrol is Block B, 80 Meiers Road, type, rather than genotype, is used to reflect by far the safest and most cost-effective Indooroopilly Qld 4068, Australia that only a proportion of the genome is 50N BiocontrolNews and Information 2003 Vol. 24 No. 3 detected by the DNA probe. Two plants that released in Australia soon. This requires • Trade: massive increase in herbicide have different DNA phenotypes are geneti- that weed managers identify which species use has been detrimental to the cally different, but may still belong to the of blackberry they are dealing with. DNA marketing of the crop, particularly in same taxonomic species. However, RFLP identikits for field use are still a dream, so Europe, where the European Union has analyses revealed that two blackberry plants Kathy Evans has teamed up with Bill and already rejected exports of Assam tea sharing the same DNA phenotype were very Robyn Barker from the State Herbarium of owing to herbicide residues. likely to be the same species. South Australia to develop a computer- • Biodiversity: mikania smothers natural driven, user-friendly tool to distinguish With the help of taxonomist D. E. Symon of forest and wetland grazing ecosystems. between cultivated, native and invasive the State Herbarium of South Australia, and blackberry species. Funded by the National The weed first emerged as a problem in tea specialist European Rubus taxonomists H. Heritage Trust, this web-based, interactive in Assam in the 1940s, but in recent dec- E. Weber of the University of Vechta, Ger- tool is expected to be available in 2004, fol- ades its importance has escalated owing to manyandA.NewtonofExmouthinthe lowing trials with land managers and com- large-scale degradation of natural forests, UK, 33 of the 49 DNA phenotypes identi- munity groups across southern Australia. from which stronghold it can invade tea fied were correlated positively to 14 taxa or gardens, which has led to the escalation in R. fruticosus 'species' of the aggregate. The The battle against blackberry in Australia is herbicide use. More recently, mikania 16 undetermined DNA phenotypes were far from over, but better understanding of arrivedintheWesternGhatsrangein either new biotypes that have evolved in the taxonomy of Rubus and the identifica- southwestern India where it poses an Australia, biotypes that have not yet been tion of the pathogenic rust strains, under- immediate threat to natural and agricultural recognized or characterized in Europe, or pinned by DNA typing, is helping to close ecosystems, and may spread further. biotypes that no longer exist in Europe. The the net on this thorny invader. outcome of the taxonomic revision, based Current control measures focus on slashing primarily on morphology but confirmed Contact: Dr Kathy Evans, Tasmanian Insti- and herbicides but these are expensive, using DNA technology, is that ten names tute of Agricultural Research, University of ineffective and unsustainable, and can be can now be applied for the first time to Tasmania, 13 St Johns Avenue, New environmentally damaging. The initial exotic Rubus material collected in Australia. Town, TAS 7008, Australia phase of this DFID (UK Department for Email: [email protected] International Development) funded collab- A significant outcome of this taxonomic Fax: +61 3 6233 6145 orative project (1996-2000) involved three revision of Rubus was the determination institutions in India, Kerala Forest that the most common and widespread ❑ Research Institute (KFRI), Project Directo- weedy blackberry in Australia was R. rate of Biological Control, Bangalore anglocandicans. The DNA phenotype of Can the ‘Green Tidal (PDBC) and Assam Agricultural Univer- five collections of R. anglocandicans in Wave’ of Asia Be sity, and CABI Bioscience,UK.Their England matched exactly the DNA type of investigation into the potential for an IPM 97% of samples (n = 76) of R. anglocandi- Curtailed? approach to mikania control in the Western cans collected across Australia. This weedy Mikania micrantha (mikania or mile-a- Ghats included mapping the distribution taxon in Australia can now be distinguished minute weed) has earned the epithet ‘green and monitoring the spread of the weed, from R. armeniacus,thecommonweedy tidal wave’ for the speed with which it can assessing its socio-economic impact on European blackberry in the Pacific-North- envelop Asian hillsides of tea and forest. subsistence agriculture, and evaluating western region of the USA and some parts An inception workshop in New Delhi in fungal pathogens as biological control of New Zealand. June 2003 signalled the start of the imple- agents (as mycoherbicides and for classical Another important application of the DNA mentation phase of a biological control introductions). typing tool has been the identification of project against this invasive alien weed in Surveys in India found no indigenous nat- Rubus clones in pathogenicity studies with India. The project is developing a biolog- ural enemies with potential as control strains of the rust fungus. The DNA 'finger- ical control component to fit into an IPM agents for mikania. However mikania is print' of each Rubus clone is analogous to strategy being developed against mikania. rarely a weed in its native range in the bar coding consumer goods in the retail It is the first time that a plant pathogen has Americas and natural enemies are seen to sector. Regardless of their taxonomic been approved for importation into India as exert a significant pressure on the occur- status, this technology enabled the identifi- a prospective weed biocontrol agent, and as rence and abundance of the species, so the cation of plant propagation material with such the workshop was a landmark event. weed was considered to be an ideal candi- certainty. The M13 DNA typing tool was However, the project has some way to go date for classical biological control (CBC) also applied to strains of P. violaceum,to before an application for field release can using co-evolved natural enemies from confirm that genetically different rust be considered. their common area of origin. Characteriza- strains were being assayed and for prelimi- tion of worldwide populations of mikania nary studies of the genetic diversity of the Mikania is a neotropical invasive weed that using AFLP (amplified fragment length rust population in Australia. A major out- has wide-ranging impacts in the tropical polymorphism) analysis indicated that the come of the research was the development moist zones of northeast and southwest weed has a relatively narrow genetic base of a differential set of Rubus clones for India affecting: in tropical Asia but is highly variable in its characterizing the virulence phenotype of • Agricultural productivity and native range. This supports the evidence in each strain of P. violaceum, thus stream- smallholder livelihoods: it invades the literature of a small number of delib- lining the selection process for additional agroforestry systems, plantations and erate introductions of the plant (perhaps rust strains. An unexpected outcome of home gardens. Teak, tea, pineapple and four in India) as a cover crop and as airfield population-genetic studies was evidence to plantain are particularly susceptible. In camouflage during World War II. As well suggest that strain F15 is not well estab- tea, it has additional impact because it as confirming the history of its introduction lished in Australia today. is an alternate host for the tea mosquito to India, the results suggest that there is a The next challenge is to monitor the fate of (Helopeltis sp.), a mirid that causes leaf good chance of successful CBC throughout additional strains of P. violaceum to be curl in the crop. the exotic range, using a single or limited News 51N number of natural enemies. Fungal patho- strains from northeast India that are only epiphytotics within weed infestations of types are highly specific within species and semi-susceptible to the Trinidadian isolate agroforestry and natural ecosystems. different pathotypes may be needed to con- of P. spegazzinii and they could thus be • Aninundativestrategyislikelytobe trol each genetic type in the introduced considered as alternative agents for beneficial in Assam, where mikania is a range. However, if the invasive population mikania in this part of India also. problem particularly in tea gardens. comes from a limited number of introduc- The first phase of the project culminated in The inundative approach requires tions it will contain a restricted number of a workshop held at KFRI in November mass-production of inoculum in genetic types, which may be controlled by 1999attendedbylocalandregionalscien- propagation units during the dry season a few pathotypes. tists involved in the control of invasive and mass releases when the rains start. An evaluation of the broad range of fungal weeds [see BNI 23(2), 53N (June 2002), This is considerably more labour pathogens recorded on mikania from its Indian invasive forest weeds] which recom- intensive and thus expensive than the neotropical native range led to the selection mended inter alia the development of an inoculative approach outlined above, of three rust species for further assessment. implementation phase including an applica- but enables the rust to be quickly tion for the introduction of P. spegazzinii.A establishedinhighvaluecropssuchas Puccinia spegazzinii was identified as the dossier was subsequently produced by tea. By diverting into rust production prime candidate for introduction into CABI Bioscience, for the Indian collabora- labour that would otherwise be needed southern India as a classical biocontrol tors, containing detailed data on the infor- for clearing mikania, the agent could agent. It is a common and damaging path- mation summarized above concerning P. feasibly be deployed in sufficient ogen on mikania in the Neotropics, but is spegazzinii, as required by the Code of Con- quantities early enough in the season to not found in the exotic range of the weed. duct for the Import and Release of Exotic overcome the natural lag phase so that Eleven isolates of the rust from five coun- Biological Control Agents, 1996 (Interna- disease spread becomes exponential in tries (Brazil, Costa Rica, Argentina, tional Standards for Phytosanitary Meas- time to stem the ‘green tide’ before it Trinidad & Tobago and Ecuador) were ures (ISPM) No. 3). This was submitted to gets going. evaluated. The pathogen demonstrated the relevant quarantine authorities in India, intra-species specificity, each isolate only In the long term it may prove unnecessary and permission for PDBC to import the rust to continue with the inundative releases infecting a selected number of genotypes of into quarantine in India was approved in its host. However, one pathotype from since, if the rust is successful, the weed October 2002, opening the way for the population should substantially decline Trinidad (W1761) proved to be virulent implementation phase to commence. against a wide range of Indian isolates of throughout its exotic range to an extent that the weed, infecting all those tested from the A quarantine facility at PDBC is under con- it would no longer be considered invasive. Western Ghats, and hence was selected for struction, scheduled for completion later this A significant bonus in Assam, both eco- intensive screening. This pathotype was year. In the meantime, PDBC and KFRI will nomically and environmentally, should be shown to be totally specific to M. begin studies on the rust at the NBPGR a reduction of herbicide use in tea gardens. micrantha (55 non-target species have been (National Bureau of Plant Genetic A crucial part of this project will be a tested, including many important crop spe- Resources) quarantine facilities in New farmer and forest department information cies in India), as well as highly damaging Delhi, by agreement with the Director, using campaign. As the project to fund the first (leaf, petiole and stem infections leading to material supplied by CABI Bioscience. pathogen to be intentionally released in cankering and whole -plant death). In addi- The workplan for this phase of the project India against a weed, it is seen as essential tion, the rust has a broad environmental tol- will begin by ensuring that material is pure to engage with local stakeholders, to ensure erance (able to infect after less than 10 h and hyperparasite-free and by conducting they are fully aware of what is happening, dew at temperatures of 15-25ºC). It is an further host specificity testing to confirm and understand the principles and implica- obligate biotroph, surviving only on living that the rust is safe for India, after which an tions of the release of the rust. Socio-eco- plant material: if infected plant material is application for a permit to release can be nomic studies undertaken in Phase I dried, the rust is rendered non-viable. How- made. This will include public consultation, showed that many farmers are aware of bio- ever, although the Trinidadian isolate of P. in conjunction with the Indian Directorate logical control and are supportive of the use spegazzinii infected almost all collections of Plant Quarantine and Storage (DPQ&S), of fungal pathogens, but the campaign aims of M. micrantha from the Old World, and to ensure that local people are reassured that to expand on the understanding within the ten target populations in the Western indigenous plants, e.g. medicinals and tree farming communities and will promote the Ghats tested were fully susceptible, some crops, are not under threat from the path- release of the rust fungus, analogous to the collections from Assam proved to be not ogen. Methods and facilities for mass pro- community-based approach of countries fully susceptible to this strain. Since then, ducing will be developed, together with a with long experience of weed biocontrol, newly discovered Peruvian and Ecuadorian system for transporting the material to such as Australia. Wide dissemination is strains of P. spegazzinii have excited Assam and Kerala where further bulking up seen as essential to promote the broadest interest, as all the northeastern Indian bio- will be carried out. possible uptake of the outputs of this types so far tested are fully susceptible to project, and lay the foundations to aid them, and they are currently being consid- Two distinct release strategies may be implementation of other biological control ered as additional agents. required: programmes in the future. Two Dietelia species, D. portoricensis • An inoculative strategy will be used for The project will establish monitoring plots from Costa Rica and Dietelia sp.nov.from the Western Ghats and Assam, adopting in Kerala and Assam for impact assess- Mexico, are also being maintained in CABI a low-tech approach of placing pots of ment. Biocontrol scientists tend to be reluc- Bioscience quarantine as ‘reserve’ candi- rust-infected plants, with young tant to forecast success for individual dates. Preliminary studies found them to be pustules, at strategic points and at introductions; history contains too many as damaging to their host as P. spegazzinii, optimum times for infection, within disappointments. However, in this case andtheyhavealsoonlybeenrecordedfrom severely weed-infested areas. This they are optimistic from both field observa- M. micrantha. Importantly, the Dietelia approach requires minimum human tions within mikania’s native range and species fully infected some of the mikania input and is suitable for initiating glasshouse investigations that P. spe- 52N BiocontrolNews and Information 2003 Vol. 24 No. 3 gazzinii could indeed prove to be a rare trol of Japanese knotweed (Fallopia • The Welsh Development Agency ‘silver bullet’. They predict that, if released japonica) may be a turning point for biolog- predicts that knotweed will cover some in the moist forest region of the Western ical control in the UK, and even Europe. The 800 ha of Wales within 8 years, and Ghats, the rust would establish and spread 4-year initiative, which is being funded by that the cost of treatment will escalate rapidly under the prevailing environmental Cornwall County Council, the South West to more than £76 million by 2010. conditions, and should unilaterally exert a of England Regional Development Agency, A recent DEFRA review of non-native spe- significant effect on the abundance and the Welsh Development Agency, British cies policy in the UK gave a conservative spread of mikania populations within a few Waterways, the Environment Agency, Net- estimate for knotweed control across the growing seasons. In the long term (5-10 work Rail and DEFRA (UK Department for whole of the UK using existing approaches years or more), they predict that the growth Environment, Farming and Rural Affairs), is of £1.56 billion, if it were to be attempted. and fecundity of mikania would be severely the first project with the specific aim of reduced over a significant part of its range. developing biological control for an invasive Alternative technologies were needed. Dis- The weed, thus, should no longer pose a weed in Europe and the first in the world to cussions with scientists from CABI Bio- threat to the agricultural economy of the research the potential for the biological con- science, which has global experience of infested regions, and the agent would there- trol of Japanese knotweed. biological control spanning 70 years, con- fore contribute to alleviation of poverty in The story behind Japanese knotweed’s vinced them that biological control may subsistence farmers, by increasing crop emergence as an invasive weed will strike hold the best long-term prospects for con- yields and/or reducing time spent on chords with weed biocontrol scientists taining the weed. weeding. Equally important, the rust would around the world. It was first introduced to perform a significant role in the conserva- Biological control has never been used Britain in the 19th century as an ornamental tion of biodiversity of natural forest ecosys- against a weed in Europe. Historically, the plant, and was actually awarded a gold tems by reducing the impact of mikania in continent has been more a source of inva- medal at a European flower show as best these habitats. sive weeds than a victim of their effects. It newcomer. These plaudits were in short has been a rich source for biological control While work in India has been in progress supply within a few years once botanists programmes against weeds exported (albeit for some years, alarm about the ‘green tide’ realized exactly what an unwelcome guest inadvertently) to the southern hemisphere has also been emerging in other Asian it was, and this year the plant won a gold at and North America, with over 380 releases countries. Growing recognition of the the UK's premier flower show when used of biocontrol agents sourced from Euro- threat this invasive weed poses in China led by the Cornwall Knotweed Forum to high- pean Union member states. But although to an initiative between CABI Bioscience, light its dangers. Europe is home to a wide range of biocon- Guangdong Agricultural Institute and the Japanese knotweed is now a major problem trol expertise, efforts to interest European Institute of Biological Control, Chinese in Cornwall (England’s most southwesterly governments in biological control have Academy of Agricultural Sciences. county) and Wales, with sand dunes, for- only recently begun to succeed. Invasive Funding has been secured under the ests, riverbanks, canals, waterways, road weeds, largely escaped ornamentals, have Darwin Initiative of DEFRA (UK Depart- verges, railway embankments, sites of high begun to emerge as an intractable problem ment for Environment, Farming and Rural heritage value and potential development in Europe for a variety of reasons [see BNI Affairs), and work will begin in Guang- sitesinmanyareaschokedbytheweed. 22(3), 54N-56N (September 2001) Europe dong Province, China in October this year. Capable of growing from tiny fragments, acts on invasive alien weeds]. At the same Contact: Carol Ellison or Sean Murphy, the plants form large stands, smothering time, the obligations placed on signatories CABI Bioscience, Silwood Park, habitats and threatening wildlife. The weed to the CBD (Convention on Biological Ascot, Berks SL5 7TA, UK also creates a major problem on ‘brown Diversity) mean that governments must act Email: [email protected] or field’ (re-development) sites where it can to control invasive alien species that [email protected] add 10% or more to a developer’s cost. Its threaten biodiversity. Taken together these Fax: +44 1491 829123 extensive below-ground root system can have given invasive weeds an unprece- cause structural damage, capable of dented high political profile in Europe. Dr R.J. Rabindra, Director, breaking up concrete and tarmac, and soil Project Directorate of Biological Control In the UK Japanese knotweed is particu- has to be excavated to a depth of 4.5 m to (Indian Council of Agricultural Research), larly resilient, which makes it all the harder ensure no fragments remain before building PB No. 2491, HA Farm Post, Bellary Road, to control. This resilience can be attributed can begin. Hebbal, Bangalore 560 024, in part to an absence of its natural enemies, Karnataka, India The new initiative came about because local and thus classical biological control is an Email: [email protected] or authorities had recognized that conven- obvious option to pursue. An added bonus [email protected] tional (chemical and mechanical) control in this context is that Japanese knotweed in Fax: +91 80 341 1961 methods for Japanese knotweed were the UK is essentially just one female plant as every individual is effectively a cutting Dr Ding Jianqing, unsustainable and ineffective. It is easy to of the original import. This is good news for Institute of Biological Control, chop back the plant at the stem, but the weed biological control as it means the target Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, is equally active beneath the surface. It has population has extremely limited genetic Beijing 100081, People’s Republic of China an underground rhizome that can spread up diversity, while the absence of sexual Email: [email protected] to 7 m from the original stem and to a depth reproduction means that currently it has Fax: +86 10 68919570 of 4.5 m. Even if the land is ploughed up, a new plant can grow from fragments. Pesti- limited chances of evolving defences ❑ cides will kill the plant, but this can take against a specific natural enemy. years of repeated applications and there are The results of a preliminary phase of the UK Wakes up to Invasive concerns about the toll heavy herbicide use Japanese knotweed project, jointly funded Weeds will have on other plants and animals. by the USDA Forest Service and the Welsh A UK£0.5 million partnership project to • Cornwall currently spends £0.25 Development Agency, were encouraging. investigate the potential for biological con- million/year controlling the weed. Field assessments in Japan to assess the News 53N natural enemies in the plant’s area of origin as seriously as the search for an effective [C. attenuata]M.D.Rodriguez&A.M. indicated that many species of insects and biocontrol agent. In this context, countries Aguilera fungi attack it in its native habitat, such as Australia, New Zealand, South Email: [email protected] including various beetles and rust fungi that Africa, Canada and the USA, with a suc- ❑ appear to specialize on knotweed. The next cessful history of community involvement phase will involve more detailed survey in biocontrol, may provide some useful Thomas R. Odhiambo: work with Japanese collaborators and a full models. technical research assessment of promising Founding Father of ICIPE species to ensure that they are specific to Contact: Dick Shaw, CABI Bioscience, This article is based, with kind permission, knotweed and pose no danger to crops or Silwood Park, Ascot, Berks SL5 7TA, UK on tributes given at Professor Odhiambo’s native biodiversity. Email: [email protected] funeral by Professor David Wasawo and Dr Fax: +44 1491 829123 The partnership project is led by Cornwall Hans Herren. The Editors also gratefully County Council’s Natural Environment ❑ acknowledge the help of BNI Editorial Advi- Team, part of the Environment and Her- sory Board member Dr Brigitte Nyambo. itage Service. Cornwall led the way in New Whitefly Killers Professor Thomas Risley Odhiambo, the looking at new methods of controlling the founding director of the International plant through the Cornwall Knotweed Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology Two prospective agents for whitefly con- Forum,whichwassetupin1997toprovide (ICIPE) in Kenya, who died on 27 May trol have shown early promise. guidance and information on policy and 2003, was described by ICIPE's Governing control methods, now an internationally The platygasterid parasitoid Amitus fusci- Council and staff as “a great scientist and recognized example of Best Practice in the visionary who founded an institution of control of invasive, non-native species. pennis has been evaluated as a biocontrol agent of Trialeurodes vaporariorum on which all Africans could be proud.” In an Project partners do not expect biological appreciation of his life, Professor David control to be a silver bullet, but are hoping bean crops in Colombia in a PhD project by Maria Manzano (supervized by Joop van Wasawo (Chairman, University of Nairobi that it will stop its spread and allow native Council) described him as “a distinguished species to compete more effectively. Lenteren, Wageningen University, Nether- lands and co-directed by Cesar Cardona, son of this nation of Kenya; and an incom- If the Japanese knotweed project is suc- CIAT (International Centre for Tropical parable and valued member of the world’s cessful there may be calls for more. The mild Agriculture), Colombia). The parasitoid scientific community.” Hans Herren southwest of the UK that has borne the brunt has proved easy to mass rear with a sex (ICIPE's current Director General) praised of the Japanese knotweed invasions is under ratio strongly biased towards females. Pop- Odhiambo’s “dedication to educate and attack from others. For example, Cornwall’s ulations of the parasitoid grew faster than train young developing country scientists.” land managers, farmers and gardeners are those of the whitefly in tropical high and Herren outlined how a lifelong interest in also battling giant hogweed (Heracleum mid altitude zones. In addition, it exhibits insects led a small boy who conducted mantegazzianum) and Himalayan balsam area-restricted searching, which is an experiments on wasps and their nests to (Impatiens glandulifera) while native vege- appropriate searching strategy for a become, via the prestigious Makerere Uni- tation in its picturesque hedgerows is being whitefly host such as T. vaporariorum versity College in Uganda, Cambridge Uni- smothered by winter heliotrope (Petasites which tends to have a clumped distribution. versity in the UK, the University of Nairobi fragrans) and yellow archangel (Lamium Field releases are planned to find out and then ICIPE, Africa’s leading biological galeobdolon ssp. montanum). whether these promising attributes translate scientist of his generation. Wasawo Under the terms of the Code of Conduct for into field efficacy. described how this began 50 years ago when the Import and Release of Biological Con- “the late professor Leonard Beadle who was trol Agents (International Standards for Coenosia attenuata ‘tiger flies’ are from the then the professor of Zoology at Makerere Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM) No. 3), the same family as, and are similar in appear- recognised the academic promise of Tom. government of a country implementing ance to the house fly Musca domestica,but After his BSc qualification, Professor classical biological control “should desig- females have three black horizontal stripes Beadle arranged for his placement at the nate the competent authority empowered on their abdomens. Adult flies kill not only Tea Research Institute for East Africa at (normally the National Plant Protection adult whiteflies but also adult leafminers, Kericho as a Research Assistant; and later Organization) to regulate or otherwise con- while its larvae prey on soil-dwelling pests found him a job as a curator at the Insect trol and, where appropriate, issue permits such as fungus gnat larvae. These flies, Collections at Kawanda Research Station in for the importation and release of biological which have been recorded in Spain, Italy Uganda. Tom’s love for insect science thus control agents. The authority may exercise and Germany and thrive in the glasshouse started early in his life. In those days every its powers by using an internationally crop environment, are generating great effort was being made at Makerere, to iden- accepted standard (such as this Code) for interest as prospective biocontrol agents in tify brilliant students and enable them to be guidance or by applying national legisla- protected crops. Studies in all three coun- trained abroad so that on qualification they tion (which should be aligned with this tries have shown them to be able to reduce could return to Makerere as members of Code. Importations of biological control whitefly, leafminer and fungus gnat popula- staff.” Professor Beadle arranged for Odhi- agents should only be carried out with the tions, and artificial breeding methods are ambo to be admitted to his own alma mater, consent of the authority.” under development. Cambridge University, from where he emerged with an excellent PhD. Thus the final decision on whether biolog- Source: European Whitefly Studies Network ical control agents of Japanese knotweed Newsletter, No 16 (May 2003), pp. 2-3. At Cambridge, where he studied under the can be released in the UK will lie with legendary Professor Sir Vincent B. Wiggles- DEFRA. Looking at the furore surrounding Contact: [A. fuscipennis] Maria Manzano, worth, he is remembered as an organized stu- attempts to introduced ‘GM’ crops to the Dept. Biology, Universidad del Valle, dent already capable of excellent research UK, the process of informing the public Cali, Colombia when he arrived. Peter Lawrence (MRC Lab- about biological control needs to be taken Email: [email protected] oratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge), 54N BiocontrolNews and Information 2003 Vol. 24 No. 3 who shared a room in the Department of long before these words became common 1977, ICIPE was granted full international Zoology with him, says, “Tom was very well language.” Odhiambo himself said of his status by the Government of Kenya and in organised… the central table was divided up university years, “One of the key issues we 1986 it was converted into an intergovern- between us with a precise boundary in the were always thinking about was excellence. mental organization by the signing of a middle, Tom’s pens and pencils lined up like How does one build that into African charter in a ceremony chaired by the UN soldiers on his side, a mess on my side. He endeavours?” His answer was ICIPE. Development Program. was always indulgent, putting up with my From its humble in a small garage, ICIPE chaotic attempts to discover how to do Wasawo recalled the disquiet felt after moved to purpose-built premises on the research, something he knew all about from World War II by “some of the greatest sci- University of Nairobi, Chiromo Campus the beginning. He used to give me advice… entists and philosophers of the day, at the before relocating in 1990 to its present-day He was so patient with me, and always even disastrous effects of the atomic bomb and headquarters, Duduville, at Kasarani north tempered and kind. He had a wonderful the directions scientific research were of Nairobi. A major field station at Mbita laugh, and we had a good deal of fun taking. This led to Albert Einstein, the great Point in Western Kenya was inaugurated in together.” Simon Maddrell, still in the philosopher Lord Bertrand Russell, the 1986, and other field sites were established Department, describes him as, “a quiet, well Nobel Prize winner Joseph Rotblat and in Kenya and neighbouring countries. organized student who did some excellent others, to found the Pugwash Conferences ICIPE developed and still possesses some electron microscopy under the supervision of on Science and World Affairs. In 1965 they of the best facilities for scientific research Sir Vincent Wigglesworth.” Later, in the mid decided to hold one of their meetings in and development (R&D) on the continent. 1980s, when Maddrell was sent by the Royal Africa at the headquarters of the Organiza- Society to attend a presentation of science tion of Africa Unity. They were anxious to Herren noted that ICIPE’s three basic mis- carried out at ICIPE, he found Odhiambo “by address themselves to the increasing pov- sions, as expressed by Odhiambo, still hold then also an excellent politician and manager erty on the African continent, which could good today: as he must have been to have been so impor- be a threat to world peace. One of the ideas • To create a body of basic knowledge of tant in the setting up and maintenance of the that was mooted at that conference was the key tropical pests and disease vectors centre as a dynamic place with such uncer- need to set up first-rate scientific research that attack the people of Africa, their tain lines of financial support.” institutions that would address the needs of the African continent. This took another 4 crops and livestock. Professor Wasawo described how Odhi- years before it could happen.” • To transform these discoveries and ambo’s dual talents as scientist and teacher innovations into strategies for managing have created their own legacy: “It has often Herren described the history of ICIPE’s these pests. been remarked that good science practice founding as “somewhat of a legend.” While depends upon the quality of questions one still a young staff member at the then Uni- • To ensure that a motivated, highly poses but a good scientist only comes about versity College, Nairobi of the University talented human capital in insect as a result of the breadth of knowledge one of East Africa, in Odhiambo’s own words, science is built up, so “as to enable has acquired in the relevant subject area, “a ‘serendipitous opportunity’ presented Africa to sustain herself and to lead the and the God-given ability to ferret out the itself in 1967 when I took the challenge entire pan-tropical world in this area of interrelatedness of those bits of knowledge. from the Editor of… Science to write a endeavour” (his words). major review of the status of science in Tom had all these qualities in abundance, to Herren described how the R&D pro- the extent that he was already publishing Africa. In it, I made a strong plea for estab- lishing a few large centres of excellence... I grammes Odhiambo established on impor- refereed scientific papers even before his tant pests of field crops such as stemborers, PhD was out. What is more, he had the gave, as an example, the pivotal areas of the management of insect populations in a sus- termites and the desert locust; on disease uncanny ability as a university teacher to vectors (yellow fever and malaria mosqui- rub off some of these qualities of his onto tainable, ecologically-friendly way, [using technologies] that would be within the toes and sandflies) and on livestock pests his own students. It was thus not surprising (tsetse and ticks), together with the devel- to see him rise rapidly from being a lecturer means of the resource-poor rural communi- ties. Strong encouragement to actually opment of technologies such as NGU tsetse in University of Nairobi’s Department of traps and biological control of stemborers, Zoology to a full Foundation Professorship launch such a centre cascaded from an over-arching positive response…” provided a firm foundation on which ICIPE in the newly created Department of Ento- can still build. Wasawo recognized the mology in the Faculty of Agriculture in a Herren summed up: “This article proved to importance of Odhiambo’s clear thinking matter of 6 years. A few months later, he be a rallying call for attention to be paid to and leadership, saying, “...it is one thing to became the first Dean of the Faculty. I have Africa and its development issues. The found an institution and have a vision for it, been privileged to meet some of his aca- centre would provide a mechanism and but quite another to develop it along the demic children and grandchildren. They all focal point for linking the world’s leading right pathways in order to achieve its goals. speak very highly of their mentor. Tom had scientists with the problems facing the Here, Tom’s knack for asking the right kind the satisfaction of interacting with these, his small-scale farmers of the developing of scientific questions based on his children and grandchildren. One academic world.” Wasawo pointed out that Odhi- immense knowledge of the subject of ento- child is now the Dean of that very faculty of ambo’s proposal “…because of his interna- mology came in handy. He formulated which he was the first Dean.” tional track record in research, could be research programmes that correctly Odhiambo combined the qualities of out- seriously listened to and looked at [thus] addressed the problems of pests in their standing scientist and teacher with those of a Tom was able to win backers like Profes- relation to agricultural productivity in visionary. Herren described how: “His love sors Carl Djerassi and Eugene Rabinovitch Africa. In this he had the instinctive support and fascination for insects was only equalled of Pugwash. He obtained support from the of his Governing Council, because of the by his love and dedication to the next gener- various scientific organisations, from foun- respect he had earned.” Herren described ation of scientists and their successful under- dations, from governments and from multi- how Odhiambo had been strongly influ- takings to see Africa and other developing lateral agencies. The International Centre enced by Rachel Carson’s book, The Silent countries move forward in science-led sus- for Insect Physiology and Ecology was Spring, which sounded the alarm about pes- tainable development. This was his vision born... with Tom as its first Director.” In ticide misuse and its implications for eco- News 55N systems, declaring how he “understood high-level manpower and brainpower for In terms of his own scholarly output, Odhi- very early on the problems that the use of various institutions on our continent.” ambo was the author of over 160 peer- synthetic pesticides were (and still are) cre- Herren noted that ICIPE is proud that most reviewed publications and he was awarded ating, both for the environment and the have not succumbed to the temptation to numerous international prizes: the Albert farmers, as he recognised that pesticides join part of the ‘brain drain’, and are still Einstein Gold Medal (1991), the Gold Mer- soon lead into a treadmill from which working in Africa. cury International Award (1982), the Gold farmers would eventually beg to be taken Medal Award from the International Con- off. He therefore based the research pro- Odhiambo believed that scientific publica- gress of Plant Protection (1983), the grammes at ICIPE on the biological and tion and access to literature, and for African African Prize for Leadership for the Sus- integrated control track. This was far ahead scientists to be heard and exchange informa- tainable End of Hunger (shared with Presi- of many scientists in the developed world at tion with colleagues abroad was an integral dent Albert Diouf of Senegal in 1987), the the time. He has been proven right many part of scientific research, and capacity ISCTRC Silver Jubilee Award of the times over, and today ICIPE is continuing building. From his years at ICIPE, two African Union (2000), and others. He was with this philosophy, for the benefit of the important outputs emerged: The first was the also awarded honorary doctorate degrees farmers and the environment.” Wasawo international journal co-hosted by ICIPE and from some of the world’s leading institu- pointed out that, “The research results ema- the African Association of Insect Scientists, tions. Under his tenure, ICIPE itself was nating from ICIPE have helped not only in Insect Science and its Application, which he awarded as an organization the St Francis solving some of the problems addressed; served as the first Editor and is now in its Prize for the Environment (1992), awarded but have also formed the basis for further 23rd year. In 1987, Odhiambo spearheaded by the Franciscan Centre of Environmental research, carried out not only at ICIPE but the establishment of a new imprint, ICIPE Studies in Assisi, and the Alan Shawn Fein- also at universities and research institutions Science Press, and publication of the journal stein World Hunger Award of Brown Uni- in Africa and elsewhere. ICIPE has thus was moved from the UK to Nairobi. ISP versity (1986). helped in stimulating the quality of univer- continues to be an active, scientific scholarly sity education in this continent of ours as publisher. Wasawo noted: “The role of acad- Herren referred to the “many and varied well as elsewhere in the developing world.” emies in stimulating academic excellence initiatives of Professor Thomas Odhiambo” has been well appreciated since the days of and Wasawo described how Odhiambo’s However, both Wasawo and Herren high- broad interests had continued to provide Plato and Aristotle; through the foundation lighted human and institutional capacity fresh ideas: “Recently he has been devel- of the Royal Society in England up to the building as perhaps the most enduring of oping ideas on community-based univer- present day. Professor Odhiambo acutely Odhiambo’s many achievements. Herren sity institutions as well as the role of faith felt the need for such academies for the outlined how a highly successful pro- and spirituality in human society.” gramme for training PhD scientists was Third World and for Africa. With the Nobel launched by ICIPE in 1983. Called the Laureate Professor Abdul Salaam they Herren declared that “[Odhiambo’s] vision African Regional Postgraduate Programme founded the Third World Academy of Sci- when he created ICIPE with a few friends in Insect Science (or ARPPIS), some 230 ences, of which Tom became the first Vice- and colleagues way back in the late 1960s students have been enrolled and over a hun- president. Tom was also the Founding Pres- became reality, thanks to his perseverance dred have received degrees. Herren points ident of the Africa Academy of Science. and dedication. He created an absolutely out that in this way Odhiambo’s “legacy in Who else but Professor Odhiambo could unique institution, that has become known building the human capital to solve Africa’s have the capacity and the professional clout around the globe for scientific excellence in problems lives on, and the ARPPIS and to persuade our African presidents of the biological and integrated pest and vector other graduates are now filling prominent need for science-based development in management.” Herren said that ICIPE is positions in universities, government Africa;andthensetupaforumforthemto meeting the challenge of how to pay a long- departments and R&D institutions, private deliberate on such matters? Thus the lasting tribute to Odhiambo by helping companies, and international organisations Research and Development Forum for Sci- “spearhead the formation of a trust in his throughout the continent.” Wasawo said, ence-led Development in Africa (RAND- honour that will help sponsor promising “Professor Odhiambo conceived of and FORUM) came into being with Tom as its young African academics in their research, executed the postgraduate as well as post- first director.” And, always mindful of the among other activities. This will help his doctoral programmes in collaboration with importance of the next generation, Odhi- legacy live on through the next generations universities and research institutions in ambo has also been chairman for the Foun- of scientists and leaders.” Africa and elsewhere. He thus made a tan- dation for the Promotion of Children gible contribution in the development of Science Publications in Africa. ❑ IPM Systems

This section covers integrated pest man- tinction of being a birthplace of IPM. In the crop. An estimated 80% of the world's agement (IPM) including biological con- 1960s, Gordon Conway, now President of cocoa is now produced by smallholders. trol, and techniques that are compatible the Rockefeller Foundation, identified use Often these farmers do not have the knowl- with the use of biological control or mini- of chemical insecticides as the cause of out- edge to enable them to implement IPM, and mize negative impact on natural enemies. breaks of bagworms and nettle caterpillars traditional top-down extension has proved on cocoa and worked out the process since to be an inappropriate vehicle for providing Sulawesi Setting for dubbed the ‘pesticide treadmill’. IPM IPMtraininginmanycrops.Incocoa, Cocoa IPM Initiatives became the underlying principle of cocoa which has the capacity to be an important Cocoa, like many plantation crops, has a pest and disease management in plantation engine of sustainable development, the sit- long tradition of over-dependence on systems, but over the last 30 years cocoa uation is exacerbated by low farm-gate chemical pesticides. But it also has the dis- has increasingly become a smallholder cash prices, which mean farmers cannot afford 56N BiocontrolNews and Information 2003 Vol. 24 No. 3 inputs necessary for good soil and crop Additional losses, estimated at US$25 mil- ties and farmer groups and the US private health. This contributes to the impact of lion, are caused by poor quality of dry sector to better utilize resources to support pests and diseases in terms of both beans, mostly due to lack of fermentation. the sustainable development of the cocoa increased aggressiveness and an increased industry in Indonesia. The project also has Lack of farmer know-how in managing range of the organisms involved. Farmers regional outreach where it works in the pests and diseases is illustrated by an anal- are seeing yields decline, but are trapped in Philippines, assisting local institutions on ysis of how Sulawesi's farmers currently a downward spiral. cocoa production and setting up tree nurs- deal with CPB. Peter van Grinsven, eries for cocoa. Indonesia was one of the world’s smaller speaking at a recent workshop (see PRIMA cocoa producers until coinciding events in Cocoa project, below), said that very many Both SUCCESS and SUCCESS Alliance Brazil and Indonesia changed this. In the of Sulawesi's smallholder cocoa farmers work to improve the income of cocoa small- mid 1970s, indigenous smallholders in use chemical control measures to try and holders in Sulawesi by reducing crop losses Sulawesi, using private and public finance, control CPB, but these are probably not from the CPB through good crop husbandry began planting in new areas. The area used in an effective or efficient way, and practices: frequent harvesting, better plantedtococoaincreasedtomorethan0.5 there is room for improvement with regard pruning, sanitation of pod husks and million hectares in 20 years. As the cocoa to safety of application. improving fertilizer use, both chemical and sector was growing in Indonesia, witches’ The constraints faced by the smallholder organic. These methods are widely know in broom (Crinipellis perniciosa) was deci- cocoa sector in Sulawesi are similar to Indonesian as PsPSP (Panen Sering, Peman- mating Brazil’s production following the those of many countries, but Sulawesi is gkasan, Sanatasi and Pemupukan) and were arrival of the disease in the key production also home to some innovative projects that recommended as a result of previous areas of Bahia State in 1989. This created a aim to bridge the technology and knowl- research in Indonesia by Dr John Mumford gap in the market which Indonesia could edge gaps and facilitate an improvement in of Imperial College London, UK, with sup- fill, and it is now the world's third-largest cocoa productivity and quality. port from BCCCA, ACRI and ASKINDO cocoa producing and exporting country. (the Indonesian cocoa association). There are close to 400,000 smallholder First Success cocoa growers in Sulawesi alone, pro- Participatory training has been gaining in ducing 350,000 tonnes of cocoa annually. The SUCCESS (Sustainable Cocoa Exten- acceptance since the 1980s as an effective The average size of holding is small at 1-2 sion Services for Smallholders) project wayofincreasingfarmeruptakeofsustain- ha for each farm family. uses Farmer Field Schools (FFSs) to dem- able production methods. The FFS onstrate IPM practices in cocoa to farmers approach was developed in rice in South- This rapid explosion of cocoa growing, and to show that the extra effort is finan- east Asia and has been adapted for a with 70% of Indonesia’s cocoa produced cially worthwhile. The project has been number of other annual crops. However, by smallholders, has created its own set of funded by the US Department of Agricul- adapting it for a perennial tree crop such as problems. Firstly, the rapid expansion in ture (USDA) in partnership with the Amer- cocoa presented new challenges. Sulawesi has not been matched by the ican Cocoa Research Institute (ACRI) development of support institutions, infra- (later merged with and renamed World The SUCCESS Project has trained over structure or expertise, and this has been Cocoa Foundation (WCF)) and the Biscuit, 35,000 to date in 2.5 years, well above the compounded by the rapid pace of political Cake, Chocolate and Confectionery Alli- targeted 20,000 farmers. The project suc- reform and decentralization in Indonesia. ance (BCCCA) in the UK, and imple- cessor, the SUCCESS Alliance, will train Secondly, the expansion sometimes mented by ACDI/VOCA (an international an additional 30,000 farmers in good crop threatens the integrity of rainforest adjacent non-profit organization working toward husbandry practices through FFS. The to the cocoa-growing regions, including the agricultural and smallholder development) SUCCESS extension message was built on Lore Lindu National Park, a vast area of in collaboration with the local governments 2 years of extensive field research con- virgin rainforest in Central Sulawesi con- of three provinces in Sulawesi. WCF is a ducted in Sulawesi by ACRI, BCCCA and taining many rare mammals and birds. US-based organization, launched in 2000 ASKINDO, alongside provincial agricul- by the Chocolate Manufacturers Associa- tural department, or Dinas Pekerbunan, Over the last 2 years, smallholders in tion, ACRI and the Cocoa Merchants Asso- staff. The combined approach by govern- Sulawesi have experienced a dramatic ciation of America. ment and the producing and manufacturing decline in saleable cocoa with losses now industries ensured a solid foundation to averaging 40%, largely attributable to three Building on the work of the SUCCESS establish a unified extension programme. major pest and disease problems: Project which ends in September 2003, a Involving local extension staff in project new 3-year project initiative called SUC- development meant the project was • Cocoa pod borer, Conopomorpha CESS Alliance has already begun in designed to fit local constraints and build cramerella (CPB), a moth that infests Sulawesi and West Papua. The project is capacity within the local extension services over half the cocoa plantings in funded by the US Agency for International to address CPB. Sulawesi, causes an estimated 25-40% Development (USAID) and implemented yield loss; in 2002 these losses were by ACDI/VOCA, in alliance with WCF In each training village, a demonstration estimated to be 150,000 tonnes, worth and Masterfoods/USA. SUCCESS Alli- plot is set up where FFS training teaches US$200 million. ance aims to improve the quantity and PsPSP methods to control CPB infestation, • Phytophthora (orblack)podrotand quality of smallholder-grown cocoa in good crop husbandry practices are taught canker, caused by the oomycete P. Indonesia and carry on training farmers, and farmers learn about the pest’s life cycle palmivora, typically cause losses of through FFSs, farmer-led research and par- by observation. Armed with this knowl- 15%. ticipatory means, to adopt good crop hus- edge, they then learn how to manage the bandry methods and effective IPM pest through complete and frequent har- • Vascular-streak dieback (VSD), caused practices which will sustain a regular vesting, pruning, sanitation and the safe and by the fungus Oncobasidium source of income for them. The new project prudent use of fertilizer, and how to identify theobromae, is common but appears not also seeks to strengthen the partnership the right time for each intervention. Rather to be destructive on established trees. between the local governments, universi- than being a passive learning process, the News 57N farmers conduct research for themselves to diagnosis and treatment. The newly con- the trials of sidegrafting of improved bud- confirm the value of each practice. structed facilities at BPTP, Kendari were wood onto existing trees also demonstrates equipped for research in applied plant pro- a method of upgrading existing cocoa Just one year into the SUCCESS pro- tection. Thus the project enhances the infra- plantings with minimal loss of yield during gramme, cocoa losses from CPB amongst structure and capability within Indonesia the process, methods already being adopted the trainees were down from an average of using locally available resources, espe- by some farmers following their observa- 40% to 15%, and quality had also cially the great genetic diversity of the tions of the trials. The SUCCESS project is improved. By following the practices they cocoa already being grown in the country. keen to incorporate this method of local learnt at the FFSs, farmers not only saw selection and sidegrafting, and also any reduced losses from CPB, but also saw pod So far over 40 collections of promising useful cocoa clones that emerge from the sizes improve through better crop manage- genotypes, including some international project, into their FFS programme. ment, and benefited from decreased pres- genotypes, have been established at two sure from Phytophthora pod disease and sites. Cuttings of promising genotypes are Reducing cocoa losses due to pests and dis- rodent problems. prospected with the help of farmers and eases will also reduce the pressure to extension staff, collected from the field and expand cocoa plantings into virgin rain- The sustainability and further dissemina- transported and grafted onto existing cocoa forest. Previous studies have shown that tion of the project message (key issues for trees for evaluation under local conditions. integrating cocoa growing with traditional farmer participatory training) were also In this way the mother trees are not dam- mixed farming minimizes pesticide use and promising. In some areas, trained farmers aged, and the grafts begin producing pods retains up to 70% of the original biodiver- were hired by untrained farmers to share within 18 months. Yield, pest and disease sity. In a further illustration of good collab- their skills, which is both an indication of resistance and cocoa quality attributes can oration between universities and industry, the confidence of trained farmers and a sign then be assessed under trial conditions. The PT Effem (a part of Mars Inc.) is assisting of growing business acumen that puts the trials also represent a locally available col- with the logistics of establishing the field spread of this technology on an entrepre- lection of potentially useful genotypes that trials and cocoa quality assessments of pest neurial and more sustainable course. can be readily propagated for distribution to and disease-resistant selections. Building from Local Diversity farmers. It is planned that elite selections will be distributed widely for propagation, IPM Linked to a Chain Approach An Australian-Indonesian collaborative use in other cocoa projects in Sulawesi, and Pest problems in cocoa that lead to poor venture to improve cocoa quality and insect eventual release to farmers. The majority of yields and low quality beans affect not just and disease resistance by selecting from grafts are now flowering and setting fruit, farmers but cascade along the cocoa chain local cocoa plantings is being funded by and assessments of their resistance to VSD, to where the beans are processed. For this ACIAR (the Australian Centre for Interna- Phytophthora podrotandCPB,andcocoa reason, PRIMA Cocoa (Pest Reduction and tional Agricultural Research). The project quality attributes have begun. Integrated Management for Cocoa), a 2- team, from The University of Melbourne Whileitisexpectedthatsomeusefulselec- year project that began in January 2003, is and Latrobe University in Australia, Mas- tions of high quality pest and disease piloting both integrated management of terfoods Australia/New Zealand, Ballarat resistant planting material will be made pests and a chain approach to cocoa pro- (part of Mars Inc.), the Agricultural Tech- available to growers as a result of this, and duction in Sulawesi. nology Assessment Institute (BPTP) in other, projects, an important aim of the Kendari, Southeast Sulawesi, and the Indo- Despite the achievements of the projects project is to demonstrate the usefulness of nesian Coffee and Cocoa Research Institute above, the pest and disease status of local selection of improved planting mate- in Jember, East Java, began work in 2000. Sulawesi's cocoa is still sufficiently serious rial using straightforward methods based that PT Effem Indonesia in Makassar had to From the outset, the project engaged with on locally available genetic diversity within close down its cocoa processing plant tem- local stakeholders. The first workshop, at the crop. It has been previously shown in porarily in 2002 as there were simply not Kendari in June 2001, was attended by agri- PNG that it is possible to select cocoa gen- enough quality beans available. The situa- cultural extension staff from 10 cocoa- otypes with durable resistance to VSD from tion faced by PT Effem was not unique, as growing provinces of Indonesia, and cocoa among a great diversity of planting material evidenced by the temporary shutdown of a researchers from Java, Papua New Guinea exposed to a natural epidemic of the dis- number of cocoa processing factories in (PNG) and Australia. Participants summa- ease. This amounts to natural selection – Indonesia, and complaints of high waste in rized the current status of the cocoa very susceptible genotypes are killed by Sulawesi beans by regional and interna- industry and planned the development of VSD and are no longer available for propa- tional cocoa grinders. The situation in straightforward methods for identifying gation; the failure of the commonly occur- Sulawesi is thus of great concern to all in and screening improved individual trees, ringVSDtokilltreesinSulawesi(as the cocoa industry. especially trees with resistance to CPB, occurred dramatically in PNG in the 1960s) Phytophthora pod rot and VSD, from suggests that the cocoa there has gone Masterfoods and the worldwide cocoa existing cocoa plantings. The purpose was through this selection process over the last industry are committed to promoting sus- to ensure that selections are adapted to the 30 years. The aim of the ACIAR project is tainable cocoa production systems. With local environment, and that cocoa growers, to repeat this process with Phytophthora this in mind, PT Effem together with its extension workers and local scientists pod rot and CPB. (There is already evi- European sister unit Masterfoods Europe, manage and control the selection process. dence of resistance to CPB, as shown by the Veghel and Senter International (part of the Promising genotypes were identified and studies of a scientist at Tadulako University Netherlands government international collections established. Trials to screen the in Palu, Central Sulawesi). This approach is development agency) are funding a project field selections in the face of natural epi- important in a country like Indonesia with which will introduce, on a pilot scale, an demics of the pests/diseases and trials its great genetic diversity of a wide range of integrated management system to control investigating improved farm management tropical crops. So far the project has taught CPB and also raise bean quality and pro- practices were also established. A second some valuable lessons in how to proceed duction by improved agricultural practices workshop held at Kendari in June 2002 with research and development based on and post-harvest treatment. Promising bio- focused on technical aspects of disease local resources. The method being used in control methods are being identified, then 58N BiocontrolNews and Information 2003 Vol. 24 No. 3 tested and validated in cooperation with the to designing IPM for the combination of • Introducing black ant (Dolichoderus University of Hassanuddin, Makassar and a pests and diseases that attack cocoa were thoracicus) where confident of success local entrepreneur to establish whether they highlighted in some of the discussions: Websites: have wide-scale application. • It seems that where ants are present the ACDI/VOCA: www.acdivoca.org/ The total pipeline approach also includes incidence of CPB infestation is ACIAR: www.aciar.gov.au cocoa collectors in the pilot area, who will reduced. However, it is unclear what is be trained in techniques for proper drying needed for successful establishment, Mars, Inc.: www.mars.com/ and grading of beans which are then pur- what effect a history of pesticide use chased by PT Effem for processing. The SUCCESS Alliance: mighthave,andwhatimpact www.successalliance.org improvements should increase the income introducing ants would have on of smallholders and benefit the environ- existing predator populations. In WCF: www.chocolateandcocoa.org/WCF/ ment through the promotion of sustainable addition some species may carry wcfindex.htm cultural and biological control methods. pathogens such as Phytophthora. Contacts: Given the importance of the cocoa sector, its relevance to development on Sulawesi is • Sleeving has been practised in the past Robert Rosengren, potentially huge and it is intended that all but is a time-consuming process and SUCCESS Alliance Team Leader , stakeholders (smallholders, cocoa collec- thus farmers tend to abandon it. A PO Box 1538, Jl. Adhiyaksa #17, Makassar, tors and cocoa processors) will benefit. simple pipe and stick technique, which South Sulawesi 90231, Indonesia enables >600 pods/hour to be sleeved, Email: [email protected] One of the project's first activities was a has one big drawback: plastic bags are Fax: +62 411 454 300 Technical Brainstorming Meeting on Bio- used, which are both expensive and a David Guest, School of Botany, control Technologies for IPM in Cocoa in source of environmental pollution (for The University of Melbourne, Makassar in June 2003. There has been a 1 ha potentially 6000 bags could be Vic. 3010, Australia good deal of scientific and field-based used). Again, there may be a danger of Email: [email protected] research on ways of enhancing cocoa pro- encouraging Phytophthora pod rot. duction through controlling CPB by Fax: +61 3 93475460 mechanical, cultural and biocontrol Participants agreed on future research Philip Keane, Department of Botany, methods. The majority of this knowledge is directions, and a basket of measures for La Trobe University, Vic 3086, Australia spread around different research and aca- immediate incorporation into the PRIMA Email: [email protected] demic institutions and private farms in Cocoa project: Indonesia and Malaysia. The meeting Smilja Lambert, Masterfoods, Ring Rd., • Harvesting: weekly and complete brought together people with knowledge of Ballarat, Vic 3350, Australia Email: [email protected] CPB control by these various methods to • Height management: trees should be discuss and define the most promising <4m; side grafting to rehabilitate old Martin Gilmour, Cocoa Research Manager, farmer-friendly and practical options for a trees Masterfoods, Dundee Road, useinanIPMstrategytocontrolCPBand Slough, SL1 4JX, UK improve cocoa production in Sulawesi. The • Sanitation: removing damaged and Email: [email protected] most promising CPB control systems will diseased pods and covering spent Fax: +44 1753 51 4811 be implemented as part of the PRIMA husks with plastic for 2+ weeks This article has been developed from a Cocoa programme. • Off-season sleeving, but try to move series of articles that appeared in the news- Topics discussed included genetic improve- away from using plastic bags letter GRO-Cocoa (Nos 1 & 3). See: ment, use of ants as predators, entomopath- • Rational pesticide use www.cabi-commodities.org/ ogenic nematodes and fungi, and more efficient sleeving methods. The challenges • Conserving ants ❑ Announcements

Are you producing a newsletter, holding a • Whitefly transmitted viruses and IPPC Postponed meeting, running an organization or epidemiology rearing a natural enemy that you want other The Organizing Committee of the 15th • Whitefly natural enemies biocontrol workers to know about? Send us International Plant Protection Congress the details and we will announce it in BNI. • Chemical and physical controls (IPPC), considering the health and the safety of all participants and in view of • IPM and biological control Whitefly Symposium uncertainty of the Severe Acute Respira- The symposium also aims to address recent tory Syndrome (SARS) in China at the time The European Whitefly Studies Network advances in European crop protection a decision had to be made, postponed the (EWSN) announce that the 2nd European towards satisfying current legislation and congress due to be held in Beijing on 6-11 Whitefly Symposium will be held on 5-9 effectively controlling problems. July 2003. October 2004 at Cavtat in Croatia, hosted Further information/pre-registration: by the Institute of Adriatic Crops and Karst To prevent the conflict with dates of other www.whitefly.org/EWSII-info.htm Reclamation, Split. Five keynote areas will international congresses in plant protection to be held next year, the Organizing Com- be covered, giving ample coverage to bio- Or contact the EWSN Events Organizer: mittee checked the scientific calendar of control: [email protected] 2004 and discussed an appropriate date • Faunistics, systematics and ecology ❑ with the International Association for the News 59N

Plant Protection Sciences (IAPPS). The moth, whiteflies, cereal stemborers, larger pean experience of merging customer and new dates for the Congress will be 11-16 grain borer, cotton boll worm and termites) producer needs; risk assessment in relation May 2004, at the previously planned venue, and weed (chromolaena and striga) species, to regulations for imports and releases; and the Beijing International Convention interspersed with others taking a crop-based basic statistical methods. More theoretical Center. approach (conifers, commercial forestry, topics include natural enemy foraging cowpea and coffee). Other chapters cover behaviour, and population ecology and For more information see: alien plant invaders, aquatic weeds, plant genetics in relation to managing small arti- www.ipmchina.net/ippc/ippc-4.htm nematode management and endophytic ficially reared populations. There are also diversity, microbial control of plant diseases chapters concerning guidelines for quality ❑ and nontarget testing of the Green Muscle control of commercially produced natural biopesticide. The book closes with a chapter enemies, and their commercial availability. Biocontrol Books from on the role of biocontrol in development and CABI environmental protection in Africa. *Neuenschwander, P.; Borgemeister, C.; Langewald, J. (eds) (2003) Biological con- Two new books from CABI Publishing Quality Control and Production of trol in IPM systems in Africa. Wallingford, maybeofinteresttomanyreaders. Agents UK; CABI Publishing, 448 pp. Hbk. Biocontrol and IPM in Africa Implementation of biocontrol has been UK£75.00/US$140.00. ISBN: 0 85199 639 6 This book* synthesizes information on the increasing worldwide, and there are past successes and on-going challenges for numerous companies now mass-producing **van Lenteren, J.C. (ed) (2003) Quality biocontrol, both as a stand-alone approach natural enemies for this purpose, and spe- control and production of biological control and as a component of IPM in Africa. The cies for other beneficial purposes such as agents. Wallingford, UK; CABI Pub- 24 chapters cover largely arthropods (field pollination. This book** provides both lishing, 352 pp. Hbk. UK£65.00/ crop, perennial, agroforestry and forestry background theory and practical guidance US$120.00. ISBN: 085199 688 4 pests) and weeds (terrestrial and aquatic in key areas. The opening chapter discusses species), but diseases (including nema- why quality control is needed. Practical Available from: CABI Publishing, todes) are also covered. The opening topics covered in subsequent chapters are: Wallingford, Oxon OX10 8DE, UK chapter gives an historical overview. This is mass production including rearing, storage Email: [email protected] followed by chapters focusing on key pest and release of natural enemies; pathogens Fax: +44 1491 829292 (cassava and mango mealybug, cassava of mass produced natural enemies and pol- Web: www.cabi-publishing.org/bookshop green mite, mango fruit flies, banana linators; quality control of insect and weevil, potato tuber moth, diamondback microbial agents, including US and Euro- ❑ Conference Reports

Have you held or attended a meeting that ference was divided into five main themes: University, USA) stressing the importance you want other biocontrol workers to know biocontrol theory and new approaches, of looking at critical attributes of enemies, about? Send us a report and we will include target and agent selection, risk analysis, weeds and environment as well as identi- it in BNI. integration and management, and evalua- fying crucial stages in the weed’s life cycle tion. Fifty-eight talks and 122 posters were in order to avoid introduction of non-effec- Weed Biocontrol presented. tive control agents. The majority of talks Symposium presented in this session were entomologi- The keynote speech by Donald Strong cally orientated, although a pathology (University of California, USA), opening paper presented by Carol Ellison (CABI The XI International Symposium on the the theme ‘theory and new approaches’, Bioscience, UK) looked at the significance Biological Control of Weeds, hosted by gave a general insight into how future bio- of intraspecies pathogenicity in the selec- CSIRO Entomology, was held at the Aus- logical control needs to diversify as a disci- tion of a pathotype of the rust Puccinia spe- tralian National University in Canberra, pline encompassing not only life but also gazzinii for classical biological control of Australia from 27 April to 2 May 2003. social sciences. The other topics addressed mile-a-minute weed (Mikania micrantha) This 4-yearly symposium series provides during this session were the new encounter in Southeast Asia (see ‘Can the ‘Green one of the most important forums for scien- concept as a potential strategy for weed bio- Tidal Wave’ of Asia Be Curtailed?’, Gen- tists working in this field of research control using plant pathogens (Harry eral News, this issue). dealing with the ecology of invasive weeds Evans, CABI Bioscience, UK); the neces- and the use of arthropods and pathogens to sity to test climate compatibility of biolog- The theme ‘risk analysis’ was divided into control their spread, as well as with the ical control agents in order to predict their three sessions. Criticism of weed biocontrol ethics and risks associated with the overall establishment and performance in the area usually focuses on the danger of biocontrol concept of biological control. The Canberra of introduction (Marcus Byrne, University agents attacking species other than the meeting was attended by about 220 dele- of the Witwatersrand, South Africa) and the gates from around the world. Australia, potential influence of interactions between target weed. Hence, the talks presented New Zealand, South Africa and the United insect and fungal agents on various aspects generally dealt with how to minimize such States were strongly represented but there of biological control of weeds e.g. agent risks, e.g. through rigorous refined specifi- were also a number of absences due to the selection and effectiveness (Richard Hill, city testing procedures, or how to assess recent Iraq war and SARS. The overall New Zealand). and weigh the risk associated with the use emphasis of the conference lay on the of biocontrol agents. An example of how to importance of ecology as the underlying The theme ‘target and agent selection’ was assess and manage the risk of using the non discipline for biological control. The con- introduced by Peter McEvoy (Oregon State host-specific pathogen Sclerotinia scleroti- 60N BiocontrolNews and Information 2003 Vol. 24 No. 3 orum was presented from New Zealand ‘Assessment of biological risk factors asso- which constitutes the forum of the Interna- (Graeme Bourdôt) where the extent of ciated with the use of exotic organisms in tional Bioherbicide Group, was organized safety zones around biocontrol sites were containment facilities’ (Glynn Maynard, by Maurizio Vurro, Bari, Italy and was estimated based on models of escape and Office of the Chief Plant Protection attended by some 35 scientists working in aerial dispersion of its spores. Lars Baker Officer, Department of Agriculture, For- the field of mycoherbicides who gave 17 (Wyoming Counties, USA) gave an inter- estry & Fisheries – Australia (OCPPO/ oral and 3 poster presentations. estingtalkontheimpactofleafyspurge AFFA), Australia). This workshop was biological control agents on non-target organized in order to obtain scientific input The workshop explored the possibilities spurges. Although the introduced leaf bee- from biocontrol practitioners into the and constraints of using plant pathogens in tles fed on the indigenous spurge, which policy document currently being drawn up an inundative approach to control weeds, occurred in the same habitat, they preferred by the OCPPO. particularly with a view towards the future the target weed, which they controlled, and of bioherbicides. Four invited speakers, ‘Where biocontrol is heading in the 21st the net effect was for the indigenous spurge Raghavan Charudattan (University of century’ (Rachel McFadyen, Cooperative to become more common. This was picked Florida, USA), Alan Watson (McGill Uni- Research Centre (CRC) for Australian up by Tony Willis who pointed out very versity, Canada), Ken-ichi Yamaguchi Weed Management). Discussions during clearly that in evaluating the risk that bio- (Minami-Kyushu University, Japan) and this workshop raised a number of issues, logical control agents present to indigenous David Sands (Montana State University, which need to be addressed within the con- plants, the fact that a biological control USA) set the scene discussing what traits text of biological control in the future e.g. agent may feed on an indigenous species is would be desirable for future bioherbicides, the need to select and breed better agents; not critical, but it is the impact on that how their efficacy could be enhanced, why the issues of genetically modified agents; indigenous plant which needs to be evalu- overall bioherbicides had only limited suc- acceptance of test results from other coun- ated. Jim Cullen picked up in this in his cess and which factors influence the tries; studies of interactions between concluding presentation (see below) and it biopesticide market in Japan. Following on agents, weed and native biodiversity; is a message that needs to reach biocon- from this several papers presented case increased legislative problems; inter- trol’s customers and the public. studies looking at certain aspects regarding country movement; more emphasis on eco- the control of specific weeds with indi- Many talks presented within the theme nomic issues; future job prospects for vidual biocontrol agents, as well as new ‘integration and management’ gave over- researchers. Suggested actions that need to research into formulation and application views of individual biological control pro- be taken included targeting stakeholders, of plant pathogens aiming to overcome grammes and extension work as the promoting integrated weed management, environmental constraints. Particularly socioeconomic dimension. Overall release promoting internationally agreed testing interesting was a paper by Charudattan and protocols for insect and pathogens accept- strategies of agents were also frequently co-workers, reporting on the discovery of able to regulators and raising the awareness addressed as for example in the paper given tobacco mild green mosaic tobamovirus about success stories in weed biocontrol. by Alana Den Breeÿen (Plant Protection (TMGMV) causing a systemic, hypersensi- Research Institute (PPRI), South Africa). ‘Centres of origin’ (Alec McClay, Alberta tive response in and, thus, killing tropical The speaker documented the release strate- Research Council, Canada) provided a soda apple (Solanum viarum), a highly gies adopted for Mycovellosiella lantanae forum for emphasizing the difficulties in invasive weed in the southeastern United var. lantanae against Lantana camara in identifying centres of origin. States. Should current attempts to develop South Africa using a combination of isolates and register TMGMV be successful this to target a wide range of L. camara biotypes Jim Cullen (CSIRO, Canberra) closed the would constitute the first virus-based bio- in the field as well as releasing them over a symposium on Friday afternoon giving an herbicide. [See also BNI 24(2), 31N-32N range of environmental conditions. overall synthesis of the meeting. He pointed (June 2003), Tropical soda apple biocontrol out the complexity of the systems biological bears first fruit.] The last main theme addressed different control of weeds has to deal with, the signif- aspects of evaluating weed biological con- icant progress which has been made in trol. Cheryl Lennox (PPRI, South Africa) The general discussion at the end explored many areas, but also the attention which is new concepts for bioherbicides, for presented the success story of the Australian needed with respect to the socioeconomic gall rust Uromycladium tepperianum example formulating cocktails of different context, economic evaluations and the pre- plant pathogens effective against several releasedintoSouthAfricain1987against dictability of control measures. the invasive shrub Acacia saligna which is weeds or using strains of plant pathogens now considered to be under complete bio- This report is adapted from a report written capable of producing phytotoxic amino logical control. Jane Barton (New Zealand) by Marion Seier (CABI Bioscience)for acids. Options for applying plant patho- reported that in plot experiments in New BSPP News, the newsletter of the British gens, highly virulent but exhibiting less Zealand control of the Central American Society for Plant Pathology, which funded host specificity, were also discussed. weed Ageratina riparia using the intro- her attendance at the symposium. Finally, the necessity of choosing the right duced white smut Entyloma ageratinae organisms and the right market niche in www.bspp.org.uk/ benefited the native vegetation rather than, order to develop a successful bioherbicide as often feared, other weedy exotics, while ❑ was stressed. the last speaker of the symposium, Andrew McConnachie (University of the Witwa- Bioherbicide Workshop This report was written by Marion Seier tersrand, South Africa), put some hard fig- (CABI Bioscience)forBSPP News,the ures on the successful biological control of The VI International Bioherbicide Work- newsletter of the British Society for Plant Azolla filiculoides in South Africa with a shop, ‘Bioherbicides: The Next Genera- Pathology, which funded her attendance at calculated benefit-cost ratio of 2.5:1 for tion’ was held on 27 April 2003, the symposium. 2000 and a forecasted ratio 15:1 by 2010. immediately before the XI International Symposium on the Biological Control of www.bspp.org.uk/ Several workshops were organized by indi- Weeds, at the Australian National Univer- vidual delegates including: sity in Canberra, Australia. The workshop, ❑ News 61N

Chromolaena Workshop grammes funded by the US Department of to include all invasive Eupatorieae Agriculture and ACIAR (Australian Centre (Ageratina, Ageratum, Austroeupatorium, The 6th International Workshop on Biolog- for International Agricultural Research) to as well as Chromolaena and Mikania), and ical Control and Management of Chromo- introduce and establish two insect agents that new research initiatives to assess addi- laena odorata was organized by the from Trinidad, the arctiid moth Pareucha- tional natural enemies, including fungi, Chromolaena Working Group, hosted by etes pseudoinsulata and a tephritid gall fly should be encouraged in countries having Dr. R.N. Muniappan (University of Guam), Cecidochares connexa in the Asian and problems with invasive Eupatorieae. Bar- under the auspices of the International Pacific Regions. Successful control of the bara Waterhouse (Australian Quarantine and Organization for Biological Control of weed was first achieved in Guam with the Inspection Service, AQIS) gave a compre- Noxious Animals and Plants (IOBC), with moth but control elsewhere has largely hensive overview of the Australian efforts sponsorship from IOBC Asia & Pacific been ineffective and the evaluation of other under the Northern Australian Quarantine Regional Section and the Australian Centre arthropod agents has continued in both Asia Strategy (NAQS) to prevent invasive weeds for International Agricultural Research and South Africa, the former funded by from reaching tropical Australia, and the (ACIAR). It was attended by some 30 sci- ACIAR because of concerns about its con- costly efforts by the Australian peace- entists from Australia, East Timor, Fiji, tinued spread through Southeast Asia and keeping forces in Southeast Asia to de-con- Guam, Indonesia, Micronesia, Papua New the Pacific islands and the threat posed to taminate military equipment. Guinea (PNG), South Africa and the UK. Australia. Owen Zeimer (Centre for Wet Tropics This Workshop is held every 3-4 years to Successful control seems also to have been Agriculture, Queensland) presented a discuss current research on the biological achieved in Indonesia and parts of PNG detailed report on the nationally-funded control and management of the invasive with a combination of the moth and gallfly. campaign to eradicate C. odorata and M. alien weed Chromolaena odorata. Indo- However, the search for additional natural micrantha, which were first detected in nesia was originally chosen as the venue enemies is continuing in the Americas, northern Queensland in the early 1990s. but for security and logistical reasons, this mainly involving South African scientists, Chromolaena odorata has proven to be the was moved to Cairns. for those areas where the gallfly is ineffec- more widespread, and hence more prob- Rachel McFadyen, recently appointed as tive, either through parasitism or climatic lematic weed, and an intensive programme Chief Executive Officer for Australian unsuitability. An excellent study by Costas involving cultural practices, herbicide Weed Management (CRC), opened the Zachariades and co-workers (Plant Protec- application and controlled burning has been workshop with a history of the research on tion Research Institute, South Africa) on-going for the past 5-6 years. A field visit biological control of chromolaena weed detailed the search for the origins of the dis- to these sites followed to appreciate at first- which started with her work on insect nat- tinctive South African biotypes; using bio- hand the difficulties of topography and ural enemies at CIBC (Commonwealth geographical, morphological and molecular logistics which are involved in any eradica- Institute of Biological Control, now part of evidence, which strongly suggests that it tion campaign. CABI Bioscience) in Trinidad in the mid- was introduced from the northern Carib- The concluding papers described potential 1960s, with funding from the Nigerian Oil bean region. This explains why both insect new biocontrol agents of C. odorata and Palm Research Institute. Since then, this and fungal natural enemies from South and new weed problems involving species of neotropical plant has become an extremely Central America have proven to be ineffec- Eupatorieae. Of interest and no little con- problematic invasive weed not only in tive against the South African biotype and cern, is that a defoliating butterfly (Acti- West Africa but also in Southern Africa and why recent collections from Cuba and note) is being considered for release in throughout tropical Asia and the Pacific Jamaica are showing promise. China, despite the fact that the host range is Islands. At the last Workshop, held in ACABIBioscience paper, delivered by relatively wide, including both Chromo- Durban (South Africa) in October 2000, it Harry Evans was the only one out of the 20 laena and Mikania. Broadening of the was recommended that chromolaena weed presented which dealt with fungal biocontrol Workshop terms of reference, to include all should now be adopted to replace the out- agents. The main emphasis of the paper was invasive Eupatorieae, appears, therefore, to dated and misleading old name Siam weed. on the related weed Mikania micrantha, and be propitious, especially since a new inva- Since this pioneering research by CIBC, considerable interest was expressed in the sive weed, Praxelis (Eupatorium) clema- most of the research efforts have continued CABI biocontrol project in India since this tidea, closely related to C. odorata,has to be directed at arthropod natural enemies, weed is becoming a serious invader in many recently been identified in northern Aus- with some work on fungal pathogens being countries of the Australasian-Pacific region tralia and is also invading southern China undertaken by South Africa supplemented and has recently been recorded in northern and Taiwan. by unfunded inputs from CABI Bioscience. Australia. Amongst the recommendations By: Harry Evans, CABI Bioscience This was reflected in the presentations most made at the closing session was that the ofwhichconcentratedonprojectsorpro- scope of the Workshop should be broadened ❑ Proceedings

Chromolaena Workshop Organization for Biological and Integrated review the distribution, mechanisms of dis- Proceedings Control of Noxious Animals and Plants). persal, spread and impact of chromolaena, together with status of efforts at contain- The proceedings have been published of As is usual and useful in the outputs of such ment and/or management in the various the 5th International Workshop on Biolog- workshops, country and regional reports countries. The importance of raising aware- ical Control and management of Chromo- (from Congo-Brazzaville, Ghana, Indo- ness of (a) the threat from the weed and (b) laena odorata*. The workshop was held in nesia, Malaysia, Micronesia, Papua New the need for resources to combat it are high- Durban, South Africa in October 2000 Guinea, the Philippines and South Africa) lighted in presentations from South Africa. under the auspices of IOBC (International form a major part of the proceedings. These A Malaysia report describes how chromo- 62N BiocontrolNews and Information 2003 Vol. 24 No. 3 laena is causing coconut plantations to be contributions on the effects of environ- mass rearing, biology, and impact on flow- abandoned. Classical biocontrol is a pop- mental factors on seedling growth, species ering and foliage, and land management ular (but not universal) choice, with herbi- invasion and regeneration potential – practices, following release. Significant cides, manual control and burning also together with one on the impact of the weed issues include the potential for pathogens, used. The need for rehabilitation of infested on crocodiles – provide useful baseline and why Pareuchaetes spp. moths have landisdiscussedinaSouthAfricanpaper, information for future integrated manage- failed to establish in some instances. and countries where it is perceived as a ment strategies. useful resource note the need to replace A report on the 6th International Workshop chromolaena with alternative species. Contributions that consider impacts and on Biological Control and Management of Countries are at various stages in control management of chromolaena in both nat- Chromolaena is in the ‘Conference ural and agricultural systems strategies programmes, and reports of successful Reports’ section of this issue. establishment, spread and impact of natural indicate how the impact of the weed may be enemies (for example Cecidochares con- lessened. From discussions of, variously, *Zachariades, C.; Muniappan, R.; Strathie, lessons learnt from control efforts, how fire nexa in Indonesia) make encouraging L.W. (eds) (2002) Proceedings of the 5th may be used to regenerate chromolaena- reading, and in particular the successful International Workshop on Biological Con- free land, the Farmer Field School control achieved with Pareuchaetes pseu- trol and Management of Chromolaena odo- approach in training farmers in biocontrol, doinsulata in Ghana. Progress with rata, Durban, South Africa, October 2000. and how best to substitute for chromolaena assessing new prospective agents is sum- Pretoria, South Africa; ARC-Plant Protec- in a cropping system, “judicious guidance” marized in another South African contribu- tion Research Institute, 186 pp. tion (and there is more on biocontrol in later emerges as the key term. papers). A different perspective is given by A series of papers on current biological Available from: ARC-PPRI, Publications, Australian contributions, where chromo- control projects for chromolaena, in con- Private Bag X134, Pretoria, laena is not yet established, and they focus junction with the country reports, provides 0001 South Africa on prevention, early detection and hopes of a useful accumulation of knowledge on Email: [email protected] eradication. whichagentshavebeenreleasedwhere, Fax: +27 12 808 1489 Papers on the taxonomy of the tribe Eupa- and how they are performing. There are Web: www.arc.agric.za torieae and chromolaena from morpholog- also contributions, for various natural ical and DNA-based studies and enemy species, on host specificity testing, ❑