Appendix: Chinese Foreign Aid in : Country Overviews

CHINA AND

China's aid program reshaped the skyline of , the capital of Sierra Leone. The massive, Chinese-built Siaka Stevens stadium and pool sit high on a hill just outside the city center in the Brookfield neighborhood of embassy houses and middle-class apartments. Across a valley, the Youyi (Friendship) Building towers over nearby one-story shops and homes. The Ministry of , relocated to Youyi from the crumbling wooden colonial structure at Tower Hill that had served many generations of Sierra Leone farmers, now occupies a suite of offices overlook­ ing the stadium. China's projects were not confined only to the capital, however. Every two years from 1973 on, a team of approximately fifteen Chinese doctors and para-medical staff (including a cook) and equipment were sent to the rural Rotifunk hospital. In 1973, China donated two gunboats to assist Sierra Leone in patrolling its waters against unauthorized fishing expeditions. Between June and November 1974, five Chinese experts spent months in the Ferengbeya area con­ ducting a feasibility study for iron ore . Also in 1974, the two governments announced that a Chinese table tennis coach and his interpreter would be dis­ patched to Sierra Leone for a one year stay, although a later report indicated that 'attendance at the table tennis coaching sessions being held in Freetown by the Chinese coach has been very poor.' 1 In 1975 three Sierra Leoneans travelled to China to study Chinese cooking for six months, financed under the loan. 2 Between 1976 and 1977, the Chinese built two bridges at Mange and at Kambia to complete the road linking Sierra Leone and northern . Construction began on the Mag bass Sugar Cane Plantation in 1976 to provide raw material for the 10 000-ton capacity Chinese-built Magbass Sugar Mill. In 1979, the 30 000-seat Siaka Stevens stadium in Freetown, and its accompanying sports complex and athlete hostel were completed (the Chinese pointed out to President Stevens that the stadium would be quite useful for mass rallies). 3 Early in the 1980s, the Chinese used funds originally committed to build a fiberboard factory to construct a 300-unit complex to house workers and staff of the Magbass Factory, originally the responsibility of the Sierra Leone government. A small (4000 kw) hydropower dam was discussed for years and finally construc­ tion began at the Doda site, north of Kenema, in late 1982.4 As with so many of their projects in Sierra Leone, the hydroelectric dam encountered delays due to government corruption. According to the Chinese, money allocated by the Ministry of Energy to the Ministry of Works to build a road to the site 'went into someone's pocket. This was a big problem for our project.' Eventually, the road was built by the Sierra Leone government, but by then the project had been

211 212 Appendix delayed by almost four years. When it finally came on stream in 1986. the Chinese project was able to supply Kenema with 24-hour electricity. a considerable improvement over the situation in Freetown, the capital. Other developments supported by the Chinese included the large. ten-story 'Youyi' (Friendship) government ministry building and a new police headquarters in downtown Freetown. Periodic donations of wheat, edible oil. exer­ cise books, and pencils were sent to the country in the difficult. debt-burdened years of the 1980s. In 1983, another team of table-tennis champions visited Sierra Leone to demonstrate the sport and hold a clinic. s As elsewhere, the 1980s brought alternative forms of technical cooperation between Sierra Leone and China In keeping with their new emphasis on sustain­ ing the positive results of their projects, the Chinese accepted management con­ tracts for the Dodo hydroelectric project north of Kenema. and for the Magbass sugar complex. In 1985, and again in 1991. the Chinese extended new loans to finance additional agricultural and other projects.6 The first loan. for approximately US$ 11 million, was targeted to Chinese companies, to help them finance joint ventures with Sierra Leone companies.7 It became very popular during the mid- 1980s for local businesses to either establish joint ventures. or to contract with Chinese firms for technical or management assistance. For example. a short-lived relationship developed between the China State Construction and Engineering Company and a Lebanese firm in Freetown, in which the dismayed Chinese found that their partner had taken, and pocketed, an advance payment from the Sierra Leone Port Authority. Chinese consultants also drafted a feasibility study for a joint venture in commercial production with Jamil Said Mohammed, a contro­ versial Freetown businessman with very close ties to former President Siaka Stevens, but before they were able to begin work on the farm, Jamil Said was expelled from Sierra Leone by Stevens' successor, President Momoh. Other joint ventures had happier outcomes. A team arrived in 1984 to do a fea­ sibility study on a joint venture in ocean fishing, leading to a company from Fujian province establishing the Minfei Fishing Company in Freetown with a Chinese loan. Other Chinese companies arrived to do business with support from Beijing. In particular, China AGRICON, with its first African branch office estab­ lished in Sierra Leone, quickly won a reputation as a reliable and inexpensive contractor with services that went far beyond agriculture. Beginning in 1984, AGRICON won an Islamic Development Bank grant to build an Islamic College in Magbaruka. In 1985, the Economic Counsellor's office signed an agreement between China AGRICON, and also controversial, but wealthy Sierra Leonean Musa Samu, former head of the Sierra Leone Produce Marketing Board, for a team of eight Chinese to 'completely manage' his firm SADCO - Samu Agricultural Development Company - and to develop a large plantation in Samu chiefdom, to grow irrigated rice, pineapples for export, cattle and tree crops. The more traditional foreign aid activities continued too, with the new twist of profit­ orientation. In 1984, the Chinese ambassador suggested to the Ministry of Agriculture that Sierra Leone might want to use part of a new loan to reactivate some of the rice and vegetable stations initially established in the 1970s. as profitable ventures. A team visited Ogoo Farm, Newton, Lumley, Makali and Lambayama in Kenema. The Ministry suggested a joint venture in rubber and the Chinese completed a feasibility study which showed that this would not be a profitable venture. 8 Oil palm. however, was profitable. and AGRICON launched a Appendix 213 joint venture with Choithrams. an Indian-owned commercial company. in Eastern Sierra Leone in the mid-1980s. In the 1990s. China's commitments tended to remain commercially-oriented, and the civil war that erupted in the east of the country effectively ended any active aid relationship.

CHINA AND

Direct assistance to Liberia began in 1978, and was concentrated on agriculture, recreation. and health. Although the original agreement called for the Chinese to conduct feasibility studies for wood furniture factories and additional water con­ servancy projects, these ideas were dropped in 1981 due to the inability of the Liberian government to supply matching funds. President Samuel Doe visited China in May 1982, and in July, China pre­ sented Liberia with twenty military jeeps. two 'Red Flag' limousines, and four buses.9 The Chinese promised again during Doe's visit that they would fund the rehabilitation of the Taiwanese sugar project, Libsuco. In early 1983, a 50- member Chinese team came to conduct a feasibility study for the rehabilitation of the plantation and factory, but in a reflection of the new attention to economic results. the study rigorously calculated the costs and benefits of the project, indi­ cated that Liberia did not have a comparative advantage in sugar production, and recommended that since the Liberian Government would incur heavy losses in its operation, the rehabilitation would best be abandoned. 10 The funding origi­ nally proferred for the Libsuco rehabilitation was then slated to assist the surfac­ ing of Liberia's main but eventually shifted into paying for extra expenses on existing projects, including management contracts. The 30 000-seat Samuel Kanyan Doe stadium, completed in 1984 by the Hunan Province branch of the China General Construction Company, was the highly visible centerpiece of China's aid program in Liberia. Located at a well­ travelled junction at the outskirts of , the stadium soared above the flat coastal plain, seeming to challenge the other towering structures nearby - the Omega naval tracking system. Although the visiting Chinese were given weekly English lessons. they relied on four interpreters to assist communi­ cation between the 121 Chinese managers and technicians (all male) and 303 Liberian workers. Despite official pronouncements of goodwill and frater­ nity. the Chinese and the Liberians overcame considerable strife and mutual frustration during the construction of the stadium. The Liberian coordinator of the project, an official at the Ministry of Youth and Sports, chafed at the Chinese control over the project, and on their need to have higher level approval for changes agreed at the project level. The fact that their own superiors in Monrovia or Beijing might overturn decisions made by the Chinese managers at the project level reduced trust on the Liberian side. Complained one Liberian official, who had also worked with a previous German aid team, 'If the Germans tell you something, you can sleep on it. If the Chinese tell you it's raining. you have to go outside and look. • The Chinese also offered medical assistance to Liberia; the first team of 14 Chinese doctors reached Liberia in 1984 and were headquartered in Tubmanburg. Bomi County. fairly close to the capital. A Chinese engineering 214 Appendix company, China State Construction Engineering Corporation, based in Beijing, rehabilitated Dawson Memorial hospital in . also under a loan from the Chinese government. Medical teams were still being sent to Liberia until the rupture of diplomatic relations in 1989, and the Chinese continued until 1989 to send small teams to manage the Doe stadium and the rice project at Kpatawee, both also financed out of a zero-interest loan. The Liberians tried to interest the Chinese in a number of other projects, including the Ganta-Harper highway, an integrated 'South East Agricultural Development Project,' and a cattle project on the failed Libsuco factory's sugar cane lands in Maryland County. The Chinese expressed polite interest in all these schemes and studied some of the Liberian proposals, but declined to take them on. Perhaps because of the attraction offered at first by the possibilities of earning US dollars, Liberia also became an important site for some of China's Africa joint ventures and profit-oriented contracts. By 1988, China had established several joint ventures, including a private health clinic in the diplo­ matic residence area outside of the center of Monrovia, an automobile repair company, Chinese-Liberian Vehicle Services Company, near the airport road in a Monrovia suburb, and several trading outlets in upcountry towns, including Ganta, where I spent an afternoon with the manager of the China Trade Center. who continued at his post after the diplomatic rupture, proving that commerce was now stronger than politics. His decision mirrored the decision of a group of Taiwanese technicians 15 years earlier, who had stayed in Liberia after the break in diplomatic relations, carving out a profitable vegetable farm on the outskirts of Monrovia. Some of the wholly owned Chinese ventures established in Liberia had links to the foreign aid program. The same engineering company that renovated the Maryland County hospital remained in Liberia with their equipment and , and won a contract from the Liberian government to renovate the Tapeta hospital. The Hunan International Economic and Technical Cooperation Corporation estab­ lished a Chinese restaurant, with its own vegetable farm, and in 1988 a Chinese group established a preliminary agreement with the Libyan owners of the luxury Pan African Plaza in Monrovia to undertake a logging venture in the Liberian forests, supplying logs to another Chinese corporation that established a saw mill joint venture in 1987.ll As in Sierra Leone, Chinese interests in Liberia were largely suspended during the civil war, although the logging venture may have been an exception.

CHINA AND THE GAMBIA

The Gambia normalized relations with China in late 1974, and several weeks later, a delegation of Gambians visited Beijing with specific requests for new projects in addition to China's promise to take over the irrigated rice project abandoned by the Taiwanese. The delegation requested that China consider eight projects in addition to consolidating the irrigation program: water resources development, with small dams and tubewells; a feasibility study for sugar cane; cotton development; live­ stock development; construction of feeder roads and surfacing of existing roads; construction of a new hospital for the eastern half of The Gambia; a multipurpose Appendix 215 stadium. to seat 20 000 people; and a patrol boat and guns to 'guard waters from illegal fishing. ' 12 Of these proposals. continued negotiations eventually resulted in two: the stadium, and the patrol boat for enforcement of fishing regulations. Other projects came from Chinese ideas and modifications of the original proposals, and from other government ministries. Aside from the irrigated rice project explored in more detail in this book, China's other agricultural activities in The Gambia also focused on rice and vegetables. At the request of the Gambians. a Chinese team came for nearly two months in 1987 to do a feasibility study for a gravity-fed, irrigated swamp rice project in the flood-recession swamps along the Gambia River, but concluded that the type of project requested by The Gambia would require US$1.9 million to develop 150 hectares of rice fields. and the investment would not be profitable. 13 In addition to agriculture, China was also active in The Gambia's public health program. In 1977, the Chinese began sending a medical team of some 16 persons, along with equipment and medicines, to the upcountry town of Bansang; new medical teams continued to arrive every two yearsY Eventually, the Gambians scaled down their request for a new rural hospital and settled on four rural health centers and at the end of 1979, the Chinese began the construction of four 15-bed health centers with capacity to around 200 outpatients at Karataba, Kudang, Farafenni and Kau-ur. Once the health centers were completed, China posted medical teams to some of them. Other Chinese projects have focused on physical infrastructure (generally, buildings), and small-scale industry. Chinese construction projects have changed the skyline of The Gambia's small capital, Banjul, just as they did in Sierra Leone. As in most of the African countries where the Chinese worked, they constructed a stadium: in late 1979, construction began on the 17 000-seat Independence Stadium and Friendship Hostel, at an estimated cost of $4 million. 13 The stadium was completed in 1982, and the Gambians took the Chinese up on the offer of a management contract for a team of five Chinese who have been paid to manage and maintain the stadium (to 'keep the lights guaranteed,' as the Chinese explained). The embassy pointed out that the stadium was an example of the economic results promised by Premier Zhao Ziyang in his African tour of 1982-3. The Friendship Hostel, noted a Chinese official, earns money: 'It is a dormitory for athletes, during matches. When no match is scheduled, it is a hotel. It helps pay for the loan.'16 With financing through Chinese contributions to UNIDO, a team of six Chinese from the China Building Material Company in Beijing constructed a brick-making plant in the early 1980s. When their work was finished, they registered as a local building company and began pursuing other construction contracts, while a new team arrived to manage the factory and teach the Gambians how to build with bricks, not a common building material in West Africa. The Chinese also built staff housing at Bansang hospital in 1984, and although this project was funded by the Gambian government, it was, according to the Chinese Economic Counsellor, 'a friendly project and a friendly price.' The construction of a government office building, begun in 1985, was a similar undertaking. Chinese aid also financed the construction of a Supreme Court building valued at more than US$8.0 million, and a four-story police headquarters. 216 Appendix China's new emphasis on sustainability and economic results was reflected in the projects initiated after President Jawara visited China again in April 1988, bringing back renewed offers totalling $9.0 million for Chinese assistance for health and agriculture. One of the agreements that came from this visit was a promise to rehabilitate the four health centers built in 1979-80.'7 A year later, a Chinese team arrived to assist the Gambian government's efforts to promote horti­ culture both as a women's income generation activity and as exports to earn foreign exchange. The team established a horticulture project in Brikama, near the capital, Banjul. Also in 1988, the Gambia's 1978 request for two patrol boats was finally answered, as China shipped both boats and sent twelve Chinese instructors to set up a training program for Gambian seamen. A small amount of additional military assistance arrived in 1991, when the Chinese Anny donated two mobile storage depots and an armory (worth $130 000) to The Gambia. 18 The Chinese committed another US$ 12 million loan to The Gambia in 1991, and suggested that one new project be a geological mapping effort. While the foreign aid office of MOFERT continued activities at a modest but sustained pace, the more commercially-oriented technical and economic coopera­ tion efforts expanded. The Beijing-based China Harbours Engineering Company narrowly lost a bid for the Banjul port project, awarded to the British firm Kier, but by 1991, some 500 Chinese were actively pursuing joint profits in The Gambia in a variety of projects in construction. and agroindustry. 19 Recent Sino-Gambian cooperative projects included a joint fishing venture between the two governments, a garment factory established by a Chinese provin­ cial company and private entrepreneurs, a private poultry farm, and the popular Dragon Restaurant in Banjul. Notes

1 Introduction

1. Xinhua (New China News Agency), 17 October 1995, in Foreign Broadcast International Service China Report (FBIS-CHI) 95-210. 18 October 1995; Xinhua 6 June 1995 in FBIS-CHI-95-108, 6 June 1995; Hans-Helmut Taake. 'Promoting Non-Alignment and Self-Reliance: China's Development Policy'. D&C Development and Cooperation (); no. 516 (Sept-Dec 1994). The figure of $30 billion announced by the Chinese is likely to have included military assistance. 2. Zhongguo Xinwen She (Beijing) 21 June 1995, in FBIS-CHI-95-120, 22 June 1995, p. 3. 3. Xinhua, 4 May 1996 in FBIS-CHI-96-088, 6 May 1996, p. 20. 4. See. for example, Janos Horvarth, Chinese Technology Transfer to the Third World (New York: Praeger. 1976); John Franklin Copper, China's Foreign Aid: An Instrument of Peking's Foreign Policy (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1976); Wolfgang Bartke, China's Economic Aid (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1975); Warren Weinstein and Thomas H. Henrickson. (eds). Soviet and Chinese Aid to African Nations (New York: Praeger, 1980) Most of these writers have relied primarily on translations of the Chinese press and other library sources. Their heavy reliance on Chinese sources gives some of these studies a distorted picture of the effectiveness of Chinese aid. 5. For studies of the Tanzam railway, see in particular George T. Yu, China's African Policy: A Study ofTanzania (New York: Praeger, 1975) and also his earlier book on China's relations with Africa: China and Tanzania: A Study in Cooperative Interaction (Berkeley, Center for Chinese Studies: University of California Press, 1970). Others who have done research in Africa include Philip Snow, The Star Raft: China's Encounter with Africa (New York: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1988); Alan Hutchison, China's African Revolution (Boulder, CO: Westview Press 1976); Yu Fai Law, Chinese Foreign Aid: A Study of its Nature and Goals with Panicular Reference to the Foreign Policy and World View of the People's Republic of China. 1950-1982 (Fort Lauderdale: Breitenbach Publishers, 1984). 6. Clifton Hiebsch and Stephen K. O'Hair, 'Major Domesticated Crops,' in Della E. McMillan and Art Hansen (eds), Food in Sub-Saharan Africa (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1986) p. 189. Recent major works on aid and development that fail to even mention China's aid program include Anne 0. Krueger, Constantine Michalopoulos. and Vernon W. Ruttan, Aid and Development (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989), Uma Lele (ed.), Aid to Africa: Lesson From Two Decades of Donors' Experience (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), and Robert Cassen and Associates, Does Aid Work? 2nd. edn. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).

217 218 Notes

7. Han Baocheng, 'China Proposes Aid Plan for Africa.' Beijing Review no. 29,21 July 1986, p. 26 8. Han, 'China Proposes Aid Plan'; interviews, Sierra Leone, July 1988. 9. The interest in China was reflected in a series of books and reports such as the following: Food and Agriculture Organization of the (FAO). Learning From China: A Report on Agriculture and the Chinese People's Communes, 9 September-5 October 1975. Bangkok: FAO, 1977; Elizabeth Johnson and Graham Johnson, Walking on Two Legs; Rural Development in South China (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 1976); John F. Jones, Building China: Studies in Integrated Development (: The Chinese University Press, 1980); Neville Maxwell (ed.), China's Road to Development, 2nd edn (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1979); and Robert F. Dernberger (ed.), China's Development Experience in Comparative Perspective (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980). 10. Again, the Tanzam railway is an exception, since the media and a significant number of scholars have followed its history since the Chinese laid the first rails in the Zambian mountains. 11. See, for example, R. H. Green, 'Transferability, Exoticism and Other Forms of Dogmatic Revisionism,' World Development vol. 6, 1978, p. 709; Robert F. Dernberger and Francoise Le Gall, 'Is the Chinese Model Transferable?' in Robert F. Dernberger (ed.), China's Development Experience in Comparative Perspective (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980); FAO, Learning From China; or Michael Lofchie, 'China's Lessons for African Agriculture,' in Ronald Cohen (ed.) Satisfying Africa's Food Needs: Food Production and Commercialization in African Agriculture (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1988). 12. Dernberger and Le Gall, op. cit., p. 330. 13. In order, these quotations are found in Hutchison, p. 205; Bartke, p. 26; and Carol Berger, 'China and the Principles of Aid,' Sudanow (February 1982), p. 19. 14. These were cited, respectively, in Department of State Research Study Communist States and Developing Countries - Aid and Trade in I97 I 15 May 1972; and in Copper, op. cit., p. 141. 15. See, for example, Deborah Brautigam, China and the Kpatawee Rice Project in Liberia, Universitlit Bremen, Germany, Liberia Working Papers, No.8, 1993.

2. Development and Foreign Aid: Theory and Practice

1. R. H. Green, 'Transferability, Exoticism and Other Forms of Dogmatic Revisionism,' World Development, vol. 6, 1978, p. 709. 2. Carl Eicher makes the point about research in the colonial period. Carl Eicher, 'Sustainable Institutions for African Agricultural Development,' ISNAR Working Paper No. 19, ISNAR (International Service for National Agricultural Research) February 1989, p. 19. 3. This seems to be true irrespective of the source of aid. See, for example, the 's 1988 evaluation of its rural development projects in Africa, which found that at least half of their projects had failed. World Bank, Rural Notes 219 Development: World Bank Experience, 1965-1986 (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1988). 4. See Carl Eicher, 'Zimbabwe's Maize-Based Green Revolution: Preconditions for Replication,' World Development, vol. 23, no. 5 (May 1995). 5. See K. Otsuka and C. Delgado, 'New technologies and the competitiveness of high and low potential rural areas in Asia and Mrica,' invited paper pre­ sented at the 22nd International Conference of Agricultural Economists, 22-9 August 1994, Harare, Zimbabwe. 6. Carl K. Eicher, 'Africa's Food Battles,' in Carl K. Eicher and John M. Staatz (eds), Agricultural Development in the Third World, 2nd edn, 1990, p. 517. 7. Barbara Stallings, 'International Influence on Economic Policy: Debt, Stablization, and Structural Reform,' in Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman (eds), The Politics of Reform: International Constraints, Distributive Conflicts, and the State, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992. For a study that does address the international level of analy­ sis, see Constance Anthony, Mechanism and Maize: The Politics of Technology Transfer in East Africa (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988). 8. See, in particular, Peter Hall, The Political Power of Economic Ideas: Keynesianism Across Nations (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), and Kathryn Sikkink, Ideas and Institutions: Developmentalism in Brazil and (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991). For a study that does specifically examine the role of ideas in foreign aid, see James Ferguson, The Anti-Politics : 'Development', Depoliticization and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). 9. George M. Foster, 'Peasant Society and the Image of Limited Good,' American Anthropologist, vol. 67, no. 2 (Aprill965) pp. 293-315. 10. See the first edition of Everett Rogers' book Diffusion of Innovations (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1962). ll. Food Research Institute Studies vol. l, no. 2 (1960). 12. Ester Boserup, The Conditions of Agricultural GroM:th: The Economics of Agrarian Change Under Population Pressure (London: Allen & Unwin, 1965). 13. Theodore W. Schultz, Transjonning Traditional Agriculture (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964). 14. See Vernon Ruttan, 'Cultural Endowments and Economic Development: What Can We Learn From Anthropology?' Economic Development and Cultural Change, vol. 36 (Aprill988) pp. S247-72. 15. See Mamadou Dia, Africa's Management in the 1990s and Beyond (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1995). 16. Michel Crozier pointed this out in The Bureaucratic Phenomenon (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1964). See also C. Peter Timmer, John W. Thomas, T. Louis Wells, and David Morawetz, The Choice of Technology in Developing Countries: Some Cautionary Tales (Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1975), and Susan Scott-Stevens, Foreign Consultants and Coun.rerpans: Problems in Technology Transfer (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1987). 220 Notes 17. E. F. Schumacher's 1973 book S11Ulll is Beautiful struck a responsive chord in many who were puzzling over the problems experienced in technology transfer to the developing countries. E. F. Schumacher, S11Ul/l is Beautiful (London: Blond and Briggs, 1973). Although many stereotyped appropriate technologies as anything small, manually-operated, and non-violent, at its most useful, the appropriate technology movement pcinted out that appropriateness was a function of the natural and social environment in which a technology was to be used. 18. Uma Lele, The Design of Rural Development: Lessons From Africa (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press for The World Bank, 1975) p. 180. 19. John P. Mcinerney, The Technology of Rural Development (Washington, DC: World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 295, October 1978) p. 44. 20. C. Peter Timmer, 'The Choice of Technique in ,' in Timmer, et al., Choice ofTechnology, p. 17. 21. John Woodward Thomas, 'The Choice of Technology for Irrigation Tubewells in East Pakistan: An Analysis of a Development Policy Decision,' in Timmer, et al., Choice of Technology. Thomas concluded in his study of the introduction and adoption of tubewell technology in Bangladesh that durability, scale, compatibility with socio-cultural tradi­ tions, as well as capital and operating costs all affected the appropriate­ ness of the technology. See also Penelope Francks. 'The Development of New Techniques in Agriculture: The Case of the Mechanization of Irrigation in the Saga Plain Area of ,' World Development, 7 (1979) pp. 531-9. 22. Ellen P. Brown and Roben Nooter, 'Successful Small-Scale Irrigation in the Sahel,' World Bank Technical Paper No. 171, The World Bank, Washington, DC, 1992, pp. 32-5. 23. Francks (1979) found in her study of the mechanization of irrigation in Japan that farmers wanted small, easily ponable machines, characteristics that fit the social organization of production and went funher to explain the pattern of pump adoption in small Japanese farming communities than did the local availability of key factors of production, labor and capital. 24. On the mechanization of Chinese agriculture. see Cheng Xu, Han Chunru, and D. C. Taylor, 'Sustainable Agricultural Development in China; World Development, vol. 20, no. 8 (August 1992) pp. 1127-43. 25. See David Zwieg, 'Strategies of Policy Implementation: Policy "Winds" and Brigade Accounting in Rural China, 1968-1978,' World Politics, vol. 37 (January 1985) pp. 267-93; Benedict Stavis, The Politics of Agricultural Mechanization in China (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978); Thomas B. Wiens, 'The Limits to Agricultural Intensification: The Suzhou Experience, in Randolph Barker and Beth Rose, Agriculture and Rural Development in China Today, pp. 54-77, Cornell International Agriculture Monograph 102 (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University, November 1983). 26. World Bank, Accelerated Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Agenda for Action (Washington: The World Bank, 1981), popularly known as the 'Berg Repon'. Notes 221 27. Uma Lele, 'Managing Agricultural Development in Africa,' in Eicher and Staatz (eds). Agricultural Development (2nd edn) (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990) p. 538. 28. Jean Ensminger, Making a Market: The Institutional Transformation of an African Society (New York: Cambridge University Press. 1992) p. 15, fn. 22. 29. T. W. Schultz, 'Institutions and the Rising Economic Value of Man,' American Journal of Agricultural Economics 50 (December 1968) pp. 1117-18. 30. Anne 0. Krueger, Constantine Michalopoulos, and Vernon W. Ruttan, Aid and Development (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1989) p. 31. 31. See Douglass North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990): Robert Bates, Beyond the Miracle of the Market (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Ensminger, Making a Market (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Yujiro Hayami and Vernon Ruttan, Agricultural Development, 2nd edn (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985); Mustapha Nabli and Jeffrey Nugent (eds), The New Institutional Economics and Development: Theory and Applications to Tunisia (Amsterdam: North-Holland. 1989). 32. The quotations are from North, pp. 3, 5. For alternative definitions see, for example, Hall (1986, p. 19), who states 'the term "organization" will be used here as a virtual synonym for "institution"'. Economists Jeffrey Nugent and Mustapha Nabli have also argued that organizations are also institutions 'because they provide sets of rules governing the relationships both among their members and between members and non-members'. See their intro­ duction: 'New Institutional Economics and Development,' in Nabli and Nugent. p. 8. 33. Ensminger, Making a Market, p. 21. 34. In their model, cultural endowments included social values, beliefs, norms, elements of religions, ideologies, tastes and traditions. such as customary modes of cooperation and moral obligation, attitudes about status, produc­ tion, labor, capital accumulation, and innovation. Institutions were both organizations and the formal and informal 'rules of the game' that govern interactions in a society and provide a structure for social and economic life. See, in particular Hayami and Ruttan, Agricultural Development (2nd edn) pp. 73-114. 35. See Eicher, 'Sustainable Institutions,' p. 21. 36. Crozier, The Bureaucratic Phenomenon. 37. David Leonard, Reaching the Peasant Farmer: Organization Theory and Practice in Kenya (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977) pp. 17-18. 38. Robert Bates, Markets and States in Tropical Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981). 39. Jarice Hanson and Uma Narula, New Communication Technologies in Developing Countries (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 1990) p. 149. 40. Eicher, 'Sustainable Institutions,' p. 25. 222 Notes 41. 'The Case of ,' in Derick Brinkerhoff and Art Goldsmith (eds), Institutional Sustainablity in Agriculture and Rural Development: A Global Perspective (New York: Praegar, 1990) p. 172. See also Anhur A. Goldsmith, Building Agricultural Institutions: Transferring the Land-Grant Model to India and Nigeria (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990). 42. Denis Goulet, The Cruel Choice: A New Concept in the Theory of Development (New York: Atheneum, 1971) p. 171. 43. Anthony, Mechanization and Maize. p. 149. 44. For the definitive discussion of the 'typical' African state, see Robert Jackson and Carl Rosberg, 'Why Africa's Weak States Persist: The Empirical and Juridical in Statehood,' World Politics, 35, I (1982) pp. 1-24. 45. Joel Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), p. xv. Migdal argues that weak states in Africa and elsewhere exist in counterpuntal balance with strong societies. When the state is unable to establish itself as the primary source of rules that govern social behavior and economic transactions, state choices and activities can only be under­ stood by looking beyond the state to social structures. 46. Anthony, Mechanization and Maize, p. 144 47. John G. Ruggie, 'International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order,' International Organization 36 (Spring 1982) p. 386. 48. Stallings, 'International InHuence.' 49. Lucian Pye, Asian Power and Politics: Cultural Dimensions of Authority (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985) p. 88. Pye followed this by noting that 'people who were not capable of responding properly to the inHuences of their model rulers were seen as being less than human' (pp. 88-9). Some of the Chinese working with African counterparts clearly had internalized these values, and were quite unselfconsciously racist in their remarks.

3. Chinese Aid in Africa

I. Gao Jinyuan, 'China and Africa: The Development of Relations Over Many Centuries,' African Affairs 83 (April 1984) pp. 241-50; Snow, The Star Rajt,p. I. 2. Alan Hutchison, China's African Revolution (Boulder, CO,: Westview Press, 1975), p. 206. 3. Ch'i-Yu T'ang, An Economic Study of Chinese Agriculture 1924 Ph.D. Dissenation, Cornell University (New York: Garland Publishers, 1980). 4. Karl A. Wittfogel, Oriental Despotism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957). 5. On the strong state in China, see, among others, Susan Shirk, The Political Logic of Economic Reform in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Gordon White (ed.), The Chinese State in the Era of Economic Reform: The Road to Crisis (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1991): Arthur Notes 223

Lewis Rosenbaum (ed.), State and Society in China: The Consequences of Reform (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992); Lucian Pye, Asian Power and Politics: Cultural Dimensions of Authority (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. 1985) 6. For an early analysis of the 'two roads,' see Jack Gray, 'The Two Roads: Alternative Strategies of Social Change and in China,' in Stuart R. Schran (ed.), Authority, Participation and Cultural Change in China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973). 7. For analyses of these costs, see Louis Putterman, Continuity and Change in China's Rural Development: Collective and Reform Eras in Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); David Zweig, Agrarian Radicalism in China, 1968-1981 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989); William Joseph, Christine P. Wong, and David Zweig (eds.), New Perspectives on the Cultural Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies/Harvard University, 1991); William L. Parish (ed.), Chinese Rural Development (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1985); Mark Selden, The Political Economy of Chinese Development (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1993). 8. This discussion of policy and programs in Maoist China draws on the following sources: Randolph Barker and Beth Rose (eds), Agriculture and Rural Development in China Today, Cornell International Agriculture Monograph 102 (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University, November, 1983); John Lossing Buck, Owen L. Dawson, and Yuan-li Wu, Food and Agriculture in Communist China (New York: Praeger, 1966); Kang Chao, Agricultural Production in Communist China: 1949-1965 (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1970); Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Learning From China: A Report on Agriculture and the Chinese People's Communes September 9-0ctober 5, 1975, Bangkok: FAO. 1977; Leslie T. C. Kuo, The Technical Transformation of Agriculture in Communist China (New York: Praeger, 1972); Nicholas Lardy, Agriculture in China's Modern Economic Development (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); and Putterman, Continuity and Change. 9. Mao Zedong 'Reading Notes on the Soviet Text Political Economy,' in Long Live the Thought of Mao Tsetung (Taipei, 1969), cited by Nicholas Lardy, 'State Intervention and Peasant Opportunities,' in William Parish (ed.), Chinese Rural Development, p. 55, fn. 45. 10. See Marsh S. Marshall, Jr., 'Red and Expert at Tachai: A Sources of Growth Analysis,' World Development v. 7 (1979); Neville Maxwell, 'Learning From Tachai,' World Development v. 3 (July-August 1975). 11. Daniel Kelliher, Peasant Power in China: The Era of Rural Reform, 1979-1989 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992) p. 10. 12. Zhonguo Tongxun She 14 July 1992 in FBIS-CHI-92-144, 27 July 1992, p. 22; China Daily (Beijing), 25 June-1 July, 1995, p. 1; Xinhua 6 June 1995 in FBIS-CHI-95-108, 6 June 1995. 13. See, for example, the speech by Zhou Enlai, 15 January 1964, which out­ lines China's early framework for foreign aid. See also Ai Chingchu, 'China's Economic and Technical Aid to Other Countries,' Peking Review 21 August 1964; Chin Yiwu, 'China's Economic and Technical Cooperation 224 Notes with Friendly Countries,' Peking Review 25 October 1974: LiKe, 'China's Aid to Foreign Countries,' Beijing Review 5 September 1983. 14. North Korea (1953), Albania (1954), North Vietnam (1955), Romania, Mongolia, Indonesia, Nepal, Egypt, Cambodia ( 1956), Burma, Sri Lanka ( 1957), North Yemen, Algeria ( 1958), Guinea, Cuba ( 1960). 15. Xinhua, 6 February 1964, cited in Yu Fai Law, Chinese Foreign Aid: A Study of its Nature and Goals with Panicular Reference to the Foreign Policy and World View of the People's Republic of China, 1950-1982 (Fort Lauderdale: Breitenbach, 1984) pp. 47-8. Deng Xiaoping echoed this approach in his 1974 speech to the United Nations: 'self-reliance is primary, foreign aid is secondary.' Deng Xiaoping, 'Speech at the United Nations, 1974,' in Peking Review, no. 15 (12 Aprill974). 16. George T. Yu, 'Africa in Chinese Foreign Policy,' Asian Survey, vol. 28, no. 8 (August 1988) p. 854. 17. Xie Yixian, 'China's Foreign Policy: A 1980s Tune-Up,' Beijing Review, 13-26 February 1989, p. 16. 18. Ibid. 19. 'Vice-Premier Lion Sino-African Relations,' Beijing Review, 9 July 1984, p. 17. 20. Xie Yixian, 'China's Foreign Policy,' Beijing Review, 13-26 February 1989. 21. Wang Shu, 'The Road of Third World Development,' Beijing Review 22-8 May 1989, p. 17. 22. Zhen Bingxi, International Studies issue no. 3, 1988. 23. See, for example, George T. Yu and David J. Longenecker, 'The Beijing­ Taipei Struggle for International Recognition: From the Niger Affair to the U.N.,' Asian Survey v. 34, n. 5 (May 1994). For more on China's relations with the UN, see Robert Boardman, Post-Socialist World Orders: Russia, China and the UN System (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994). 24. Daily Observer (Monrovia), 27 November 1989, p. 4. 25. 'Qian on Sino-African Ties,' Beijing Review, 4-10 December 1989, p. 15. 26. Xinhua, 15 January 1995. 27. People's Republic of China. 'Eight Principles Guiding China's Economic and Technical Aid to Other Countries,' Beijing, 1964 (mimeo). 28. Xinhua, 19 May 1990; 3 August 1990; 30 August 1990; China Aktuell, January 1989, p. 55/l; May 1990, p. 400/l and August 1990, pp. 671/l-672/2. The figure for Cameroon is from Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Handbook of Economic Statistics, 1991 (Washington, DC: CIA,l99l). 29. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 'The Aid Programme of China,' W. 21960/Arch. 07920, Paris, March 1987 (mimeo). 30. Roger Murray, 'Africa and China,' New African (December 1985) p. 61. 31. LiKe provided the 1950 date in 'China's Aid to Foreign Countries,' Beijing Review, 5 September 1983, p. 16; John Franklin Copper, China's Foreign Aid: An Instrument of Peking's Foreign Policy (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1976) p. 25. 32. Xinhua 6 June 1995 in FBIS-CHI-95--l 08, 6 June 1995. Notes 225 33. OECD. •Aid Programme of China.' p. 5. Data on the value of China's aid is very difficult to obtain. as the Chinese still regard much information concerning the magnitude of their program as a state secret. The Chinese publish no annual reports or anything other than occasional announcements of the value of a current aid progran1 in a particular country, and estimates of the value of China's aid must be gleaned by scouring the Chinese and African press for announcements like these. 34. Xinhua. 3 May 1988, in FBIS-CHI-88, 4 May 1988, p. 15; Xin.hua, 16 August 1990. 35. Xinhua 19 February 1991 in FBIS-CHI-9-034, 20 February 1991, p. 3. 36. CIA. Handbook of Economic Statistics, p. 181. 37. Elliot J. Berg. Rethinking Technical Cooperation: Reforms for Capacity Building in Africa (New York: Regional Bureau for Africa. United Nations Development Programme. 1993) p. 244. 38. OECD, •Aid Programme of China,' p. 15. 39. OECD. ·Aid Programme of China.' p. 18. 40. Africa Confidential, 23:23, 17 November 1982, p. 7. 41. OECD, Development Assistance Cooperation from year-by-year tables sup­ plied by OECD, Paris, to the Overseas Development Council, Washington, DC; OECD. •Aid Programme of China.' 42. COMPLANT, according to a glossy promotional brochure available from many Chinese embassies in West Africa, is 'a state-owned enterprise which contracts for various foreign engineering projects, exports complete plants and provides a wide spectrum of technical services.' 43. Zhu Peirong. 'Continuous Development of Economic and Technological Cooperation with Foreign Countries in the Field of Agriculture,' Zhongguo nongye nianjian (Chinese Agricultural Yearbook) Beijing. 1985, pp. 297-9. Abidjan Domestic Service in French, 14 May 1988, in FBIS-AFR, 17 May 1988, p. 21. 44. FBIS-CHI-83, 3 January 1983. p. 15 45. Beijing Review 24 January 1983. p. 19. 46. Beijing Review 5 September 1983, p. 18. 47. 'Chinese Assistance to Third World.' Beijing Review vol. 30, no. 9, 2 March 1987, p. 29. 48. Xinhua, 8 October 1983. 49. Li Peng. 'Build up in Overseas Work.' Beijing Review. 20-6 March 1989, p. 42. 50. FBIS-CHI-83, 13 October 1983, p. A2. 51. Lun Liu, 16 June 1984, in FBIS-CHI-84, 23 July 1984, p. A5. 52. Africa Contemporary Record 1984/85, p. Al59. 53. 'China Proposes Aid Plan,' Beijing Review, 21 July 1986, p. 26. 54. Africa Contemporary Record 1982/83, p. A99. It is not clear whether any joint ventures occurred in Zaire. Chinese sources announced in 1987 that China had concluded a 'joint venture agreement of $48.2 million with Jamaica. It is the first time that China has converted an interest-free loan into a capital investment. China. through the Shanghai No. 12 Cotton Mill, will hold 46 percent of the total while Jamaica through Jamaica Industrial Development Corporation will hold 54 percent,' Xinhua 7 October 1987. 226 Notes 55. Liberia paid a monthly rate ranging from $350 to $500, in addition to a modest per diem, to Chinese experts contracted to co-manage a state rice farm and the Doe stadium. 56. New Liberian (Monrovia) 4 October 1983, p. 5. 57. Xinhua, 21 August 1986. 58. L 'Essor (Bamako) 29 January 1989. 59. Daily News (Dares-Salaam) 12 January 1989. 60. A Chinese article stated that the practice of transfering Chinese aid loans to private enterprises began in 1991, but added that 'it is learned that aid­ receiving countries and China's relevant departments have not adapted themselves well to the new policy and some shortcomings in the manage­ ment of the Chinese side have appeared.' Zhongguo Tong Xun She 24 July 1991 in FBIS-CHI-92-133, 27 July 1992, p. 22. According to another article, China's practice of converting aid projects into joint ventures began in 1992. China Daily 25 June-! July 1995, p. 1. 61. Zhongguo Xinwen She, 21 June 1995 in FBIS-CHI-95-120, pp. 3-4. 62. Xinhua, 6 June 1995 in FBIS-CHI-95-108, 6 June 1995, p. 5. 63. Xinhua, 1 April 1993. China imported carbamide, cocoa beans, rubber, goatskin, cashew nut and emulsion from Nigeria. 64. Xinhua, 4 May 1996 in FBIS-CHI-96-088, 6 May 1996, p. 20. 65. Joel Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relation and State Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988). 66. Daily Mail (Freetown) 26 February 1976, p. 1. 67. 'Chinese to Set Up Eleven More Posts,' Daily Mail (Freetown) 8 October 1971, p. 8. 68. 'Chinese Football Team Coming,' Daily Mail (Freetown) 27 October 1971, p.l. 69. 'Chinese Envoy Presents Books,' Daily Mail (Freetown) 10 October 1971, p. 3. 70. 'Sierra Leone: Will the Railway Return?' West Africa, 7 May 1984, pp. 962-3. 71. Daily Maill5 January 1979, p. 1. 72. As an indication of the confusion surrounding the actual amount of the loans, Liberian sources stated that the Chinese gave loans of $5.9 million in 1985, $15 million in 1984, and $2.1 million in 1982, although these figures probably refer to disbursements instead of commitments. OECD states that a 1978 loan of $23.5 million was followed by another loan of $50 million in 1985. OECD, ·Aid Programme of China,' p. 18. The Chinese embassy in Monrovia stated that China offered two loans of rmb 40 million each (given prevailing rates of exchange in 1978, this would equal $23.8 million; in 1985, $13.6 million). China does not publish official figures for its loan programs. 73. Xinhua,l4 December 1984. 74. Xinhua, 15 May 1985. 75. Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report: Liberia, Sierra Leone, Quarterly Report No. 1, 1989, p. 37. 76. Permanent Secretary, MEPID, 'Circular on Implementation of Loan from the People's Republic of China,' Banjul, The Gambia, 2 May 1975. Notes 227 4. The State and Agriculture in West Africa

l. Weekend Spark (Freetown) 8 July 1988, p. l. 2. David Brown, 'Bureaucracy as an Issue in Third World Management: An African Case Study,' Public Administration and Development, vol. 9, (1989) pp. 369-80. 3. Herbert Werlin, 'Decentralization and Culture: The Case of Monrovia, Liberia,' Public Administration and Development, vol. 10 (1990), p. 254; John W. Bruce, 'Critical Land Tenure Issues in Liberia,' Land Tenure Center, University of Wisconsin, unpublished paper, June 1984, p. 1. 4. Jeanette Carter, et al., 'Social Institutional Profile: Management Practices and Prospects, A Study of the Liberian Agricultural Sector,' Institute for Development Anthropology, Binghamton, NY, 1984, p. 2. 5. Thomas P. Wrubel, 'Liberia: The Dynamics of continuity', The Journal of Modem African Studies, 9, 2 (1971) p. 192. 6. Carter, et al. 'Liberian Agricultural Sector,' p. 20. 7. R. W. Clower, G., Dalton, M. Hartiwz, and A. Walters, Growth Without Development: An Economic Survey of Liberia (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1966). 8. Christopher Clapham, 'Liberia,' in Donal B. Cruise O'Brien, John Dunn, and Richard Rathbone (eds), Contemporary West African States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) p. 100. 9. 'Mission to Liberia Evidently Fails,' The New York Times, 5 December 1988, p. D6. 10. Robert Bates, Markets and States in Tropical Africa: The Political Basis of Agricultural Policies (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981). 11. Clapham, 'Liberia,' p. 102. 12. Carter, 'Liberian Agricultural Sector,' p. 24. 13. James Butty, 'The Liberian Green Revolution Initiative: A Policy Analysis Perspective,' Liberia Forum 3/4,1987, p. 41. 14. Ewa Szulc, 'New People in the Agriculture of West Africa,' Africana Bulletin, vol. 29, pp. 7-16. 15. Carteret al., make this point in 'Liberian Agricultural Sector,' p. 25. 16. 'Agreement of Technical Cooperation Between the Republic of China and the Republic of Liberia,' 13 October 1961, in Program of Mrican Studies (ed.), Agreements on Technical Cooperation Between The Republic of China and African States (Taiwan: National Chengchi University, July 1974) pp. 127-8. 17. A study by Santi-ICE. Consulting Engineers, Rome, 'Management of Agrimeco: Technical Proposal' (no date) states that Agrimeco suffered from 'too much political interference (in the sense that works are carried out as favours to local communities, official bodies, and individuals).' 18. Wu Fei Lo, 'Brief Outline of the Activities of the Chinese Agricultural Mission in Liberia,' in WARDA, Rice Project Managers Seminar (1975), vol. 5, Proceedings, (Monrovia, Liberia: WARDA, January 1976). Monke states that the Special Project hectarage had declined by 1976 to 360 hectares, and the Expanded Projects had, by 1975, developed only about 500 hectares. Eric Monke, 'Rice Policy in Liberia,' in Scott, R. Pearson, J. 228 Notes Dirck Stryker, and Charles P. Humphreys et al. (eds), Rice in West Africa: Policy and Economics (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981) p. 121. 19. E. Lord 'A Perspective Study on Self-Sufficiency in Rice Production in Five Countries of West Africa (The Gambia, . Liberia, Nigeria and Sierra Leone)' United Nations Development Advisory Team, ECA/UNDAT II, Addis Ababa, December 1975, p. 35. 20. See, for example, WARDA's 'Comments on the Feasibility Repon Prepared by IFAGRARIA, Special Rice Project in Gbonta and Piata areas of ,' (Monrovia, Liberia: WARDA, n. d. [probably 1976]). Pre-feasibility or pilot studies were undertaken in Bong County and at Saye-Dugbe and Cestos under LIRICO, with an English consortium of Taylor-Woodrow and Dalgety; the People's Republic of China; and the Italian Government under the Italian consultant firm Inifagraria. None were followed through. 21. WARDA, 'Project in Liberia,' p. 3. 22. Butty, 'Liberian Green Revolution,' pp. 38-52. 23. Carter, 'Liberian Agricultural Sector,' p. 38. 24. Carter, 'Liberian Agricultural Sector,' p. 40. 25. Carter, 'Liberian Agricultural Sector,' p. 40, 41. 26. Government of Liberia, Ministry of Agriculture, Office of the Assistant Minister for Technical Service, 'A Briefing Paper, Chinese Agriculture Mission Participation in the Agriculture Program, Ministry of Agriculture, 1977-1983,' Monrovia, 1983. 27. WARDA, 'Project in Liberia,' and 'Mechanized Farming Hits Record Harvest in Bong County,' New Liberian, 8 September 1983, p. l. 28. WARDA, 'Project in Liberia,' pp. 4-5. 29. At one point, the government stated that Kpatawee was intended to be a 'demonstration site for local farmers,' yet this never happened. Liberia, 'Country Economic Memorandum,' prepared for UNDP-sponsored Donors Conference, October 1983, p. 139. The study by Carter, et al., 'Liberian Agricultural Sector', commissioned by US AID in 1984, erroneously grouped Kpatawee with projects that provided credit and extension advice to smallholders, demonstrating how widespread was ignorance about Kpatawee even among experienced Liberian and foreign analysts. 30. Republic of Liberia, Ministry of Planning, 'Inter-ministerial Evaluation and Proposal for the Reorganization of the Bong and Lofa Counties Agricultural Development Projects,' January 1988, p. 9. 31. WARDA, •A Review of the Liberian Rice Seed Multiplication Programme,' Monrovia, Liberia, July 1983 (mimeo). 32. See, for example, William Reno, Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995) and Sahr John Kpundeh, Politics and Corruption in Africa: A Case Study of Sierra Leone (University Press of America, 1995). 33. World Bank, World Development Report 1996 (New York: Oxford University Press for the World Bank, 1996) p. 188. 34. Consortium for International Development, •Agricultural Sector Repon for Sierra Leone,' Logan, Utah, prepared for USAID, June 1982, p. 18. 35. See, for example, Reno, Corruption, pp. 143-6. 36. Alpha Lavaliere. 'Government and Opposition in Sierra Leone. 1968-1978,' Sierra Leone Studies at Birmingham, proceedings of the Notes 229

Fourth Birmingham Sierra Leone Studies Symposium, 13-15 July 1985, Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 1987, p. 78. 37. Paul Richards, 'A Colonial Food Crisis and Its Aftermath: Rice Policy in Sierra Leone From 1919,' in Sierra Leone Studies at Birmingham p. 163. 38. Christopher Clapham, Liberia and Sierra Leone: An Essay in Comparative Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976) p. 9. 39. Clapham, Liberia and Sierra Leone, p. 14. 40. Clapham, Liberia and Sierra Leone, p. 28. 41. Trevor Parfitt, 'The Politics of Aid to Sierra Leone: A Case Study of the Makeni-Kabala Road Project and the Kainadugu Integrated Agricultural Development Project,' Sierra Leone Studies at Birmingham, p. 1. 42. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 'Fourth Country Programme for Sierra Leone,' New York, 22 October 1987, p. 3. 43. 'The Year Gone By,' West Africa, 22-8 January 1990, p. 91. 44. S.M. Funna, 'Sierra Leone: Economic Structure and Recent Performance,' Sierra Leone Studies in Birmingham (Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 1987) p. 16. 45. Gary A. Walker, 'Institutional Development in the Agriculture Sector: A case Study of Sierra Leone,' International Management and Development Group, Ltd., Washington, DC. 15 July 1989, pp. 9, 12. Although Sierra leone has reorganized its agricultural ministry and given it various names over the past three decades (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry; Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, etc.), this study will refer to the Ministry in various years simply as the Ministry of Agriculture, or the Ministry. 46. West Africa 5 June 1989, p. 922. 47. 'Government Must Take Positive Steps on Property,' (editorial), The Citizen (Freetown), 9 July 1988, p. 2. 48. Daily Mail (Freetown) 18 August 1987. 49. 'Sierra Leone: Middle Eastern Affairs,' Africa Confidential 8 September 1989, vol. 30, no. 18, p. 7. Richard Longhurst, Samura Kamara and Joseph Mensurah, 'Structural Adjustment and Vulnerable Groups in Sierra Leone,' IDS Bulletin, 1988, vol. 19, no. 1, p. 27. 50. John Weeks, Development Strategy and the Economy of Sierra Leone (New York: StMartin's Press, 1992) p. 91. 51. In 1988, for example, the commission for buying agents amounted to only two percent of the producer price for ; five percent for cocoa; fifteen percent for palm kernel; three percent for ginger, and twelve percent for maize; an additional road freight allowance of $.03/mile/ton was offered for all produce. Sierra Leone Produce Marketing Board, 'Circular to All Buying Agents,' Freetown, 10 February 1988. 52. West Africa 11 January 1988, p. 14. 53. World Bank, World Development Report 1994 (New York: Oxford University Press for the World Bank) p. 168. 54. Richards, 'Rice Policy,' p. 164. 55. Temne farmers had some thirty years experience in tidal mangrove swamp cultivation, indicating that it had been introduced in the Scarcies area in the late 1800s. A. C. Pillai, Senior Agricultural Instructor, GBAPP. to The Director of Agriculture, Sierra Leone, 'Further Report on Irrigation for and Cultivation of Rice in Sierra Leone,' Freetown, 26 October 1922. 230 Notes 56. Dunstan Spencer, 'Rice Policy in Sierra Leone,' in Scott Pearson, J. Dirck Stryker, and Charles Humphries (eds), Rice in West Africa: Policy and Economics (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981) p. 186, citing R. G. Saylor, The Economic System of Sierra Leone (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1967). 57. Lord, 'Self-Sufficiency in Rice Production,' p. 64. See also Dunstan S.C. Spencer, Derek Byerlee and Steven Franzel, 'Annual Costs, Returns and Seasonal Labor Requirements for Selected Farm and Nonfarm Enterprises in Sierra Leone,' African Rural Economy Program, working paper no. 27, (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University, May 1979) p. 21. 58. The Program of African Studies, National Chengchi University, Agreements on Technical Cooperation Between The Republic of China and African States (Taiwan: National Chengchi University, July 1974) pp. 195-6. 59. The Taiwanese teams developed 1257 hectares for rice and vegetable culti­ vation at thirteen sites: Mange Bureh, Mahera (two onion demonstration farms at Suctar and Royeima), Torma Bum, Newton, Bo Horticultural Center, Makeni Nursery, Lumley and Kababa Horticultural Stations, Batkanu, Yele, Njala, Kenema, and Mile 58. Taiwanese Mission Leader, Mange, to Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, 'Report.' 18 June 1971. 60. Sierra Leone, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, 'Agricultural Survey, 1970n1' (Freetown: MANR, 1972). 61. Vernon W. Ruttan, 'Integrated Rural Development Programs: A Skeptical Perspective' International Development Review v. 17, n. 4 (1975) pp. 9-16. 62. Spencer, 'Rice Policy in Sierra Leone,' p. 183. See also Ministry of Agriculture, Sierra Leone, 'Agricultural Statistics 1983,' and Annette L. Binnendijk, 'Economic and Financial Evaluation of Liberia's Lofa Agricultural Development Project,' Rural Africana 22 (Spring 1985), pp. 25-62. 63. 'Jusu Sheriff on Green Revolution,' West Africa, 16 May 1988, p. 903. Some sources state that the project was intended to be 30 000 acres; other reports have it at 250 000 hectares. 64. 'Mysterious Disappearance,' West Africa, 18-24 December, 1989, p. 2126. 65. West Africa 11 January 1988, p. 14, emphasis added. 66. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Report on Work, January-July 1974,' 16 August 1974, Mange Farm, Sierra Leone. 67. MANR Chinese Project Files, Ogoo farm, memo, 19 November 1979. 68. R. M. Dakona, 'Report on Chinese Loan Recovery,' MANR Chinese project files, Lambayama, Kenema, 7 Aprill981. 69. 'Delinquent farmers (those behind schedule) would have their plots confiscated and allocated to more serious farmers in the waiting list, no matter at what stage work would have reached,' (Memo, 15 July 1975, MANR Chinese project files at Lambayama.) 70. A. R. Stobbs, The Soils and Geography of the Boliland Region of Sierra Leone, published for the Government of Sierra Leone (Margate, England: The Thanet Press, 1963). 71. China AGRICON, 'Rolako Rice Production Feasibility Study,' prepared for Mr. Jamil Said Mohammed, 7 September 1985. 72. China AGRICON, 'Rolako Feasibility Study.' Notes 231 73. A ratoon crop 'volunteers' from the roots and stalks of the previous rice crop. Yield is generally very low, although some varieties perform better than others. 74. MANR Chinese project files, Makali Station, September 1976 report. 75. China AGRICON, 'Rolako Rice Feasibility Study'; Sierra Leone, MANR Planning Unit, PEMSU, 'Economic and Technical Cooperation Between the Government of the People's Republic of China and The Government of the Republic of Sierra Leone- in the Agricultural Sector,' September 1983. 76. The British Work Oxen Project took over Rolako as its project headquarters in the 1980s, and work oxen were again used at Rolako for a period of time. 77. MANR Chinese Project Files, Tower Hill, Freetown. Minutes of Meeting at Tower Hill, 3 January 1979 78. See, for example, Arnold Hughes, 'From Colonialism to Confederation: The Gambian Experience of Independence, 1965-1982,' in R. Cohen (ed.), African Islands and Enclaves (Beverly Hills and London: Sage Publishers, 1983) pp. 57-80, and Steven Radelet, 'Reform Without Revolt: The Political Economy of Economic Reform in The Gambia.' World Development v. 20, n. 8 (August 1992) pp. 1087-99. 79. Hughes, 'From Colonialism,' p. 58. 80. Hughes, 'From Colonialism,' pp. 61-2. This section draws heavily on this source. 81. Hughes, 'From Colonialism,' and A. F. Robertson, The Dynamics of Productive Relationships: African Share Contracts in Comparative Perspective (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987). 82. Hughes, 'From Colonialism,' p. 66. 83. Arnold Hughes, 'The Gambia: Recent History,' Africa South of the Sahara 1990 (Europa Publications Ltd,. August 1990). 84. Unhappiness in the armed forces stemming from the long period of enforced austerity, low pay, and unrewarding service in a West African military group monitoring (and sometimes enforcing) negotiated ceasefires in Liberia (ECOMOG), lay behind the 1994 military coup. 85. World Bank, World Development Report 1996, p. 188. 86. World Bank, World Development Report 1996, pp. 188, 198. 87. Malcom F. McPherson, and Stephen C. Radelet, 'Economic Reform in The Gambia: Policies, Politics, Foreign Aid and Luck,' Harvard Institute for International Development Discussion Paper No. 300. June 1989, p. 18. The main tribes are Mandinka 37 percent; Fula 17 percent and Wolof 13 percent. 88. Deputy Project Manager, Agricultural Development Project, 'Report on Irrigation Infrastructure,' addressed to Agriculture Director, Ministry of Agriculture, 10 October 1975, p. I. 89. The Gambia pays less for imported rice than do Sierra Leone or Liberia because it chooses to import 100 percent broken rice at a considerably cheaper price. 90. Agency for International Development (AID), 'Gambia: Country Development Strategy Statement FY 1984,' August 1982, Banjul, The Gambia, p. 18. 91. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),'The Rice Industry of The Gambia: An Economic and Financial Analysis of the Rice Industry with Recommendations for its Strengthening.' A Mission Report prepared by the 232 Notes FAO in cooperation with the Ministry of Agriculture, The Gambia, October 1983, Volume 1, The Main Report, p. 38. 92. FAO, 'Rice Industry of The Gambia,' p. 40. 93. The Economist Intelligence Unit, Senegal, The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, Country Reports, Quarterly Report No.4, 1989, p. 20. 94. Letter, A!haji A. B. N'Jie, Minister of Agriculture and Natural Resources of the Republic of The Gambia, to His Excellency Sun Yuan-Suan, Minister of Economic Affairs of the Republic of China, 22 October 1972, in Agreements on Technical Cooperation, p. 85. 95. Department of Agriculture, Cape St. Mary's '1980 Dry Season, Irrigated Rice Programme Report,' p. 1. 96. World Bank, 'ADP First Quarterly Progress Report,' Sapu, The Gambia. 1974. 97. Department of Agriculture, '1980 Dry Season Irrigated Rice Programme Report,' p. 1. 98. World Bank, Operations Evaluation Dept 'Impact Evaluation Report: The Gambia Agricultural Development Project' (Washington, 13 June 1984). Official estimates have sometimes claimed 1000 hectares for the project. 99. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Report to the Ministry of Agriculture,' Cape St. Mary's, The Gambia, 21 December 1975. 100. People's Republic of China and The Republic of The Gambia. 'Minutes of Talks on Implementation of Agricultural Co-operation Project Between China and The Gambia,' draft received by the Department of Agriculture, Cape StMary's on 26 January 1976. 101. Memo, Department of Agriculture to Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture, Cape StMary's, 7 Aprill980. 102. Chinese Agro-Technical Team, 'Report on the Work of the Chinese Agro­ tech Team (1975-1979), Sapu, 6 November 1979. 103. Taake, 'Promoting Non-Alignment and Self-Reliance: China's Develop­ ment Policy" D & C Development and Cooperation (Germany) no. 5/6 (Sept.-Dec. 1994). 104. Taake, p. 26.

5 China's Green Revolution: Technology in West Africa

1. Carl K. Eicher and Doyle C. Baker, 'Research on Agricultural Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Critical Survey,' Department of Agricultural Economics, International Development Paper No. 1, East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1982, p. 149, citing W. E. S. Smith, We Must Run While They Walk (New York: Random House, 1971). 2. Elizabeth Johnson and Graham Johnson, Walking on Two Legs: Rural Development in South China (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 1976) p. 22. 3. Government of Sierra Leone, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources (MANR). 'Agricultural Statistical Survey of Sierra Leone 1965/66,' (Freetown: MANR. ). 4. World Resources 1992-93, World Resourc~s Institute, 1992. Notes 233

5. Michael M. P. Johnny, 'Traditional farmers' perceptions of farming and farming problems in the area (Sierra Leone),' (MA thesis, University of Sierra Leone, 1979); Government of Liberia, Ministry of Agriculture/USAID, Agricultural Sector Analysis Team, 'Social and Economic Forces and Agricultural Development in Liberia,' Monrovia, Ministry of Agriculture, Working Paper No. 11, n. d. [1982]. 6. Jose Olivares, 'The Potential for Irrigation Development in Sub­ Saharan Africa,' in Shawki Barghouti and Guy Le Moigne (eds), 'Irri­ gation in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Development of Private and Public Systems,' World Bank Technical Paper No. 123, Washington, DC, 1990, p. 5. 7. World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth, vol. 2, Economic and Sectoral Policy Issues (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1990) p. 49. 8. Government of Liberia, 'Social and Economic Forces.' 9. 'The Tree and the Dollar,' West Africa, 12-18 March 1990, p. 400. 10. Lord, 'A Perspective Study on Self-Sufficiency in Rice Production In Five Countries of West Africa (The Gambia, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria and Sierra Leone)' United Nations Development Advisory Team, ECA/UNDAT II. Addis Ababa, December 1975, p. 55, and Spencer, 'Rice Policy in Sierra Leone,' in Pearson, Stryker, Humphries et al., Rice in West Africa: Policy and Economics (Stanford: Stanford University Press) p. 178; 'Makeni Farming Systems Workshop: Major Points,' Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Bo, 6 June 1988. II. Michael Johnny, John Karimu, and Paul Richards, 'Upland and Swamp Rice Farming Systems in Sierra Leone: The Social Context of Technological Change,' Africa, vol. 51 (1981) p. 599. 12. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), 'Reconnaissance Soil Survey of Liberia,' (Monrovia, n.d.). 13. Johnny, Karimu and Richards, 'Rice Farming Systems,' pp. 596-620. 14. United Nations, Proceedings of the Workshop on Efficient Use and Maintenance of Irrigation Systems at the Farm Level in China, Water Resources Series No. 51 (Bangkok: United Nations, October 1979) pp. 45-6. 15. Beijing Review, 16-22 November 1987, p. 29. 16. Kuo, Transformation of Agriculture in Communist China, p. 254, citing Ho Chi-feng, 'Glorious Achievements of Water Conservation in Rural China in the Past Ten Years,' Shui-li Shui-tien Chien-she (Water Conservation and Hydroelectric Construction), Peking, No. 18, 1959, pp. 13-17. See also Kang Chao, Agricultural Production in China 1949-1965 (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1970) p. 120. 17. Dwight Perkins (ed), Rural Small-Scale Industry in the People's Republic of China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977) p. 122. Bulldozers may be called on to press down the soil, creating the hardpan necessary for proper irrigation. 18. Peter M. Wei!, 'Social Analysis of Alternative Development Strategies for the Gambia River Basin, 1976-2000,' a report prepared for Robert R. Nathan Associates, Washington, DC, 11 November 1978. 234 Notes

19. Nongtian shuli yu shuitu baochi [Fannland water conservacy and erosion control]511964, p. 2, cited in James E. Nickum, 'Irrigation Management in China: A Review of the Literature,' World Bank Staff Working Papers, No. 545 (Washington: The World Bank, 1982) p. 19. 20. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Construction of Canal,' p. 5. 21. Ying-keueng Chan, 'Mass Mobilization for Development: Water Conservancy in China,' in John F. Jones (ed.), Building China: Studies in Integrated Development (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1980) pp. 79-91. 22. Thomas Wiens, 'Poverty and Progress in the Huang and Huai River Basins,' in Parish, Chinese Rural Development (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1985) p. 90. 23. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Report on the First Quarter's Work of 1977,' Sapu, The Gambia. 24. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Suggestions on Irrigated Rice Production and Its Consolidation Work,' Sapu, The Gambia, March 1980. 25. MANR Chinese Project files, Makali Station, Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Rules and Regulations Lending Land to Fanners at the Makali Station,' no date. 26. MANR Chinese Project files, Ogoo Fann, memo (referring to the Hamilton extension area) 8 April 1978. 27. 'Sierra Leone Special,' West Africa, 15 February 1988, p. 258. 28. Hans P. Binswanger, 'Agricultural Mechanization: A Comparative Histor­ ical Perspective' (Washington, DC: World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 673. 1984) p. 9. 29. An agricultural engineer who observed land preparation underway at Kpatawee timed plowing operations for a period and found that for every 15 seconds of use, the plow was out of the ground for eight seconds. Personal communication, agricultural engineer, FAOIIFAD Smallholder Rice Seed Multiplication Project, Gbanga, Liberia, June 1983. 30. FAO, Learning from China: A Report on Agriculture and The Chinese People's Communes 9 September-S October (Bangkok: FAO, 1975). 31. Zhongguo tongji nianjian (China Statistical Yearbook), 1985, pp. 281, and Zhongguo nongye nianjian (China Agricultural Yearbook), 1985, p. 227. See also On Kit Tarn, China's Agricultural Modernization: The Socialist Mechanization Scheme (London: Croom Helm, 1985). 32. 'Strengthen Scientific Research on the Fann Economy' Guangming Ribao (Guangming Daily) 7 December 1978, cited in Thomas Rawski, Economic Growth and Employment in China (New York: Oxford University Press for the World Bank, 1979) p. 139. 33. Nicholas R. Lardy, 'Agricultural Prices in China,' World Bank Staff Working Paper, No. 606 (Washington: The World Bank, 1983) p. 13. 34. Wiens, 'Poverty and Progress,' p. 91. 35. People's Handbook, 1956, p. 84, cited in Chao, Agricultural Production in China, p. 16. 36. 'Chinese Assistance to Third World,' Beijing Review, 2 March 1987, p. 29. 37. Department of Agriculture, Chinese Project files, Sapu, memo, 22 October 1981. Notes 235 38. The fuel consumption of the Chinese trucks and jeeps was very high as well. Ministry officials in Sierra Leone calculated that the trucks got about four miles to the gallon, the jeeps about twelve. 'Therefore,' said a 1974 MANR staff report, 'much care is exercised in using these vehicles.' MANR files, Mange Farm, Sierra Leone, 'Report on 1973174 Season,' no date. Erik Baark notes as well that Chinese trucks use 35-55 per cent more fuel than comparable trucks on the international market. Erik Baark, Techno­ Economics and Politics of Modernization in China: Basic Concepts of Technology Policy Under the Readjustment of the Chinese Economy, Research Policy Institute, Discussion Paper No. 135, : University of Lund (November 1980) p. 21. 39. Brigitte Schulz, 'East German Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa: Proletarian Internationalism vs. "Mutual Advantage,"' Boston University African Studies Center Working Paper No. 100, Boston, 1985, p. 6. 40. MANR files, Makali Farm, Sierra Leone, Report, September 1983. Mange Bureh officials echoed this: 'The farmers want everything mechanized.' 41. Perkins, (ed.), Small-Scale Industry, p. 128. 42. Wiens, 'Poverty and Progress,' p. 85. Ji Yicheng notes as well that factory production of animal traction machinery, up 20 per cent per annum, still cannot meet demand. 'Mechanized Farming - A Catalyst to Rural Industries,' in Zhongguo nongye nianjian, 1985 (China Agricultural Yearbook, 1985) pp. 40-3. 43. Paul H. Starkey, Farming with Work Oxen in Sierra Leone, Work Oxen Project Report (Freetown, Sierra Leone: Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 1981). Much ofthe information I have on the Chinese animal trac­ tion program in Sierra Leone is based on this informative publication and several interviews with Mr Starkey. 44. A. Corbel, 'Monitoring and Evaluation of the Credit Package to Work Oxen Farmers in KIADP,' Koinadugu IADP, June 1985-April 1986, p. 22. 45. Starkey, Work Oxen; Vincent Barrett, G. Lassiter, D. Wilcock, D. Baker, and E. Crawford, 'Animal Traction in Eastern Upper Volta: A Technical, Economic, and Institutional Analysis,' MSU International Development Paper No. 4, East Lansing: Department of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State University, 1982, p. 16. 46. Starkey, Work Oxen p. 17. 47. Jennie Dey, 'Women and Rice in The Gambia: The Impact of Irrigated Rice Development Projects on the Farming System' (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Reading, 1980), p. 199. 48. Rawski, Economic Growth and Employment in China, p. 83. 49. IRRI, Rice Research and Production in China, p. 91; Dwight H. Perkins and Shahid Yusuf, Rural Development in China (Baltimore: published for the World Bank by the Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981) p. 60. 50. Xiao, 'China's Agricultural Machinery Industry,' p. 15, and IRRI, Rice Research and Production in China: an IRRI Team's View (Los Banos, The : IRRI, 1978), p. 92-93. 51. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Report on the Production of Irrigated Rice in the M.I.D. and U.R.D. in 1976,' Sapu, The Gambia, 17 January 1977, p. 4. The rest of this paragraph draws on this source for quotations. 236 Notes

52. Lardy, Agriculture in China's Modem Economic Development (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983) p. ix; W. R. Coffman and S. S. Virmani, 'Advances in Rice Technology in the People's Republic of China,' in Barker and Rose (eds), Agriculture and Rural Development in China Today (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University, 1983) pp. 2-3. 53. Dana Dalrymple, Development and Spread of High-Yielding Rice Varieties in Developing Countries (Washington, DC: Bureau for Science and Technology, Agency for International Development, 1986) p. 19; Nguyen Ngoc Luu, The Technological Development of Agri­ culture in the People's Republic of China. The Hague: Institute of Social Studies, Research Report Series No. 5, 1979, p. 148. Zhen-Zhu­ Ai was also transferred to the Sudan's Gezira Irrigation Project by the Chinese (Dalrymple, p. 78). There is very little information on rice varieties used by the Chinese in their projects elsewhere in Africa. 54. On BG-90-2, see Dalrymple, High Yielding Rice Varieties, p. 93, n. 40. 55. Coffman and Virmani, 'Advances in Rice Technology,' p. 33. 56. World Bank, 'Impact Evaluation Report: The Gambia Agricultural Development Project,' Operations Evaluation Department, Washington, DC, 13 June 1984. 57. A Chinese team, returning to The Gambia in 1987 to do a feasibility study for a gravity irrigation project, noted that local farmers were still using Aiwu. PRC Investigating Group of the Rice Fields Irrigation Project To The Gambia, 'Report on the Investigation of Rice Fields Irrigation Project in the Republic of The Gambia,' December 1987. 58. World Bank, World Development Repon 1994 p. 168. Amounts are based on kilograms of nutrient content. 59. World Bank, China: Socialist Economic Development (Washington, DC: the World Bank, 1983) p. 73. 60. Lardy, Agriculture in China's Development, p. 86. 61. Robert F. Chandler, Jr., Rice in the Tropics: A Guide to the Development of National Programs (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1979) p. 197. The price of fertilizer refers to nutrient content. 62. See, for example, Steven Butler, 'Price Scissors and Commune Administration,' pp. 95-114 in Parish, Chinese Rural Development, p. 102, and Benedict Stavis, 'Some Initial Results of China's New Agricultural Policies,' World Development, 13 (1985) pp. 1299-305. 63. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Rice Culture and Breeding: Teaching Material of Training Course for Agro-Technicians' (Sierra Leone, n.d.), p. 56. 64. Robert F. Kagbo, 'An Assessment of Performance and Productivity of Irrigated Agriculture in The Gambia and Senegal,' University of Michigan, Gambia River Basin Studies, Working Document No. 40, June 1984, p. 6, and FAO, Rice Industry in The Gambia, vol. 2, Technical Annexes, p. 57. 65. Chang K'ai-yen, 'A Discussion of Certain Questions on the Promotion and Use of Phosphate Fertilizer,' Renmin Ribao (People's Daily), 15 November 1962, p. 5, in Kuo, Technical Transformation, p. 257. 66. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), China: Multiple Cropping and Related Crop Production Technology. FAO Plant Notes 237

Production and Protection Paper No. 22. Rome: FAO, 1980, p. 6; and lRRl, Rice Research and Production in China: An IRRI Team's View (Los Banos, The Philippines, IRRI, 1978) p. 92. 67. Chandler, Rice in the Tropics, p. 155. 68. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Report on the Second Quarter's Work of 1978,' Chinese Project Files, Department of Agriculture, Cape StMary's, The Gambia, 19 July 1978, p. 3. 69. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Summary of Experiment on Fertility of Groundnut Cake,' Sapu, The Gambia, 15 January 1976. See also 'Minutes of Meeting Between the Chinese Agro-Technical Team and the Department of Agriculture,' Cape St. Mary's, The Gambia, 20 December 1975. 70. Wiens, 'Limits to Agricultural Intensification: The Suzhou Experience,' in Barker and Rose (eds), Agriculture and Rural Development in China Today (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University, 1983) p. 72. 71. Noted by the lRRI delegation, Rice Research and Production in China, p. 29. 72. Wiens, 'Poverty and Progress,' p. 62. See also Frank Leeming, Rural China Today (London: Longman, 1985), pp. 112-13. 73. FAO, China: Multiple Cropping, p. 45. 74. Sierra Leone, MANR Taiwanese project files (before 1971), Kenema, Sierra Leone, n. d. 75. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Suggestions on Irrigated Rice Production and Its Consolidation Work,' Cape StMary's, The Gambia, March 1980, p. 2. 76. Herve L. Plusquellec and Thomas Wickham, 'Irrigation Design and Management: Experiences in Thailand and its General Applicability,' World Bank Technical Paper No. 40, Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1985, p. 70. 77. 'The dry planting of rice was popularized throughout the country in 1984, ... being used in 86,700 hectares of rice, triple that of 1983.' Renmin ribao 11 December 1984, reported in China Agricultural Yearbook, 1985, p. 322. 78. FAO, China: Multiple Cropping, p. 18; Thomas B. Wiens, 'The Evolution of Policy and Capabilities in China's Agricultural Technology,' in The Chinese Economy Post-Mao (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 9 November 1978) pp. 697-8. 79. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Suggestions on Irrigated Rice Production and Its Consolidation Work,' March 1980, DOA Chinese project files, The Gambia. One Sierra Leone report noted that '(u)nlike the former Chinese, this team employed a different technique in spacing the rice seedlings.' Report, Agricultural Officer at the Chinese Farm at Bo, Chinese Project Files, Njagboima, 24 July 1972. 80. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Lecture Notes on Rice Cultivation.' 81. World Bank, From Crisis to Sustainable Growth, p. 105. Robert Chandler, former director of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) has argued against the use of chemicals for controlling disease in rice: 'the use of insecticides is never profitable unless insect population is high' (Rice in the Tropics, p. 158). 82. See Grace E. Goodell's similar analysis of Southeast Asian capacity, 'Bugs, Bunds, Banks, and Bottlenecks: Organizational Contradictions in the New 238 Notes Rice Technology,' Economic Development and Cultural Change, 31 (1984) p. 30. 83. Estimate provided by Sierra Leone's Rokupr Rice Research Station. Consortium, 'Agricultural Sector Assessment,' p. 52. 84. T'ang, Economic Study of Chinese Agriculture. 85. Technical Assistant's Report, Ministry files, Makali Station, Sierra Leone, June 1977. 86. MANR Chinese Rice Project files, Rolako Station, Sierra Leone staff notes of Chinese meeting with farmers at Rolako, I 0 August 1975. 87. See, for example, Republic of The Gambia, Ministry of Agriculture, Project Planning and Monitoring Unit (PPMU). 'Excursion into the Problems of Underutilization of Existing Irrigated Rice Lands, Competition of Crops for Available Land and Labour Resources, and Limited Availability of Suitable Irrigation Water,' PPMU Paper No. 5. Banjul: Ministry of Agriculture, May 1983. 88. MANR Chinese Project files, Rolako Station, June 1976. Gambian farmers reported ratoon yields ranging from 240 kglha to 1600 kglha. Author's interviews. 89. UNDP, 'Fourth Country Programme for Sierra Leone,' p. 17. 90. World Bank, The Long Term Perspective Study of Sub-Saharan Africa, Background Papers, vol. 2, Economic and Sectoral Policy Issues (1990) p. 59. 91. This figure is very close to estimates made in 1975 by the Taiwanese of projected expenses of irrigation development at Kpatawee: $735 to $2020 (1983 dollars). Wu, 'Brief Outline of the Activities of the Chinese [Taiwanese] Agricultural Mission.' Prices for all irrigation development are standardized in 1983/84 dollars. 92. See Deborah Brautigam, 'South-South Technology Transfer: The Case of China's Kpatawee Rice Project in Liberia,' World Development, vol. 21, no. 12 (December 1993).

6 Project Governance: Implementation and Institutions

I. Ruttan, 'Assistance to Expand Agricultural Production,' in Anne 0. Krugger, Constantine Michalopoulos and Vernon W. Ruttan, Aid and Development (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989) p. 169. 2. Delgado, 'Agricultural Transformation: The Key to Broad-Based Growth and Poverty Alleviation', International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington DC, 1995, p.2. 3. Cleaver, 'A Strategy to Develop Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa, and a Focus for The World Bank', World Bank Technical Report No. 203, African Technical Department Series. Washington DC. 1993, p. 63. 4. Butty, 'The Liberian Green Revolution Initiatives: A Policy Analysis Perspective' Liberia Forum, 314 (1987) p. 44. This diagnosis is amply backed up by a host of documents and studies. See, for example, R. Erikson, B. M. Gould, V. C. Johnson, and T. W. Stevenson, 'US Economic Assistance Strategy Assessment: Liberia,' Washington, DC, 1983; and Elliot Berg and Notes 239 Associates, 'The Liberian Crisis and an Appropriate US Response,' USAID, Washington, DC, 1982. 5. Wiens, 'Poverty and Progress in the Huang and Huai River Basins,' in William L. Parish (ed.), Chinese Rural Development: The Great Transformation (New York: M. E. Sharpe, Inc., 1985) pp. 87-8. 6. FAO, China: The Agricultural Training System, Report on an FAO/UNDP Study Tour to the People's Republic of China, 5 October to 2 November 1978, Economic and Social Development Paper No. 11 (Rome: FAO, 1980) p. 18. 7. See FAO, China: The Agricultural Training System, pp. 74-82. See also Perkins and Yusuf, Rural Development in China (Baltimore: published for the World Bank by The John Hopkins University Press, 1984) pp. 55-6, and Wiens, 'Poverty and Progress,' pp 87-8. 8. IRRI, Rice Research and Production in China; World Bank, China: Socialist Economic Development, pp. 70-l. 9. Ministry of Agriculture, Chinese Project files, Mange Farm, 1974-5. 10. Ministry of Agriculture, Chinese Project files, Mange Farm, 1974-5. 11. Agricultural Development Project (ADP), '1st and 2nd Quarter Progress Report,' 1975, Cape StMary's, The Gambia, p. 3. 12. Letter from Kathryn Craven to Prof. Dirck Stryker, AIRD Library, Somerville, MA, 24 March 1977, p. l. 13. Kao Yun-Cheng, 'Report on the Ten-Month Work of the Agro-Technical Team of the People's Republic of China,' Agro-Technical team of the PRC, The Gambia, 21 December 1975, p. 3. 14. DOA, Chinese Project files, memo from ADP rice agronomist to Director of Agriculture, Cape StMary, July, 1976. 15. DOA Chinese Project files, Cape St Mary's, memo from J. H. Green, Horticulture Officer to Department of Agriculture, February 1977, com­ menting on the report by the Abuko Group (Vegetable Cultivation) of the Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Report on Vegetable Trial Planting in 1976,' January, 1977. 16. DOA Chinese Project files, Cape StMary's, memo, 9 May 1977. 17. DOA Chinese Project files, Cape St Mary's, minutes of meeting of Department of Agriculture Advisory Board, 16 May 1978. 18. Ministry of Agriculture, Chinese Project files, Tower Hill, memo, Permanent Secretary to Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Freetown, 8 September 1978. 19. Derek Byerlee, 'Report of a Visit to ACRE Project, Njala, Sierra Leone,' 8 November to 20 November 1982, p. 16; Eicher, 'International Technology Transfer and the African Farmer,' p. 25. 20. Government of Sierra Leone and USAID, Adaptive Crop Research and Extension (ACRE) Baseline SocioEconomic Survey Report (Freetown, Sierra Leone: GSL/USAID ACRE Project, March 1983) p. 61. 21. FAO, China: The Agricultural Training System, p. 113. See also Zweig, Agrarian Radicalism, and Jonathan Unger, 'Remuneration, Ideology and Personal Interests,' in Parish (ed), Chinese Rural Development, pp. 117-40. 22. Everett Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, 3rd edn (New York: The Free Press), p. 30. 240 Notes 23. This 'agricultural authoritarianism' was also reflected in non-Chinese irri­ gated rice projects, such as Semry in Cameroon and the Office du Niger. The World Bank commented that both projects had 'authoritarian (military­ like) control, cultivation to standard or loss of land-rights, full management control of operations.' World Bank, Governance and Development (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1992) p. 15. 24. Ministry of Agriculture, Chinese Project files, Makali Station, notes of a staff meeting, 14 September 1976. 25. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Report on the First Quarter's Work of 1977,' Sapu, The Gambia, 9 April 1977. 26. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, Sapu, The Gambia, 'Report on the First Quarter's Work of 1977,' p. 2. 27. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Report on the Work of the Chinese Agro­ Technical Team,' Cape StMary's, The Gambia, 6 November 1979. 28. FAO, China: The Agricultural Training System, p. 44. 29. Chin Yi Wu, 'China's Economic and Technical Cooperation with Friendly Countries.' Peking Review, 25 October 1974. 30. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Report on Work, January-July 1974,' Mange Farm, 16 August 1974. 31. Ministry of Agriculture Chinese Project files, Ministry of Agriculture Archives, Tower Hill, minutes of a meeting of Ministry of Agriculture Committee of Principals for Agricultural Training (COPAn, composed of Senior Agricultural Officers, Training Officers, and Ministry of Agriculture staff, Tower Hill, Freetown, Sierra Leone, 21-3 July 1976. The quotations in this and the next paragraph are all from this source. 32. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, •Annual Report on Chinese Agricultural Team's Work 1975 and Its Tasks for 1976,' Ogoo Station, Freetown, 18 February 1976. 33. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Report on Work, January-July, 1974.' Sierra Leone, 16 August 1974, p. 4. 34. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Report on the First Quarter's Work of 1977,' Sapu, The Gambia, 9 April 1977, p. 4. 35. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Report on the Ten-Month Work of the Agrotechnical Team of the People's Republic of China,' Sapu, The Gambia, 21 December 1975, p. 6. 36. Minutes of COPAT Meeting, 21-3 July 1976. 37. Ibid. 38. Norman Uphoff and Milton Esman, Local Organizations: Intermediaries in Rural Development (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984); Cleaver, 'Strategy to Develop Agriculture,' p. 79. 39. Memo, Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Banjul, to Director of Agriculture, Department of Agri­ culture, Cape StMary, regarding 'Minutes of Talks on Implementation of Agricultural Co-operation Project Between China and The Gambia,' 26 January, 1976. 40. Government of Sierra Leone, 1974175-1978/19 National Development Plan (Freetown, Sierra Leone: GPO, 1974) p. 50. 41. H. W. 0. Okoth-Ogengo, 'Some Issues of Theory in the Study of Tenure Relations in African Agriculture,' Africa 59, no. 1 (1989) p. 7. Notes 241 42. Keith Hart, The Political Economy of West African Agriculture (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1982) p. 91. 43. Preamble to the Sierra Leone Protectorate Land Ordinance, 1927, as cited by Kenneth L. Little, The Mende of Sierra Leone (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1951), p. 84. The Land (Provinces) Act of 1946 in The Gambia contains almost identical language. 44. See, for example, Gerald Currens, 'Women, Men, and Rice: Agricultural Innovation in Northwestern Liberia,' Human Organization 35 (Winter 1976); Dey, however, states that the practice is fairly old in The Gambia Jennie Dey, 'Women and Rice in The Gambia: The Impact of Irrigated Rice Development Projects on the Farming System,' PhD thesis, University of Reading, 1980. 45. This has been true in Sierra Leone for several decades: 'In certain areas where the land is of high value, as in swamp areas along the Little Scarcies River, almost every plot has been acquired by pleading, and in some por­ tions second-generation pledges are farming the land.' Irving Kaplan et al., Area Handbook for Sierra Leone (Washington, DC: American University, Foreign Area Studies, 1976) p. 269. 46. J. R. Dunsmore et al., 'The Agricultural Development of The Gambia: An Agricultural, Environmental, and Socioeconomic Analysis,' Land Resources Study no. 22 (Ministry of Overseas Development, Tolworth, UK, 1976). 47. World Bank, 'Impact Evaluation Report: The Gambia Agricultural Development Project,' Operations Evaluation Department, Washington, DC, June 13, 1984. 48. A 1983 BBC documentary, 'The Lost Harvest,' by Sarah Hobson, quoted Mariama Koita, a Gambian woman, reacting to the new Jahally Patchaar irrigation scheme: 'It seems this project is just like the Chinese one when we suffered before. We aren't going to put up with that again.' Cited in Judith Carney, 'Gender and Agricultural Intensification in The Gambia,' (paper delivered at the 32nd Annual Meeting of the African Studies Association, Atlanta, GA. 2-5 November 1989). 49. MANR, Chinese Rice and Vegetable Project files, Makali Station, n.d. 50. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Annual Report on Chinese Agricul­ tural Team's Work 1975 and Its Tasks 1976,' Ogoo Station, Freetown, 18 February 1976. 51. AGRICON, 'Rolako Rice Projection Feasibility Study.' 52. The PRC Investigating Group of the Rice Fields Irrigation Project to The Gambia, 'Report on the Investigation of Rice Fields Irrigation Project in The Republic of The Gambia.' December 1987. 53. See, for example, GOSL and GOPRC, 'Protocol to the Agreement on Economic and Technical Cooperation Between the Government of the Republic of Sierra Leone and the Government of the People's Republic of China,' 9 October 1972. 54. Robert F. Kagbo, 'Situation, Problems and Prospects for Increasing Rice Production in The Gambia,' WARDA (West African Rice Development Association) Banjul, February 1981, p. 23. 55. "'Enough of Feasibility Studies- We Want to See Crops Coming Out of the Ground,"- President Stevens,' Sierra Leone Trade Journal, vol. 12, 242 Notes no. 4, October/December 1972, pp. 104--105 and Daily Mail, (Sierra Leone) 5 October 1973, p. 1. 56. Deborah Brautigam, 'State Capacity and Effective Governance,' in Benno Ndulu and Nicolas van de Walle (eds), Agenda for Africa's Economic Renewal (Washington, DC: Overseas Development Council, 1996); Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988). 57. Consortium for International Development, 'Agricultural Sector Report for Sierra Leone; prepared for United States Agency for International Development. Freetown, Sierra Leone (Logan, Utah: June 1982) pp. 117-18. 58. Harry Will, 'Integration Proposal,' MANR Eastern Region. vol. 3, Appendices, p. 6. 59. WARDA. 'Projects in Liberia,' p. 18. 60. Beijing zhongguo xinwen she, 1 March 1984, in FBIS-CHI-84, 6 March 1984, p. A3. 61. Department of Agriculture, Chinese Project files, Cape St. Mary's, The Gambia Report dated 22 February 1975. 62. Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture to Department of Agriculture, memo, 14 July 1975. 63. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Annual Report on Chinese Agricultural Team's Work 1975 and Its Tasks 1976,' Ogoo Station, Freetown, 18 February 1976. 64. MANR Archives, Chinese Project files, Tower Hill, memo from the Acting Leader, Chinese Agricultural Technical Team to the Permanent Secretary, MANR, 6 March 1976. 65. 'Youyi is a challenge,' Sunday We Yone (Freetown) 4 September 1983, p. 3. 66. Wan Ying-quan, 'A Brief Report on the Kpatawee Agricultural Cooperation Project,' Ministry of Agriculture, Monrovia, 1986. 67. Wan, 'A Brief Report on Kpatawee.' 68. MANR, Chinese Project files, Mange Farm, memo from A. 0. Mange Farm to MANR, Tower Hill, Freetown, 1974. 69. Ministry of Agriculture files, Kpatawee Project, Memo, Liberian Project Manager to his supervisor, Deputy Minister of Agriculture, I October 1984, Monrovia, Liberia. 70. The 'iron rice bowl' refers to lifelong employment without regard to performance, as practiced in pre-reform China. 71. MANR Chinese Project files, Lambayama Agrotechnical Station, memo, 15 March 1975. 72. Minutes of the Farmers' Meeting, Rolako Station, 2 December 1977. 73. MANR, Chinese project files, Bo PAO Headquarters, quarterly report from Bo Agricultural Instructor assigned to the Chinese to the Principle Agriculture Officer, Bo Circle, February, 1973. 74. Franz Schurmann,/deology and Organization in Communist China 2nd edn (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968) p. 245. 75. Although people who worked with the Chinese in The Gambia reponed good communication, when the DOA and the MOA were discussing a pos­ sible new agreement with the Chinese in 1980, the Director stressed that Chinese experts were not needed in research or extension. 'Quite apart from Notes 243 other considerations, the language barrier alone is a serious constraint.' MOA Chinese Rice Project Files, Banjul, Memo, 7 Aprill980. 76. MANR, Chinese Sugar Project files, memo from Agricultural Officer, Magbass. 21 July 1981. 77. Ministry of Economic Planning, Industry and Development, 'Report on Meeting on the Chinese Loan,' Banjul, The Gambia, 2 August 1978. 78. Memo, Njagboima Station to Ministry of Agriculture, Freetown, 6 February 1978. 79. See Parfitt, 'The Politics of Aid to Sierra Leone: A Case Study of the Makeni-Kabala Road Project and the Koinadugu Integrated Agricultural Development Project,' Sierra Leone Studies at Birmingham, Proceedings of the Fourth Birmingham Sierra Leone Studies Symposium 13-15 July 1985 (Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 1987) p. 151. 80. At least one PAO reported that he had received reports, but in Chinese, which he couldn't read. 81. For example, an article in the Daily Mail (Freetown), 21 February 1984, noted that 'four senior staff members of Mag bass ... were detained for alleged theft of large quantities of the spirit [alcohol].' 82. The Chinese may have gotten their revenge: in 1987 Sufian Kargbo, the Minister of Agriculture and Natural Resources, was fired because of a sugar marketing scandal involving kickbacks from local commercial interests. 83. Northern Area Integrated Area Development Project, 'Annual Report and Accounts for 1977,' NIADP Northern Area, Sierra Leone, Phase II, p. 1. 84. Carl K. Eicher, 'Sustainable Institutions for African Agricultural Development' International Service for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR), Working Paper No. 19, The Hague, , February 1989, p. 21.

7 Exporting Ideology: Chinese Domestic Politics and China's African Aid

1. Gao Xianhong, Zhengtu (The Journey) 2 vols (Shanghai: Renmin Chubanshe, 1975) p. 212, cited in Richard King, 'Models and Misfits: Rusticated Youth in Three Novels of the 1970s,' in William Joseph, Christine P. W. Wong, and David Zweig (eds), New Perspectives on the Cultural Revolution Harvard Contemporary China Series No. 8 (Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies, 1991) p. 245. 2. Elizabeth Johnson and Graham Johnson, Walking on Two Legs. Rural Development in South China (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 1976). 3. Nguyen Ngoc Luu, Technological Development of Agriculture in the People's Republic of China (The Institute of Social Studies, The Hague Research Report Series no. 5, 1979) p. 3. 4. See Peking Review no. 4, 24 January 1964, and no. 5, 31 January 1964. 5. Albert Genewai Panda, 'The Mofinkoh Development Association's Integrated Rural Development Programme: An Analytic Survey,' University of Sierra Leone, unpublished thesis, 1981. 244 Notes 6. Letter, 11 September 1979, Minister of Health, Chinese Project Files, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Freetown, Sierra Leone. 7. Daily Mail (Freetown, Sierra Leone), 24 November 1978, p. 2. 8. Daily Mail (Freetown), 28 November 1978, p. 1. 9. Beijing Review, 16-22 November 1987, p. 29. 10. Chinese Agrotehnical Team, 'Report on the Second Quarter's Work of 1978,' Sapu, The Gambia, 19 July 1978. 11. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Construction of Canal,' from teaching mate­ rials prepared by the Chinese for the DOA Agriculture Training Center, Sapu, The Gambia, June 1978, pp. 4-8. 12. Ibid. 13. Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Freetown, Sierra Leone, Chinese Project Files, Memo, 26 May 1976. 14. For example, a May 1993 Chinese delegation to the African Development Bankin Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire, stressed that African countries need not only self-reliance, 'but also external economic assistance, especially that from the developed countries' Xinhua, 13 May 1993. 15. Xinhua, 26 February 1991. 16. MANR Chinese project files, Lambayama Station, memo 19 August 1976. 17. Trevor Parfitt, The First Lome Convention and its Effects on Sierra Leone, University of Manchester (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, September 1983) p. 267. The EIADP explained their selection of chiefs as necessary to gain the approval of local authorities and to be accepted in the communities. 18. 'Egalitarianism is not Sun-light,' Wenhui Bao, reprinted in Beijing Review, 14-20 May 1990, p. 33. 19. Rosenbaum, 'Introduction,' in Arthur Lewis Rosenbaum (ed.). State and Society in China: The Consequences of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992) p. 12. 20. Selden, Political Economy of Chinese Development (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1993) pp. 187-8. 21. Daily Mail, (Freetown) 2 March 1973. 22. 'APC Women Call for State Farms,' Daily Mail, 24 July 1973, p. 1; 'Set Up State Farms,' Daily Mail, 25 July 1973, p. 1. 23. 'Minister of Finance Kamara-Taylor Calls for National Agricultural Brigade,' Daily Mail, 8 January 1974. 24. Daily Mail, 11 March 1974; Daily Mail, 2 May 1978. 25. Hart notes that in West Africa, 'over the years various regimes have asserted the state's eminent domain over the land; and they have usually been able to requisition land without making substantial payment to the occupiers' The Political Economy of West African Agriculture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982) p. 91. 26. V. R. Dorjahn and Christopher Fyfe, 'Landlord and Stranger: Change in Tenancy Relations in Sierra Leone,' Journal ofAfrican History, vol. 3, no. 3 (1962) p. 396. 27. Kenneth L. Little, The Mende of Sierra Leone (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1951) p. 91. Notes 245

28. Interview with official, Sierra Leone embassy, Washington, DC, September 1987. 29. Letter from Oldman Langa Kamara to the Ministry of Agriculture, Kpatawee files, Ministry of Agriculture, Monrovia, 1979. 30. MANR, Chinese Rice and Vegetable Project files, Makali Station, Station Regulations ('Rules and Regulations Lending Land to Farmers at the Makali Station,' n.d.). 31. MANR, Chinese Rice and Vegetable Project files, Rolako Station, Station Regulations ('Loan of Land to Farmers,' n.d.). 32. Ibid. 33. MANR, Chinese Rice and Vegetable Project files, Kenema PAO District Headquarters, Lambayama file, memo from Kenema Principal Agriculture Officer to MANR, Tower Hill, Freetown, 22 June 1974. 34. MANR Magbass Sugar Cane Project file, Tower Hill, memo from MANR Agriculture Officer, Magbass, to MANR office, Magburuka, 3 July 1980. 35. MANR, Chinese Rice and Vegetable Project files, Rolako Station file, PAO office, Makeni: letter from Pa Santiagie Lima Kanu to Paramount Chief, Makari Gbanti Chiefdom, 29 November 1980. 36. Little, Mende, p. 91. 37. 'Stevens the Tactician (1905-88),' West Africa, 6 June 1988, p. 1019. 38. In total commitments, Sierra Leone ranks eighteenth among the 48 African countries assisted by China (Table 3.2). 39. The Chinese did attempt collective construction activities, with little success. At the Chinese station at Makali in Sierra Leone, for example. farmers resisted the Chinese attempt to organize communal development of bunds and channels. and asked for early division into individual plots with individual responsibility. 40. See Yu Fai Law, Chinese Foreign Aid: A Study of its Nature and Goals with Particular Preference to the Foreign Policy and World View of the People's Republic of China, 1950-1982 (Fort Lauderdale: Verlag Breitenbach Publishers Bielefold Studies on the Sociology of Development 1984). 41. A major 1976 farm survey, for example, found production costs for six grains averaging 232 yuan per metric ton, while the selling price was 215 yuan: 'Average yield of six grains rose ... 36 per cent (from 1965 to 1976). But costs ... rose ... 54 per cent, and the value of one labor-day declined from 0.7 to 0.56 yuan.' Lardy, 'Agricultural Prices in China, • p. 86. See the discussion in Chapter 5, p. 113. 42. Carl Riskin, 'Intermediate Technology in China's Rural Industries,' in E. A. G. Robinson, (ed.) Appropriate Technologies for Third World Development, (London: Macmillan and The International Economic Association. 1979) pp. 52-74. 43. Erik Baark, Techno-Economics and the Politics ofModernization in China: Basic Concepts ofTechnology Policy under the Readjustment ofthe Chinese Economy, Research Policy Institute, Discussion Paper no. 135, Sweden: University of Lund (November 1980) p. 7. 44. Dwight H. Perkins, Rural Small-Scale Industry in the People's Republic of China (Berkeley: University of California, 1977) p. 10. 246 Notes 45. World Bank, China: Socialist Economic Development, Annex C: Agricultural Development, Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1983, p. 104. 46. David Zweig, 'Strategies of Policy Implementation: Policy 'Winds' and Brigade Accounting in Rural China, 1968-1978' World Politics, vol. 37 (January 1985). 47. For example, see citations in Thomas B. Wiens, 'Limits to Agricultural Intensification: The Suzhou Experience' in Randolph Barker and Beth Rose (eds), Agriculture and Rural Development in China Today (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University, November, 1983). 48. Benedict Stavis, Politics of Agricultural Mechanization in China (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978) p. 155. 49. Memo, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Chinese Project Files, 27 September 1983, responding to a 23 September 1983 memo from the Minister requesting detailed cost-benefit information on all Chinese­ funded projects in the agricultural sector. 50. Beijing Review 14-20 December 1987, p. 24. 51. Chinese Sugar Survey Team, 'The Brief Survey Report on the Rehabilitation of Production of the Barrake Cane & Sugar Complex,' Monrovia, Liberia, 1983, p. 7. 52. China AGRICON, 'Rolako Rice Production Feasibility Study' (first draft), prepared for Mr. Jamil Said Mohammed, 7 September 1985. 53. Ministry of Agriculture files, Banjul, The Gambia, 15 March 1980. 54. The PRC Investigating Group of the Rice Fields Irrigation Project to The Gambia, 'Report on the Investigation of Rice Fields Irrigation Project in The Republic of The Gambia,' Banjul, The Gambia, December 1987, p. 28. 55. Xinhua, 26 February 1991. 56. Jonathan Unger, 'Remuneration, Ideology, and Personal Interests.' in William L. Parish (ed.) Chinese Rural Development (New York: M. E. Sharpe. 1985) p. 124. 57. David Zweig, Agrarian Radicalism and the Chinese Countryside 1968-1981, p. llO. See also Hua Guofeng's statement in 1975: 'Let the Whole Party Mobilize for a Vast Effort to Develop Agriculture and Build Tachai-Type Counties Throughout the Country' (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1975). 58. Sierra Leone Minister of Trade and Industry, cited in the Daily Mail (Freetown) 21 January 1975, p. I. 59. On Kit Tam, China's Agricultural Modernization: The Socialist Mechanization Scheme (London: Croom Helm, 1985) pp. 57-8. 60. Marsh S. Marshall, Jr. 'Red and Expert at Tachai: A Sources of Growth Analysis' World Development, 7 (1979) p. 424. 61. See, for example, Schurmann, Ideology and Organization in Communist Chirw (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1968). This was noted in practice by delegations visiting China in the 1970s. See, for example, United Nations, Proceedings of the Workshop on Efficient Use and Mainterwnce of Irrigation Systems at the Farm Level in China (New York: United Nations Water Resources Series, no. 51, printed in Thailand, October 1979). Notes 247 62. Chinese Agrotechnical Team. 'Report on the Fourth Quarter's Work of 1977 ,' Department of Agriculture. Sapu. The Gambia. 23 December 1977. 63. Chinese Agrotechnical Team, 'Report on the Second Quarter's Work of 1978,' Sapu. The Gambia. 19 July 1978. 64. MANR Chinese Project files, Makali Station, AO's Report. 10 May 1976. 65. MANR Chinese Project files, Malaki Station. 'Rules and Regulations Lending Land to Farmers at the Makali Station,' n.d. 66. MANR Chinese Project files. Rolako Station, Copy of letter from Pa Santigie Lima Kanu to Paramount Chief Makari Gbanti Chiefdom. 27 November, 1980. 67. MANR, Chinese Project files, Makali Station. Minutes of Staff Meeting, 14 September 1976. 68. Lowell Dittmer. 'Patterns of Leadership in Reform China.' in Rosenbaum, (ed.) State and Society in China, p. 49. 69. 'Shaki: Chinese Have Set the Pace for Sierra Leoneans,' Daily Mail (Freetown). 31 December 1980, p. 1, and Daily Mail (Freetown), 12 January 1984, p. 4. 70. For a general discussion of the embedding of ideas in institutions, see Kathryn Sikkink, Ideas and Institutions: Developmentalism in Brazil and Argentina (Ithaca: Cornell University, 1991). which points out that ulti­ mately. to be consolidated. ideas depend on societal consensus. built by committed leaders and their supporting institutions.

8 Conclusion

1. Benedict Stavis. The Politics of Agricultural Mechanization in China (Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1978) p. 180, citing Eighth Ministry of Machine Building. Revolutionary Great Alliance Headquarters and Revolutionary Great Criticism and Repudiation Group of Organizations. 'Two Diametrically Opposite Lines in Agricultural Mechanization,' Nung-ueh Chi-hsieh Chi-shu. no. 9, 1968 (Summary of Chinese Mainland Media (SCMM) 633, p. 42.). 2. World Bank. SubSaharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth (Washington, OC: The World Bank, 1989) p. 60. 3. Some of the more prominent of these writers are Judith Tendler. Inside Foreign Aid (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975); and Robert Chambers. Rural Development: Putting the Last First (London: Longman, 1983) both of whom pushed hard for the inclusion of political variables in project evaluation. Roger Riddell, Foreign Aid Reconsidered (London: James Currey Ltd, 1987) p. 198. 4. David Halloran Lumsdaine. Moral Vision in International Politics: The Foreign Aid Regime, 1949-1989 (Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1993). 5. This is not surprising, since there is no information about Chinese aid in the publications researchers commonly rely on for their data: primarily, the 248 Notes annual OECD Development Assistance Cooperation Report published in Paris and listing assistance by OECD donors as well as those in the Middle East. 6. For a recent study of foreign aid and self-reliance in West Africa (which, incidentally, gives a brief mention to a single Chinese aid project, Magbass in Sierra Leone, p. 62) see R. Omotayo Olaniyan, Foreign Aid, Self­ Reliance, and Economic Development in West Africa (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1996). 7. Constance Anthony, Mechanization and Maize: The Politics of Tech­ nology Transfer in East Africa (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988). 8. Robert Cassen and Associates, Does Aid Work?, 2nd edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994) p. 97. 9. Gene Ellis, 'Development Planning and Appropriate Technology: A Dilemma and a Proposal,' World Development 9 (March 1981) p. 256. Given the poor information available on many, if not most projects, pre­ sumably the same audacity could also be demonstrated by the ex-post evalu­ ation team! 10. Jerker Carlsson, Gunnar Kohlin, and Anders Ekbom, The Political Economy of Evaluation: International Aid Agencies and the Effectiveness ofAid (New York: StMartin's Press, 1994) p. 3. 11. Robert Bates, Markets and States in Tropical Africa: The Political Basis of Agricultural Policies (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981). 12. See Christopher Delgado, 'Agricultural Transformation: The Key to Broad­ Based Growth and Poverty Alleviation in Africa,' in Benno Ndulu and Nicolas van de Walle (eds), Agenda for Africa's Economic Renewal (Washington, DC: Overseas Development Council, 1996). 13. The widespread acceptance of the role of institutions is best exemplified in the widely-cited book by Douglass North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). But see also Anne 0. Kruegar, Constantine Michalopoulos, and Vernon W. Ruttan, Aid and Development (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989) and Deborah Brautigam, 'State Capacity and Effective Governance,' in Benno Ndulu and Nicolas van de Walle, Agenda for Africa's Economic Renewal (Washington, DC: Overseas Development Council, 1996). 14. Krueger, Michalopoulos, and Ruttan, Aid and Development, p. 23. See also Arthur Goldsmith, 'Demand, Supply and Institutional Develop­ ment in Africa,' Canadian Journal of Development Studies 14, 3, (1993) p. 413. 15. For an interesting parallel case, see Jennifer Clapp, Adjustment and Agriculture in Africa: Farmers, the State, and the World Bank in Guinea (New York: StMartin's Press, 1997). 16. Anne 0. Krueger and Vernon W. Ruttan, The Development Impact of Economic Assistance to LDCs, vols. I and II (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota for the Agency for International Development and the Department of State, 1983), pp. 10-37. Notes 249 17. James Ferguson, The Anti-Politics Machine: 'Development,' Depoliticization and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). 18. From a paper written by Adam Smith in 1755, quoted in Edward Canan. 'Editor's Introduction' to Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (London: Methuen, 1950), p. xxxv, and cited by Robert Bates, Beyond the Miracle of the Market, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 3.

Appendix: Chinese Foreign Aid in West Africa- Country Overviews

1. Daily Mail (Sierra Leone), 3 August 1974. 2. Daily Mail (Sierra Leone) 20 February 1975, p. 2. 3. 'Shaki Sees Chinese, Korean Projects,' Daily Mail (Sierra Leone). 2 January 1976. 4. The original design was done by the Jiangxi Survey and Design Institute of Water Conservancy and Hydroelectric Power, and construction carried out by the Jiangxi Hydroelectrical Engineering Company. 5. 'China's Hand of Friendship,' West Africa, 25 July 1983, pp. 1712-13. 6. Xinhua, 27 November 1984; Xinhua 28 Aprill985; Freetown SLBS Radio in English, 3 August 1991, in Foreign Broadcast International Service. West Africa Daily Report (FBIS-AFR) 91-151. 6 August 1991. p. 30. The 1984 agreement was for RMB 30 million (about US$ 11 million). although some sources state that the agreement was for US$ 15 million). CIA, Handbook of Economic Statistics 1991. 7. Interview, Qian Guoan, Economic Counsellor, Chinese Embassy, Freetown, 16 June I988. 8. Daily Mail (Freetown). 7 December 1984, p. 1; Interview, Qian Guoan, Economic Counsellor, Chinese Embassy. 16 June 1988. 9. Xinhua, 23 July 1982. 10. Chinese Sugar Survey Team, 'The Brief Survey Report on the Rehabilitation of Production of the Barrake Cane and Sugar Complex,' Ministry of Agriculture, Libsuco files. Monrovia (n.d.). 11. All of the information on joint ventures and Chinese investment came from an interview with Tian Ying. at the Chinese embassy in Monrovia, 19 July 1988. I2. A. A. B. N'jie, 'Report on the Delegation to Peking,' Department of Agriculture, 26 January 1975. 13. The PRC Investigating Group of the Rice Fields Irrigation Project To The Gambia, 'Report on the Investigation of Rice Fields Irrigation Project in The Republic of The Gambia,' Banjul, December 1987. 14. Interview with Peng Yihua, Economic and Commercial Counsellor, Chinese Embassy, Banjul, The Gambia, I9 November 1991. Between 1978 and I980, medicines were supplied gratis, with the Chinese govern­ ment paying all the shipping costs. The Gambia's foreign exchange difficulties had led to the Chinese doctors being unable to treat patients due to drug shortages. Otherwise, the Gambian government was expected 250 Notes to pay the costs of Chinese medicines supplied to the hospital and clinics up front, and to pay the medical personnel's living allowances, about $80 per month. 15. Xinhua, 7 September 1988. The Gambian government insisted that the stadium be a large one, although the population of the country is small. Although the Chinese suggested it be built to seat 7000 to 10 000, the wishes of the Gambians prevailed. The stadium has only rarely come close to filling its capacity. 16. Interview with Peng Yihua, Economic and Commercial Counsellor, Chinese Embassy, Banjul, The Gambia, 19 November 1991. 17. Xinhua, 7 September 1988. 18. Paris AFP 23 September 1991 in FBIS-AFRT-91-186, 25 September 1991, p. 25. 19. 'Army Receives Armory, Storage Depots From China,' Paris AFP 23 September 1991 in FBIS-AFR-91-186, 25 September 1991, p. 25. Bibliography

Anthony, Constance, Mechanization and Maize: The Politics of Technology Transfer in East Africa (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988). Baack, Erik, Techno-Economics and Politics of Modernization in China: Basic Concepts of Technology Policy Under the Readjustment of Chinese Economy, Research Policy Institute, Discussion Paper no. 135 (Sweden: University of Lund, November 1980). Barker, Randolph, and Beth Rose (eds), Agriculture and Rural Development in China Today, Cornell International Agriculture Monograph 102 (Ithaca. New York: Cornell University, November, 1983). Barrett, Vincent, G. Lassiter, D. Wilcock, D. Baker, and E. Crawford, 'Animal Traction in Eastern Upper Volta: A Technical, Economic, and Institutional Analysis,' MSU International Development Paper No. 4, East Lansing: Department of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State University, 1982. Hartke, Wolfgang, China's Economic Aid (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1975). Bates, Robert, Markets and States in Tropical Africa: The Political Basis of Agricultural Policies, (Berkeley: University of California Press. 1981). Bates. Robert, Beyond the Miracle of the Market (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). Berg, Elliot J., Rethinking Technical Cooperation: Reforms for Capacity Building in Africa (New York: Regional Bureau for Africa, United Nations Development Programme, 1993). Berger, Carol, 'China and the "Principles" of Aid,' Sudanow (February 1972) pp. 18-19. Binnendijk, Annette L .• 'Economic and Financial Evaluation of Liberia's Lofa Agricultural Development Project,' Rural Africana, 22 (Spring 1985): 25--62. Binswanger, Hans P., Agricultural Mechanization: A Comparative Historical Perspective, World Bank Staff Working Papers. no. 673 (Washington: The World Bank, 1984). Boardman, Robert, Post-Socialist World Orders: Russia, China and the UN System (New York: StMartin's Press, 1994). Boserup, Esther, The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change Under Population Pressure (London: Allen & Unwin, 1995). Brautigam, Deborah, 'State Capacity and Effective Governance, • in Benno Ndulu and Nicolas van de Walle (eds). Agenda for Africa's Economic Renewal (Washington DC: Overseas Development Council, 1996). Brautigam. Deborah, 'South-South Technology Transfer: The Case of China's Kpatawee Rice Project in Liberia,' World Development, vol. 21, no. 12 (December 1993). Brautigam, Deborah, China and the Kpatawee Rice Project in Liberia, Universitlit Bremen, Germany, Liberia Working Group Papers. no. 8, 1993. Brinkerhoff, Derick and Art Goldsmith (eds), Institutional Sustainability in Agriculture and Rural Development: A Global Perspective (New York: Praeger, 1990).

251 252 Bibliography Brown, Ellen P. and Robert Nooter, 'Successful Small-Scale Irrigation in the Sahel,' World Bank Technical Paper no. 171, The World Bank, Washington, DC, 1992. Brown, David, 'Bureaucracy as an Issue in Third World Management: an African Case Study,' Public Administration and Development, vo!. 9, (1989) pp. 369-80. Bruce, John W., 'Critical Land Tenure Issues in Liberia,' Land Tenure Center, University of Wisconsin, unpublished paper, June 1984. Buck, John Lossing, Owen L. Dawson, and Yuan-li Wu, Food and Agriculture in Communist China (New York: Praeger, 1966). Butler, Steven, 'Price Scissors and Commune Administration,' in William L. Parish (ed.) Chinese Rural Development (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1985) pp. 95-114. Butty, James, 'The Liberian Green Revolution Initiative: A Policy Analysis Perspective,' Liberia Forum 314 (1987). Carlsson, Jerker, Gunnar Kohlin, and Anders Ekbom, The Political Economy of Evaluation: International Aid Agencies and the Effectiveness ofAid (New York: StMartin's Press, 1994). Carney, Judith, 'Gender and Agricultural Intensification in The Gambia,' paper delivered at the 32nd Annual Meeting of the African Studies Association, Atlanta, GA, 2-5 November 1989. Carter, Jeanette E, 'Social Institutional Profiie: Management Practices and Prospects, A Study of the Liberian Agricultural Sector,' Institute for Development Anthropology, Working PaperNo. 40, Binghamton, NY, 1984. Cassen, Robert and Associates, Does Aid Work?, 2nd edn (New York: Oxford University Press. 1994). Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Handbook of Economic Statistics (Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 1991). Chambers, Robert, Rural Development: Putting the Last First (London: Longman, 1983). Chan, Ying-keueng, 'Mass Mobilization for Development: Water Conservancy in China,' in John F. Jones. Building China: Studies in Integrated Development (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1980). Chandler, Robert F. Jr, Rice in the Tropics: A Guide to the Development of National Programs (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1979). Chao, Kang, Agricultural Production in Communist China: 1949-1965 (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1970). Clapham, Christopher, 'Liberia,' in O'Brien, Donal B. Cruise, John Dunn, and Richard Rathbone (eds), Contemporary West African States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989). Clapham, Christopher, Liberia and Sierra Leone: An Essay in Comparative Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976). Clapp, Jennifer, Adjustment and Agriculture in Africa: Farmers, the State, and the World Bank in Guinea (New York: StMartin's Press, 1997). Cleaver, Kevin, 'A Strategy to Develop Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa and a Focus for the World Bank,' World Bank Technical Paper no. 203, African Technical Department Series, Washington, DC, The World Bank, 1993. Clower, R. W., G. Dalton, M. Hartiwz, and A. Walters, Growth Without Development: An Economic Survey of Liberia (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1966). Bibliography 253 Coffman, W. R., and S. S. Virmani, 'Advances in Rice Technology in The People's Republic of China,' in Randolph Barker and Beth Rose (eds), Agriculture and Rural Development in China Today, Cornell International Agriculture Monograph 102, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University, November 1983, pp. 1-26. Consortium for International Development, 'Agricultural Sector Report for Sierra Leone,' prepared for United States Agency for International Development, Freetown. Sierra Leone (Logan, Utah: June 1982). Copper, John Franklin, China's Foreign Aid: An Instrument of Peking's Foreign Policy (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1976). Crozier, Michel, The Bureaucratic Phenomenon (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1964). Cruise O'Brien, Donal, Richard Rathbone, and John Dunn (eds), Contemporary West African States (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). Currens, Gerald, 'Women, Men, and Rice: Agricultural Innovation in North­ western Liberia,' Human Organization, 35 (Winter 1976). Dalrymple, Dana, Development and Spread of High-Yielding Rice Varieties in Developing Countries (Washington, DC: Bureau for Science and Technology, Agency for International Development, 1986). Delgado, Christopher, 'Agricultural Transformation: The Key to Broad-Based Growth and Poverty Alleviation in Africa,' in Benno Ndulu and Nicolas van de Walle (eds), Agenda for Africa's Economic Renewal (Washington, DC: Overseas Development Council, 1996). Delgado, Christopher, 'Agricultural Transformation: The Key to Broad-Based Growth and Poverty Alleviation,' International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC, Draft. April24, 1995. Department of State, Communist States and Developing Countries- Aid and Trade in 1971 (Washington, DC: Department of State Research Study, 15 May 1972). Dernberger, Robert F. (ed.), China's Development Experience in Comparative Perspective (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980). Dernberger, Robert F. and Francoise Le Gall, 'Is the Chinese Model Transferrable?' in Robert F. Dernberger (ed.), China's Development Experience in Comparative Perspective (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980) pp. 306-38. Dey, Jennie M., 'Women and Rice in The Gambia: The Impact of Irrigated Rice Development Projects on the Farming System,' Ph.D. thesis, University of Reading, 1980. Dia, Mamadou, Africa's Management in the 1990s and Beyond (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1995). Dittmer, Lowell, 'Patterns of Leadership in Reform China,' in Arthur Lewis Rosenbaum (ed.), State and Society in China (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992). Dorjahn, V. R. and Christopher Fyfe, 'Landlord and Stranger: Change in Tenancy Relations in Sierra Leone,' Journal ofAfrican History, 3, no. 3 (1962). Dunsmore, J. R. et al. 'The Agricultural Development of the Gambia: An Agricultural, Environmental, and Socioeconomic Analysis,' Land Resources Study no. 22. Tolworth, UK Ministry of Overseas Development, 1976. Eicher, Carl K., 'Zimbabwe's Maize-Based Green Revolution: Preconditions for Replication,' World Development, vol. 23, no. 5, 1995. 254 Bibliography

Eicher, Carl K. and John M. Staatz, Agricultural Development in the Third World (2nd edn) (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990). Eicher, Carl K. and Doyle C. Baker, 'Research on Agricultural Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Critical Survey,' Department of Agricultural Economics. International Development Paper no. 1, East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1982. Eicher. Carl K .• 'Africa's Food Battles,' in Carl K. Eicher and John M. Staatz (eds). Agricultural Development in the Third World (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 1990). Eicher. Carl K., 'Sustainable Institutions for African Agricultural Development.' International Service for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR), Working Paper no. 19, The Hague, Netherlands, February 1989. Eicher. Carl K., 'International Technology Transfer and the African Farmer: Theory and Practice,' Working Paper 3/84, Department of Land Management, University of Zimbabwe, May 1984. Ellis. Gene, 'Development Planning and Appropriate Technology: A Dilemma and a Proposal,' World Development 9 (March 1981). Ensminger, Jean, Making A Market: The Institutional Transformation of an African Society (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992). Ferguson, James, The Anti-Politics Machine: 'Development,' Depoliticization and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (1970-94) Production Yearbook (Rome: FAO). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 'The Rice Industry of The Gambia: An Economic and Financial Analysis of the Rice Industry with Recommendations for its Strengthening,' TCP/GAM/2303. Rome: FAO, October 1983. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. China: Multiple Cropping and Related Crop Production Technology, FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper no. 22. Rome: FAO, 1980. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Learning From China: A Report on Agriculture and the Chinese People's Communes. 9 September-S October 1975, Bangkok: FAO. 1977. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) China: The Agricultural Training System, Report on an FAO/UNDP Study Tour to the People's Republic of China, October 5 to November 2, 1978, Economic and Social Development Paper no. 11 (Rome: FAO, 1980). Foster, George M .• 'Peasant Society and the Image of Limited Good,' American Anthropologist. vol. 67. no. 2 (Aprill965) pp. 293-315. Francks. Penelope, 'The Development of New Techniques in Agriculture: The Case of the Mechanization of Irrigation in the Saga Plain Area of Japan,' World Development7 (1979) pp. 531-9. Funna, S. M., 'Sierra Leone: Economic Structure and Recent Performance,' Sierra Leone Studies in Birmingham, Proceedings of the Fourth Birmingham Sierra Leone Studies Symposium, 13-15 July 1985 (Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 1987). Gao, Jinyuan, 'China and Africa: The Development of Relations Over Many Centuries,' African Affairs 83 (Aprill984): 241-50. Bibliography 255 Goldsmith, Arthur, 'Demand, Supply and Institutional Development in Africa,' Canadian Journal of Development Studies 14, 3, (1993). Goldsmith, Arthur A., Building Agricultural Institutions: Transferring the Land­ Grant Model to India and Nigeria (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990). Goldsmith, Arthur A., 'The Case of India,' in Derick Brinkerhoff and Arthur Goldsmith (eds),lnstitutional Sustainability in Agricultural Development. Goodell, Grace E., 'Bugs, Bunds, Banks and Bottlenecks: Organizational Contradictions in the New Rice Technology,' Economic Development and Cultural Change, 31 (1984): 23-41. Goulet, Denis, The Cruel Choice: A New Concept in the Theory of Development (New York: Athenaeum,l971). Gray, Jack, 'The Two Roads: Alternative Strategies of Social Change and Economic Growth in China, in Stuart R. Schran (ed.), Authority, Participation, and Cultural Change in China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973). Green, R. H., 'Transferability, Exoticism and Other Forms of Dogmatic Revisionism,' World Development. vol. 6, (1978): 709. Hanson, Jarice and Uma Narula, New Communication Technologies in Developing Countries (Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 1990). Hall, Peter, The Political Power of Economic Ideas: Keynesianism Across Nations (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989). Hart, Keith, The Political Economy of West African Agriculture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982). Hayami, Yujiro, and Vernon W. Ruttan, Agricultural Development: An International Perspective, 2nd edn (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1985). Hiebsch, Clifton and Stephan K. O'Hair, 'Major Domesticated Food Crops,' in Della E. McMillan and Art Hansen (eds), Food in Sub-Saharan Africa (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1986). Horvath, Janos, Chinese Techn.ology Transfer to the Third World (New York: Praeger, 1976). Hughes, Arnold, 'The Gambia: Recent History' from Africa South of the Sahara /990 (Europa Publications Ltd, August 1990). Hughes, Arnold, 'From Colonialism to Confederation: The Gambian Experience of Independence, 1965-1982,' in R. Cohen (ed.), African Islands and Enclaves (Beverly Hills and London: Sage Publishers, 1983) pp. 57-80. Hutchison, Alan, China's African Revolution (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1976). International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Rice Research and Production in China: An IRRI Team's View (Los Banos, The Philippines: IRRI, 1978). Jackson, Robert and Carl Rosberg, 'Why Africa's Weak States Persist: The Empirical and Juridical in Statehood,' World Politics 35, I (1982) pp. 1-24. Ji Yicheng, 'Mechanized Farming - A Catalyst to Rural Industries,' in Zhongguo nongye nianjian, 1985 (China Agricultural Yearbook, 1985) pp. 40-3. Johnny, Michael, John Karimu and Paul Richards, 'Upland and Swamp Rice Farming Systems in Sierra Leone: The Social Context of Technological Change,' Africa 51 (1981) pp. 596-620. Johnny, Michael M.P., 'Traditional farmers' perceptions of farming and farming problems in the Moyamba area (Sierra Leone),' unpublished MA thesis, University of Sierra Leone, 1979. 256 Bibliography

Johnson. Elizabeth and Graham Johnson, Walking on Two Legs: Rural Development in South China (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre. 1976). Jones, John F., Building China: Studies in Integrated Development (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1980). Jones, W. 0., Economic Man In Africa, Food Research Institute Studies, vol. I. no. 2 (1960). Joseph, William, Christine P. Wong, and David Zweig (eds), New Perspectives on the Cultural Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Council on Ea~t Asian Studies, Harvard University, 1991). Kagbo, Robert F., 'An Assessment of Performance and Productivity of Irrigated Agriculture in The Gambia and Senegal,' University of Michigan Gambia River Basin Studies, Working Document no. 40, June 1984. Kagbo, Robert F., 'Situation, Problems and Prospects for Increasing Rice Production in The Gambia,' WARDA (West African Rice Development Association) Banjul, February 1981. Kaplan, Irving, et al., Area Handbook for Sierra Leone (Washington, DC: American University, Foreign Area Studies, 1976). Kelliher, Daniel, Peasant Power in China: The Era of Rural Reform 1979-1989 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992). King, Richard, 'Models and Misfits: Rusticated Youth in Three Novels of the 1970's,' in William Joseph, Christine P. W. Wong, and David Zweig (eds), New Perspectives on the Cultural Revolution, Harvard Contemporary China Series no. 8 (Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies, 1991). Kpundeh, Sahr John. Politics and Corruption in Africa: A Case Study of Sierra Leone, (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1995). Kreuger, Anne 0., Constantine Michalopoulos, and Vernon W. Ruttan, Aid and Development (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). Krueger. Anne 0. and Vernon W. Ruttan, The Development Impact of Economic Assistance to LDCs (St Paul and Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Economic Development Center for USAID and the Department of State, March 1983) vols. I and 2. Kuo. Leslie T. C.. The Technical Transformation of Agriculture in Communist China (New York: Praeger, 1972). Lardy, Nicholas R., 'Agricultural Prices in China,' World Bank Staff Working Paper, no. 606, Washington: The World Bank, 1983. Lardy, Nicholas, Agriculture in China's Modem Economic Development (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). Lardy, Nicholas, 'State Intervention and Peasant Opportunities,' in William L. Parish (ed.), Chinese Rural Development (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1985) pp. 33-56. Lavalie, Alpha, 'Government and Opposition in Sierra Leone, 1968-1978,' Sierra Leone Studies at Birmingham, Proceedings of the Fourth Birmingham Sierra Leone Studies Symposium, 13-15 July 1985 (Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 1987). Law, Yu Fai, Chinese Foreign Aid: A Study of its Nature and Goals with Particular Reference to the Foreign Policy and World View of the People's Republic of China, 1950-1982 (Fort Lauderdale: Breitenbach Publishers, 1984). Leeming, Frank, Rural China Today (London: Longman, 1985). Bibliography 257

Lele, Uma, 'Managing Agricultural Development in Africa,' in Carl K. Eicher and John M. Staatz (eds), Agricultural Development in the Third World (2nd edn) (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990). Lele, Uma, (ed.), Aid to Africa: Lessons From Two Decades of Donors' Experience (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992). Lele, Uma, The Design of Rural Development: Lessons From Africa (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press for The World Bank, 1975). Leonard, David, Reaching the Peasant Fanner: Organization Theory and Practice in Kenya (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977) pp. 17-18. Little, Kenneth L., The Mende of Sierra Leone (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1951). Lofchie, Michael, 'China's Lessons for African Agriculture,' in Ronald Cohen (ed.), Satisfying Africa's Food Needs: Food Production and Commercialization in African Agriculture (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1988). Longhurst, Richard, Samara Kamara, and Joseph Mensurah, 'Structural Adjustment and Vulnerable Groups in Sierra Leone,' IDS Bulletin, vol. 19, no. I, 1988. Lord, E. A., A Perspective Study on Self-Sufficiency in Rice Production in Five Countries of West Africa (The Gambia, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria and Sierra Leone), United Nations Development Advisory Team, ECA/UNDAT II. Addis Ababa, December 1975. Lumsdaine, David Halloran, Moral Vision in International Politics: The Foreign Aid Regime, 1949-1989 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993). Luu, Nguyen Ngoc, The Technological Development ofAgriculture in the People's Republic of China (Institute of Social Studies, The Hague. Research Report Series no. 5, 1979). Marshall, Marsh S., Jr, 'Red and Expert at Tachai: A Sources of Growth Analysis,' World Development, 7 (1979) pp. 423-32. Maxwell, Neville, 'Learning From Tachai,' World Development, vol. 3 (July-August 1975). Maxwell, Neville (ed.), China's Road to Development 2nd edn (Oxford: Pergamon Press. 1979). Mcinerney, John P., 'The Technology of Rural Development' World Bank Staff Working Paper no. 295, Washington: The World Bank, 1978. McPherson, Malcolm F. and Stephen C. Radelet, 'Economic Reform in the Gambia: Policies, Politics, Foreign Aid and Luck,' Harvard Institute for International Development Discussion Paper no. 300, June 1989. Migdal, Joel, Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988). Monke, Eric, 'Rice Policy in Liberia,' in Scott Pearson, I. Dirck Stryker, Charles Humphreys, Rice in West Africa (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981), pp. 109-40 Murray, Roger, 'Africa and China,' N(!ll,• Afn'can (December 1985). Nabli, Mustapha K. and Jeffrey B. Nugent, The New Institutional Economics and Development: Theory and Applications to Tunisia (New York: North-Holland, 1989). Nickum, James E., 'Irrigation Management in China. A Review of the Literature,' World Bank Staff Working Papers, no. 545, Washington: The World Bank, 1982. 258 Bibliography North, Douglass C., Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Perfomzance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). O'Brien, Donal B. Cruise, John Dunn, and Richard Rathbone (eds), Contemporary West African States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989). Okoth-Ogengo, H. W. 0., 'Some Issues of Theory in the Study of Tenure Relations in African Agriculture.' Africa 59, no. 1 (1989). Olaniyan, R. Omotayo, Foreign Aid, Self-Reliance and Economic Development in West Africa (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1996). Olivares. Jose, 'The Potential for Irrigation Development in Sub-Saharan Africa,' in Irrigation in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Development of Private and Public Systems, World Bank Technical Paper no. 123, Washington, DC 1990. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 'The Aid Programme of China,' W.21961D/Arch.0792D. Paris, March 1987. Otsuka, K. and C. Delgado, 'New Technologies and the Competitiveness of High and Low Potential Rural Areas in Asia and Africa,' invited paper presented at the 22nd International Conference of Agricultural Economists, Harare, Zimbabwe, 22-9 August 1994. Parfitt, Trevor, 'The First Lome Convention and its Effects on Sierra Leone,' unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Manchester (UK). September 1983. Parfitt, Trevor, 'The Politics of Aid to Sierra Leone: A Case Study of the Makeni-Kabala Road Project and the Koinadugu Integrated Agricultural Development Project,' Sierra Leone Studies at Binning ham, proceedings of the Fourth Birmingham Sierra Leone Studies Symposium, 13-15 July 1985 (Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 1987). Parish, William, L., (ed.), Chinese Rural Development (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1985). Pearson, Scott, R., J. Dirck Stryker, and Charles P. Humphreys et al., Rice in West Africa: Policy and Economics, (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981). Perkins, Dwight H., (ed.), Rural Small-Scale Industry in the People's Republic of China, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977). Perkins, Dwight H., and Shahid Yusuf, Rural Development in China, (Baltimore: published for the World Bank by The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984.) Plusquellec, Herve L. and Thomas Wickham, 'Irrigation Design and Management: Experiences in Thailand and its General Applicability,' World Bank Technical Paper No. 40, Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1985. Program of African Studies, National Chengchi University, Agreements on Technical Cooperation Between The Republic of China And African States (National Chengchi University, Taiwan: July 1974). Putterman, Louis, Continuity and Change in China's Rural Development: Collective and Reform Eras in Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). Pye, Lucian, Asian Power and Politics: Cultural Dimensions of Authority (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985). Radelet, Steven, 'Reform Without Revolt: The Political Economy of Economic Reform in The Gambia,' World Development vol. 20, no. 8 (August 1992) pp. 1087-99. Rawski, Thomas, Economic Growth and Employment in China (New York: Oxford University Press for the World Bank, 1979). Bibliography 259 Reno, William, Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). Richards, Paul, •A Colonial Food Crisis and Its Aftermath: Rice Policy in Sierra Leone From 1919,' Sierra Leone Studies at Birmingham, proceedings of the Fourth Birmingham Sierra Leone Studies Symposium, 13-15 July 1985 (Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 1987). Riddell, Roger, Foreign Aid Reconsidered (London: James Currey, 1987). Riskin, Carl, 'Intermediate Technology in China's Rural Industries,' in E. A. G. Robinson (ed.), Appropriate Technologies for Third World Development (London: Macmillan and The International Economic Association, 1979) pp. 52-74. Robertson, A. F., The Dynamics of Production Relationships: African Share Contracts in Comparative Perspective (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987). Rogers, Everett M., Diffusion of Innovations, 3rd edn (New York: The Free Press, 1983). Rogers, Everett M., Diffusion of Innovations, 1st edn (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1962). Rosenbaum, Arthur Lewis (ed.), State and Society in China: The Consequences of Reform (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992). Rosenbaum, Arthur Lewis, 'Introduction,' in Arthur Lewis Rosenbaum (ed.), State and Society in China. Ruggie, John G., 'International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order,' International Organization, 36 (Spring 1982). Ruttan, Vernon W., 'Assistance to Expand Agricultural Production,' in Anne 0. Krueger, Constantine Michalopoulos, and Vernon W. Ruttan, Aid and Development (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). Ruttan, Vernon W., 'Integrated Rural Development Programs: A Skeptical Perspective,' International Development Review 17,4 (1975) pp. 9-16. Ruttan, Vernon W., 'Cultural Endowments and Economic Development: What Can We Learn From Anthropology?' Economic Development and Cultural Change v. 36 (April1988), pp. S247-72. Schultz, Theodore W., 'Institutions and the Rising Economic Value of Man,' American Journal ofAgricultural Economics, 50 (December 1968), pp. 1113-22. Schultz, Theodore W., Transforming Traditional Agriculture (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964). Schultz, Brigitte, 'East German Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa: Proletarian Internationalism vs. "Mutual Advantage,"' Boston University African Studies Center Working Paper No. 100, Boston, 1985. Schumacher. E. F., Small is Beautiful (London: Blond & Briggs, 1973). Schurmann, Franz, Ideology and Organization in Communist China (2nd edn) (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1968). Scott-Stevens, Susan, Foreign Consultants and Counterparts: Problems in Technology Transfer (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1987). Selden, Mark, The Political Economy of Chinese Development (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1993). Shirk, Susan, The Political Logic of Economic Reform in China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993). 260 Bibliography Sikkink. Kathryn. Ideas and Institutions: Developmentalism in Brazil and Argentina (Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1991). Smith, W. E. S .• We Must Run While They Walk (New York: Random House. 1971). Snow, Philip, The Star Raft: China's Encounter with Africa (New York: Weidenfeld & Nicholson. 1988). Spencer, Dunstan S.C .• Derek Byerlee and Steven Franzel. Annual Costs, Retums and Seasonal Labor Requirements for Selected Fann and Nonfarm Enterprises in Sierra Leone, African Rural Economy Program. Working Paper No. 27 (East Lansing. MI: Michigan State University. May 1979). Spencer. Dunstan S. C.. 'Rice Policy in Sierra Leone.' in Pearson. Stryker. Humphreys eta/.. Rice in W!"st Africa: Policy and Economics. pp. 175-200. Stallings, Barbara. 'International Influence on Economic Policy: Debt. Stabilization. and Structural Reform.' in Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman (eds), The Politics of Reform: International Constraints, Distributive Conflicts, and the State (Princeton. NJ: Princt!ton University Press, 1992). Starkey. Paul H., 'Farming With Work in Sierra Leone.' Work Oxen Project Report. Freetown, Sierra Leone: Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. 1981. Stavis, Benedict. The Politics of Agricultural Mechanization in China (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978). Stavis, Benedict, 'Some Initial Results of China's New Agricultural Policies.' World Development, l3 (1985), pp. 1299-305. Stobbs, A. R., The Soils and Geography of the Bali/and Region of Sierra Leone, (Margate, England: Published for the Government of Sierra Leone by the Thanet Press, 1963). Szulc, Ewa, 'New People in the Agriculture of West Africa.' Africana Bulletin. vol. 29, pp. 7-16. T'ang. Ch'i-yu. An Economic Study of Chinese Agriculture. 1924 PhD Dissertation. Cornell University (New York: Garland Publishers. 1980). Taake, Hans-Helmut. 'Promoting Non-Alignment and Self-Reliance: China's Development Policy.' D&C Development and Cooperation (Germany). no. 516. (Sept-Dec 1994). Tarn, On Kit, China's Agricultural Modernization: The Socialist Mechanization Scheme (London: Croom Helm. 1985). Tendler, Judith, Inside Foreign Aid (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. 1975). Thomas, John Woodward, 'The Choice of Technology for Irrigation Tubewells in East Pakistan: An Analysis of a Development Policy Decision.' in Timmer. et al., Choice of Technology in Developing Countries. pp. 51-67. Timmer, C. Peter, 'The Choice of Technique in Indonesia.' in Timmer eta/.. The Choice of Technology in Developing Countries: Some Cautionary Tales (Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1975). pp. l-17. Timmer, C. Peter., John W. Thomas. T. Louis Wells. Jr. and David Morawetz. The Choice of Technology in Development Countries: Some Cautionary Tales (Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1975). Unger. Jonathan. 'Remuneration. Ideology and Personal Interests.' in Parish (ed.). Chinese Rural Development. pp. 117-40. Bibliography 261

United Nations, Proceedings of the Workshop on Efficient Use and Maintenance of Irrigation Systems at the Farm Level in China (New York: United Nations Water Resources Series no. 51, printed in Thailand, October 1979). Uphoff, Norman and Milton Esman, Local Organizations: Intermediaries in Rural Development (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984). Walker, Gary A., 'Institutional Development in the Agriculture Sector: A Case Study of Sierra Leone,' International Management and Development Group, Ltd, Washington, DC, July 15, 1989. Weeks, John, Development Strategy and the Economy of Sierra Leone (New York: StMartin's Press, 1992). Weinstein, Warren, and Thomas H. Henrickson (eds), Soviet and Chinese Aid to African Nations (New York: Praeger, 1980). Werlin, Herbert, 'Decentralization and Culture: The Case of Monrovia, Liberia,' Public Administration and Development, vol. 10 (1990) pp. 251-61. White, Gordon (ed.), The Chinese State In the Era of Economic Reform: The Road to Crisis (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1991). Wiens, Thomas B., 'The Evolution of Policy and Capabilities in China's Agricultural Technology,' in Chinese Economy Post-Mao, Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States, pp. 671-706 (Washington: Government Printing Office, November 9, 1978). Wiens, Thomas B., 'Poverty and Progress in the Huang and Huai River Basins,' in William L. Parish (ed.) Chinese Rural Development: The Great Transformation, (Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, Inc. 1985), pp. 57-94. Wiens, Thomas B., 'The Limits to Agricultural Intensification: The Suzhou Experience,' Randolph Barker and Beth Rose (eds), in Agriculture and Rural Development in China Today, Cornell International Agriculture Monograph 102, (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University, November, 1983). Wittfogel, Karl A., Oriental Despotism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957). World Bank, Rural Development: World Bank Experience, 1965-I986 (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1988). World Bank, World Development Report 1995 (New York: Oxford University Press for the World Bank, 1995). World Bank, China: Agriculture to the Year 2000 (Washington, DC: The World Bank). World Bank, Governance and Development (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1992). World Bank, Accelerated Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Agenda for Action (Washington: The World Bank, 1981). World Bank, The Long Term Perspective Study of Sub-Saharan Africa, Background Papers, vol. 2, Economic and Sectoral Policy Issues (Washington, DC: the World Bank, 1990). World Bank. 'Impact Evaluation Report: The Gambia Agricultural Development Project,' Operations Evaluation Department. Washington, June 13, 1984. World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1989). World Bank, China: Socialist Economic Development, Washington, 1983. Wrubel. Thomas P., 'Liberia: The Dynamics of Continuity,' Journal of Modem African Studies, vol. 9, no. 2 (1971). 262 Bibliography Xu, Cheng, Han Chunru and D. C. Taylor, 'Sustainable Agricultural Development in China,' World Development, vol. 20. no. 8 (August 1992). Yu, George T., China and Tanzania: A Study in Cooperative Interaction (Center for Chinese Studies, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970). Yu, George, 'Africa in Chinese Foreign Policy,' Asian Survey, vol. 28, no. 8 (August 1988). Yu, George T., China's African Policy: A Study of Tanzania (New York: Praeger. 1975). Yu, George T. and David J. Longenecker, 'The Beijing-Taipei Struggle for International Recognition: From the Niger Affair to the UN,' Asian Survey, vol. 34, no. 5 (May 1994). Zhen Bingxi, International Studies, issue no. 3 (1988). Zhu, Peirong, 'Continuous Development of Economic and Technological Cooperation with Foreign Countries in the Field of Agriculture,' Zhongguo nongye nianjian (Chinese Agricultural Yearbook) Beijing, 1985. Zweig, David, 'Peasants, Ideology, and New Incentive Systems: Jiangsu Province. 1978-1981,' in Parish (ed.), Chinese Rural Development, pp. 141-63. Zweig, David, 'Strategies of Policy Implementation: Policy "Winds" and Brigade Accounting in Rural China, 1968-1978,' World Politics, vol. 37 (January 1985). Zweig, David, Agrarian Radicalism and the Chinese Countryside, 1968-1981 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard East Asian Council Monographs, Harvard University Press, 1989). Index accountability, 171-3,203 Central Agricultural Research Adaptive Crop Research and Institute (CARl), 143 Extension (ACRE), 49, 123 Chad. 45 . 46 Chinese aid Agency for International amounts,4,44.45-6 Development (AID) bureaucracy, 47-9 see United States Agency for compared with other donors, 7-11 International Development passim. 46, 49, 59, 73, 133, AGRICON, 6, 48, 86,212,246 n52 180, 190 aid, see foreign aid costs of. 46-7 Aiwu.2, 122,123,144,199 debt-equity swaps, 52 Albania, 40 design of, 2, 81 Algeria, 45, 46 domestic inft uences on, 4. I I. 17. All People's Congress (APC). 55, 75 27-9,34,38-41,60,175-210 Americo-Liberians, 6, 61, 62-4 passim passim, 154, 183 history of, 4-5, 43-53 animal traction, 18, 89, 103, 117-19 interest rates, 53 China, in, 101, 114, 117 medical, 57,211, 213-15 passim, cost and benefits, 118, 119, 150, 215 177,200 military, 213,215,216 anthropologists, 15, 206 post-1978 changes, 4, 6, 8, 27, 47, appropriate technology, see technology, 49-53, 169. 186, 194 intermediate reasons for success and failure. I 00. Angola. 33, 45, 46 133. 136-7. 140. 157-8. Asian Development Bank, 46 173-4.198,209-10 service contracts. 4, 51-3. 189 Bandung Conference, 30, 39 sports stadiums. 5. 37. 56, 211, 213. Bates, Robert 24, 67, 202 215 Belize, 42 tables. 44-6 Benin, 45, 100, 186 tripartite arrangements. 52 'Berg Report', 20 Chinese-African trade, 47, 53-5 Boserup, Ester, 16 Chinese development models. 34-7 Botswana. 45, 62 transferability, 10, 13, 218 Britain, see Chinese project cycle, 159-61 Burkina Faso, 42, 43, 45 Chou Enlai, see Zhou Enlai Burma. 38 collective work, 181-6 passim, 192 Burundi, 45, 52 communication problems, Chinese-African, 99, 160, Chen-Chu-Ai (CCA), 122, 123, 142, 169-71 209 Comoros.45 Cape Verde, 45 Chinese Complete Plant Export Cambodia, 38, 44 Corporation (COMPLANT), 48, Cameroon, 43, 45 53.170,205

263 264 Index Congo. 45 egalitarianism, 179-81 cooperatives, see farmer associations Egypt. 45 corruption,l62, 110-3passim, 181, Eight Principles of Chinese Foreign 197, 211, 212 Aid, 43,49 see also patronage; Sierra Leone elites cost-benefit analysis, 200-2 Liberia,62,68 China, in, 124 Sierra Leone, 76, 180, 181 Chinese projects, 20, 21, 97, 137, engineers, 18, 30 188 20, 21 Equatorial Guinea, 45 see also economics Ethiopia, 45, 46, 116 Cote d'Ivoire, 42, 62 extension. 146-8, 168. 204 credit program. 119 demonstrations, rice, 142, 146-8, crop protection, see pesticides 168,191 cultivation management, 126-33 'three in one team', 147, 148, 151 levelling, 127 transplanting, 127-8 farmer associations, 2, 9, 108-9, 111, spacing, 129 151-3, 163 weeding, 130-1 fertilizer, 79, 124-6, 204 Cultural Revolution, 175-95 costs, 78. 124-5 agriculture in China, and, 36, organic, 117, 124-6, 177 103-4, 109, 146, 187 use, Africa and China compared, 103 Chinese aid during, 39-40 Food and Agriculture Organization of critique of, 7 the United Nations (FAO), 7, 68, ideology of, 27-9, 175-95 73,107,206 influence on African leaders, 138 food crisis, 13,29 see also Maoist period foreign aid, xi, 2-3, 9 culture, 15-17,206-7 African agricultural development, and management, 23 and, xi culture. and, 15-17, 23 Dazhai, 103-4,109,190-1,202 effectiveness,3, 14,15-29,196 exposed as false model, 190 fatigue, 13 mobilization, 36 ideas/ideology, and, xi, 3, 6, 12, debt crisis, 41 14-15,24,27-9,197 democracy, 186, 204 politics, and, 3, 24-7 see also Gambia, The regime, 197 demonstrations, see extension France, 59 Deng Xiaoping, 37 diffusion, 13. 15, 147 Gabon, 45 Djibouti, 45 Gambia, The, 45 Doe. Samuel, 64, 69-70, 167,213 agriculture and rice policy, 92-6 Chinese projects, non-rice, 51, 52, East Germany, 116 58-9,214-16 economics, 19-21, 173,200-1 colonial period, 6, 90 Chinese attitudes toward, 107, 113, coup,2,91 124, 161, 186-9 democracy, 26, 62,90-1,99, 143, neoclassical, 3 186,204 of Chinese projects, 9, 10. 20, 97, governance and politics, 6, 143 112, 133-5, 137, 201-3 Germany, 115,51,52 economists, 30, 124. 187-8 aid program, 89, 213 Index 265

Ghana. 43. 45 joint ventures. Chinese. 8. 50-1 Great Leap FoiWard. 34-6. 113. 138. passim, 53 152. 191 inAfrica.42.179, 181.189.212, green revolution. 10. 208 214.216 Africa. xi. 9. 14.208-10 China. 21 Kenya.25.33.37,45.62 see also rice; irrigation Korea, 205 . 42 Guinea. 45 labor Guinea Bissau. 42. 45 relations on projects. 167-8, 171, 192-3 high-yield varieties (HYV). see rice. shortages. 105-6 seed unions. 168 Lambayama. 84-5 ideas and ideology. 28-9. 32. 35 land development. and. 13. 175-6 disputes. 183-6 foreign aid. and. 14-15.35. 195 distribution on projects. 152 see also Chinese aid. domestic see also irrigation development influences on land tenure. 153-8, 181-6,207 India. 24 Liberia, 61-2. 63 Indonesia. 17 Sierra Leone, 27, 153-5 institutional economics, 22 see also women, land rights institutions, 21-4.25. 203. 205 Latin America, 44 counterpart assignment. 164-6 Lebanese. 74, 212 institution-building, and. 12. 21. Lesotho, 42, 45, 206 137, 139-40. 161-6, 173-4 Liberia integrated agricultural development agriculture and rice policy, 62-70 projects. 80 Chinese projects, non-rice, 26. intermediate technology. 17. 18-19. 57-8.213-14 31. 114. 117-21 civil war, 2. 8, 9, 58. 62, 70. 210 pedal threshers. I. 120 corruption, 71 sickles, 19, 120 governance and politics. 62-4, transplanters, 121 67-70 International Fund for Agricultural history of rice projects, 68-70 Development (IFAD). 7, 73, Liberia Produce Marketing 206 Corporation (LPMC), 72 International Rice Research Institute Libsuco (Liberia), 57, 69, 72, 213 (IRRI). 110, 122, 123, 125 Libya. 45 irrigation, 21-4, 25, 203, 205 China, in. 34, 92, 103-4 Madagascar, 45 construction,l04-8, 192 Magbass Sugar Project (Sierra costs, 78,9?., 133-5,202,208 Leone), 57, 83, 184, 211 management and maintenance, as state farm, 186 108-11 communication problems on, 169 , 49, 115 corruption, 77, 162, 172-3 , see Cote d'lvoire management, 164, 192 self-reliance, 177 Japan.47.80, 129,205 Malawi, 42. 44 Jawara, Dawada, 90.91 Mali. 45. 52. 53 266 Index management Nepal, 38 African, 16,89,208,209 Niger, 42, 43, 45 'bypass' projects, 204 Nigeria, 43, 45, 46, 55 Chinese, in Africa, 121, 159, North Korea, 4, 38. 44 167-74 passim North Vietnam, 38 Chinese, general, 5, 16, 27, 56, 190, 204 oxen plowing, see animal traction contracts, Chinese, 116 'getting in the mud', 24, 148, Pakistan, 43 189-90 participation, 204 model leadership, 189-91 patronage, 181.185,200 Mao, Zedong (Mao Tse-tung), 156, Liberia, 63, 67 175,177,179,190,196,209 Sierra Leone, 77 and Chinese agriculture, 112-3 pesticides, 105, 129-30 Maoist period, 27, 101-2, 191, 199, Philippines, 122, 129 202, 2~ passim 'ping-pong diplomacy', 58 Chinese aid during, 4, 8, 175-210 plantation farming, Liberia, 1, 26, see also Cultural Revolution 67-8, 198-9 Marshall Plan, 2 Point Four Program, 4 material incentives, 191-4 passim population density, 102, 104, 208 Mauritania, 45, 51 property rights, see land tenure Mauritius, 45 mechanization ratoon, 87, 132-3 Chinese projects, 113-17, 135--6, 'red' over 'expert' 176, 18&-9, 205 200 see also economics, Chinese combine harvesters 111, 137 attitudes toward environmental impact, 112-13 research, 141-6, 203, 204. 208 in China, 112-13, 187 systems, African, 130. 141,208 in West Africa, 111-17, 137 systems, Chinese, 141 power tillers, 18, 89, 92, 200, see also Rokupr Rice Research 209 Institute Sierra Leone, 79, 85, 88 rice tractors, 2, 18, 25, 81, 86, 89, 92 prices, 77, 201 Middle East, 4, 44 production and imports, 65--6 Ministry of Foreign Economic production costs, 92-3 Relations and Trade (MOFERn, seed, 11, 19, 105. 121-3, 209 47-8 yields on Chinese projects, 72-3, mismanagement, see corruption 88, 97, 132 mobilization, 2, 109-10, 147, 190, see also economics of Chinese 191-4 projects; Aiwu; Chen-Chu-Ai model leadership, 189-91 Rokupr Rice Research Institute, 79, Momoh,Joseph, 74, 75,81,86, Ill, 122, 123, 142-3, 168 181 Rural Development Institute (RDI), Mongolia, 38 Liberia, 170--1 moral example, see model leadership Rwanda, 43, 45,51-2 Morocco, 45, 46 Mozambique, 45 Sao Tome and Principe, 42, 45 multiple cropping, 81, 112. 123, schistosomiasis. I 05 131-3, 187-8 seed drills. 112. 120 Index 267 self-reliance, 1-2,39-41, 148, 17~9. and Sierra Leone, 56, 79-82, 107, 190, 199, 200, 204 149 Senegal, 42, 45 and The Gambia. 58, 94-5, 144, Seychelles, 45 152, 155-6 Sierra Leone contrast with Chinese aid, 180 agricultural and government policy, rivalry with China. 27, 29, 39, 74-9 41-2,57,144 civil war, 2, 85 technology, 116, 120, 144 colonial period, 6, 61, 75, 79, 182 Tanzam Railway, 5, 40, 43, 53 corruption,5~7. 76, 77,80,89, Tanzania, 5, 25, 40, 45, 53, 195, 172-3, 181,211 218 governance and politics, 6, 26, see also Tanzam Railway 75-9 Taylor, Charles, 64 other Chinese projects, 81-9, 166, technology, 17-9, 220 n17 211-13 and foreign aid, 17-19 see also Mag bass appropriateness of, 17, 18, 101, Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP), 135-8 75 Chinese, 18, 19, 100-38passim, Sierra Leone Produce Marketing 179 Board (SLPMB), 78 transfer of, 7, 14, 18,24-5 socialism, 4, 38-9 see also intermediate technology Chinese, 7, 37, 194-5 thought re-education, 192 in Sierra Leone, 186 Togo, 45 Somalia. 45, 52 Tolbert, William F., 57, 67, 70,203 South Mrica. 45 training, 1,5,148-51 South Asia. 4, 44 animal traction, 119, 150 Soviet Union, 33, 37-40, 46, 59, 176 evaluation of, 151 Sri Lanka. 122 'learning by doing', 148 state capacity, 12, 26, 161-4, 197, narrowness, 149-50 203-5,208 transparency, 145-6,169,204 Mrican,ll,22,25, 74,76,205 Tunisia. 45, 52 Chinese, 26, 34, 161 state farms, 181-6 Uganda. 43, 45,52 Stevens, Siaka. 181, 182 United Kingdom, 47, 79, 87, 117, 154, and Chinese, 160, 167, 177, 194-5 182 masquerading as socialist, 186 United Nations, 33, 39, 46 'teachings or. 74-5,81,86, 190 United Nations Capital Development structural adjustment, 2, 163, 196, Fund (UNCDF), 52 201-3 passim United Nations Development in Sierra Leone, 7~7 Program, 52 Sudan,45 United Nations Fund for Population sugar cane, see Mag bass; Libsuco Assistance, 52 Swaziland, 44 United States, 33, 37, 40, 59,64 Sweden, 47 United States Agency for International Development (USAID), xi, 119, Tachai, see Dazhai 123, 170 Taiwan, 161 projects in Sierra Leone, 49, 119 and Liberia, 57-8,68-72,213 projects in The Gambia. 123 268 Index Vietnam, 40, 44 and China, 40, 52 Eastern Integrated Agricultural West Africa Development Project, 85, 123, politics, influence on projects, 3, 6, 181 11,14,25-7,116,137.197 other agricultural projects in Africa, politics of rice, 61 17, 170 population density, 102, 104, 105 research on Africa, 130, 133, 135, weak institutions, 24, 205, 210 141, 181 women, 93,206,216 fanne~. 16,120,154,155-7,204 Zaire,33,45 land rights, 154-7, 207 Zambia, 45, 53 World Bank, 197, 200 see also Tanzam Railway and African policies, 20-1, 92 Zhao Ziyang, 61 Agricultural Development Project African visit. 39,41-2, 49-50, 52 (The Gambia), 7, 94-6, 123, Zhen-Zhu-Ai, see Chen-Chu-Ai 137, 155--6, 164 Zhou Enlai, xi, 176 aid, compared with Chinese aid, 7, African visit, 43 137, 164, 170, 180 Zimbabwe, 45