ATLAS Annual Conference 2015 Risk in Travel and Tourism: Geographies

ATLAS Annual Conference 2015

Risk in travel and tourism: Geographies, behaviours and strategies

Lisbon, Portugal 21-23 October, 2015

Abstract book

Contents

Introduction ...... 10

Conference organisers ...... 11

Keynote speakers ...... 13 The Global Dimension of Integrating Emergency Management and Tourism ...... 14 Sofía Gutiérrez ...... 14 Mind the Gaps? Tourism Risk Management Research ...... 15 Brent Wayne Ritchie...... 15

Biosketches delegates ...... 16

Abstracts ...... 32 Tourism Destination Competitiveness: Dalyan Case ...... 32 Onur Akbulut, Yakın Ekin ...... 32 Holistic Tourism: Mind, Body and Soul ...... 32 Cláudia Patrícia de Almeida Seabra Moreira, Carla Silva, J.L. Abrantes, C. Faias, O. Paiva 32 Surf Tourism: A booming tourism product ...... 33 Cláudia Patrícia de Almeida Seabra Moreira, Carla Silva, J.L. Abrantes, C. Faias ...... 33 Suburban endangered heritage: A Portuguese example ...... 34 Daniela Alves, Hélder Barbosa, Jorge Ricardo Pinto ...... 34 Tourism, safety, and health information provided on European country websites ...... 35 Ericka Amorim, Mathhew Lee Smith, Jorge Umbelino ...... 35 The right to Gaudí. Learnings from the commoning of the Park Güell ...... 36 Albert Arias-Sans ...... 36 Geocaching, seeking adventure in secrecy ...... 36 Frederica Claro de Armada, Eduardo Brito-Henriques, João Sarmento ...... 36 Destination marketing during tourism crisis: The Arab Spring uprisings as a case study ...... 37 Eli Avraham ...... 37 Adventure tourism risk control: national programs in Brazil and New Zealand ...... 38 Marília Martins Bandeira, Silvia Cristina Franco Amaral ...... 38 Open Seas, Closed Borders: Critical reflections on risky mobilities and the contradictory rights to/of tourism ...... 39 Raoul Bianchi, M. L. Stephenson ...... 39 Recent “touristification” trends in a Lisbon historic quarter: challenges and opportunities ...... 39 Inês Boavida-Portugal, Luis Boavida-Portugal, Marilisa Coelho ...... 39

Threats in coastal touristic areas: Ria Formosa and Costa de Caparica, Portugal ...... 40 Inês Boavida-Portugal, Márilisa Coelho, Carlos Cardoso Ferreira, José Manuel Simões ...... 40 Destination networks as a tool for minimizing risk and improving the performance of destination ...... 41 Markéta Bobková ...... 41 Tourism planning in riskscapes. A comparative analysis of Cinque Terre and Madeira island ...... 41 Sara Bonati ...... 41 The Shadow of Terrorism in the World Tourism Industry: Impacts, prevention, and recovery strategies ...... 42 Maria Brás ...... 42 Factors contributing to the sustainability of bicycle tourism: A literature review ...... 43 Maria João Carneiro, Helena Albuquerque, Zélia Breda, Celeste Eusébio, Filomena Martins ...... 43 Risk management in canyoning: the case of the Canyoning International meeting in Azores ...... 44 Maria do Céu Almeida, Francisco Silva ...... 44 Environmental risks vs. tourism attractiveness: conflicts and synergies in the Alentejo coast, Portugal ...... 44 Marilisa Rodrigues Coelho, Inês Boavida-Portugal, Carlos Cardoso Ferreira, José Manuel Simões, Jorge Umbelino ...... 44 Risk of Climate Changes and Coastal Erosion in tourist destinations ...... 45 Guilherme Debeus ...... 45 The Agritourism in Italy. Implications for agritourism development in Campania ...... 45 Veronica Di Caprio, Valentina Della Corte, Peter Wiltshier ...... 45 Online Vacation Rentals engagement: Tourist and Owners Algarve representation .... 46 Joana Afonso Dias ...... 46 Ups and downs of Italian tourism. The unusual case of the city of Naples ...... 47 Martina Fariello, Valentina Della Corte, Peter Wiltshier ...... 47 Vulnerability, built heritage and heavy-rains: a case study from Madeira Island ...... 47 Filipa Fernandes ...... 47 Tourism in Lisbon’s Historical Gardens – strategies to safeguarding the heritage ...... 48 Diogo Fonseca, Inês Fontes ...... 48 Community perceptions of the environmental impacts of tourism: the case of Aït Bouguemmez, Morocco ...... 48 Elsa Correia Gavinho ...... 48 Purchasing Hotel Services Online: What Makes it so Risky? ...... 49 Anderson Gomes de Souza, André Silva; Maria de Lourdes Barbosa ...... 49 Blame Games and Meaning Making: Influencing Decision-Making on Disasters for Tourist Destinations ...... 50 Richard Gordon, Lee Miles ...... 50 Destination management in crisis - the case study of the Czech Republic ...... 51 Andrea Holesinska ...... 51

Risk Hazard and Resilience to the Blue Economy - Environmental change , Malta and the Mediterranean Climate ...... 52 Andrew Jones ...... 52 The perception of risk as a determinant of destination choice processes ...... 52 Marion Karl ...... 52 The geographical results of terrorist attacks on the French school trips ...... 53 Xavier Michel ...... 53 Integrating Crisis Management and Tourism? Key Roles for Policy Entrepreneurs and Entrepreneurial Resilience? ...... 54 Lee Miles ...... 54 Societal challenges regarding tourism and ageing: a meta-analysis for their relation with nature and health ...... 55 Sara Maria Monteiro Duarte, Carlos Cardoso Ferreira ...... 55 Social and cultural effects of tourism ...... 55 Abdullah Moradi ...... 55 The Ebola Virus Disease Epidemic (EVDE) and its Unexpected Effects on Tourism in The Gambia and Sierra Leone ...... 56 Marina Novelli, Bieito Pedreira, Liv Burges ...... 56 Risk-conscious Behaviour in Hungarian Travel Agency Sector ...... 56 Zsófia Papp, Krisztina Priszinger ...... 56 The Productive Avoidance of Conflicts in the Rewilding of Western Iberia ...... 57 Arjaan Pellis ...... 57 The measurement of perceived risks in tourism research ...... 58 Laura Perpina Blanch, Lluis Prats Planaguma, Raquel Camprubi Subirana ...... 58 An introduction to the historical geography of tourism in the city of Porto ...... 58 Jorge Ricardo Pinto ...... 58 Risk and tourism crisis in a coastal destination ...... 59 Maria Aparecida Pontes da Fonseca, Maria Rita de Oliveira Nunes d’Angelis ...... 59 Is the night dangerous? Perceptions of a rural community about the development of an Astro-tourism destination in Portugal ...... 60 Áurea Rodrigues, Genuineland, Alentejo, Apolónia Rodrigues, ...... 60 Airbnb, between narratives and practices. The case of Barcelona ...... 60 Alan Quaglieri Domínguez, Albert Arias Sans ...... 60 How attitudes and preferences influence young tourists’ perception of hazards ...... 61 Igor Sarman ...... 61 Morality on Tour? ...... 62 David G. Scott ...... 62 Community Response to the Environmental Change: Case study from Tokyo Bay ..... 62 Mari Shioya ...... 62 Safety in nature and adventure tourism: perspective of tourist entertainment companies ...... 63 Mário Dinis Serrazina Mendes Silva, Maria do Céu Almeida ...... 63 The EU, Expanding or expansionist? How does EU expansion affect Geopolitics and in particular Tourism Development in EU Acceding Nations ...... 64 Peter Singleton ...... 64 4

Community Perception of Safety and Security in Omo Biosphere Reserve, Ogun State, Nigeria ...... 64 Olugbenga Kehinde Sonubi, A. I. Adeyemo, A. A. Ogunjimi ...... 64 Community development and role of tourism: a case study of tourist destination Manali in Himachal Pradesh (India) ...... 65 Dr. Sunil ...... 65 Smart Specialisation Strategy (S3): Risks and Obstacles to Tourism Development which emanate from the new approach to regional innovation and growth ...... 66 Antonis L. Theocharous, Spyros Avdimiotis, Constantinos Papadopoulos, Anastasios Zopiatis ...... 66 Vulnerability to floods in tourism equipment of Vitoria - ES, Brazil ...... 67 Ingrid Tonon Miranda ...... 67 Revitalization of the Historical Centres, Impacts on Hosts and Guests: The Case Study of Lamego City ...... 67 Isabel Vieira, Didiana Branco, Ana Rodrigues ...... 67 Tourism in a Heritage Town in the South East of Ireland: Open for Business in the Aftermath of Recession - Challenges & Risks ...... 68 Angela Wright ...... 68 Climate change and glacier tourism in New Zealand: Past, present and future (?) ...... 69 Jude Wilson, Heather Purdie, Stephen Espiner, Emma Stewart ...... 69 Impressions after visiting the backstage through tours: the case of favela tours and Katrina tours ...... 70 Konstantina Zerva...... 70

Special Track 1 - Latin America ...... 71 Ana Goytia Prat, Antonio Paolo Russo ...... 71 Os impactos do Transporte Público Urbano nos deslocamentos da população autóctone e dos visitantes...... 71 Camila Aparecida de Carvalho, José Augusto Abreu Sá Fortes ...... 71 Travel advisories - Coercive economic diplomacy in disguise ...... 73 Aman Deep ...... 73 Safety and Risk Management in Touristic Activities of Madeira ...... 74 Daniel Márcio Fernandes Neves ...... 74 Impacts in the tourism after biohazard (virus H1N1) in the Mexican Caribbean destinations ...... 74 Oscar Frausto, Luis Mota ...... 74 The Effectiveness of Risk Relievers Adoption in Online Lodging Services Purchases: A Framework for the Brazilian Market ...... 75 Anderson Gomes de Souza, André Silva; Maria de Lourdes Barbosa ...... 75 A arte como roteiro: o centro do Rio por visitantes e moradores ...... 76 Ana Carolina Mendonca Oliveira ...... 76 La residencialización del turismo en el nordeste de Brasil ...... 77 Claudio Milano...... 77 Antecedents of Brazilian Students’ travel: re they ready to adventure New Zealand? . 77 Asad Mohsin, Jorge Lengler ...... 77

The outdoor experience, place meanings and the volcanoes risk perception: the case of Villarrica National Park, Araucanía Region, Chile...... 79 Andres Ried Luci...... 79 (Re)constructing Rio’s World Heritage: Heritage Rehabilitation and the Development of a World Tourist City ...... 80 Antonio Russo, Gülden Demet Oruç, Alessandro Scarnato ...... 80 Ecological Slums? Environmental concerns and tourism mobilities in Rio de Janeiro favelas ...... 80 Camila Maria dos Santos Moraes ...... 80

Special Track 2 – Risky Gastronomies and Foodscapes ...... 83 Greg Richards ...... 83 Social and organisational determinants of risk management in the production of food for restaurants ...... 83 Marek Bugdol ...... 83 The enhancement of local products. the case Eataly ...... 84 Roberta Garibaldi ...... 84 Perceived Risk and Food Consumption by Tourists in Brazilian Northeast Beaches: Eat or not to Eat? ...... 84 Anderson Gomes de Souza, Maria de Lourdes Barbosa; Mariana Bueno de Andrade ...... 84 Staging local cuisine to mitigate neophobic risks: case study of the Mauritian destination ...... 85 Chaya Hurnath ...... 85 Distinct meanings and consumption patterns of local food amongst Portuguese rural tourists ...... 86 Elisabeth Kastenholz, Maria João Carneiro, Celeste Eusébio, Elisabete Figueiredo...... 86 The influence of risk on food tourism decisions of tourists ...... 87 Yuri Kork ...... 87 The quality management and risk minimization in regard to culinary tourism products...... 87 Justyna Maciąg ...... 87 Taking risks with traditional gastronomy – a route to innovation? ...... 88 Greg Richards, Carlos Fernandes ...... 88 Russian tourists’ perceptions of authenticity of food based on trust ...... 89 Marjo Särkkä-Tirkkonen, Sinikka Mynttinen, Johanna Logrén, Teija Rautiainen ...... 89 Barcelona’s Foodsphere: What is Local? ...... 90 Elsa Soro ...... 90 The Study of Gastronomic Festivals Based on Cultural Heritage ...... 90 Diana Tikhonova, Valery Gordin, Julia Trabskaya ...... 90 Managing Risky Food in Less Developed World: Mediating Role of Familiarity and Information ...... 91 Wan-Hafiz Zainal Shukri ...... 91

Special Track 3 - Terrorism and tourism ...... 92 Cândida Cadavez ...... 92 Effects of Terrorism on Tourism Industry- A case study of Jaipur ...... 92 Kumar Ashutosh ...... 92 Tourism and Terrorism: Strange Companions ...... 93 Cláudia Patrícia de Almeida Seabra Moreira, Antunes, M.J.; Paiva, O.; Vicente, M.; Abrantes, J.L. ; Herstein, R ...... 93 Charlie Hebdo terrorism act and its impact on risk perception of the destination Morocco by the french tourists ...... 93 Sair Aziz ...... 93 A brief look at Portugal’s security: Is the Algarve a tourist destination free from terrorism? ...... 94 Dario Fernandes, Jacqueline Santos, Rui Neves, Claudio Mira, Hugo Saúde, Claudio Ribeiro ...... 94 Safety at home impacting on fear of terrorism in international travel ...... 95 Elisabeth Kastenholz, Claudia Seabra, José Luis Abrantes ...... 95 Does terrorism threaten Portugal as a tourists paradise? The Case of the Algarve ..... 95 João Paulo Martinho, Manuel Lage; Mário V. Martins ...... 95

Special Track 4 – Independent Travel ...... 97 Cody Morris Paris, Kevin Hannam ...... 97 Security in tourism territories: the case of Inhambane municipality in Mozambique ... 97 Helsio Amiro Motany de Albuquerque Azevedo ...... 97 Quality analysis of hotel rating portals – theoretical and empirical evidence ...... 98 Monika Bandi ...... 98 Risk as transgression: the backpackers experience ...... 99 Denise Falcão ...... 99 Risk perception and management in hard adventure tourism: an instructor’s perspective ...... 99 Viachaslau Filimonau, Hannah Clinch ...... 99 Traveling the world sharing your home ...... 100 Roberta Garibaldi, Francesca Forno ...... 100 The risks when travelling in a wheelchair. The case of Lisbon ...... 100 Ilidia Catarina Gonçalves Carvalho...... 100 Risk perceptions of Brazilian women in independent travels ...... 101 Gisele Maria de Olivera Carvalho, Maria Manuel Baptista, Carlos Costa ...... 101 Degrees of Risk: the independent travel experiences of international students ...... 101 Martin Selby ...... 101 Dark Tourism, an alternative type of tourism ...... 102 Carla Silva, Ana Fonseca, Claudia Seabra ...... 102 Tourism in North Korea: The (in)authenticity of the risk or the risk of (in)autenthicity ...... 102 Ricardo Torrão ...... 102

Special Track 5 - Tourism and Transport: Issues and challenges ... 104 Elisangela Machado, Nuno Costa ...... 104 The network for motorhome accommodation in Algarve ...... 104 Alexandre Domingues, José Brito ...... 104 Portuguese Cruise Tourism Ports and their Areas of Influence - City and the Region 105 Rui Manuel Laranjeira Marvanejo ...... 105 Transport systems models for tourism and territorial development...... 106 Elisangela Aparecida Machado da Silva, José Augusto Abreu Sá Fortes, Guilherme Lohmann ...... 106 Transport and tourism in the favelas of Rio de Janeiro ...... 106 Sergio Moraes Rego Fagerlande, Rachel Coutinho Marques da Silva and Fernanda Gomes de Oliveira ...... 106 Transportes Turísticos na Amazônia: problemas e soluções dos principais pontos de acesso para a região ...... 107 Fabio Romero de Oliveira e Silva ...... 107 A legalidade do guia de turismo e sua importância na atividade econômica: Implicações para o consumidor, efeitos jurídicos e sociais ...... 108 Fabio Romero de Oliveira e Silva ...... 108 Avaliação do visitante sobre a infraestrutura de transporte à Ilha do Combú, Belém (PA, Brazil) ...... 108 Flavio Henrique Souza Lobato ...... 108 The Business Travel Experience ...... 110 Natan Uriely ...... 110

Special Track 6 – Placemaking and Events – Risks and strategies 111 Greg Richards, Marisa de Brito ...... 111 Designing a portfolio of major events in Auckland: Key dimensions ...... 111 Vladimir Antchak ...... 111 Local identity and placemaking: “Delícias da Comunidade” Gastronomy Festival in Recife, Pernambuco ...... 112 Carla Borba da Mota Silveira, Beatriz Gondim Matos; Maria de Lourdes De azevedo Barbosa ...... 112 Rotterdam: a continuous state of placemaking ...... 113 Marisa de Brito ...... 113 Karneval der Kulturen a controversy community building event ...... 114 Alba Colombo Vilarrasa ...... 114 A Committee of Volunteers: A Risky Endeavour?...... 114 Tara Duncan ...... 114 Risking the Rabbit Hole: Systems Thinking for Events and Placemaking ...... 115 Paul Fynn ...... 115 Knowledge-based events as place-making strategy ...... 116 Lenia Marques...... 116 Cultural democracy in arts festivals – a view inside the Göteborg Film Festival ...... 116 Soraia Silva ...... 116

The touristification of a conflict zone: The Case of Bil'in ...... 117 Natan Uriely, Yaniv Belhassen, Ortal Assor ...... 117

Introduction

The Centre for Geographical Studies, University of Lisbon (CEG-ULisboa) will host and organize, between 20-23 October 2015, the ATLAS annual Conference 2015 entitled "Risk in Travel and Tourism: geographies, behaviours and strategies".

Risks in travel and tourism are inherent and to some extent boosted as individuals move away from the place of residence (comfort zone) to unknown and different places/destinations. Also, as an economic activity, tourism is – as any other “industry”/business – submitted to risks, derived from macro and micro economics and market fluctuations. Even from a territorial point of view, tourism places and spaces (either local, regional or national) have to deal and manage different kinds of risks.

The aim of this Conference is, not only to consider the aforementioned dimensions of risk in travel and tourism – individuals, businesses, destinations institutions – discussing geographies, behaviours and strategies, but also to integrate and put into perspective different risk typologies.

Conference sub themes:  Tourism and the natural environment: bio-physical hazards and environmental impacts;  Global and regional geopolitics: resilience and adaptation in tourism flows;  Social and demographic issues: societal changes and challenges;  Hosts-guests encounters/conflicts as a risk factor;  Destinations at risk: tourism induced pressures;  Safety and security in the tourism industry;  The lure of risk: niche tourism and adrenaline seeking;  Risks as determinants of travel profiles and behaviours;  Planning and management of risks/crises: business perspectives and strategies;  Risk and crisis management in travel and tourism: policies and practices;  Community approaches on risks and local tourism development;  Tourism in times of uncertainty: a bridge over troubled waters?  Risks and crisis communication in tourism;  Rethinking tourism related risks in the age of Anthropocene.

Conference organisers

http://territur.ul.pt/en http://www.ceg.ul.pt

http://www.atlas-euro.org

Partners

http://www.smsss.surrey.ac.uk

http://www.talm.uq.edu.au

Support

Media partner

http://www.publituris.pt/

WorkMedia – Comunicação, S.A.

www.goodfellowpublishers.com www.tandfonline.com www.multilingual-matters.com www.channelviewpublications.wordpress.com

Keynote speakers

Allan Williams

Allan Williams is Professor of Tourism and Mobility Studies at the University of Surrey. He previously held positions at the London School of Economics, and the Universities of Durham, Exeter and London Metropolitan. He was founding co-editor of two journals, European Urban and Regional Studies and Tourism Geographies. His research interests include innovation, productivity, risk and migration. Author of more than 25 books and 120 journal articles, his most recent publications include: Migration, Risk and Uncertainty (Routledge 2014, co-author), The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Tourism (Wiley 2014, co- author) and Tourism Innovation (Routledge 2014, co-author). His publications on tourism and risk include papers in Tourism Management 2013, and a fundamentals of tourism review paper in Journal of Travel Research 2014. http://www.surrey.ac.uk/shtm/people/allan_williams/

Sofía Gutiérrez

Sofia Gutiérrez is the Deputy Director of the Sustainable Development of Tourism Programme of the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). Educated in Peru in Law and Political Science, she holds a Master of Laws degree from the University of Ottawa and has completed postgraduate studies in International Development at the Norman Paterson School of International Affairs, Carleton University, in Canada. She has extensive experience in international development, human rights, global public policy, conflict resolution, national security, and on indigenous, tourism and environmental issues. She worked as a lawyer in Peru and later in Canada as a project officer with the international NGO Canadian Lawyers Association for International Human Rights (CLAIHR) and as a Researcher for Saint Paul University and the Law Commission of Canada. Prior to joining the UNWTO in Madrid in 2009, she worked with the UNEP Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, based in Montreal, Canada, in the Socio-Economic and Legal Affairs Division. She is fluent in English, Spanish and French.

The Global Dimension of Integrating Emergency Management and Tourism

Sofía Gutiérrez UNWTO Spain [email protected]

Tourism is globally already one of the most important economic activities and in some countries the dominant economic activity. Because of the growing importance of travel and tourism – in 2014 a record of over 1.1 billion international arrivals was reached – any negative event can have devastating and especially unnecessary impact on societies and economies, including on State’s security and citizen’s livelihoods thus affecting a destination’s image and making it less attractive to foreign investors and visitors.

Although tourism development at the global level is resilient- as it has shown significant capacity to rebound after crises such as natural disasters, man-made threats or other often subjective risks- in the short term, the impact of negative events in destinations on the sector can be significant.

To manage these challenges adequately, relevant structures and processes have to be designed in a robust but also flexible manner with clear understanding of the special needs and concerns of the travel and tourism sector. Mainstreaming disaster risk management in the tourism sector as well as tourism sector into national emergency structures is critical as it is also the need for a more systematic approach to ensure long-term competitiveness and sustainability to reduce the risk to lives and livelihoods, including the need for a comprehensive framework to address existing disaster risks, to prevent the creation of future risks and to strengthen the resilience of the sector.

Due to the cross-cutting nature of the tourism sector, accelerating the integration of resilience into tourisms’ systems could enhance also the resilience all of its interconnected social components within society, the economy and government institutions by improving their ability to absorb restore and recover from crises.

Resilience of tourism development is of core concern for the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) as well as the integration of travel and tourism into national emergency structures and procedures, which provide national tourism organizations, governmental institutions and private sector stakeholders, involved in emergency planning, coordination and management, with practical guidance on the special needs and concerns of the travel and tourism sector.

Brent W. Ritchie

Brent W. Ritchie is Associate Professor at the University of Queensland, Australia. Professor Ritchie has coordinated several research projects for tourism organisations in the public and private sector in Australia, England and New Zealand. His research interests include tourist and visitor behaviour; tourism marketing (specifically niche marketing, crisis recovery marketing and event imaging and place marketing); tourism destination planning and development; and tourism crisis and disaster strategic planning/management. His research has influenced government policy and industry practice, and has been cited in Parliamentary enquiries and national research development plans. He is Co-editor of Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management. http://www.tourism.uq.edu.au/brent-ritchie

Mind the Gaps? Tourism Risk Management Research

Brent Wayne Ritchie The University of Queensland Australia [email protected]

As the number of potential risks, crises and disasters affecting tourism has grown, so too has research in the area. Despite the growth of tourism research on risk, crises and disasters, much of the research appears to be concerned with the response and recovery stage of large scale crises and disasters (Ritchie, 2008; Wang and Ritchie, 2010). The literature appears to be very fragmented and disjointed with no clear indication of the nature of research, gaps and future directions. Past research has also been criticised for comprising largely descriptive qualitative or cross sectional case studies, restricting the generalizability of research findings. Theory driven research is also lacking (Williams and Baláž, 2014) which affects the quality of research and its ability to adequately inform managers in tourism organisations.

This paper provides an overview of research related to tourism risk focusing on organisational and tourist risk management. It identifies a number of industry issues and challenges, and highlights research and information gaps based on these deficiencies. The paper outlines research that begins to address these gaps and practical issues. It highlights the need for cross-disciplinary collaboration with researchers from other fields and use of novel methods. The paper argues that by raising the quality of our research we can contribute both to academic knowledge and gaps but also provide sound evidence to inform government and industry decisions – helping to also bridge the gap between academics and industry.

Biosketches delegates

Aduhene, Kenneth Canterbury Christ Church University United Kingdom [email protected]

Afonso Dias, Joana INUAF Portugal [email protected]

Aliperti, Giuseppe Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna Italy [email protected] Graduated in “Business and Administration in Tourism” (University of Perugia, Faculty of Economics), I am currently PhD Student in “International PhD in Management - Curriculum: Change and Complexity Management” at Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Pisa (Italy). The curriculum in Change and Complexity Management, organized in collaboration with GSSI of L’Aquila, focuses on two main topics: disaster management and smart communities. I have an excellent knowledge of tourism sector enhanced by two degrees in Business in Tourism. Academic exams and past working experience in US, Denmark and Spain, gave me the opportunity to better analyse the sector and learn English and Spanish language. During the last four years, working as destination management consultant, I had the chance to develop various projects focused on sustainable tourism.

Almeida Seabra Moreira, Cláudia Patrícia de Politechnic Institute of Viseu Portugal [email protected]; [email protected]

Antchak, Vladimir Auckland University of Technology New Zealand [email protected]

Aparecida de Carvalho, Camila Universidade Católica de Brasília - UCB Brazil [email protected]; [email protected]

Aparecida Machado da Silva, Elisangela University Brasília - UnB Brazil [email protected]

Bakra, Nadir Intishar for Tourist Patches Sudan [email protected] Education/Qualifications 1996-1998: Almamoun University, Diploma in Business Administration 9 may-21june 2005 : Diploma in Diplomatic Work Employment to Date/Work Experience: 2003-2005 Employment Hope Organization General Manager 2005-2008 General Manager of Bokra Investment. 2008- Now Founder & General Manager of Intishar for Tourist Patches Other Experience/Activities: Affiliate Member of UNWTO. Spain Member of the Global Compact.USA Member of Acte. USA Member of the International ecotourism Society. USA Member of International Tourism Safety ITS. USA Languages: Arabic: native speaker; English: Good Other Skills: Computer literate: Windows applications.

Bandi, Monika University of Bern Switzerland [email protected] Monika Bandi, Dr.rer.oec., is the head of the Research Unit Tourism at the Center for Regional Economic Development (CRED) since February 1, 2012. In this function, she is primarily concerned with teaching tourism and tourism research with a special focus on regional economy and development, quality management in tourism as well as project evaluations. Her academic career began in 2003, when she worked as a tutor and later as a scientific assistant and PhD student at the Research Institute for Leisure and Tourism for Prof. em. Dr. Hansruedi Müller. Previously she had studied Economics, Psychology and Business Administration at the Universities of Bern and Bergen (NO). During her doctoral studies she did research on cultural and congress centers and their importance for tourism and regional economy.

Bianchi, Raoul University of East London United Kingdom [email protected] I am a social scientist with specific expertise in development sociology, social anthropology and international relations. My areas of interest include the politics and international political economy of tourism, tourism development in islands and coastal areas, tourism and citizenship, tourism entrepreneurship and labour relations, sustainable tourism and tourism planning. I have also worked on the issues of cultural heritage and World Heritage and focus in the main on Spain (Canary Islands), the Mediterranean, Sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East.

Bin Zainal Shukri, Wan-Hafiz University of Surrey United Kingdom [email protected] Originally from Malaysia, I am currently in the final semester of a 3-year PhD in Hospitality and Tourism at Surrey, studying the impact of emotion and service encounter on variety seeking in unfamiliar destination.

Bobková, Markéta Masaryk University, FEA Czech Republic [email protected]

Borda de Água de Almeida, Ana Sofia Universidade Europeia Portugal [email protected]

Brito, Marise de NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences Netherlands [email protected] Dr. Marisa de Brito currently coordinates the research group Events and Placemaking (together with Prof. Greg Richards), at NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences, in the Netherlands. Before this she has been the academic and the program manager of the academic bachelor Leisure Studies and the professional master in Imagineering. She has a PhD on sustainable supply chain management and a Master on Urban Management from Erasmus University Rotterdam. Previously she has worked in Portugal and the UK. Her current research and professional interests lay in the area of sustainability of events and places and in relation to strategy, decision-making, and performance. Marisa publishes

17 internationally in the field of leisure and events. She has co-edited recently a book on the Social Impacts of Events, with case studies from Europe, South Africa, and Australia.

Bugdol, Marek Jagiellonian University Poland [email protected] Marek Bugdol-Department of Human Resource Management at the Jagiellonian University, a professor of management, quality auditor . He is interested in issues of quality management and organizational behavior.

Camprubí Subirana, Raquel University of Girona Spain [email protected] Dr. Raquel Camprubí is Associate Professor at University of Girona since 2004. She completed her PhD in 2009, focusing on tourism image formation and relational networks. Her research interests cover destination management, tourism image and branding.

Cardoso Ferreira, Carlos University of Lisbon Portugal [email protected] PhD in Regional/Local Planning, Universidade de Lisboa. Senior researcher at the Centre for Geographical Studies, Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning, Universidade de Lisboa (Portugal).

Carneiro, Maria João Aibéo Universidade de Aveiro Portugal [email protected] Maria João Carneiro is Assistant Professor and researcher at the GOVCOPP research unit at the University of Aveiro. Her main research interests are consumer behavior in tourism and competitiveness of tourism destinations.

Claro de Armada, Frederica University of Lisbon Portugal [email protected]

Colombo Vilarrasa, Alba Universitat Oberta de Catalunya - UOC Spain [email protected] Alba Colombo is lecturer and researcher at the Open University of Catalunya. Her main research areas are cultural and creative industries, the relationship between those industries and events and tourism. She is involved in research projects related to events and their effects, management, policy and economy perspectives.

Correia Gavinho, Elsa University of Lisbon Portugal [email protected] PhD in Tourism, Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning (University of Lisbon, 2014); Senior researcher at the Centre for Geographical Studies / University of Lisbon; Lecturer at Estoril Higher Institute for Tourism and Hotel Studies.

Deep, Aman Auckland University of Technology New Zealand [email protected] Mr. Deep is a recent MBA graduate from AUT University, New Zealand. He has worked as a tourism lecturer in universities in India for three years.Security has been a key interest in his developing research profile.

Domingues, Alexandre Comissão de Coordenação e Desenvolvimento Regional - Algarve Portugal [email protected]

René van der Duim Wageningen University [email protected] I am a sociologist with special interest in actor-network theory. I have executed research and educational projects in countries like Thailand, Nepal, Costa Rica, Tanzania, Namibia, Kenya, Uganda, Portugal and the Netherlands. In the last ten years my research focused on tourism, conservation and development, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. From 2009 to 2014 I have been a Special Professor in Tourism and Sustainable Development. Since March 2015 I am appointed as Personal Professor. I am also chair of ATLAS and member of the Steering Committee of CELTH.

Duncan, Tara University of Otago New Zealand [email protected] Tara Duncan is a lecturer in the Department of Tourism, University Of Otago in New Zealand. Her research interests focus on the intersections between the mobilities paradigm, tourism and travel. Recent research includes work on lifestyle mobility, hospitality work and mobility, academic mobility as well as an on-going interest in the everyday spaces and practices within tourism, hospitality and leisure.

Eves, Anita University of Surrey United Kingdom [email protected]

Falcão, Denise Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais Brazil [email protected]

Fernandes, Carlos de Oliveira Polytechnic Institute of Viana do Castelo Portugal [email protected] Carlos Fernandes, Ph.D., is Associate Professor in Tourism Studies at the Polytechnic Institute of Viana do Castelo, Portugal. He is course leader of the B.A. in Tourism (UNWTO Tedqual certified) and lecturer in the M.A. in Innovative Tourism Development. Cooperates with World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) and Council of Europe for training on alternative tourism. A member of the editorial board of various tourism related scientific journals, including the Journal of Gastronomy and Tourism, Journal of Tourism and Development, book editor of the International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage and Member of the Editorial Advisory Board of the Journal of Tourism—Studies and Research in Tourism. Carlos is Grand Master of the Confraternity of the Gastronomes of Minho, in northern Portugal and member of the Board of Advisers of the International Institute of Gastronomy, Culture, Arts and Tourism (IGCAT).

Fynn, Paul Glion Institute of Higher Education Switzerland [email protected] Based in Switzerland Paul currently teaches Tourism subjects within the Hospitality and Event Degree, and Risk Management to Online MBA students. Other interests include small scale recurring events (ski racing) and systems thinking.

Garibaldi, Roberta Università degli Studi di Bergamo Italy [email protected]; [email protected] Aggregate professor of Marketing and Tourism Marketing (1993-) and researcher in SECS P08 sector “Management of Tourism Industries” (2007) at University of Bergamo. Director (2014) of CeSTIT (Research Centre on Tourism Destinations and Heritage Interpretation) at University of Bergamo. European Region of Gastronomy, delegate of Italy and Scientific Coordinator for East Lombardy European Region of Gastronomy for the year 2017. Member of IGCAT Board, International Institute of Gastronomy, Culture, Art and Tourism.

Gomes de Souza, Anderson Federal University of Pernambuco Brazil [email protected]

Gonçalves Carvalho, Ilidia Catarina University of Lisbon Portugal [email protected] Educational Qualifications 2010 to present: Accomplishing Phd Degree in Tourism ( UL - IGOT and ESHTE) 2004 - 2006 : Accomplished Master Degree in Human Ecology (UNL) 1992 - 1996 : Gradueted in Anthropology (ISCTE) 1981 - 1984 : Baccalaureate in Superior Tourism Course (INP) 3 - Academic Presentations 2010 : VIIth Journey of Geography and Planning at Minho University Communication title: Walking Tours in Lisbon - a new strategy to visit a city Communication title: Paths - Pilgrimage and Religious Tourism 2015 : IVth International Forum on Guided Tours Communication title: The accessible tourism in Lisbon as a challenge for the “art” of tourist guiding 4 - Other Qualifications and Skills Language courses in English, German, Italian, French and Spanish. 5 - Work Experience Started working in Portugal as a free lancer tourist guide in 1984. Has been mainly guiding cultural, religious, congress and incentive groups.

Goodfellow, Tim Goodfellow Publishers Limited United Kingdom [email protected]

Goytia Prat, Ana University of Deusto Spain [email protected] Ana Goytia Prat is Senior Lecturer and Researcher in the Faculty of Social and Human Sciences. Research and Postgraduate Studies Coordinator at the Tourism Department. Research and Consultancy Director at Institute of Leisure Studies (University of Deusto). Ph.D. in Tourism - Faculty of Human and Social Sciences- by the University of Deusto (Spain). Leisure Studies M.A. B.A in Sociology and Political Sciences. Lecturer at the University of Deusto (Spain) in postgraduate and doctoral programmes and graduate programmes since 1994. Host researcher and teaching staff at Spanish and European Universities. Her teaching and research areas of interest are focused on the field of leisure and tourism from a psycho-sociological perspective. Specialization on the analysis of tourist experiences and tourism demand. Her main fields of study are: Psycho-sociology of tourism

20 and leisure; Leisure, tourism and lifestyles; tourism and leisure experiences; tourism and sustainable development; tourism policies. (UNESCO codes: 630200 Experimental Sociology, 531290 Tourism, 530802 Consumer Behavior).

Groters, Martin Stenden University of applied science Netherlands [email protected] Martin Groters is the Academic Dean of the Leisure Management program at Stenden University, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands.

Gussing Burgess, Liv University of Brighton United Kingdom [email protected]

Gutiérrez, Sofia UNWTO Spain [email protected]

Hannam, Kevin Leeds Beckett University United Kingdom [email protected]

Holesinska, Andrea Masaryk University, FEA Czech Republic [email protected] Doctoral student and (assistant) lecturer specialized in tourism management, tourism policy and economy of tourism.

Honkanen, Antti University of Eastern Finland Finland [email protected] Dr. Antti Honkanen is a professor and the director of the Centre for Tourism Studies at the University of Eastern Finland. He has been the chairman of the Finnish Society for Tourism Research since the year 2010 and associate editor in the Finnish Journal of Tourism Research since 2005. His background is in sociology but he is specialized in tourism and leisure studies. He has been in charge of over 40 internationally and nationally funded research and developments projects. His research interests include tourism statistics, seasonality in tourism, travel motivations and behavior, the impacts of event tourism, transborder second home tourism, and the indicators of cultural sustainability in tourism.

Hurnath, Chaya Université de Toulouse France [email protected] My research interest are in heritage, food and tourism. My PhD studies are on World Heritage sites and local development in Mauritius.

Inácio, Ana Isabel University of Lisbon Portugal [email protected] Lecturer at High Institute of Novas Profissões and at Escola Superior de Hotelaria e Turismo do Estoril (High Institute of Hotel and Tourism Management at Estoril). PhD in Geography and Urban and Regional Planning at Letters Faculty of Lisbon University; Master in Sociology: Communication, Culture and Information Technologies at ISCTE. Senior Rsearcher at IGOT: Wine tourism, Welness Tourism, Leisure, Cultural Tourism, Tourism and Local and Regional Development.

Jones, Andrew University of Malta Malta [email protected]; Andrew is currently a Professor of Tourism and Hospitality and Director for the Institute for Tourism Travel and Culture at the University of Malta having joined the Institute from the University of Wales, Cardiff, UKin November 2012. As such he has been an active practitioner, researcher and academic in urban and regional planning, conservation, economic and cultural regeneration and sustainable tourism development since 1981. He completed his PhD on research investigating the relationship and tensions between economic regeneration, the environment and sustainable tourism markets.

Karl, Marion University of Munich Germany [email protected] Marion Karl is a research associate at the Department of Geography, University of Munich, Germany. Her research focuses on the destination choice process and relevant influencing factors, among them perceptions of risk.

Kastenholz, Elisabeth Universidade de Aveiro Portugal [email protected]

Keller, C. Peter University of Victoria Canada [email protected]

Kork, Yuri University of Exeter United Kingdom [email protected] Got a PhD. in Management Studies from the University of Exeter Business School in 2014. Upon completion, was involved in several research projects, most notably, the COST- organized Scientific Mission in Bad Honnef, Germany.

Maciąg, Justyna University of Economics Katowice Poland [email protected] Education: Master of Economics in specialisations: education and accountancy, PhD in Business Administration. Professional certificates of Quality Auditor and Quality Representative in compliance with ISO 9001 standard. Professional Experience: lecturer and researcher in the Faculty of Management in University of Economics in Katowice. Research interests: quality of services in tourism, sport, leisure and education, models and methods of quality management.

Manley, Jonathan Routledge - Taylor & Francis Group United Kingdom [email protected]

Marques, Lénia Bournemouth University United Kingdom [email protected]; [email protected] Lénia Marques is lecturer in Events Management at Bournemouth University. After obtaining her PhD in Literature in 2007 at Universidade de Aveiro (Portugal), she did a Post-Doc on Travel and Arts. She was a lecturer at the Universidade Aberta (Lisbon, Portugal) and at NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences (The Netherlands). She collaborated with the University of Barcelona and IBERTUR in projects of cultural tourism. Lénia has several publications in the fields cultural tourism and events, comparative and travel literature, intercultural relations. Her current research focus on events and place making and place narrative, design and innovation in events, creative tourism, cultural events and place narrative.

Mayara Moreira de Lima, Renata Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte Portugal [email protected] Bacharel em Turismo - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; Mestre em Ciências Sociais - Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Sociais da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; Doutoranda em Ciências Sociais - Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Sociais da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; Doutoranda Sanduíche em Turismo na Universidade de Lisboa - IGOT/Ulisboa.

Mendonça Oliveira, Ana Carolina Universidade Federal Fluminense Brazil [email protected]

Michel, Xavier University of Caen Normandy France [email protected] Lecturer in Geography at the University of Caen. Head of the Master's degree Voyages, séjours, mobilités scolaires et éducatifs. I belong to the French Research Unit ESO (Space and Society). I carry out researches about geography of tourism and educational mobilities, relationships between everyday and out-of-the-ordinary places, uses and images of heritage places.

Milano, Claudio Ostelea School of Tourism & Hospitality Spain [email protected] PhD in Social and Cultural Anthropology from the Autonomous University of Barcelona (2015), CREOLE master in Social and Cultural Anthropology (Cultural Differences and Transnational Processes) from the Autonomous University of Barcelona (2010), graduated in Tourism at the School of Economics Federico II University of Naples (2010) and graduated in Tourism at the School of Economics at the Federico II University of Naples (2007). Dr. Milano has taught at the Federal University of Piauí (Brazil) and has been a visiting lecturer at seminars of the Master in Anthropology: Advanced Research and Social Intervention of the Autonomous University of Barcelona, in the degree of Social and Cultural Anthropology the Autonomous University of Barcelona and in the degree of social education at the University of Barcelona.

Miles, Lee Bournemouth University United Kingdom [email protected] Professor Lee Miles is Professor of Crisis and Disaster Management at the Bournemouth University Disaster Management Centre (BUDMC) based in the School of Tourism/Faculty of Management at Bournemouth University. He is particularly interested in the role of policy and political entrepreneurs and developing concepts of entrepreneurial resilience in crisis and disaster management for tourism.

Mohsin, Asad University of Waikato New Zealand [email protected]

Moradi, Abdullah Azad Iran [email protected] Employee of the Department of Committee of emdad (Local Organization for Eliminate poverty) from 2013 until now. Research interests: · Ethnographical anthropology of tourism; · Manage and organize of cultural places; · Leading cultural tourism tourist groups; · Anthropological tourism. · Cultural tourism Research publications: · Master Thesis: - Moradi, A. (2008). Study of Cultural Roots of Participation of Arak’s People at Jashn-e Nikukari. Under Supervision of Dr. Farzad Nobakhsh, Faculty of Humanities, Islamic Azad University, Arak Branch. · Conference Papers and Posters: - Moradi, A. (2010). Rahkarhaye Boomisazi … (Strategies and Solutions to Localization of Higher Education in Kurdistan Province). The Regional Conference on Localization, Islamic Azad University, Kurdistan Branch (Speech); - Moradi, A. (2011). Tahlile Asarate Farhangi … (The Study of Social and Cultural Effects of Tourism). International Conference of Tourism Management and Stable Development, Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht Branch (Speech). - Social and Cultural Impacts of Tourism published in the prestigious site in Irananthropology.ir

Moraes Rego Fagerlande, Sergio Federal University of Rio de Janeiro / UFRJ Brazil [email protected] Architect and Urbanist, graduated by Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism of Federal University of Rio de Janeiro / FAU UFRJ, in 1987. Specialist in History of Art and Architecture in Brazil, by Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro / PUC-RJ. Master and PhD in Urbanism by the Program of Post-Graduation in Urbanism at the Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism of Federal University of Rio de Janeiro / PROURB FAU UFRJ. Post-doctorate in Urbanism at PROURB FAU UFRJ. Researcher at PROURB FAU UFRJ, working with tourism and cities.

Motany de Albuquerque Azevedo, Helsio Amiro Escola Superior de Hotelaria e Turismo de Inhambane Mozambique [email protected]

Mynttinen, Sinikka Aalto University School of Business Finland [email protected] Sinikka Mynttinen (Ph.D. forest econ.) works as a senior advisor in the Aalto University School of Economics, Small Business Center. Besides marketing her special interests are in relationship management and networks of SMEs in rural regions. Since 2007 Mynttinen has been involved in several projects related to organic and local food together with entrepreneurship. She has studied the developing business concepts of rural high quality

24 restaurants, as well as, the significance and potential of regional research organizations as partners of SMEs in the food sector. The resent research projects have dealt with enhancing food tourism based on local and organic food supply. In addition, Mynttinen has attended the research strategy work of the food sector in the South Savo region.

North, Sally Goodfellow Publishers Limited United Kingdom [email protected]

Novelli, Marina University of Brighton United Kingdom [email protected] Marina Novelli (PhD, PGDip Panning, PgDipEd, BSc Hons Economics) is an internationally renowned expert in Tourism and International Development with a core specialism in Africa. She is an established academic from the University of Brighton (UK), where she is a Reader in Tourism and INternational Development. Over the past 15 years, she has undertaken assignments for the World Bank, the UN, the EU, the UN World Tourism Organisation, the Commonwealth Secretariat, National Ministries and Tourism Boards, Regional Development Agencies and NGOs in Sub-Saharan Africa, Europe and Asia. She has written and advised extensively in the field of international tourism policy, planning, development and management, with specific focus on: diagnostic, monitoring and evaluation studies, sustainable development and management approaches; alternative and niche tourism product development; value chain diversification and regeneration; community-based development; training needs analysis, workforce capacity building, train-the trainers programmes and curriculum development strategies; governance and institutional development; service standards and optimisation approaches in hospitality and tourism. She is the author of several publications on tourism in Africa with her 2015 volume ‘Tourism and Development in Sub-Sahara Africa’ (Routledge), conveying her extensive applied research, consultancy engagements and collaborations in some 15 Sub-Sahara Africa destinations (including Tanzania). She is Editor in Chief for the Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research (Sage Publications). She is known globally for her excellence in leading and collaborating with multi-disciplinary and multi-cultural teams and for her mission to generate new knowledge on ways in which tourism can play a key role in sustainable development by stimulating local economies, conserving the environment, developing peoples and changing lives.

Ogilvie, Ernie Camosun College Canada [email protected] Instructor, Hospitality & Tourism Department, School of Business, Camosun College

Oliveira Nunes d'Angelis, Maria Rita de University of Lisbon Portugal [email protected]

Olivera Carvalho, Gisele Maria de Universidade de Aveiro Portugal [email protected] MSc in Education and Environmental Management of the University of Brasilia University, Brazil. Effective Professor of the Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Pará State - IFPA. CAPES scholarship holder - Doctor Full Abroad - and PhD student in Doctoral Program in Tourism at the University of Aveiro, Portugal.

Olugbenga Kehinde, Sonubi The Federal Polytechnic, Ede Nigeria [email protected] Sonubi, Olugbenga Kehinde PhD Ecotourism and Wildlife Management, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria. Principal Lecturer/Head of Department of Hospitality, Leisure and Tourism Management, Federal Polytechnic, Ede, Osun State, Nigeria.

Onderwater, Leontine ATLAS Netherlands [email protected]

Osinaike, Shola Canterbury Christ Church University United Kingdom [email protected]

Papp, Zsófia University of Pannonia Hungary [email protected] Zsófia Papp is a senior lecturer at the Tourism Department of University of Pannonia. She finished her PhD last year in the field of destination competitiveness. Besides her main research fields are connected to travel agency management and cultural tourism. Nowadays she is responsible for such subjects as Tour Operation and Travel Agency Management.

Paris, Cody Morris Middlesex University Dubai United Arab Emirates [email protected] Cody Morris Paris is Senior Lecturer in Social Science and Programme Coordinator for the Social Science Programmes at Middlesex University-Dubai. He is also a Senior Research Fellow at the School of Tourism and Hospitality, University of Johannesburg in South Africa. His primary research interests include: Geopolitics and Tourism, Technology and Tourism, Sustainable Development, Mobilities, and Experiential Learning and Tourism.

Pellis, Arjaan Wageningen University Netherlands [email protected] PhD student looking at the productive role of conflicts in actualizing conservation tourism across cases in Namibia, Kenya and Portugal.

Perpina Blanch, Laura University of Girona Spain [email protected]; [email protected]

Quaglieri, Alan University Rovira i Virgili Spain [email protected]; [email protected] Alan Quaglieri Domínguez is currently a PhD candidate in Tourism and Leisure and member of the Research Group on Territorial Analysis and Tourism Studies (GRATET) of the Department of Geography of the Rovira i Virgili University. He has a Master’s degree in Tourism Management and Planning from the same Uiversity and a previous degree in Economics from the Università Commerciale Luigi Bocconi of Milan, Italy. He collaborated on

26 several projects in the fields of tourism studies and cultural management both at academic level and for private institutions. His research interests concentrate on urban tourism, urban populations and mobility.

Ried Luci, Andrés Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Chile [email protected] Professor of Physical Education, Sports and Recreation for the Metropolitan Universidad Metropolitana de las Ciencias de la Educación de Chile and Doctor in Leisure and Human Potential from the University of Deusto, Bilbao, Spain. He is an academic at the Catholic University of Chile, Villarrica Campus, where as Academic Sub-Director. He teaches courses related to the game, environmental education and outdoor recreation. The research area of professor Ried is focuses on outdoor recreation, experience on nature and its relationship with the territories. Currently he involved in two research projects on tourism and outdoor recreation.

Greg Richards NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences Netherlands [email protected] Greg Richards is Professor of Placemaking and Events at NHTV Breda in the Netherlands. He is a Board Member of ATLAS.

Ritchie, Brent Wayne The University of Queensland Australia [email protected] Associate Professor Brent W. Ritchie is Deputy Head and Research Director in the School of Tourism at the University of Queensland, Australia. His research interests include tourism risk management, city tourism, and the impact of tourism and event development in host communities. He has published his research in top academic journals such as Current Issues in Tourism, Tourism Management, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, and the Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing. Brent is the co-editor of the Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management and on the editorial board of four international journals.

Rodrigues Coelho, Márilisa University of Lisbon Portugal [email protected] Master in Environmental Engineering, profile Planning and Environmental Impacts and Diploma in Advanced Studies in Planning, Environment and Sustainable Development (2011), by the Faculty of Sciences and Engineering, New University of Lisbon. Integrated member of the research group TERRiTUR in the Centre for Geographical Studies, since 2012, in the “Strategic Operational Plan for the Sun and Sea tourism product in the Alentejo coastal area” financed by Turismo do Alentejo, ERT (since 2014), and previously in the international Project “SECOA- Solutions for Environmental Contrasts in Coastal Areas” (2012-2013).

Rodriguez-Toubes, Diego University of Vigo Spain [email protected] Ph.D. with distinction from the University of Vigo. Associate professor in the Department of Business Administration and Marketing. Member of the editorial board of the Journal of Safety and Security in Tourism. Collaborator of the Risk and Crisis Management Program of the WTO.

Rotariu, Ilie “Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu Romania [email protected]; [email protected] Third generation in Sibiu tourism. Professor at "Lucian Blaga" University of Sibiu, Senate’s Secretary. Research interests: tourism and communication. Doctor in economics. Thesis published as "Globalization in Tourism - Romania’s case". He attended over 60 international meetings and conferences in the economic fields, mainly in tourism, foregrounding various contributions according to the topic of the event. He promoted the idea of "tourism as a mass-media". Member of ATLAS, WLA, SKAL, IFEA, CNADTCU, ARACIS, IREG.

Russo, Antonio Paolo University Rovira i Virgili Spain [email protected] Antonio Paolo Russo is tenured assistant professor at the Faculty of Tourism and Geography, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona. He is a member of the research group “Territorial Analysis and Tourism Studies” at the Department of Gerography of URV. Previous appointments were with the Erasmus University Rotterdam (where he received his Ph.D. in Economics in 2002), the Universitat Autònoma of Barcelona and IULM University Milan. He is author of various publications in academic journals and books. His research interests range from tourism studies to cultural and urban economics. He has been involved as a staff member of university departments and as an independent expert advisor in various research projects in urban, regional, tourism and cultural economy and management, both in specific local issues and in EU research networks and other international programs.

Särkkä-Tirkkonen, Marjo University of Helsinki Finland [email protected] Marjo Särkkä-Tirkkonen (senior planning officer, M.Sc. (Food Tech.)) has been working for the University of Helsinki /Ruralia Institute since 1999. She is responsible for research projects concerning food technology and for training programs for SMEs. In recent years she has been involved in several EU research projects focusing on sustainable food production, organic food processing and authenticity of food. She is an expert on geographic indication systems in Europe. Concerning the local food production, her interest has been in how to communicate the locality of food products in the context of tourism.

Sarman, Igor Università della Svizzera Italiana Switzerland [email protected] Igor Sarman works for the Tourism Observatory at the Institute of Economic Research (IRE) in Lugano, Switzerland. Research-wise, his interests focus on tourist behavior, tourist risk perception, discrete choice modeling and latent variables modeling.

Scott, David Southern Cross University Australia [email protected]

Silva, Carla Polytechnic Institute of Viseu Portugal [email protected]

Silva, Soraia University of Lisbon Portugal [email protected] Graduation in Geography (University of Lisbon - UL, 2008). Associate researcher in the Centre for Geographical Studies (UL) since 2011 (ZOE research cluster group). Also since 2011, PhD candidate in the Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning (UL). The thesis is centered on urban governance and policies for cultural democracy in international film festivals, with case studies in Portugal and Sweden.

Simões, José Manuel University of Lisbon Portugal [email protected] Full Professor at the Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning, Universidade de Lisboa (IGOT-ULisboa). PhD and Aggregation in Human Geography. Coordinator of PhD Program in Tourism, IGOT-ULisboa.

Singleton, Peter Stenden University of applied science Netherlands [email protected] Dip. M, MCIM, MA International Relations (Leics) Born in London (1958) and raised near Oxford England, studied Business Studies at Portsmouth University. Marketing became a specialisation further strengthened by career appointments as Marketing Executive and Marketing Manager (AT&T), and by membership of the Chartered Institute of Marketing (UK). Aged 34 made a defining career change when taking an appointment abroad as a General Manager of a hotel in the Galilee region of Israel. This career change had a wider significance than purely commercial interest; namely working for an organisation dedicated to dialogue and reconciliation between peoples of different religious conviction. Returning to Europe in 2002 continued a career in Tourism working as a Tour Operator (Rotterdam), managing a small chain of hotels in Amsterdam and being involved with the Holiday homes and Attraction Park Duinrell. Since 2007 has been a member of the International Tourism Management faculty within Stenden University (Leeuwarden, Netherlands). More recently graduated as Master in International Relations from Leicester University in 2014.Joined ETFI and currently researching impact of geopolitics on tourism flows, especially within EU context. Married and the father of two teenage “young adults”.

Soares Teixeira, Paulo Jorge International Movement Lusophone Portugal [email protected]; [email protected]

Soro, Elsa Autonomous University of Barcelona Spain [email protected]

Stuart-Hoyle, Marion Canterbury Christ Church University United Kingdom [email protected] Marion is Director of the Section of Geography, Events, Leisure and Tourism and a Principal Lecturer in Tourism Studies . She has been at Christ Church since 1995 and teaching interests focus on the Marketing of Tourism, Service Management and Introductory Tourism Concepts. Prior to working at Christ Church Marion worked at the Grimsby Institute of Further and Higher Education where she led the launch of a very successful Higher National Diploma course in Travel and Tourism Management. Early experience in the industry after graduation included work at one of the busiest tourist offices in the UK in Cambridge. The

29 student experience upon arrival at University and the transition from school/college to a University environment has always been an area of particular interest, so much so that she introduced a compulsory 'Orientation to Higher Education' transition/skills module to all first year students across the Department in 2011, with very successful results.

Theocharous, Antonis Canterbury Christ Church University United Kingdom [email protected] Antonis Theocharous is Lecturer in the Department of Hotel and Tourism Management. He has published in international journals on topics such as political instability and tourism development, cross-cultural examination of the impact of political instability on tourism development at the regional level, various models of tourism destination choice, and mass media depictions of various facets of political instability.

Thomas, Lorna Canterbury Christ Church University United Kingdom [email protected] Lorna Thomas is a Senior Lecturer at Christ Church University. She has been lecturing in Tourism for 16 years. She has taught tourism at Canterbury College, University Of Kent and Christ Church University. She also lectures on Events Management.

Torrão, Ricardo University of Lisbon Portugal [email protected]

Travis, Emma Routledge - Taylor & Francis Group United Kingdom [email protected]

Uriely, Natan Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Israel [email protected] Natan Uriely is an Associate Professor at the Departement of Hotel and Tourism Management at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev. He specializes in the sociology of tourism and leisure.

Veldman, Jantien ATLAS Netherlands [email protected]

Williams, Allen University of Surrey United Kingdom [email protected]

Wilson, Jude Lincoln University New Zealand [email protected]; [email protected]

Wispelaere, Luc de Erasmushogeschool Brussel Belgium [email protected]

Wright, Angela Cork Institute of Technology Ireland [email protected] Dr Angela Wright, MMIIGrad, MBS, PhD, MCIPD (Academic), MA, is a Senior Lecturer at Cork Institute of Technology, Ireland. She is currently both a Lecturer and Research Supervisor on the Masters Programme in the Department of Organisation and Professional Development. Her main areas of interest include Tourism and Marketing and she holds both an MBS and PhD in this discipline. She is the author of several books in this field and continues each year to contribute extensively, through her own and her supervised research, to an extensive range of publications related to Tourism, Marketing, Communications, and Business Management topics. Dr Wright maintains direct links to industry and is regularly asked to consult and contribute to the management & marketing issues of the day. She is a member of the Board of Governors of Fota Wildlife Animal Park in Cork since 2003, and is actively engaged in guiding the management communication and marketing strategy at this superb facility which attracts and average of 450,000 visitors per annum, and is worth over 150 million euro to the Irish economy – [http://www.fotawildlife.ie/].

Abstracts

Tourism Destination Competitiveness: Dalyan Case

Onur Akbulut, Yakın Ekin Mugla Sitki Kocman University, Izmir Katip Celebi University Turkey [email protected], [email protected]

This research seeks to contribute to the literature on destination competitiveness measurement by providing a structural equation model to evaluate tourism destination competitiveness.This study dealswithmodel for assessing competitiveness in the field of tourism and it focuses on tourism supply providers in Dalyan town, Mugla, Turkey. Our study focuses Place Attachment, Environmental Attitude, Tourism Development Impacts, Development Preferences About Tourism Attractions and Support for Destination Competitive Strategies. Structural Equation Modelling used to analyze tourism destination competitiveness.Sample survey taken from among 268 randomly chosen stakeholders located in the Dalyan town. After the analyzes of SEM the results shown that Place Attachment has an impact on Development Preferences About Tourism Attractions and Development Preferences About Tourism Attractions has an impact on Support for Destination Competitive Strategies

Holistic Tourism: Mind, Body and Soul

Cláudia Patrícia de Almeida Seabra Moreira, Carla Silva, J.L. Abrantes, C. Faias, O. Paiva Polytechnic institute of Viseu Portugal [email protected]

The new tourists want to live an experience, more than simply contact with cultures, people, landscapes or places (Urry, 1990). These travelers are "centered towards self-transformation and constitute new ground for spiritual travel experiences." (Holladay & Ponder, 2012). Scholars argue that many individuals seek their spirituality through travel, specifically they travel to search a greater meaning in life trying to understand more about themselves as individuals (Sharpley & Sundaram, 2005; Timothy & Conover, 2006). Despite this, there has been little research exploring how the spiritual movement influences tourists’ experiences and motivations (Willson, 2011). Holistic tourism has gained force in the world as travelers search for activities and programs that bring balance to their lives. We hope with our study to analyze the main predictors of holistic tourism consumption. Also to make a profile of these new luxury tourists, namely knowing what motivates them, how engaged they are with this tourism product, and their perception about the authenticity of the tourism experience as a whole. Literature Review From the literature review, it is accepted that motivation is multidimensional. Tourists seek to satisfy a number of distinct needs simultaneously (Baloglu & Uysal, 1996). The motivation variables considered for the survey instrument construction will be chosen based on pre-established scales related to tourism motivation and holistic tourism constructs. A five-point likert-type scale will be used as the response format for the motivation variables (being 1 “not important at all” to 5, being “extremely important”), which will be divided in push and pull motivations. Involvement in tourism is the unobserved state of motivation, interest and excitement for a recreational activity or associated product (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997). Involvement influences the degree of commitment in which consumers are committed in different aspects of the process of consumption: product, demand for information, decision making and the purchase (Broderic & Mueller, 1999; Zaichkowsky, 1985). So, in this study we will measure the involvement of tourists with the product, with the decision, consumption and evaluation. Place-attachment is an emotional connection to a particular environment (Low & Altman, 1992; Hidalgo & Hernadez, 2001), an emotional investment to a place (Hummon, 1992), or as a way in which individuals value and identify themselves with a particular place (Moore & Graefe, 1994). Place-attachment is a multidimensional construct that incorporates three dimensions (Brown & Raymond, 2007):

Place-identity, Place-dependence and Place-memory (Kyle et al., 2003, 2004; Moore & Scott, 2003; Yuksel, Yuksel & Bilim, 2010). Modern life generates uncertainty such that people seek authentic experiences as a means of revitalizing fragmented personal identity or existential authenticity (Steiner & Reisinger, 2006). Authenticity is a complex concept that is central in tourism research (Rickly-Boyd, 2013). Authenticity is the genuineness or realness of artifacts or events, and also a human attribute signifying being one’s true self or being true to one’s essential nature (Steiner & Reisinger, 2006). Methodology Because holistic tourism activities, events and places are characteristically located in aesthetically pleasent and environmentally lush' surroundings (Smith & Kelly, 2006), this research will be carry out in Azores, Portugal. This is a region with a great potential to develop holistic tourism for its outstanding peaceful athmosphere and natural beauty recognized by UNESCO. In fact the world’s recognition of the incommensurable value of the Azores started years ago. In 1983, UNESCO named as World Heritage the Historical Centre of Angra do Heroismo, in the island of Terceira, and the Landscape of Pico Island Vineyard Culture, in the island of Pico, in 2004. Conclusions The growth of the holistic tourism suggests that there is an increasing desire to focus on the "self" rather than the "other", and in "existential" rather than "objective authenticity" (Wang, 1990). This represents a desire to escape but not in the classic way (i.e. escape from society turbulence). It's a desire and a need to escape but in order to find oneself (Smith & Kelly, 2006). So, with this study is our aim to analyze the needs, behaviors and personal characteristics of an emerging luxury niche: the holistic tourists. Also, holistic tourism can be a key tourism product in many regions. Azores in Portugal is a region presenting all the ingredients to be an important destination for this kind of tourism. We hope to measure the place attachment that tourists build with the Azores in order to understand if this region has the conditions to become a holistic tourism destination.

Surf Tourism: A booming tourism product

Cláudia Patrícia de Almeida Seabra Moreira, Carla Silva, J.L. Abrantes, C. Faias Polytechnic institute of Viseu Portugal [email protected]

Tourism and sports are social phenomena, allowing people to meet and interact. Therefore, they can be an instrument of social and cultural change (Rifai, 2010), receiving great attention from the academic world. Over the last forty years, surf tourism has become a significant part of both, tourism and sports, and particularly part of the adventure tourism industry (Fluker, 2003). "Surf tourism involves people travelling to either domestic locations for a period of time not exceeding six months, or international locations for a period of time not exceeding twelve months, who stay at least one night, and where the active participation in the sport of surfing, where the surfer relies on the power of the wave for forward momentum, is the primary motivation for destination selection" (Fluker, 2003, p. 7). Surf tourism is a new tourism product that improves tourism development in many destinations (Buckley, 2002), being Portugal one of those. In fact, there are many Portuguese surf spots in conditions to become worldwide top destinations for surf, making Portugal as a brand for surf. This study is a working project on motivations, involvement and place-attachment to surf tourism. The main goal is to analyse the motivations and involvement with surf tourism practice and also the place-attachment that surfers can build with the surf spots. Literature Review Tourists seek to satisfy a number of distinct needs simultaneously (Baloglu & Uysal, 1996). The motivation variables considered for the survey instrument construction were chosen based on pre-established scales related to tourism motivation and surf tourism constructs. A five-point Likert-type scale will be used as the response format for the motivation variables (ranging from 1 – ’not important at all‘ – to 5 – ’extremely important‘). The conceptual model considers push and pull motivations in eight dimensions: (1) surfing appeal, (2) access and infrastructures, (3) knowledge and learning, (4) social, (5) leisure, (6) prestige, (7) sport and (8) adventure. Involvement in tourism is the unobserved state of motivation, interest and excitement for a recreational activity or associated product. Involvement refers, in short, to what tourists think about the leisure and recreation, which affect their behaviors (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997). Involvement influences the degree of

33 commitment in which consumers are committed in different aspects of the process of consumption: product, demand for information, decision making and the purchase (Broderick & Mueller, 1999; Zaichkowsky, 1985). This construct was considered in four different facets: • involvement in pre-purchase or with the generic product; • involvement with the decision to purchase the product; • involvement with the product’s consumption; • involvement in product evaluation or post-purchase. Place-attachment is an emotional connection to a particular environment (Low & Altman, 1992; Hidalgo & Hernández, 2001), an emotional investment to a place (Hummon, 1992), or as a way in which individuals value and identify themselves with a particular place (Moore & Graefe, 1994). Place-attachment is a multidimensional construct that incorporates two dimensions (Brown & Raymond, 2007). Place-identity that represents the functional dimension and place-dependence the emotional or symbolic one (Kyle, Graefe, Manning & Bacon, 2003, 2004a, 2004b; Moore & Scott, 2003; Yuksel, Yuksel & Bilim, 2010). These two dimensions will be measured with a five-point Likert-type scale (1=’completely disagree‘; 5=’completely agree’). Methodology The study will take place in four prestigious surf spots: Nazareth, Peniche, Ericeira and Azores. Despite the fact that all these surf spots are located in Portugal, they are internationally recognized as important and prestigious places to surf. The validation of the proposed model will be achieved through four procedures of analysis. Firstly, a descriptive data analysis will be undertaken with univariate and bivariate analysis, taking into account statistical indicators. The second procedure corresponds to exploratory factor analysis (EFA), aiming at determining the relationship between the observed variables and latent variables. Thirdly, once defined the variables that represent each factor and the number of factors, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) will be applied using full-information maximum likelihood (FIML) estimation procedures in LISREL (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1993). Finally, measures will be tested to measure the relationship among constructs theoretically related (cf. Churchill, 1995). In this sense, the analysis and data processing will be performed using the programs SPSS and LISREL, in their latest versions. Main Results and Contributions The results will be focused on push and/or pull motivations and involvement to surf tourism and also on place-attachment to the surf tourism destination spots. Since the tourism destinations should promote their own differentiating and unique features, the final discussion will be focused on theoretical and practical implications of this study results to surf tourism destinations planning, marketing and management. The results may allow surf destinations to implement effective positioning strategies, increase market segmentation options, enhance product development and communication strategies, and generally improve marketing-mix strategies, particularly concerning the development of an effective surf spot brand. Conclusions The purpose of this work is to determine which are the main motivations and involvement that move tourists to surf tourism practice and also the connection that this kind of tourists establish with surf destinations. Surf tourism is of major importance to the tourism industry (Dolnicar & Fluker, 2003). Since there is not much research on this market, this study intends to contribute to depeen the understanding on the concept of surf tourism. On the other hand, motivations, involvement and place-attachment are important dimensions in tourism research.

Suburban endangered heritage: A Portuguese example

Daniela Alves, Hélder Barbosa, Jorge Ricardo Pinto Instituto Superior de Ciências Empresariais e do Turismo (ISCET) Portugal [email protected]

In mid-nineteenth century, Maia (Portugal) was essentially a rural and agricultural municipality. This characteristic stemmed from a reduced population (16.100 inhabitants in 1864); from the lack of a well-defined city centre; and because it was a peripheral territory located on the northern flank of the city of Porto. This paradigm has changed particularly since the 1970s, with the accelerated growth in terms of population and buildings, which lead to some economic, social and urban transformations. According to the last population census, Maia’s population escalated from 16.100 inhabitants in 1864 to 135.306 inhabitants in 2011, registering an increase of 755%. In the same period, the number of buildings increased circa 1411%.

As it has been pointed, the urbanization of rural and peripheral areas occurred due to the decentralization of industry, to the development of technologies and information systems, as well as a generalized improvement of the accessibilities happened, which allowed a more efficient movement between city and periphery and vice versa. This demand for peripheral rural areas lead to an adaptation to a new reality, and thus a part of the rural heritage was substituted by new buildings that were constructed with modern materials, creating some dissonance with the pre-existing landscape. The same occurred in Maia’s municipality – the fast urbanization and demographic growth caused the disappearing and the modification of many of Maia’s rural heritage. As an example we have “Quinta da Boa Vista” (Gramaxo’s family home), that was reduced several times all over the years due to expropriations in order to build new houses and accessibilities. Another example is “Quinta do Visconde de Barreiros” – a benefactor born in 1838, that funded many improvements in Maia in the second half of the nineteenth century – that was demolished for the construction of the new Town Hall in the late twentieth century. Maia has only two listed national monuments: Monastery of Águas Santas and Monastery of Moreira. Therefore we can consider that the rest of the built heritage – especially those that represent the rural life of the past – are in risk, because they can be demolished and substituted at any time by new modern buildings, eventually leading to a change in its rural identity and can lead to the loss of potential touristic resources. With this work we plan to analyse the demographic evolution of Maia’s municipality and its impact in the transformation of a rural county into an urban one. We will also give some historical contexts and explore the two examples that were given before – “Quinta da Boa Vista” and “Quinta do Visconde de Barreiros” – using mainly primary source data and other relevant elements. However, and specially, this work intends to understand the way of how the municipality has been able to reverse the voracious dilapidation of Maia’s resources through the legal tools of territorial planning, over the past few years. This analysis will imply a methodical collection of these instruments and a comparative study between the norms and the real territorial practice that has endangered this heritage with a huge economic and touristic value.

Tourism, safety, and health information provided on European country websites

Ericka Amorim, Mathhew Lee Smith, Jorge Umbelino Instituto Politecnico de Tomar Portugal [email protected]

With the globalization of tourism, the touristic offer and associated promotion is essential to attract international travelers and sustain local economies. While European countries play host to countless diverse destinations with rich cultures and history, efforts are needed to attract a considerable tourism market share. Despite a variety of channels in which to advertise the destinations, attractions, and amenities available in a country, internet-based traveler recruitment is among the most effective and serves as an informative and educational resource for potential travelers. The primary purpose of this study was to assess the content provided on national tourism websites of 28 European countries. Websites were evaluated for content presented based on 36 topics related to categories of destination/promotion (n = 14 topics), safety/security (n = 11 topics), local authority contacts (n = 3 topics), and health/healthcare (n = 8 topics). A secondary purpose was to identify opportunities for countries to improve their tourism websites for potential travelers to enhance their visiting experience. A content analysis was conducted for official tourism websites utilizing a con¬tent rubric containing 36 topics. The percent of topics represented on official websites ranged from 25.0% to 83.3%. Approximately 61% (n = 17) of countries reported information about 50% or more of the topics contained in the rubric. In terms of destination/promotion, all 28 official websites contained information about characteristics of main cities (100%), and each website provided recommendations to tourists regarding destinations to visit (100%), cultural attractions (100%), and natural attractions (100%). However, only 35.7% of websites contained information about the security status of the country or in specific regions/cities, 25% reported information about dangerous locations as

35 related to criminality or terrorism, and 39.3% of websites provided recommendations about ways in which to avoid criminality or terrorism. Findings reveal that internet-based resources are being underutilized to promote and educate international travelers, which highlights opportunities for improved efforts to meet the specific needs and behaviors of tourists visiting Europe.

The right to Gaudí. Learnings from the commoning of the Park Güell

Albert Arias-Sans Universitat Rovira i Virgili Spain [email protected]

Since Gaudi’s famous salamander was damaged with an iron bar in February 2007, the sword of Damocles has been hanging over Park Güell, threatening its condition of public space. After several attempts, on October 25, 2013 the municipal government’s plan to regulate the access to one of the most visited tourist attractions of Barcelona became operational, turning the park officially into an open-air museum. From a liberal perspective, this decision may look justified. The closure of Park Güell could be considered an example of tragedy of the commons in which the over-exploitation of a common pool resource has doomed it to enclosure. A lesser evil scenario concerning the management of urban commons threatened by tourism pressure: a palliative solution to regulate overcrowding through the enclosing a “touristic area” during a “touristic time” by establishing a quota of visitors per hour and regulating their entrance through ticketing and queuing, as has been done in many other World Heritage sites. Nonetheless, challenging the hegemonic discourse legitimating the regulation, a group of citizens, the Plataforma Defensem el Park Güell (Platform for the Defence of Park Güell, from now on PDPG) has voiced its discontent with this decision. In no case, they claim, tourist overcrowding can lead to the privatisation and regulation of a park negating public and free access for everyone. Without denying the unique value of the site and acknowledging the effects of being one of the most visited places in the city, the PDPG argues that the park has to remain a public space. And here comes the main paradox of the contestation: by claiming the access for everyone, with no distinctions, it includes also the tourists, the ones whose massive presence justifies the regulation. In spite of being fully aware that such dominant appropriation is seen popularly as the main problem to be solved, the “cry and the demand” for the right to the city made by the PGPG transcends the boundaries which frame the tragedy. Thus, challenging the exercise of commoning beyond the place-based community interests and the historical accumulation rights, it was understood as the right to participate and negotiate – and so, to produce – the urban space without excluding anyone, not tourists. The Right to Gaudí has become a struggle against the urban strategies of privatising and enclosing public space due to tourist overcrowding. But at the same time, unwittingly, almost idiotically, the discourse of PDPG has turned into an opportunity to redefine the position of urban social movements concerning tourism issues in a cosmopolitical way, shifting the question from “how to protect the city from tourism” into “how we compose the city along with tourism”, eschewing all binary logics local-visitor and broadening the scope for political representation.

Geocaching, seeking adventure in secrecy

Frederica Claro de Armada, Eduardo Brito-Henriques, João Sarmento Instituto de Geografia e Ordenamento do Território, Universidade de Lisboa Portugal [email protected]

Created in may 2000 in the USA, Geocaching is an augmented reality high-tech treasure hunting that is spreading throughout the world. It involves over six million participants of all ages, and almost two and a half million locations worldwide. Geocaching is the mixture of three interests - technology, treasure hunt and outdoor activities – and the junction of

36 two spaces: physical (and outdoor) and virtual. It is considered a recreational or sportive activity, but, in its core, it is a location-based game that depends on technology as well as on its own social structure, i.e. its virtual based community. Not being an illegal activity, Geocaching is marginal to the law, governed only by internal rules of behavior, some of which may not be approved by outsiders, and may prove hazardous. Although Geocaching is played in the public space, it is hidden from society. That is one of the lures of Geocaching, the cloaking of the activity, the confidentiality of the members’ identity and the mystery surrounding the objects some hide and others find (Geocaches). At the same time, Geocaching is a game of experiences, and rare or unique experiences are always more tempting and growing in number each year. While all games involve uncertainty, our aim here is to explore the risks that Geocaching may involve, in a physical sense, that is, the perils it carries, and how these are socially constructed by the Geocachers’ community. This is more relevant now following the recent death of an experienced geocacher while attempting to get a particularly difficult geocache in northern Portugal. Looking at geocaching data for Portugal we concluded that high physical difficulty geocaches are rare (only 2,3%). Nevertheless they are widely spread throughout Portugal, with a heavy presence in both archipelagos, and placed usually in green and/or near waterways or underwater areas. These 789 active geocaches represent over sixty thousand visits. Attempts to make geocaches more memorable and challenging have included other activities, some of which carry their own risks, like canyoning, slide, mountain climbing, diving, among others. Whereas no geocache is mandatory, doing these particularly difficult geocaches is necessary to achieve certain goals. Research shows that there is some pressure from peers, as the community values those who achieve these high difficulty geocaches. Therefore, it becomes necessary to understand risk’s role in different moments of the game, how is it perceived and dealt with by the participants and if it adds attractiveness to the overall experience.

Destination marketing during tourism crisis: The Arab Spring uprisings as a case study

Eli Avraham University of Haifa Israel [email protected]

The Arab Spring was widely covered in the global media but led to a tourism crisis in the Middle East. The goal of this study was to analyze which media strategies marketers used in their attempts to repair negative images and to re-attract tourists during the Arab Spring. The conceptual framework used in the current study was the "multi-step model for altering place image", which offers three types of strategies: source, message and audience. The following three research questions were used to uncover the strategies used by Middle Eastern marketers to restore a positive image of their countries and bring back tourism during the Arab Spring: 1. What public relations crisis techniques and advertising campaign components were used? 2. What media policies and relationships with the international media were adopted by Arab officials? 3. Which marketing initiatives (such as cultural and sports events) were promoted? This study is based on qualitative content analysis on four types of data: 1) advertising components (slogans, visuals and text); (2) press interviews with Middle Eastern officials and marketers; (3) official media policy adopted by government decision-maker (e.g. boycotting or arresting newspeople); and (4) marketing initiatives (e.g. organizing festivals and cultural events). The data was located in three channels and means from December 2010, when the events started, to September 31, 2013: (1) Internet and video-sharing websites; (2) News reports from two international media outlets; (3) Global tourism news websites. The analysis reveals that Middle Eastern marketers and officials used three kinds of strategies to repair their countries' negative image: 1. Source (Cooperation and media relations; Complying, threatening and blocking the media; and finding alternatives to the traditional media) 2. Message (Ignoring, limiting, narrowing or

37 reducing the scale of the crisis; Acknowledging the negative effect of an event’s coverage and assuring a better future; Multiple facets promotion, exhibitions and softening the "hard" image, Hosting spotlight sports and cultural events; Spinning liabilities into assets; Geographic dissociation from the Middle East region; Ridicule the existing stereotype) and 3. Audience (Changing the target audience by addressing others; Emphasis on similarities and relevance). It seems like dealing with the image problem will continue to be a challenge for officials and marketers of Middle Eastern countries until the region stabilizes and its regional conflicts are resolved.

Adventure tourism risk control: national programs in Brazil and New Zealand

Marília Martins Bandeira, Silvia Cristina Franco Amaral University of Campinas Brazil [email protected]

This paper is part of a doctoral research, funded by the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP), which aims to investigate public policies on adventure practices. This topic is still lacking literature despite the warnings of Tomlinson et al (2005) and Bentley & Page (2007). In order to address that gap we analysed official documents, governmental publications and general population reactions to them as presented by digital media in Brazil and New Zealand. The results show the risk control as a main concern. Brazilian sources show that fatal accidents in horseback riding, bungee jumping and abseiling led politicians, that were ‘outsiders’ from the practice field, to propose laws on risk regulation. Sportsmen and independent tourists rejected them. While those law proposals were vetoed, the Brazilian Association of Ecotourism and Adventure Tourism (ABETA), created by business owners in 2004, funded by The Ministry of Tourism, has developed and implemented a non-statutory national program called Aventura Segura (Safe Adventure), in 2006. Reacting against it, some sports bodies (paragliding, mountaineering, and orienteering) requested the creation of a Committee of Adventure Sports (CEA) inside the Ministry of Sports, in 2006. Some of its representatives asked in court for the tourism program’s annulment claiming it is superficial and illegal (as the constitution guarantees sports bodies autonomy for regulation). Its proposal was creating events where to consult outdoor sports bodies which had already been working in a volunteering basis before ABETAs creation, in order to aid to improve and standardize their safety protocols. However, since 2007, CEA, ceased its activities due to lack of support. Meanwhile, ABETA claims to have consulted experienced professionals and that Aventura Segura is not illegal because it is not compulsory. ABETA also states it is an exemplar program as the institution is now leading the ISO (International Organization for Standardization) group for adventure tourism. As New Zealand is known as the world’s ultimate adventure destination, it was selected for comparison. The main difference between the two countries is that in New Zealand not the sports bodies, but recreation and education entities are the ones disputing the regulation with tourism. However, in this case, a joint initiative in 2004 created Outdoorsmark, a non-statutory national program. Although, the educational approach did not prevent a series of fatal accidents, culminating with 21 reported deaths between 2004 and 2009. In 2008, a seven fatal canyoning and the international repercussion of an English tourist death led the Prime Minister to call a regulation review. It found that having a high number of entities proposing varied models of regulation left gaps for operating under optimal safety guidelines. This finding resulted in compulsory registration of companies and auditing every three years taking effect after November of 2014. We conclude that as a hybrid sector, a public policy for the risk control has to consider the different agents in negotiation (tourism, sports, recreation and education) since its conception, otherwise collaboration becomes very uneasy and instead of complementing, the initiative of one can difficult the other, losing lives and sector’s credibility.

Open Seas, Closed Borders: Critical reflections on risky mobilities and the contradictory rights to/of tourism

Raoul Bianchi, M. L. Stephenson University of East London United Kingdom [email protected]

Mobility, and in particular the freedom of movement and travel, arouses a multitude of representations and is expressed through a variety of ever changing discourses ranging from adventure and hedonism through to education, self-awareness, cosmopolitanism and indeed, global citizenship. However, recent tragic scenes in the Mediterranean, of desperate migrants in rickety boats drowning in sight of beaches visited upon by millions of tourists each summer, bear witness to the growing structural divide that increasingly defines the 21st century, between the differential mobility empowerments of tourists and other mobile subjects lacking the ‘legitimate’ credentials to travel as well as the material power to do so. Such asymmetries of power as are reflected through the entitlement to travel (and to enter other states) are indicative of the many tensions and contradictions that define the freedom of movement and the right to travel, but have largely been ignored by the tourism academic community. This paper will therefore provide a brief review of the right to the freedom of movement and right to travel through the lens of the ideological and political forces shaping current flows of mobility and travel. In doing so it critiques the normative view of tourism as an apolitical phenomenon, constantly threatened by external forces of risk and insecurity, and challenges a number of axiomatic assumptions that frame contemporary understandings of tourism, in particular its relationship to notions of democratisation, ethics, cosmopolitanism and global citizenship. That is not to argue that tourism entails no risk whatsoever, nor that we should easily dismiss the aspirations towards a world in which there is universality of access to and equality of participation in international travel. Rather it will argue that there is a political and moral imperative to interrogate the principles and forces on which such rights are premised, in a world increasingly defined by resource conflicts and violent inequalities of mobility. In doing so, it asks how or indeed, whether tourism can disentangle itself from such contradictions and whether tourists can truly ever become global citizens.

Recent “touristification” trends in a Lisbon historic quarter: challenges and opportunities

Inês Boavida-Portugal, Luis Boavida-Portugal, Marilisa Coelho Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning, Universidade de Lisboa Portugal [email protected]

In recent years, Lisbon hotels have been following the trend of higher categories (4* and 5* hotels) and the adaptive re-use of old buildings with heritage value, usually located in central historic areas. These trends represent a substantive change to the existing universe, which is dominated by hotels of medium / low categories, built from scratch. However, despite the opportunities and recognition of value by visitors, the historic areas of inner Lisbon face opposing urban dynamics, tourist appropriation living with the deterioration of the built environment and with demographic and functional collapse. Although there is no consensus in urban sciences on the effects of tourism in historic areas, several authors (Ashworth, Tunbridge, 2000; Orbasli, 2000) argued for the sector's contribution to the revitalization process and for providing the opportunity for rehabilitation of the built heritage. Some prudential criticisms on the pressure of tourism on urban heritage and the local society, although justifiable in extreme cases, do not take into account the dynamic nature of urban areas, and are even less understandable when historic centers threaten to lose all urban life. In these situations, the role of value generating catalysts such as tourism is especially important. In that context, it is curious to note that, after the general decrease in the resident population of Lisbon in 2001, there are signs of a population recovery in the parish of S. Nicolau – Baixa

Pombalina (historic quarter) – in the provisional results of the 2011 Census: from 1448 inhabitants in 1991, to 1175 in 2001 and to 1500 in 2011. There are many are hotels and hostels in Baixa, but tendentiously the accommodation supply deviates unfavorably from the profile of Lisbon hotel offer. If we consider the higher categories (4 and 5*) the percentage in Baixa is less than 2% of the total city. The actual trend, points out to a pattern change pointing to a future role of Baixa as a top-level hotel location in Lisbon. This scenario leads us to question if Baixa is at a crossroad towards tourism-led revitalization? This revitalization can be seen has touristification? In the sense that the growth in supply leads to more tourists, to the attraction of other tourism related businesses, bigger pressure in local resources, leading also to strong social impact on residents daily life. This paper discusses the challenges, risks and opportunities that arise from the scenario of the “touristification” of Baixa, based on statistical indicators and relating them to social conflicts that might arise with local population that sees tourists as incompatible agents in their daily routines.

Threats in coastal touristic areas: Ria Formosa and Costa de Caparica, Portugal

Inês Boavida-Portugal, Márilisa Coelho, Carlos Cardoso Ferreira, José Manuel Simões Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning, Universidade de Lisboa Portugal [email protected]

Coastal zones have a wide variety of assets providing opportunities for wealth creation and quality of life enhancement. The Portuguese coastal zone is no exception and has promoted, over the centuries, the setting of urban areas and economic activities throughout its length, making it a premier venue for recreation and leisure, and a vital means for shipping and trade. As a consequence, coastal managers have to respond to several issues, such as: i) the demand for housing and infrastructure that results in land pressure; ii) the balance between economic growth and environmental protection, and; iii) the social balance between locals and migrants. The lack of responsiveness to these issues is itself a threat to the sustainability of such tourist areas. Conflicts may arise from natural resource management and tourism development, concerning resources, and actors that want to make use of them. These problems are often related to risks derived from physiographic dynamics, erosion and vulnerability and the mitigation of anthropogenic actions. Thus, management of natural and tourist resources handles conflicting interests among the various stakeholders. This variation in resource use makes it possible to categorize conflict nature according to themes: a) Economic development (industrial development, tourist industry, harbor restructuring, marina construction) vs. Environmental protection (creation of protected areas); b) Preservation of natural areas and biodiversity vs. protection of urban areas facing risks; c) Divergences in the use of existing resources between residents and visitors. Not addressing these problems results in the emergence of misunderstandings and conflicts. These conflicts can be both between: i) authorities that many times have overlapping domain areas and different objectives and visions, and/or; ii) between authorities and local residents who see themselves many times as victims with no right to speak for their opinions and needs in politics, management, and implementation of actions. The conflict in Costa da Caparica reveals a clash between economic development and environmental protection, notably regarding projects planned to enhance tourism and minimize effects of coastal erosion vs. residents and users of the area. Hence, most conflicts are linked to resident´s access to their homes, relocation, and fears of change planned for that area. Concerning the conflict in Ria Formosa relates with the preservation of natural sites and biodiversity, where strong contestation is voiced by the residents and users of the barrier islands. Here, residents believe they have the right to keep their homes even if some of them were built illegally and now endangered by natural hazards; therefore, they contest the authority of the Environmental Agency to proceed with the planned demolitions in the area. This paper presents a case study research developed under the project SECOA – Solutions for Environmental Contrasts in Coastal Areas (7th Framework Programme Project n°: 244251 FP7-ENV.2009.2.1.5.1). Here, we will discuss two case studies where threats and conflicts were identified and discussed with stakeholders in an attempt to understand the dynamics

40 that were at the basis. The aim was to recognize what mistakes were made in order to better define future strategies for the sustainability of tourism development and resilience of these territories.

Destination networks as a tool for minimizing risk and improving the performance of destination

Markéta Bobková Masaryk University Czech Republic [email protected]

The aim of this research is to introduce tourism networks as a tool for minimizing risk and improving the performance in a tourist destination. It also characterizes other motives and factors leading to creating such types of collaborative relationships. Managing of tourist destination in the form of networks is considered as one of the possible approaches to destination governance structures (e.g. Pechlaner, Volgger and Herntrei, 2012). The concept of destination governance is based on cooperation between actors from the public and private sectors. Linkages between these stakeholders can be explored by interorganisational network theories (Alter and Hage, 1993). Nordin and Svensson (2007) explore the impact of governance on destination development and indicate that public–private relationships built on trust, joint risk taking and based on informal structures have a positive impact on the level of growth at a tourist destination. Wang and Fesenmaier (2006) say that crisis is one of the most important preconditions and network-oriented motivations for the tourism organizations to form collaborative relationships, especially when the crisis requires collective action. The submitted research investigates cooperation between the destination management organization (DMO), public sector and tourism firms in terms of potential risks and also reveals contributions and risks, which are derived from the DMO–firm collaborative relations. The theoretical part is based on a literature review and summarizes current knowledge describing destination networks in terms of approaches and research findings. The case study research was conducted as a part of current university research. It gives an account of the experience of the Czech Republic, or more precisely, of the most important stakeholders from East Moravia, one of the most developed tourist regions. The DMO, local and regional government, hoteliers and restaurant owners are the most important stakeholders The data collection was achieved by conducting in-depth interviews and structured questionnaires. The additional data was collected from sources, such as web sites, statistical analysis or databases of stakeholders. Snowball sampling was also employed as a tool for identification of the most important players and partners. The findings mainly focus on network-oriented motives of these stakeholders. The relationships between actors from the public sector are clearly based on trust and are mostly informal. The cooperation between these actors could be considered to be at a high level. The collected data and findings from the preliminary research also show the unwillingness of hoteliers and restaurant owners to cooperate with other segments interested in tourism in this region.

Tourism planning in riskscapes. A comparative analysis of Cinque Terre and Madeira island

Sara Bonati Università degli studi di Brescia Universidade da Madeira [email protected]

This research aims to discuss positive and negative incomes of the different practices of tourism in riskscapes. Moreover the impacts of disaster risk in tourism activities will be presented. According to the scientific literature, a riskscape is a landscape that lives a potential damage (Khan et al., 2012) as a consequence of the structural transformations that human activities left on the territory (Muller-Mahn, 2013).

The European Landscape Convention (2000) defines a landscape as the result of ecological, human and non-material (perceptive) components. The ways in which we relate with places determine the creation of different landscapes, in which different goals take shape. Natural elements influence and react to human behavior (and vice-versa) in a complex system of relationships that produces changing landscapes. Accordingly, we can have resilient and sustainable landscapes or vulnerable landscapes. Thus, riskscapes are vulnerable landscapes, according to their geophysical characteristics and poor relationship between nature and society. Indeed disasters are actually result of conflictuality between nature and society, via which changes are produced and the characteristics and equilibria of a place are transformed (Khan and Crozier, 2009). An other relevant characteristic of riskscapes is their perceptual dimension. Low levels of community perception and participation are co-responsible for riskscapes building. Thus, a riskscape is also the product of the dominant perception and representation of a place. One of the main activities that influences the evolution of landscapes is tourism. The impact of tourism in local political choices is relevant. Moreover, tourism industry has an important role in the construction and representation of the image of places. Therefore, an analysis of the relationship between tourism planning and risk (de)construction is needed. Accordingly, two case studies will be presented: Cinque Terre in Italy and Madeira island in Portugal. Both the case studies have lived strong landscape transformations due to tourism. Today tourism is the main local income. However Cinque Terre and Madeira island are also potentially dangerous landscapes that experience frequent hazards, such as floods, mudslides, landslides, and fires. In particular in February 2010 the island of Madeira lived a devastating flood as a consequence of a long period of rains, followed in 2011 by a similar episode in Cinque Terre. However, these disasters aren’t only due to climatic and geophysic dynamics, as well as the perpetuation of bad landscape management practices. In particular, processes as the dismemory of disasters, the abandonment of traditional practices, as well as the economic and urbanization choices have increased the level of disaster risk in the two regions. This risk condition is putting in danger not only the survival of world cultural heritages but also the future of tourism in the two regions. To conclude, this work aims to present "good practices" of tourism experimented in the two regions. These practices are relevant examples of resilience implementation, as well as components of a local disaster risk reduction strategy.

The Shadow of Terrorism in the World Tourism Industry: Impacts, prevention, and recovery strategies

Maria Brás Universidade do Algarve - ESGHT Portugal [email protected]

The Shadow of Terrorism in the World Tourism Industry: Impacts, prevention, and recovery strategies. The main purpose of this abstract is to identify the impacts and appropriate measures to prevent potential attacks, or minimize the risk of an attack in tourist destination. Terrorism has been growing in the shadow of unpredictability, however, is possible to minimize the danger of a terrorist attack by doing the: (1) recognition; (2); evaluation; (3) avoidance; (4) threat reduction. The vulnerability of tourism industry to terrorism is an undeniable fact, and terrorists know it. They use this advantage attacking tourists for very specific reasons, such as the: (1) international coverage by the media, “if it bleeds it leads” ; (2) chances of getting different nationalities at the same place and time; (3) possibility of destroyed the economy of a destination, or destinations (“terrorism contamination effect”), through the reduction of tourist demand; (4) psychological, and social disruption based on fear of negative consequences. Security incidents, such as terrorism, include different preventive measures that can be conducted in partnership with: tourism industry (hotels, airports, tourist attractions, among others); central government; public and/or private sector; local community; and media. The recovery strategies must be based on the dissemination of positive information to the media; in creating new marketing strategies that emphasize the

42 social and cultural values of the destination; encourage domestic tourism; get government, or state, financial support.

Factors contributing to the sustainability of bicycle tourism: A literature review

Maria João Carneiro, Helena Albuquerque, Zélia Breda, Celeste Eusébio, Filomena Martins University of Aveiro Portugal [email protected]

In the last decades there has been a growing interest in forms of sustainable mobility in the context of tourism. Bicycle tourism has become an important tourism market segment that has possibly been increasing due to the growing awareness regarding sustainable development. The sustainability of bicycle tourism requires the simultaneous satisfaction of all the stakeholders involved and the preservation of all the endogenous resources of tourism destinations. The identification of factors that may contribute to the sustainability of bicycle tourism is of utmost importance to decrease the risks associated to the tourism development process. The use of bicycle as a mean of transport in tourism trips may contribute to decrease some environmental negative impacts of tourism on destinations, namely noise pollution and CO2 emissions. Moreover, this activity may generate important health benefits to bicycle tourists. However, it is important that this activity is developed in appropriate facilities – e.g. bicycle routes – to minimize the risk of accidents. The economic sustainability of some destinations may be also dependent on the destinations’ ability to appeal to tourism market niches such as bicycle tourists who greatly appreciate the contact with nature. This paper aims to identify the factors contributing to the sustainable development of bicycle tourism that have been analyzed in the literature published. In order to achieve this objective, a search in the SCOPUS database, using as searched keywords “bicycle” and “tourism” in the title, abstracts or keywords, was undertaken. In this search, carried out in March 2015, 38 papers were identified. More than 52% of these papers were published after 2010, revealing a growing interest in this field of research. Australia and Taiwan emerge as the countries where more research has been undertaken. The major interests of the researchers seem to be associated with the creation of facilities to be used by bicycle tourists – e.g. bicycle trails, GIS databases – and with the evaluation of the attractiveness of bicycle tourism destinations. Sustainability is a widely neglected topic in most of the papers. However, several papers focus issues that are somehow related to sustainability, namely the relationship between bicycle tourism and some dimensions of the sustainable development – the environmental, social and economic dimensions. In the environmental domain some studies analyze the environmental impacts of bicycle tourism and the effect of weather in the practice of this activity. As far as the social dimension is referred, the impact of bicycle tourism on health, specifically the injuries provoked, are the most mentioned issue. The economic value of the bicycle tourists has also been partially analyzed in some studies revealing that these tourists spend considerable amounts of time and money in destination areas. Other components of the social dimension, such as the tourists’ interactions with local communities and the political dimension (e.g. governance) are largely ignored. The analysis of these papers enables to detect gaps in the literature regarding the sustainability of bicycle tourism that should be overcome to ensure the successful development of this activity in the long run. Therefore, based on the results of this paper, new important routes of research in this field are identified in order to increase the sustainability of bicycle tourism, by maximizing its benefits and minimizing the risks associated to negative tourism impacts.

Risk management in canyoning: the case of the Canyoning International meeting in Azores

Maria do Céu Almeida, Francisco Silva ESHTE Portugal [email protected]

In many small island states with relatively uncompetitive economies and unspoiled natural environments tourism is often assumed as an important development opportunity. In islands located in temperate and cold regions tourism attractiveness needs to be sustained by niche products associated with outdoor, adventure or cultural tourism, and direct encounters with nature (Baldacchino, 2006; Silva, 2013). Nature-based tourism can lead to a strategic position but quality and differentiation are key aspects to ensure competitiveness. The Azores are a recent nature tourism destination with a strong and positive image associated with nature. The tourism development strategy focuses largely in nature tourism niches and differentiation factors are positive to tourism development in the territory. Canyoning is one of the many nature and adventure activities of great interest in the Azores. It has been under development during the last decade, and more than one hundred and twenty routes are equipped especially in two islands – Flores and S. Jorge. These islands have a small demand and significant seasonality; adventure tourism can contribute to the increase of visitors and reduce seasonality. In this paper, the strategy for the development of this nature and adventure product is presented and the canyoning international meeting is analysed as an event designed for the promotion of the destination as an excellence territory for canyoning. Given the nature of the activity, the characteristics of the territory, local conditions and specific risk factors, ensuring the required levels of safety is a challenge as it is for many outdoor adventure events. The paper describes and discusses the risk management methodology, identifying relevant risk dimensions for the event, taking into consideration actions implemented previously as well as during and after the event. Results of a survey applied to the participants and of interviews to team members involved in the event risk management are also presented. Results are discussed taking into account not only the risks identified for the event but also for canyoning activity in these islands as well.

Environmental risks vs. tourism attractiveness: conflicts and synergies in the Alentejo coast, Portugal

Marilisa Rodrigues Coelho, Inês Boavida-Portugal, Carlos Cardoso Ferreira, José Manuel Simões, Jorge Umbelino Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning, Universidade de Lisboa Portugal [email protected]

This paper discusses the results of an analysis conducted during the preparation of the “Strategic Operational Plan for the Sun and Sea tourism product in Alentejo coast” (2014- 2015). These two sessions were attended by representatives of the 5 coastal municipalities, tourist accommodation units, entrepreneurs from restaurants, tourism recreation, beach concessionaires, and events operators. The dynamic workshops essentially aimed at: a) the mobilization of local actors towards the plan; b) the gathering of information from different stakeholders; c) discuss strategies and intervention proposals. The Alentejo region has an extensive coastline with great scenic and environmental value, which constitutes a strategic tourism resource for the region and for the country. However, this coastline accommodates a number of environmental risks with differentiated territorial expression and intensity, which mind to consider: susceptibility to desertification, droughts and floods, fire hazard and seismic risk, the indentation of the coast line and erosion, as well as the risk associated with transport of hazardous materials. The diversified and extensive use of the coastal zone has allowed a certain disregard regarding areas that carry potential risks for users. As an example, we highlight the intensive used bathing beaches in the vicinity the Port and Refinery of Sines, as well as the existence

44 of a high number of unsupervised beaches, many times embedded in unstable cliffs which are a great attraction, due to its isolation and wild atmosphere. One of the outputs of the workshops sessions was the spatial identification of sites with major and minor tourist attraction ability, as well as the places with most attractive potential. Keeping in mind the known natural and technological hazards map for the region, it was possible to assess the spatial coexistence of risk with areas considered more or less attractive for tourism by local stakeholders. We also take the opportunity to discuss local planning and tourism development strategies and how they consider and act on the identified risks. The quality, diversity and preservation of the natural and tourism resources of the area are highly attractive elements for tourists, who are more informed, more aware, more demanding and more experienced. Thus, proper planning and management of environmental risks in the Alentejo destination must be one purpose to achieve.

Risk of Climate Changes and Coastal Erosion in tourist destinations

Guilherme Debeus University of Lisbon Portugal [email protected]

Coastal zones are characterized as strategic areas in the relationship between the terrestrial and marine environments, with intense physical, ecological and social relationship. These environments are exposed to multiple natural hazards that combined with the social and economic vulnerability increases the risk potential of these areas. The high concentration population in these regions and the diverse economic activities such as tourism, aggravating the already susceptible natural trasnformações this region. The tourism in coastal areas are encouraged by its scenic attractiveness, but besides tourism coastal areas have sources of wealth linked to the primary sector (95% of fishing comes from these areas, oil exploration) and secondary (industrial, port, among other). Thus, it appears that coastal areas represent areas of multiple interests and conflicts, with great vulnerability and in many cases under multiple risks. The relationship between coastal areas and tourism is quite narrow and existed for many years, with a very symbiotic economic activity. Various tourist segments such as sun and beach, nautical tourism, sports tourism among others is dependent coastal areas and in many cases these regions become economically dependent on tourism. The World Tourism Organization, through its agenda, demonstrates concern about the impacts by the activity and the relationship with climate change. Coastal areas with intensive tourism also face the risk related to coastal erosion processes as that in some cases have direct influence on the quality and "physical space" for the tourism. Coastal erosion events are arguments for defense interventions of the coastline and these interventions may represent good opportunities or increase the risk to tourism in these areas This study presents a risk assessment based on the IPCC projections and the opportunities and threats for tourist activity in coastal areas in a Climate Change scenario.

The Agritourism in Italy. Implications for agritourism development in Campania

Veronica Di Caprio, Valentina Della Corte, Peter Wiltshier Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II Italy [email protected]

Agritourism, as well as being a direct result of the rediscovery of the natural environment, arises as a new mode of tourist use, able to respond to the desire of man to approach a lifestyle different from the everyday. The agritourism sector in Italy has been a growing interest in recent years. The aim is to analyse the agritourism supply in Campania in relation to the land resources, and the main factors which may affect the possibility of success for agritourism entrepreneurs and outline the risk that such stakeholders face. The study is

45 divided into three parts. The first part presents definition of agritourism. The second part presents an overview of this phenomenon in Italy, analysing some official statistic data and details the risks to be managed. The final part examines agritourism in Campania, focusing on considerations and perspectives of development of rural tourism in the territory. Agritourism in Campania, thanks to its ability to enhance the resources of the agriculture and the area surrounding it, will continue to be, even in the medium term, a successful solution. The average quality of the offer is already good, but widespread deficiencies remain in managing the business, especially with regard to promotion. Agritourism is not an easy business; it can never replace farming. Entrepreneurs must learn to offer professional and qualified welcome to the guests, even when these are small family businesses. The future is therefore related to the ability to make an integrated offer to the consumer. Management must be based on clear and shared assumptions: • territorial development and activation of synergies with the various tour operators operating in the area; • expansion of the range of services offered, characterised by uniform quality standards and firmly linked to cultural, environmental and craft resources; • training of entrepreneurs and operators. An example of management integrated is “La rete del gusto”. This project is sponsored by the Province of Lucca (Tuscany) in collaboration with other organisations. Main objectives are the promotion of local products and the establishment of a network between farmers and artisan, restaurants and agritourism. The strategy is to promote not only the sale and consumption of local products, but also the exchange of ideas, information, mutual advertising, based on knowledge between members of the network. Another example isthe project Agrical, in the province of Bergamo (Lombardia). The aim is to promote tourism as a model closely related to agriculture. For this reason the companies involved are agritourism, places where good food is combined with the beauty and uniqueness of the territories. Agrical overcomes the logic of competition, and focuses on a view of network to enhance identity and typicality of the territory and the preservation of the natural environment. Finally, it is considered appropriate to highlight how agritourism delivers both public and private benefits through business strategy. Agritourism, by its nature, creates links with different realities and is a part of new commercial channels. The exercise of the activity cannot therefore disregard a comprehensive view of enterprise (landscape protection, organic farming, local products, etc.) and high levels of managerial skills.

Online Vacation Rentals engagement: Tourist and Owners Algarve representation

Joana Afonso Dias INUAF Portugal [email protected]

The Algarve is very well positioned in vertical social networks, particularly in the online vacation rental segment. This research assesses the potential of new forms of distribution and promotion of online vacation rentals, as the way to minimize the unknown risk the rental market comprises. Social exchange theory supports our understanding regarding the construction of social representations shaped on one-to-one relations established between owners and tourists. Social representations of properties, investment decisions and tourist experiences are explored in order to characterize the owner-tourist engagement. This research is exploratory in its essence and attempts to enrich the level of knowledge of this long tail market through the analysis of content and descriptions posted an online platform – ownersDirect about the Algarve destination. Textual analysis is used to explore these testimonies and descriptions, including the use of a corpus linguistics software program (NVivo v.10).This vacation rental platform is firmly embedded in a culture of connectivity, sharing contents based on the sense of achievement of mutual benefits. The qualitative feedback from our study reaffirms that the Algarve’s sense of place is a non-static concept. The results suggest that togetherness, relaxation, continuity and place attachment are the most highlighted points when announcing or giving testimony about properties in the Algarve properties. Tourists and owners “identified” along this research were mostly foreign citizens, most of them from Anglo-Saxon countries. The collaboration and the innovative use of online vacation rentals facilitate a new positioning of the destination that may be adopted to

46 redefine Algarve strategies and create guidelines for new strategies to minimize the risk of choosing a property instead of a brand recognized hotel. This research demystifies a new market trend in tourism that is still engrained in some prejudice and unsafety.

Ups and downs of Italian tourism. The unusual case of the city of Naples

Martina Fariello, Valentina Della Corte, Peter Wiltshier Federico II University of Naples Italy [email protected]

This report is focused on the phenomena of tourism in Italy, especially in the recent years characterized by a strong and violent economic crisis, particularly how tourism is organized in a city of the Italian region Campania: Naples. In Italy, there is a possibility to do a different kind of tourism: seaside tourism, mountain tourism, tourism of art, history and archeology tourism, food and wine tourism. There are a lot of famous cities, like Rome, Venice and Florence that every year attract a lot of tourists. The article focusses on Naples, a city of 970,000 people, situated in Campania, a region in the South of Italy. In Naples there are a lot of local ‘potential’ attractions. There are archeological sites (Ercolano and Pompei are famous in the world), there is the sea, history, good and traditional food, good weather. The risk is that these ‘potential’ attractions are not well organized by the government, the private and public sector and by local people (host community) too. The aim of this article is to analyze the “case of Naples”, try to outline which are the strengths and weaknesses of the city and how the city can improve both its attractiveness and competitiveness. The objectives are to understand why Naples is attractive, why it may compete in the future, how it may minimize the risk of increased tourism and potential unsustainable growth and who it can attract. So, the aim of the work is to suggest that, with a restructure of the local offer, it will be possible to improve the quality of tourism in the city of Naples and it will be possible to attract new visitors, from alternative segments and the possible relationship between host community and guest community. The work is divided in two parts. The first one is an overview of Italian tourism; the second part, that is the principal part, concerns the specific opportunities and barriers of Neapolitan tourism. The report gives some first important hints to improve Neapolitan tourism trying to enrich the contents of managerial approach. Precisely, through an accurate literature review, that the most important key outcomes suggest an revaluation of the city of Naples through promotion and advertising campaign, a more deep collaboration between public and private sector and an expansion the tourism offer, valorizing the most important resources of the city of Naples. Some specific actions are described to improve tourism in Naples, such as the organization of performances on one of the main streets of Naples and such as the organization of new events (for example the "Street Food Festival") that enhance the Neapolitan territory and the Neapolitan resources, increasing the number of tourists in Naples.

Vulnerability, built heritage and heavy-rains: a case study from Madeira Island

Filipa Fernandes Instituto Superior de Ciências Sociais e Políticas Portugal [email protected], [email protected]

Last years were rich in natural events (heavy rains) that affected not only the tourism industry but local communities. The levadas, a secular built heritage (water canals), now transformed into the biggest touristic atraction of Madeira island (hiking trails), are repeatedly damaged due to heavy rains causing big problems that affects stakeholders, regional government and local communities.Using the ethographic method this study intends to analyse the relations between tourism, actors and climate change. Specifically the vulnerability of tourism spaces (hiking trails) focusing on risk and (in)security.

Tourism in Lisbon’s Historical Gardens – strategies to safeguarding the heritage

Diogo Fonseca, Inês Fontes Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning, Universidade de Lisboa Portugal [email protected]

A garden is a testimony of a culture, a style, an age and, often, to the originality and imagination of an artist (The Florence Charter, article 5th). Therefore it is considered a natural and cultural heritage with touristic potential. As a leisure perspective or for cultural and scientific reasons, gardens are niches of tourist attractiveness. Visitors look for unique spaces, with character, history, botanic wealth. There is a set of tourists who choose destinations to know remarkable gardens as main purpose. Garden tourism, considered a niche tourism, is already identified as a phenomenon of international relevance (Silva, 2013). Madeira Island is a good example but there is still much to explore in regards to garden tourism in mainland Portugal. This is applied not only with the inclusion of gardens in the main tourist routes or creating specific routes, but also in the implementation of some safeguarding measures for a better adaptation to a higher tourism capacity. In Portugal the number of tourists visiting gardens is growing. For example, Lisbon’s Historical Garden visitor numbers between 2010 and 2013 increased 240%. As the Florence Charter denotes in its 18th article, "while any historic garden is designed to be seen and walked about in, access to it must be restricted to the extent demanded by its size and vulnerability, so that its physical fabric and cultural message may be preserved”. Thus, in this study, it is proposed an analyses of the density of visitors in two Lisbon historic gardens: the Botanical Garden of Ajuda (1768) and the Botanical Garden of the University of Lisbon (1878). This last one was projected as an expansion of the first and both portray themselves as spaces of visitation per excellence, but also as privileged educational resources. The analysis is divided into two parts. The first is a recognition of both gardens as generators of tourism flows by checking the number of visitors and the identification of the weaknesses of the gardens in terms of preservation or visitation experience; the second phase is the mapping of densities of visitors in different areas of the gardens. The resulting density maps will enable the creation of specific strategic measures of protection and conservation for the garden areas with higher human pressures.

Community perceptions of the environmental impacts of tourism: the case of Aït Bouguemmez, Morocco

Elsa Correia Gavinho Instituto de Geografia e Ordenamento do Território, Universidade de Lisboa Portugal [email protected]

Tourism environmental impact is one of the essential issues in tourism studies. However, studies are usually conducted from the point of investigator view, defining a gridline and identifying in advance the impact type. Although environmental impacts of tourism are not a new subject, it is more common to write about de negative impacts than the positive. In this study the centre of attention is on the local community and in what is perceived by them about tourism environmental impacts. This paper examines the local community perceptions toward environmental impacts of tourism in Aït Bouguemmez valley. This community is located in the heart of the Hight Atlas, one of the largest mountains of Morocco, in a Berber region where the traditional features of community life and rural economy remain largely alive. Households are based on the direct exploration of local natural resources and their social organization and regulation are inherited from the tribal past. However, in the last decades tourism became an important part of local economy and a component of life in the valley that induced some changes in local lifestyles and landscape. With a focus on a qualitative approach and using the Social Representations Theory as a framework, 48 semi- structured interviews and 23 unstructured interviews with local people with or without professional involvement in the field of tourism were conducted, as well as the observation of

48 daily lives of the residents. The interviews were analysed using the NVivo10 software and the findings revealed that the Aït Bouguemmez community perceptions, toward tourism environmental impacts, are linked with positive aspects. Findings also suggest that who are involve with tourism are more sensitive for environmental issues and main perception is that tourism has been contributing to the development of the environmental awareness of the local population. This study contributes to the scientific literature about community perceptions on environmental tourism impacts in the global south mountains. This study can also be seen as one of the appropriate tourism impacts studies that can capture how local mountain communities view environmental impact in many aspects. Community benefits from tourism activity are more than economic and this study show one of this examples. This type of positive impacts should be considered in future studies on environmental impacts of mountain tourism and are important to consider in tourism planning, on this territories.

Purchasing Hotel Services Online: What Makes it so Risky?

Anderson Gomes de Souza, André Silva; Maria de Lourdes Barbosa Universidade Federal de Pernambuco Brazil [email protected]

Introduction: Tourism product buying process, such as hotel services, is surrounded by risks. This occurs largely due to the intrinsic characteristics of the industry itself, particularly concerning the lack of physical evidence of the product offered. It is well known, however, that not only the aspect of 'intangibility' makes it impossible for the consumer to assess the quality of these sort of services, but the means used for the purchase transaction may hinder the consumption process, especially when it comes to the internet. This is because the lack of a traditional (physical) retail environment still causes discomfort in some people while purchasing tourism services, which increases their likelihood of perceiving risks in online transactions. Objective: Thus, this study aimed to investigate the extent to which the acquisition of hotel services via the internet can still be perceived as a risky practice, especially with regard to the Brazilian consumption market. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to propose a framework for the risks perceived in the lodging sector, particularly regarding the e- commerce. Consequently, different consumer profiles were identified, and later associated with the main dimensions of risk pointed out by Forsythe and Shi (2003) as being determinants of purchase behaviours in the digital environment: (1) Product Performance Risk, (2) Financial Risk, (3) Psychological Risk and (4) Time/Convenience Risk. Methods: This research is characterized as a descriptive transversal study whose development was performed on the basis of data collected through an online survey, carried out with a non-probabilistic sample of Brazilian hotel services consumers. During the period data were collected, approximately two months, a total of 300 participants accessed the survey’s webpage and filled in the study’s questionnaire individually. For that purpose, the snowball sampling was employed, which means that participants’ social networks were the main sources for recruiting new participants to the study. Analyzes: Data analysis was performed based on the Preference Ranking Organization Method for Enrichment Evaluation – PROMETHEE (Brans & Mareschal, 2002). Therefore, different consumer profiles came up from the respondents’ answers regarding their perception of risks in the acquisition of hotel services through the virtual environment. Thus, an overclassification tool was used to create a matrix of decision-making process based on the relations between the alternatives (profiles) and criteria (dimensions) investigated. In order to shed light on those possible relations, the multicriteria PROMETHEE II was employed which, according to Almeida (2013), is such an effective option for generating a complete pre-order of the examined alternatives by using the preference (P) and indifference (I) threshold. At the same time, the weights assigned to each of these criteria were obtained by applying a SMARTER method, which consisted in ranking the criteria according to the importance demonstrated by the decision makers, herein represented by the consumers surveyed, whose relative significance was considered based on the Rank Order Centroid – ROC (Gomes et al., 2009).

Results: By comparing risk dimensions (generally associated with online hotel services buying process) with the reasons pointed by consumers for not engaging on a purchase behaviour, some relevant decision making criteria were revealed. Hence, data analyzed led to the proposition of four distinctive consumer profiles: the 'anxious', whose stress and anxiety levels tend to be increased as a result of the decision making process engagement; the 'distressed', who believes that the choice of a hotel service online can lead to bad outcomes; the 'insecure', who does not demonstrate confidence to cope with uncertainties embedded in the choice of a hotel service over the internet; and the ‘frightened’, who admits that the choice of a hotel service in the virtual environment is totally risky. Furthermore, the results also indicated that, according to each of the aforementioned profiles, consumers tended to be affected by the perception of risks in different ways, as follows: the 'anxious' showed a greater concern for the Product Performance Risk and the Psychological Risk; the 'distressed' showed a greater concern for the Financial Risk; the 'insecure' showed a greater concern for the Time/Convenience Risk; and, finally, the ‘frightened’ was the only profile of consumer who demonstrated to be affected greatly by all the four previous dimensions (Product Performance Risk, Psychological Risk, Financial Risk and Time/Convenience Risk). Implications: The results of this study contribute to a better understanding regarding the risks perceived in online services purchases. Thereby, it enhances Bauer’s pioneer theories (1960) by proposing a framework that clarifies some current issues concerning the relations between risk perception and virtual hotel services acquisition. For those firms that currently operate in the e-commerce, or even those ones intending to adopt it in order to bond with customers, this study provides insights that help identify different profiles of consumer who might perceive risks in the purchase of hotel services via internet. Furthermore, the dimensions of risk that most affect them were also explored. This knowledge is of relevance once it may help companies develop specific risk reduction strategies for this sort of operation (virtually), thus, providing their customers with greater levels of security and reliability. Therefore, the insights of this paper might support lodging firms (as well as the sector as a whole) with regard to improving their current e-commerce practices

Blame Games and Meaning Making: Influencing Decision-Making on Disasters for Tourist Destinations

Richard Gordon, Lee Miles Bournemouth University United Kingdom [email protected]

This paper explores in detail the debates on why and how the art of apportioning blame during and after disasters plays a key role in shaping the response and recovery phases of emergency management during crises and disasters with particular reference to tourist destinations. Scholars of tourism crisis management have consistently highlighted the important of the art of communication as a central feature of any successful tourism crisis management (Mistilis and Sheldon, 2005), especially when political instability also exists (Sonmez, 1998; Fletcher and Morakabati, 2008). Similar literature exists from the realms of international disaster management (Alexander, 2012; Coppola, 2011) with reference to handling disasters. Notions of blame are often central to how crisis and disasters are framed by crisis and emergency managers and shape interpretations of successful crisis and emergency managers in the aftermath of crisis and disaster events that affect the tourist industry. Yet, an integrated approach to understanding how blame issues affect the image of tourist operators and industries during and after the onset of crises and disasters remains largely under-researched. This paper seeks to explore the synergies between tourism crisis management and international crisis and disaster management perspectives in order to understand the importance of blame apportionment. First, the paper draws upon a document study of key documentation of, and commissioned by, key organisations such as the UN WTO and presents findings related to the key role of political communication at the nexus of crisis and disaster management and travel and tourism planning. Second, the paper seeks to examine the key linkages between the literature drawn from International Crisis Management (ICM) on ‘Blame Games’ and ‘Meaning-Making’ as political communication during and after

50 crisis management (Boin, ‘t Hart, Stern and Sundelius, 2005) in order to provide an integrated approach to understanding the degree to which ‘ blame games’ influence decision- making and perspectives on disasters relating to tourist destinations. The paper will be innovative in that this represents an innovative attempt to apply conceptual tools on Blame Games to tourism crisis management. Third, the paper – drawing upon empirical evidence from 2005 Hurricane Katrina and 2015 Nepal earthquake(s) - will discuss how the impact of past and continuing ‘blame games’ can influence the parameters of how tourist destinations are marketed and presented as ‘safe’ or ‘unsafe’ tourist destinations in the context of earthquakes and other natural disasters. By taking this approach the paper will seeks to enhance the connectivity of Blame Games techniques as a means of understanding how disasters and crises are framed does have major implications for whether tourist destinations are regarded as ‘risky’, influence practical determinations of threat and risk, and ultimately can determine profiles of tourist destinations as being ‘safe’ and ‘unsafe’. In addition, the paper will illustrate that Blame Gaming and Meaning Making can represent the key to effective communication not just for effective tourism crisis management but also in transforming reputations and profiles of tourist resorts during and after the impact of disaster or crisis events.

Destination management in crisis - the case study of the Czech Republic

Andrea Holesinska Masaryk University Czech Republic [email protected]

Destination management was considered as a mature form of managing a destination (Bieger, 1996). However, the strong process of globalisation and consolidation has made the concept of destination management transformed (Bieger, Laesser, & Beritelli, 2011). The cooperation among stakeholders is still the fundamental principal of destination management but its structure and strategy have totally changed. Regarding the strategy, the central point is the market and therefore destination management is focused on production and sales processes. Concerning the structure, changes are connected with the decentralization that is based on small and middle-sized entrepreneurs (a destination of community-type). In this context the most discussed issue is tourism destination governance (Beritelli, Bieger, & Laesser, 2007; Nordin & Svensson, 2007; Baggio, Scott, & Cooper, 2010; Pechlaner, Volgger, & Herntrei, 2012). Briefly described development of destination management is valid for highly-developed destinations, such as the Alpine regions. The completely different situation is in the Central Europe countries, e.g. the Czech Republic, Slovakia, or Slovenia, where the development was stimulated neither by the demand-side, nor by the market but by the political-economic preconditions (Holešinska, 2013). Through the case study of the Czech Republic, this paper presents how the external conditions influence the function of destination management, specifically the planning process and particularly the setting of the corporate strategy. Moutinho, Rate, and Ballantyne (2011) highlighted the importance of effective planning to cope with uncertainties. The current framework of the Czech tourism policy seems to be a risk (obstacle) for further development of destination management and thus it is up to the destination management organizations whether they can manage this process or stay balancing on the edge of precipice. The qualitative research included questionnaires and interviews and addressed all the destination management organizations (DMOs) that operated in the Czech Republic in the year of 2014. Totally, 42 DMOs (93 %) were examined. The study reveals that due to the external conditions the cooperation has the form of the partnership with informal relations. The structure is made up by a dominant unit, see a company-type destination (Bieger, Laesser, & Beritelli, 2011) and from the strategy point of view, the cooperation is more task- orientated with territorial and supply-side perspectives (Bieger, Laesser, & Beritelli, 2011).

Risk Hazard and Resilience to the Blue Economy - Environmental change , Malta and the Mediterranean Climate

Andrew Jones University of Malta Malta [email protected]

The paper aims to discuss and provide a contemporary review of current threats, hazards, risks and consequences of current environmental change (particularly climate change predictions) and in turn the impacts that this will have upon tourism destinations in Malta and the wider Mediterranean region and the policy options available to counteract predicted negative impacts post 2015. The paper reviews recent published research on the impacts of climate change and outcomes such as the physical erosion on coastal tourism infrastructures and, in turn, evaluates the broader consequences for the governance of tourism destinations. The validity and practicality of management options to tackle the complex nature and juxtaposition between tourism growth, environment and climate change and tourism destination management are considered, including an evaluation of management responses, the efficacy of local governance and consequent policy options and choices. The research methodology is primarily focused upon a qualitative evaluation of secondary data highlighting contextual issues from case studies drawn from different scientific, academic and media reports across the region. These are used to highlight and illustrate particular sensitive issues, growing trends and points for contention and hazard and how these in turn might relate to tourism in Malta and its future. Conclusions from the research aim to demonstrate and discuss the efficacy of current predictions and how tourism infrastructure and destination management issues should be tailored to more strategic policy responses from all key tourism and environmental stakeholders in both the private and public sectors. In this respect the paper highlights the current impasse between public perception and policy implementation which, to date, largely continues to ignore immediate threats and thus fails to provide adequate strategic management responses or responsible governance. In conclusion strategic and combined management strategies are considered and advocated for managing tourism destinations and for addressing the increasing demands from the often complex tiers of stakeholder groups that are represented. In this context implications are further drawn for the future prospects for tourism with the Maltese Islands.

The perception of risk as a determinant of destination choice processes

Marion Karl University of Munich Germany [email protected]

Destination choice processes are influenced by a variety of factors, among them risk. Risk- related factors lead to the rejection of a holiday destination at a certain stage of the destination choice process or the selection as final destination. The aim of this study is to better understand the role of risk and in particular of risk perception in the destination choice process. Past studies underline the importance of subjective perceptions of risks and state that these perceptions are often stronger influencing factors of destination choice than actual risk levels at a destination. One aspect of this study is to discover differences in the assessment of travel risk categories and in the perception of these factors as deterrents of destination choice. Another objective is to develop a travel risk tourist typology to explain variances in the importance of risk in destination choices. For this purpose, two quantitative surveys were conducted in Germany in 2013 (n = 835) and 2014 (n = 402) on German tourists’ risk perceptions and destination choice behaviour. Risk perception was analysed with items on risk avoidance, risk affinity, risk valuation and risk attribution to holiday destinations. Set theory was applied as a methodological tool to investigate destination choice as it concentrates on the process itself rather than on the outcome. This approach helps to identify reasons for the rejection of certain destinations during the process to clarify

52 the role of risk perception in destination choice. In order to analyse the different destinations mentioned in the survey, a destination index was developed based on the level of risk, uncertainty and insecurity towards a destination from a German tourists’ perspective. Furthermore, a cluster analysis of the respondents’ assessment of travel risk categories (i.e. natural disaster or catastrophes, health risks, political instability, criminality and terrorism) was conducted to reveal a tourist typology in regard to risk in destination choice. Information for example on social demographics, past travel behaviour and risk experience was gathered to obtain tourist profiles and to better estimate travel behaviour. The results of this study indicate that differences in the assessment of travel risks as influencing factors of destination choice can be related to attributes of destinations and tourists. Significant tourist characteristics are socio-demographic variables such as age or gender as well as travel behaviour variables such as travel organisation preference. For example, experience with a risky situation while travelling leads to a stronger influence of travel risks on destination choice. Tourists who do not involve travel risks in their destination choices tend to have a higher tendency to avoid risks and are more averse towards risks while travelling. However, these tourists value risks as important factors of their destination choices and do not consider destinations with a high level of risk in the late stages of the destination choice process. This study emphasises that research on risk as an influencing factor of destination choice should include destination as well as tourist attributes since destination choice is also a combination of both factors.

The geographical results of terrorist attacks on the French school trips

Xavier Michel University of Caen France [email protected]

This paper deals with the consequences of the terrorist attacks in January 2015 in Paris on the school trips. Precisely, fifteen interviews with French school trips operators have been realized. The aim is to know the shock of these attacks on the numbers, the programs and the calendar of the school trips. This aspect has already been analyzed for the international tourism (Arana & Leon, 2008) and about tourism in Norway (Wolff & Larsen, 2014). School trips are a particular form of travel, and even an educational form of tourism (Ritchie, 2003). We take an interest in the overnight school trips, because they imply confidence of parents and school authorities for leaving classes in motion, and they favor discover and autonomy of children for their future lives, in particular as future tourists. The French Ministry of Education made a very strict regulations in 1997, which led to plummet the school trips for a while (Chauvin, 2003). The first reason brought to the fore was the vulnerability of pupils who faces natural hazards, following two fatal accidents in the Alps. The school trips partially recovered in the 2000’s, but risks are imagined for them, due to the hazards of the world (especially terrorism), the parents’ lack of confidence and growing fear feeling. To take into account the risks as regards school trips, our approach is systemic. There is a spatiality of risk (November, 2006) which stretches from the travel (Guillard, 2005) and the places of stay and visit to the representations of risks by the decision-makers (school inspectors, teachers, parents) and other stakeholders, as insurance companies. We assume, following the thought about the subpolitics (Beck, 1986), the decision-makers interpret differently this regulation. To investigate the effects of this terrorist risk on the school trips, we face the difficulty of survey with schools and parents to learn the specific measures and uses taken in connection with every project. So we have chosen to carry out the research on two sources. Firstly, we compare the different measures taken by the local schools inspectorate with circulars. Secondly, we interviewed fifteen specialized operators and accommodations for school trips in two regions: Ile-de-France and Normandy, to compare the situations what was happening there during the two months following the attacks. We ask these school tourism professionals questions about the changes induced by the recent terrorist events, conducting short interviews to learn the variety of user reactions.

The terrorist attacks have led to reinforce the French security plan “Vigipirate”, to forbid the school mobility in and to the “Ile-de-France” area, and to limit this mobility from this area or through it up to March 2015. The Parisian accommodations have had to redirect their trade objectives and diversify their client base. But beyond the “Ile-de-France”, other travel bans or limitations have been decided. Moreover, cancellations or postponements of school trips occurred as an effect of the attacks media coverage, and parents call the accommodation of their children to feel reassured, even if the place was far from Paris. Parisian schools and operators were very impacted, just as providers who depend on Parisian schools, for example some accommodations for ski trips in the Alps. By contrast, operators and schools outside Paris managed to avoid Paris at the moment, both in terms of itineraries and destinations. After the crisis, a progressive easing occurred as regards the instructions of school mobility, and secondly, from March or April 2015, resilience be noticeable, with parents who regained more confidence to allow the departure of their children.

Integrating Crisis Management and Tourism? Key Roles for Policy Entrepreneurs and Entrepreneurial Resilience?

Lee Miles Bournemouth University United Kingdom [email protected]

Leading organisations such as the UN WTO, and influential scholars, such as, Hystad and Keller (2008), Ritchie (2008) and Faulkner (2000) have highlighted that the integration of the tourism sector within wider crisis and emergency management systems and organisations remains a constant challenge. Key scholars in tourism, such as Glaesser (2006), and Ritchie have also identified that crisis management shapes behaviours of individuals, businesses and tourism institutions. In addition, scholars of tourism innovation, such as, Hjalger (2010) and Lew, Hall and Williams (2014) have highlighted the importance of entrepreneurship and innovation in tourism. Yet, there remains much work to be done to connect these innovative works in tourism crisis management with the related fields of international disaster management and the works on international crisis management. This paper seeks to contribute to these debates by firstly, adding further conceptual tools to understand the continuity of these challenges and the key role of entrepreneurial behaviour in ensuring the functioning of tourism resilience systems during and after crisis; and secondly, to demonstrate that there is considerable further utility in exploring connectivity between works on tourism crisis management, disaster management and works on political entrepreneurship drawn from policy studies and political science. More specifically the paper is innovative in three ways. • First, and drawing upon a document study of key documents of for example, and commissioned by, the UN WTO, the paper identifies that the role of key agents and agency remains a critical feature both of a successful and resilient tourist industry and of effective disaster management both during and after a crisis or disaster event. Similar assessments are also evidence from the field of international disaster and crisis management (see Lansford, Covarrubias, Carriere and Miller, 2010). • Second, the paper argues that - at the heart of any successful integration of emergency management and tourism - lies a place for ‘Entrepreneurial Resilience’ (Miles and Petridou, 2015). More specifically, and drawing upon a nexus of literature from the realms of policy analysis, public policy and international relations around the concept of policy/political entrepreneurs (Mintrom, 2000; Narbutaite,-Aflaki, Petridou and Miles, 2015), the paper introduces new conceptual tools for understanding the role of agents and agency in crisis management in tourism under the rubric of ‘Entrepreneurial Resilience’ (Miles and Petridou, 2015). The paper in particular identifies innovation spaces within resilient and disaster management systems where key entrepreneurial leaders (Folke, Hahn, Olsson and Norberg, 2005) and policy entrepreneurs (Narbutaite-Aflaki, Petridou and Miles, 2015) exist and can innovate adapt emergency management to tourism needs. • Finally, the paper seeks to demonstrate the utility of these conceptual tools via the application to key empirical evidence, drawn from, for example, the 2005 Hurricane Katrina experience of New Orleans, 2010 Haiti Earthquake and the 2015 Nepal Earthquake experiences to demonstrate that any successful integration

54 of emergency and disaster management response and recovery necessitates effective participation from policy entrepreneurs based in the tourism sector.

Societal challenges regarding tourism and ageing: a meta-analysis for their relation with nature and health

Sara Maria Monteiro Duarte, Carlos Cardoso Ferreira University of Lisboa Portugal [email protected]

This paper is part of a broader research project aiming at trying to point out for the value of tourism as a cultural ecosystem service. More specifically the aim of this study is to convey if tourism can become a tool to prevent the increasing risk of senescence of elderly people. In Portugal 1/5 of the territory is dedicated primarily to nature conservation, and these places become highly appreciated for their landscape interest and biodiversity value (ICNF, 2015). Assuming an anthropocentric point of view, first used on the ‘Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Report’ (2005) addressing the different standardized and measurable services ecosystems provide to Mankind, in our research we highlight Cultural Ecosystem Services (CES). CES are relevant in this context because they include the access to tourism activities. We also know that looking at 2050 the age pyramid will depict a significant aging population. WHO even referred that by 2014 the percentage of adults above 60 years old will rise from 11% to 22%. So from a starting point of 605 million, the elder will then account for 2 billion people. This may represent a major challenge not only at a societal level but also at individual level. In fact, Governments will be responsible for creating strategies to address this tendency and we as individuals will be held accountable by these Governments and even by insurance companies to maintain ourselves healthier as long as possible. So with this research we are trying to contribute for the understanding and valuation of the inter- relations between Tourism (T) – Ageing (A) - Cultural Ecosystem Services (E) – Health (H). We aim to unveil if nature tourism can work as a prevention tool in what relates specifically to elderly people’s health. By doing an intensive analysis of the available bibliography we realised that the percentage of studies considering the intersection of the four vectors (Bird W. 2007, Uysal M., 2012) goes as low as 2.65%. Nothing compared to the amount of studies already conducted when we search for the dyads (AH – 16.81%; TA – 12.39%; TH – 8.84%) (Cuenca, 2014, Chen, 2014, Dolnicar, 2014), even when we are relating health and nature (10.61%) (Sandifer, 2015, Sahlin, 2014). But these results go dramatically down when we introduce the vector ‘Ecosystem’ to relate the vectors three on three. In fact we realised that while we can find a reasonable amount of research regarding T-A-H (9.73%) (Kim, 2015, Carretero, 2013), for T-H-E (Curtin, 2014), T-A-E (Moal-Ulvoas, 2014) and A-H-E (Hopkins, 2010) our results show a clear research gap, which needs to be addressed. In conclusion, ageing is by definition a challenging period and the progressive adaptation to new lifestyles is in order. The notion of time stretches and the propensity for traveling increases, so that tourism becomes an important activity for the elderly. It promotes well-being because it keeps people moving and provides a sense of fulfilment and escapism. But then other questions arise: what about nature? Are ecosystems able to promote health among this increasingly bigger age group? Is tourism addressing this challenge as well as it can? Further studies must be conducted.

Social and cultural effects of tourism

Abdullah Moradi Azad Iran [email protected]

Tourism is a phenomenon that deals with individuals and human’s stimulants, desires, needs and aspirations, which this items roots in society’s culture. The culture can explain the

55 nature, purposes, and structure of tourism through its powerful influences. However, Diversity of cultures is the main motivation for tourism. While tourists and hosts have different cultural and social patterns, and the interaction between their cultures and these patterns could happen through tourism. Therefore, these interactions among cultures and mutual social and cultural influence will be significant in societies. The main objective of this paper is to demonstrate and investigate tourism social and cultural effects on various cultures and tourist/host Societys. By a cognitive-analytical methodology, different aspects of tourism and hosting will be investigated to address this aim. The findings show the tourism has a significant role on cultural changes. As a result, tourism can promote and prevalence positive cultural elements, as well as, leads social problems in a certain culture.

The Ebola Virus Disease Epidemic (EVDE) and its Unexpected Effects on Tourism in The Gambia and Sierra Leone

Marina Novelli, Bieito Pedreira, Liv Burges University of Brighton United Kingdom [email protected]

The paper investigates the effects of the EVDE outbreak on the tourism sector in The Gambia and Sierra Leone. It investigates the paradox associated with the fact that, while, despite no EVDE cases recorded, Gambian tourism suffered from what we refer to as an ‘EVDE induced tourism crisis’ (overall 40% decrease in tourism arrivals in 2014/15 season overall), in Sierra Leone evidence of the sector’s resilience emerged as an unexpected outcome of the demand for accommodation and travel services by emergency workers. The paper reports empirical research conducted during and after the EVDE induced tourism crisis with key tourism stakeholders from both destinations (i.e. Tourism Development Area in The Gambia and the capital Freetown and other main touristic areas in Sierra Leone). The paper reflects upon the unexpected effects of the EVDE outbreak in the two destinations, While in The Gambia the lack of preparedness brought tourism 'on its knees', in Sierra Leone, evidence of private sectors’ resilience emerged. In the latter scenario, although initial findings indicated that the effects of the EVDE on tourism and the image of the destinations had been dramatic, with the number of tourists substantially decreasing during the outbreak, the presence of emergency workers contributed greatly to the resilience of the tourism and hospitality sector and in some circumstances even determined an increased benefit compared with previous years. Lack of preparedness and capacity to deal with the magnitude of the EVDE was highlighted as one of the major issues in both destinations and only recently a post-crisis recovery approach has been adopted by tourism officials, but uncertainty about the effect of the EVDE induced crisis and its duration remains. It is for this reason that this paper seeks to map possible actions required to set a short to long-term recovery strategy.

Risk-conscious Behaviour in Hungarian Travel Agency Sector

Zsófia Papp, Krisztina Priszinger University of Pannonia Hungary [email protected]

Travel agencies (both tour operators and retail agencies) face a permanent risk during their operation. The most visible risk taking behaviour is expected from the holiday tour operators, as for package organisation huge investment is needed to book the services. Even domestic tour operation can include risk factors, like safety problems or natural catastrophe. On the other hand the success of a small travel retail agency depends on the way how it can manage various risk factors. According to the results of a prior research on whether the agencies have risk strategies, it can be determined, that Hungarian travel agencies are on a low level at risk-conscious behaviour. Therefore the research had three questions: 1) Do

Hungarian travel agencies know what risks they are faced? 2) Are Hungarian travel agencies concerned with the potential risks? 3) Do Hungarian travel agencies have any action plan? A structured questionnaire was used to assess risk consciousness of travel agencies. Risk factors of travel agencies were identified and grouped, based on a previous survey in the same field among wellness hotels and several interviews with travel agency managers. Managers had to estimate probability and effect of all factors. Results have been analysing with SPSS and Excel. The aim of the research is to discover correspondence between risk- consciousness and portfolio of travel agencies, and identify the level of risk-conscious behaviour in Hungarian travel agency sector.

The Productive Avoidance of Conflicts in the Rewilding of Western Iberia

Arjaan Pellis Wageningen University The Netherlands [email protected]

This paper explores the persistent avoidance of conflicts in the landscape restoration of Western Iberia through ‘Rewilding’. The cross border nature conservation project of Western Iberia is envisioned along a Spanish/Portuguese borderland representing one of Rewilding Europe’s first pilot areas. This pilot aims to transform socio-economic deprived and abandoning (agri-) cultural landscapes into more productive landscapes with a large role for exclusive wilderness tourism, reintroductions of iconic wildlife and related return to Pleistoscene ecological conditions. The novel Rewilding futures represent an alternative economic vision for large parts of Europe’s countryside that is radically different from traditional and active land use practices. Rewilding nevertheless and unmistakably leads to a range of conflicting encounters in places where its visions need to become unfolded. In making Rewilding and related wilderness tourism a new opportunity for Europe’s countryside, a large variety of actors and their practices are required to align. At times this leads to up front confrontation or toleration of different practices. But more often do we also find careful avoidances of conflicts. This paper builds on a broader theorization of conflicts as performative processes that lead to interesting effects in the governance of conservation tourism. Conflicts are considered productive discourses that are performative as they become manifest, but possibly also when they are not. Here we explore the particular role of latent (potential) conflicts and their avoidance. This study discusses multiple potentially conflicting events that have been discussed since the early stages of Rewilding plans in Western Iberia around mid-2010. Observations are made in four different field visits to this pilot area that include open ended interviews and participant observations amongst Rewilding experts and local partner organisations, complemented with views from rural residents and tourism entrepreneurs. We argue that the potentiality of conflict and subsequent avoidance techniques has performative effects on the governance of Western Iberia. We highlight the in-/exclusion of actors, animals or whole villages, as well as the conscious/unconscious foregrounding/backgrounding of practices. Each avoidance mechanism is discussed in detail illustrating how conflict avoidance (co-)performs in the making of unique Rewilding landscapes that materialize not due of streamlined multi-actor alignment and collaboration, but especially because of complementary encounters with difference that typically are avoided. This study will contribute to recent broader discussions of landscape governance that overly emphasize win-wins through the bridging of multi- actor/level/scale collaborations, whereas such holistic perspectives tend to oversee an important role for non-collaboration or conflict. The study furthermore informs wider practical experimentation with Rewilding elsewhere that currently lacks a thorough understanding of critical governance mechanisms.

The measurement of perceived risks in tourism research

Laura Perpina Blanch, Lluis Prats Planaguma, Raquel Camprubi Subirana University of Girona Spain [email protected]

Tourism experiences are susceptible to risks and threats such as war, terrorism, crime, political instability, natural disasters and epidemic diseases (Sönmez and Graefe, 1998; Chew and Jahari, 2013) and tourists’ awareness of these events might raise the level of perceived risk for travel in general or in a particular destination (Fuchs, 2013). Understanding the factors contributing to the intention of people to travel abroad is important in an attempt to mitigate the negative effects of such events on tourism. Therefore, different types of risks can contribute in different ways to the intention to travel and to the formation of a destination image (Chew and Jahari, 2013). The concept of perceived risk in the tourism context is fairly extensive and it was pioneered by Rohel and Fesenmaier (1992). They identified three main dimensions of perceived risk, being physical-equipment risk, vacation risk and destination risk. Since then, a great number of different typologies of perceived risks have been introduced in the tourism literature (Tsaur et al., 1997; Sönmez and Graefe, 1998; Lepp and Gibson, 2003; Reisigner and Mavondo, 2006; Gary and Wilson, 2009; Park and Reisinger, 2010; Rittichainuwat and Chakraborty, 2013). In 2005, Dolnicar expressed the concern that standard risk typologies might not be the best option for perceived risk studies in the field of tourism. Simpson and Siguaw (2008) similarly expressed that researchers have identified traveler perceived risks a priori though investigations of other literatures or by logic rather than by empirical determination. Sharifpour et al., (2014) further pointed out that while some researchers have explored risk factors associated with travel in general, more recently, a number of researchers have understood that perceived risks may be associated when considering a particular destination. In this context, this study aims to explore the primary risk dimensions associated with international travelling to different regions of the world and to investigate if prior experience counters perceived risks. Respondents identify their own perceived risks in an international pre-trip context by means of a semi-structured questionnaire, which contains a wide list of perceived risks previously identified in the review of literature. Respondents will judge the importance of each risk factor using a seven-point Likert scale. Respondents are also asked to mention additional risks not listed before. Past international travel experience and socio-demographic characteristics are also included in the questionnaire. Hence, this study contributes to the literature by operationalizing the concept of perceived risks for further uses in its measurement in future related-research. In particular, it also contributes to understand what risks people associate to international travel as well as to expand the literature of the influence of past experience on perceived risks.

An introduction to the historical geography of tourism in the city of Porto

Jorge Ricardo Pinto Instituto Superior de Ciências Empresariais e do Turismo (ISCET) Portugal [email protected]

2011 marked the centenary of tourism in Portugal, while evoking the creation of the "Bureau of Tourism" during the IV International Tourism Congress. However, ever since the mid- nineteenth century, the city of Porto has been a well-known destination for many travellers, mostly from Northern Europe, particularly England, a country that had lent a broad community of residents to the city, mostly related to the Port Wine trade. During the sixties of the nineteenth century, the city of Porto grew a very intense set of infrastructural and cultural transformations that allowed the gradual transition from a pre-industrial society to a new social paradigm, based on an industrial logic already in place across a larger area of Western Europe. So, in that decade, Porto deeply changed its urban landscape, by building a set of large and symbolic buildings which transformed the visual scale of the city. Among these buildings of audacious architecture and, perhaps, excessive ambition, was a new

Customs house, built half over the river, half on top of a river beach, and a Crystal Palace, where the International Exhibition of 1865 was held, just like it had occurred in London 15 years before and serving as its inspiration, held high on iron and glass. Given this wide range of economic, urban and socio-cultural changes, Porto, demographically growing at a very fast pace, came across, probably for the first time, as an appealing destination for a world eager of progress, on a peripheral country of a Romantic Europe. This international leading position instigated the city and especially its "nouveau riche" bourgeoisie to undertake a set of urban beautification improvements and the structuring of tourism, in urban and / or monumental interventions (now often exposed to the risk of degradation or excessive “touristification”) or in the production of a pioneering set of tourist publicity elements such as the development of the first tourist map of the city. This communication plans an initial approach to these first steps in the organization of Porto as a tourist destination, through the presentation and reflection on a set of historical documents and the analysis and understanding of the territorial legacy (now at risk), which produced, in mid-nineteenth century, a new urban geography and new behaviours. What new urban forms were produced by these first years of tourism and summer leisure in Porto? What part of this heritage is at risk of disappearing or is now lost forever, due to tourism induced pressures? What planning mechanisms and intervention strategies exist to safeguard the geographical remains? These are some of the issues in reflection in this paper.

Risk and tourism crisis in a coastal destination

Maria Aparecida Pontes da Fonseca, Maria Rita de Oliveira Nunes d’Angelis Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte Brazil [email protected]

Due to Public policies, from the 1980s, the expansion of tourism in the Northeast of Brazil was possible. The region was a historically disadvantaged place with vast social issues. To change this reality, a series of public policies were executed and one was named, Tourism Development Program in the Northeast I and II. This policy set investments in basic infrastructure, as roads and airports, to expand the regional tourism. Because of those policies, the region attracted a large numbers of tourists and investments, becoming part of the international segment in the tourism market. Among the investments, here, we highlight the dwelling tourism, connected with the tourist activity and real estate segment. These investments is also linked with the private house booming all world over including peripheral coastal tourist destination as Tibau do Sul (Praia da Pipa) on Rio Grande do Norte, focus of this study. The real estate growth in this destination occurred from land and second homes transactions. As of the destination internationalization, most of investors were outsiders occasionally associated with Brazilians. However, the international financial crisis hit significantly on this destination and produced an unprecedented crisis. The majority of tourist flows were from Europe (Portuguese, Italians and Spanish) which decreased the demand added to it an increase supply of dwelling, by the second homes. From the problem outlined above, the aim of this article was to analyse how the international financial crisis reflected in the dynamics of property investment and tourist destination of Tibau do Sul / Pipa. The procedures for the development of the research were made as follows: First, surveyed the international investments recorded in the notary's office of Tibau do Sul. Second, thirteen semi-structured interview to the owners and/or managers of establishments hosting. This process gave us the understanding of how the recently experienced crisis in Europe affected the tourism and the destination. The period of the study was 2000-2012, divided in three main phases: 1) the increase of international real estate investments (2000-2007), 2) the international financial crisis (2008) and 3) the consequences of this crisis in subsequent years (2009-2012). The research shows that the international financial crisis started in 2008, originated in the housing sector booming, covered even remote areas of the global economic system. In Brazil, some specific locations were very affected, as is the case of Tibau do Sul / Pipa. Which, over the last decades, has been investing in the tourism sector in place of other traditional economic sectors such as agriculture and fishing. There was a drastically reduce of tourist flows from Portugal and Spain, countries heavily attained by the crisis. As the

59 destination had a fragile economy, that causes a quite impact, largely because of the coastal tourism governance, the "monoculture" of tourism. According to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, the service sector (tourism) was responsible for 75% of the GDP per capita of the county. The town focused it economy in one fragile segment, one culture, a massive risk for the economy. A significant intensification of second homes, at the pre-crisis period, by investments in residential units (houses and apartments) from international investments, together with the decline of tourist flow caused a crisis in the destination. The reflection of it was a retreating of prices, unemployment and focus in another target market, the Brazilian middle class. In conclusion, there is a clear relation between success in a tourism destination and tourism planning. The need of sustainability in it all pillars: economy, environment and social is a key factor. Tibau do Sul as a costal destination has great problems from mass tourism but is compulsory to invest in others activities. The tourism is an important economic segment but it has to be managed to reach positive balance. The diversity in economy avoid major risks.

Is the night dangerous? Perceptions of a rural community about the development of an Astro-tourism destination in Portugal

Áurea Rodrigues, Genuineland, Alentejo, Apolónia Rodrigues, Universidade Europeia, Lisbon Portugal [email protected]

With the development of alternative ways of tourism based on the preservation of endogenous resources, nowadays, communities are facing different challenges. At Alqueva, Alentejo, Portugal it was created, in 2010, a Route called Dark Sky Route Alqueva that is based on the preservation of the night sky for the development of tourist activities based on this asset, ie, astro-tourism. For to have a better-unpolluted night sky and to have the requirements of the Starlight Tourism Destination certification it was necessary to reduce the public night lightning at streets and monuments in the villages that integrate this Route. Light is associated with security and purity, not with pollution and even if was not necessary to light the monuments all night, to shut the lights, or reduce was seen by communities as dangerous. A place not illuminated is associated with criminality even if studies show that criminality is related with social problems and poverty not with the existence of street lightning. Now the Dark Sky Route is developing very well, it has also won a Ulisses Prize in 2014 from the UNWTO and images of the tourist destination appear regularly in sites of NASA, being recognized internationally. In this case study we present the process of awareness of the benefits of reducing the night lightning in the communities of Alqueva, presenting an example where the sustainability and the success of implementation of a tourism product in a destination is just possible if the local communities are an active part of this product development and the process of implementation also could lead to local benefits that goes behind the tourism sector.

Airbnb, between narratives and practices. The case of Barcelona

Alan Quaglieri Domínguez, Albert Arias Sans University Rovira i Virgili Spain [email protected]

Arguably, Airbnb is the most emblematic example of the so-called sharing economy. With more than one million listings in more than 34,000 cities around the world and a market valuation of $20 billion in march 2015, the San Francisco-based company has become the most popular platform for short-term rentals and one of the top players into the hospitality sector. However, as its success grows globally, so does its social and economic impact on the cities where it’s massively set. Despite the rhetorical gear claiming for a community- driven, thus, more sustainable hospitality model, we argue that the establishment of Airbnb

60 has to be considered seriously as an issue for the urban political agenda. Also, in spite of its growing popularity within the tourist demand and the significant media coverage, this phenomenon has received little attention from scholars. The paper aims to verify the main narrative lines of the Airbnb discourse and unravel the impacts of its hospitality model in Barcelona, one of the most popular destinations of the network, in order to evaluate the repercussions of such a “collaborative” way of hosting visitors. To this end, we firstly analyze the figures of the supply and put forward some of the most relevant characteristics of the host community, considering the latter as both main target of the redistributive rhetoric and key actor in the promotion of a new sense of localness. Particularly, downscaling at neighborhood level, we focus the analysis on hosts’ socio-cultural profiles in the case of el Raval and la Vila de Gràcia, two of the most popular areas of the local Airbnb network. Secondly, through the data-analysis, we verify the indications of the economic impact report on Barcelona commissioned by Airbnb. Thus, we question the three statements around which the report is organized: the revitalization of neighborhoods, the increase and diversification of quality tourism and the support to the families. We particularly outline the Airbnb geography onto the Barcelona map and we study, thus, its correlation with the spatial distribution of the city’s hotel supply. Thirdly, we consider the controversies related to the urban planning regulatory framework and, finally, we try to place Airbnb within the public debate currently going on in Barcelona around tourism-related issues.

How attitudes and preferences influence young tourists’ perception of hazards

Igor Sarman Università della Svizzera italiana (USI) Switzerland [email protected]

BACKGROUND AND RESEARCH PURPOSE. Tourist decisions represent a complicated system of factors, and interconnection existing between such factors is mediated by decision maker’s characteristics, among the others. When the risk represented by dangerous situations comes into play, complexity augments even further and mental processes that lead to elaborate information useful to take decisions are influenced by the potential danger for one’s safety. Thus said, understanding what lies behind tourists’ risk perception and, consequently, travel deterrence is fundamental for policy makers in order to deal with effects that potential life threatening events may have on tourism demand. The present research aims at determining how attitudes and preferences in a tourism-related context influence young tourists’ visualization of a destination’s dangerousness. METHOD AND DATA SOURCE. We propose an Ordered Logit Model in which the dependent variable is represented by the individual evaluation that four life-threatening situations (terrorist act, natural catastrophe, political uprising and epidemics) may represent a deterrent from traveling to holiday destinations. Among the independent variables adopted to model risk perception we include a series of latent variables capturing constructs such as attitudes toward international travel, social acceptability and preferences for different ways to live the travel experience. The research is based on data collected from a sample of University students (in Lugano, Switzerland) who were submitted a structured survey. This included questions regarding individuals’ perception of specific risky situations, psychographics concerning travel attitudes and preferences (all measured with Likert scales), past travel experiences as well as personal traits. PRELIMINARY RESULTS. It is possible to determine different attitudes and preferences related to tourist decisions: these affect differently and distinctly individuals’ perception of the four life-threatening events and their impact on travel deterrence. Moreover, respondents’ personal traits such as gender and continent of origin contribute to explain the formation of different attitudes and preferences. IMPLICATIONS. Assessing how individuals shape their risk perception is extremely important from a tourism policy and marketing point of view because it is crucial to understand what makes them feel (or not) cautious or anxious in potentially risky situations. This is particularly important for those realities whose tourism sector has a strategic importance for destination’s economy and social life but have to face the menace deriving from fragile situations human-related (e.g. terrorism and political uprisings) and/or nature-related (e.g. natural catastrophes), which

61 obviously have a negative impact on tourism flows. In order make visitors feel reassured and safe and minimize the effects that negative events may have on destination’s tourism sector, marketing and communication campaigns targeted at sensible consumers should appeal to their attitudes and preferences toward international travel.

Morality on Tour?

David G. Scott Southern Cross University Australia [email protected]

The nature of tourism, often understood as an escape from day to day life at home, means that the mundane performances and spaces of everyday life within the tourism experience are rarely considered. Yet, within the spaces and mobilities of the everydayness of tourism experiences lie a number of moral questions. As Caton (2012, p. 1906) suggests there is a need to challenge the ‘light hearted pleasure and heavy social consequences’ of touristic experiences. This paper will suggest that the seemingly ordinary practices of daily life inherent in the tourism experience offer little reflection on the moral implications of tourism. Using reflexive interactionism, this paper will explore participants on an inclusive group tour in Turkey to discuss how the group formation – from reading the brochure to gathering on the bus - allowed for an almost complete ‘absolution’ of any moral issues within the tour experience. At the same time, the paper will illustrate how the banal routines taken from ‘home’ to ‘away’ led to moral tensions when interspersed with interactions with the very people and places the tourists had come to see. Using examples of the comfort stop and lunch breaks, the paper highlights that whilst the tourist may simultaneously construct and perform multiple, often contested, identities, they continue to move unreflexively through tourism spaces. The paper concludes by offering some thoughts on how this particular mobile group of tourists tacitly dismissed any real or imagined moral tensions through the banality of their everyday practices whilst on tour.

Community Response to the Environmental Change: Case study from Tokyo Bay

Mari Shioya Slovak Academy of Sciences Slovakia [email protected]

The governance of natural resources is confronting new challenges. Currently, an increase can be observed in the different levels of connections between different environmental issues and decisions of local, regional, national and international relevance. This research is aiming to contribute to the modern protection of biodiversity in particular social aspects and governance for suggesting implementation of the governance on natural resources to multi- level management authorities. The example from study area in Japanese park illustrates that the cooperation between locals and authorities is highly appreciated by different actors related to conservation areas. Participation is important issue to reflect the community will to the policy making decision, though still there is no legal framework to support it. Neither the incentive for active public participation is still not clear yet. The history of public participation is still young. Japanese politics are rather top-down for long decades. To encourage the public participation to the policy decision-making process, partnership between different sector is a key issue as the topic can go beyond the border.The Yatsu-higata is a tidal flat in the Tokyo Bay with a dimension 40 hectare. The bay used to be one of the largest tidal flat in Japan, however, most of the area was reclaimed for urbanization, such as to construct factories, housing, and roads during rapid industrialization time in Japan in 1970s. Yatsu- higata is an exceptional example of a tidal flat that has survived this period of time from rapid urbanization. With the belief that local participation and cooperation is indispensable for wetland conservation, Narashino City is actively enrolling volunteers at the Yatsu-higata

Nature Observation Centre. By their effort and passion for conservation which started to answer the boom of industrialization, the park was registered as Special Protection zone of National Wildlife protection area in 1988, then to Ramsar wetland site in 1993. Currently over hundreds of volunteers support the conservation and management of the tidal flat and the operation of the centre. Subsequently, Yatsu-higata became a part of the Waterbird Site Network based on the Partnership for the East Asian-Australasian Flyway in 1996. Although, some of the report shows that (Ishikawa 2001), the number of migratory birds has decreased upon the designation to Ramsar registration, constructing new facilities for aesthetic reason.

Safety in nature and adventure tourism: perspective of tourist entertainment companies

Mário Dinis Serrazina Mendes Silva, Maria do Céu Almeida Escola Superior de Hotelaria e Turismo do Estoril Portugal [email protected]

Tourism development underlined by a pursuit activities in nature and adventure reflects the evolution of the motivations and behaviors of tourists in terms of the growing interest in more active tourism practices, challenging and emotional, and that opposes a more urban way of life. In this regard, the progressive change in leisure dynamics, motivated by the desire to enjoy, admire and interact with nature and countryside results in the growth of tourism in nature, strongly represented in the tourist entertainment industry. These tourist activities consist in performing recreational activities, sporting, cultural, educational or welfare, as diverse as the adventure sports, the observation and interpretation environmental or socio- cultural activities. However, in the nature tourism can be distinguished two major motivations that can be complementary, based on the environmental interpretation component and another associated with the practice of sports on nature and adventure. Once the adventure tourism term is closely connected to tourism in nature, it is usually associated with some risk, as well as other physical activities and situations exposed to challenging and exciting environments. However, we must not forget that their practice takes some risks to stakeholders, resulting from the interaction of several factors: nature, human, specificities of the modalities, among others. These practices lead often an increased risk arising from the characteristics of the activities and factors associated with surroundings, techniques, equipment and attendees, demanding priority to issues of safety and risk management. So, the sustainability of the sector, face the increasing demand for these tourist entertainment products, recommends the implementation of safety management systems applied by the adventure activities promoters, including tourist entertainment companies. The promoters of adventure tourist experiences should provide a balance between the difficulty of the challenges and customer skills, allowing a challenging and motivating activity keeping the risk within acceptable levels. So the performance of tourism companies is fundamental for the promotion of safety of adventure activities, both for participants and for the technicians taking a preventive attitude and procedures to minimize the effects in case of accident, for the safety of participants is one of the essential requirements for quality of service and, in case of accident, it may be difficult to avoid the negative effects in terms of image and market. Taking into account the increased demand for tourism activities on nature and adventure, as well as the associated risks, it is essential to reflect on the importance of applying risk management processes to better matching the experiences to tourist expectations, providing high levels of satisfaction through safer and more sustainable practices. The aim of this article to know the sector regarding the risk management practices in particular based on the perceptions of tourist entertainment agents in order to identify opportunities for action to contribute to improve effectively the safety technicians and participants, in Portugal. In this regard, we seek to know the perspective of people involved in supply management on the importance of risk management in tourism activities, particularly in commercialized adventure activities. This methodology is based on a questionnaire addressed to tourist entertainment agents entered on the National Register of Tourist Entertainment Agents which develop tourism activities on nature and adventure and in relevant international studies. We also intend to present some contributions to improve the

63 operation of these activities regarding to minimal risk and safety requirements for the environment of these activities, given the necessary parsimony in resource use.

The EU, Expanding or expansionist? How does EU expansion affect Geopolitics and in particular Tourism Development in EU Acceding Nations

Peter Singleton Stenden University The Netherlands [email protected]

This paper will assert the link between the process of EU accession, the consolidation of democratic processes and the improvement of economic and tourism infrastructure to incoming tourism flows. It is built upon the research which proves the link between democratic consolidation as a means of resolving conflicts and competing interests within societies and between EU members and the increasing levels of individual and group security that encourage tourism. It will use the example of the 2004 accession countries to look at how the investment of the EU in economy, tourism and governance has in general (positively) transformed tourism prospects for the countries concerned. It further asserts that these factors underlie the levels of tension between the EU and Russia which are on going at this moment. The Russian Govt perceives the democratic systems that the EU is based on as something desirable to its own citizens who are looking for greater individual rights and economic liberation. The EU is therefore a threat to the Russian governing elite, and as such must be confronted. Accession to the EU, in the case of Eastern European countries constitutes a way to emulate the democratic freedoms and greater economic prosperity of existing EU member states. Tourism is one of the areas of the economy that benefits from the stability and growth EU membership can bring. Significance of this paper for the future: The opportunities that EU membership can bring to Tourism development for example (also strategies to exploit these opportunities) depend to a large degree on the international relations between the EU and its rivals. At the moment threats are evident from both the Russian Federation and certain groups loosely referred to as being "Extreme Islam" or Jihadist groups. The extent to which tourism demands ebb and flow is governed by a range of factors, but the issues of conflict and security are game breakers. They either stimulate (in times of peace and growth) tourism demand or deplete it (in times of conflict and insecurity). Understanding the factors and trends involved in on the one hand peaceful resolution of conflict (democratic model) or use of force to resolve conflict (military model) is key in the analysis of future tourism opportunities.

Community Perception of Safety and Security in Omo Biosphere Reserve, Ogun State, Nigeria

Olugbenga Kehinde Sonubi, A. I. Adeyemo, A. A. Ogunjimi The Federal Polytechnic, Ede, Osun State. Nigeria [email protected]

Ecotourism offers a great opportunity for African countries and their protected areas hosting a variety of ecosystems and traditional cultures that are major attractions to nature-oriented tourism for their economic development using sustainable tourism development. Safety and security have become global issues of concerns for tourists and the host communities. The perception of the communities towards ecotourism development of Omo Biosphere Reserve (OBR) was conducted between 2012 and 2013. This was achieved through the determination of the perceived threats to safety and security of flora, fauna and avifauna resources of Omo Biosphere Reserve. A total of 319 structured questionnaire were administered on the 10 randomly selected communities of OBR to collect information on their perception of ecotourism development in the reserve. The government staff, NGO and community leaders were interviewed on the potential challenges to safety and security in

64 ecotourism development in OBR. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics such as frequencies, mean/mode, and standard deviation; Chi-square was used to determine the level of association between the present study and previous studies in OBR on flora, fauna and avifauna resources. There were no significant differences in flora and avifauna but there was significant difference in fauna species. A total of 26 flora species were identified which include economic trees such as : Terminalia superba, Strombosia pustulata, Nauclea diderrichii and Milicia excelsa. A total of 27 fauna species belonging to four families were identified some of which include Cercocebus torquatus, Cercopithecus mona, Potamochoerus porcus, Cephalophus silvicultor,and Loxodonta africana cyclotis, with 36 species of avifauna including Tockus nasutus, Guttera pucherani, Nectorinia reicheniwi, Elanus axillaris, and Bubo leucostictus. The overall perceptual statement of local communities showed that 88.2% and 11.8% agreed and disagreed respectively on positive impacts of ecotourism development in Omo Biosphere Reserve while 37.23% and 62.77% agree and disagree respectively on the negative. Potential challenges that could affect ecotourism development in OBR identified by the host communities were poor power supply, bad road networks, poor water supply, low awareness, and poor communication. However, the observed challenges were: poaching, logging and farming. The study recommends that there is a need for a community based ecotourism development that will include all stakeholders of OBR and environs that will ensure sustainability. Volunteers who are well versed in the knowledge of OBR terrains should be trained on the use of light arms and good interactions with ecotourists. The State government and other stakeholders should assist in providing portable water, regular electricity, good roads and communication facilities for OBR host communities.

Community development and role of tourism: a case study of tourist destination Manali in Himachal Pradesh (India)

Dr. Sunil College of Vocational Studies, University of Delhi India [email protected]

Indian tourism industry is contributing a lot to its economic growth. The share of tourism industry in GDP was 6.7 percent in the year 2014. It has been providing 23 million direct or indirect employment to the people. The most of the benefit from tourism directly goes to those areas which are popular tourist’s destinations. It is supposed that it helps in developing local community. In this paper an attempt has been made to assess, how far the tourism, helped in developing the community resided in Manali (India), a famous tourist place and its adjacent areas. It has also tried to find out that what kinds of social, economic, environmental, political changes have been come in the area. Further, it also tried to identify, the challenges that emerged with the tourism in the area. The paper also tried to come up with the suggestion to overcome these problems. The study found that tourism has certainly helped in developing the area, employment generation, booming housing sector, tax collections and also provided an extra source of income to the local community. The study reveals that tourism has put adverse effect on the local culture, environment and traffic. Further, imposition of unfriendly laws, extra pressure on civic bodies, increase in crime related issues, escalation in cost of living and migration of people from other places for search of work are the other issues which emerged with the tourism. The study suggests that these problems may be addressed by proper formulation and implementation of plan by civic body, administration at local level, local community participation and positive role of state government. further, infrastructure development, encouraging tourist home stay program, spreading awareness among local people, training to the people associated with the tourism industry, plying high capacity vehicle instead of smaller one and by adopting environment friendly plan and system may also help in settling these issues.

Smart Specialisation Strategy (S3): Risks and Obstacles to Tourism Development which emanate from the new approach to regional innovation and growth

Antonis L. Theocharous, Spyros Avdimiotis, Constantinos Papadopoulos, Anastasios Zopiatis Canterbury Christ Church University, Cyprus University of Technology United Kingdom [email protected]

At a time when a significant number of European Union member-states are dealing with the detrimental effects of economic recession, the E.U. has defined, in the Europe 2020 Strategy framework, its vision for a social market economy. This vision is grounded on the establishment of three interconnected priorities, namely, smart development through education, research and innovation, and sustainability and inclusive development (Foray, 2014). In accordance with this new paradigm all member states must undertake an introspective critical view of their own strengths, resources, and potentials in order to determine priorities for innovation, collaboration and development. Towards this initiative, the European Union, in its reformed cohesion policy framework (McCann & Ortega-Argilés, 2013), attributed great importance to smart specialization as an “ex ante conditionality” for EU financial support for regional development, via its structural funds. Smart Specialisation, an original concept developed in the previous decade (Foray et al., 2009) entails a new approach for increasing the efficiency of European investment in research, innovation and entrepreneurship. According to Foray and Goenega (2013), smart specialisation is a regional initiative seeking to explore and discover technological and market opportunities with the aim of establishing a robust competitive advantage, upon which related development policies will be conceptually based and implemented. It is important to clarify that Smart Specialization is not a doctrine that requires a region to specialize in a particular set of industries. Instead, the strategy espouses the element of “vertical and non- neutral” intervention, implying a bottom up, multidimensional and broad development mechanism of economic transformation, able to support the European Commission vision of “smart, sustainable and inclusive growth”. The current study outlines Cyprus, an E.U. member state since 2004, journey to develop its own Smart Specialisation Strategy (acronym S3Cy) whose goal was to stimulate medium to long-term ‘smart’, ‘sustainable’ and ‘inclusive’ growth, which will be based on knowledge and innovation, and the rational use of available resources. Moreover, through economic and social development, and cohesion, the strategy aimed to enhance existing employment rates, especially among the youth. The analytical tools of GAP, VRIO, PEST and Social Network Analysis were utilised in the meticulous, six-step development strategy, which necessitated the active involvement of Cyprus’ primary economic stakeholders. Smart specialisation may have a profound impact on the European research community in the near future since it will influence the specificities (allocated resources, priorities, etc.) of relevant research funding (Kroll, 2015). Our findings have highlighted both the importance of tourism as a vital economic sector, and its interconnectedness and interdependencies with other sectors of the economy. At the same time, the lack of a clear definition and approach as to what constitutes innovation in the tourism industry, as well as the perplexity that exists in the current literature, have raised points of concerns on the position of tourism in the broader conceptual framework of smart specialisation. The acknowledgement of the interdisciplinary nature of tourism, in line with the characterization as a soft, ‘Cinderella’ type industry, has been profound during the performed industry audits. This partial and myopic view of the tourism industry imposes enormous risks and obstacles that may hinder its positioning as a strategic pillar of national/regional economies, as an engine for economic growth, and, most importantly, as an area of investment. Knowledge gained from this endeavour suggests that unless hospitality and tourism scholars move away from the era of self-preservation (Zopiatis et al., 2015), available research funds, whose allocation is based on the newly acquired knowledge through Smart Specialization, might become a rare commodity. A new prudent paradigm, a new frontier, that will best serve the discipline, must necessitate inter- and cross-disciplinary research collaborations

66 with other economic sectors, in the strive of broadening our conceptual horizons, while simultaneously attracting more European funding.

Vulnerability to floods in tourism equipment of Vitoria - ES, Brazil

Ingrid Tonon Miranda Instituto de Ciências Sociais da Universidade de Lisboa Portugal [email protected]

Vitoria is the capital of Espírito Santo state, Brazil. It is an island city, has 319,000 residents and has great tourism potential with a vocation to the sun and sea tourism beyond cultural traditions. Tourism is an economic activity with great potential of development, but also highly conditioned to the climate variables and their economic, social and environmental consequences. Due to its geographical location, Vitoria lies in a region with considerable exposure and vulnerability to urban flooding due to heavy rains, the physical geographical features, soil impermeability and spatial planning. The IPCC report (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) -AR5 2014) defines vulnerability as the propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected. Vulnerability encompasses a variety of concepts and elements including sensitivity or susceptibility to harm and lack of capacity to cope and adapt. And Exposure: The presence of people, livelihoods, species or ecosystems, environmental functions, services, and resources, infrastructure, or economic, social, or cultural assets in places and settings that could be adversely affected. This study aims to develop a flood vulnerability map using the multi-criteria analysis methodology, this is a technique where several factors are simultaneously evaluated for the analysis of a complex situation, for such is being used Arcgis 10.3 software. In this sense they are defined as criteria to altimetry and permeability. Through the altimetry will be calculated numerical elevation model (NEM), the slopes and water accumulation areas and soil permeability is calculated by the lithology and land use to be then produced a susceptibility map with the spatial distribution of high, moderate and low susceptibility areas and the location of the registered tourist appliances in municipal government of moderate and low susceptibility areas and the location of the registered tourist appliances in municipal government of Vitoria. For subsequent analysis will be considered the prospects of climate change put the last IPCC report in order to locate and assess the degree of exposure of tourism equipment for the management and prevention to minimize the economic, environmental and human losses.

Revitalization of the Historical Centres, Impacts on Hosts and Guests: The Case Study of Lamego City

Isabel Vieira, Didiana Branco, Ana Rodrigues Polytechnic Institute of Viseu_School of Technology and Management of Lamego Portugal [email protected]

In recent years we have witnessed a remarkable growth on the concern about issues related to territorial sustainability of cities and their historic centres for which it has sought solutions and various models of promoting its development. The revitalization is an element of sustainable development of historic centres, which seeks to improve the quality of life, in order to solve urban problems related to this development. But beyond the relationship between urban regeneration and local community, the revitalization brings us to the tourism while integrating sector of these spaces. The Lamego History Centre is an area of urban excellence, which includes monuments, cultural facilities, and public spaces for living and collective experience, central to the life of the city. However, it clearly showed the cumulative effects of physical degradation phenomena, social vulnerability and economic weakness. The public Power, aware of these weaknesses, triggered in 2012, a revitalization project of the historical centre in order to contribute to improving the quality of life of its inhabitants and for the affirmation of Lamego as City of Cultural and Architectural Heritage. After its

67 completion in 2014, it is now time to understand the possible impact on guests and hosts. To this end it was developed a study in order to assess, firstly, the question of the growing of the local population's quality of life and the qualification of their experiences, in its various aspects (cultural, social, economic, environmental); and secondly, the enhancing of the external attractiveness and visibility and the perception, from visitors, of the heritage and the specific characteristics of the territory concerned. Methodologically this study was developed through documentary analysis, participant observation and the application of a survey to local population and visitors. In the case of perceived impacts, we can say that residents have a good image about the gains that tourism development can lead, however are very critical regarding interventions that were carried out in the historic centre, in this sense they point as negative factors, problems on the traffic and parking, the increase in the price of local products and the increase the cost of living for residents. With respect to hosts the perception of impacts is also generally positive. However it is pointed as negative factors the internal mobility, the interpretation of heritage and the poor state of the housing stock. The results of this study emphasize the importance of analyzing residents and visitors perceptions in the decision-making and planning policy for tourism development. This study offers additional research on the role of the revitalization of historic centres and their impact on the local population and visitors, presenting clues about the way to go in the future and reflections on the strategy to adopt in the city.

Tourism in a Heritage Town in the South East of Ireland: Open for Business in the Aftermath of Recession - Challenges & Risks

Angela Wright Cork Institute of Technology Ireland [email protected]

INTRODUCTION Located in Co. Cork, on the south coast of Ireland, Youghal is a remarkable town with treasures to rival any town on the world stage, a place where historical and medieval characteristics are second to none. The town of Youghal guards an important and unique collection, in terms of history, stories, buildings and artefacts. Boasting connections with an array of historical figures such as Sir Walter Raleigh (Mayor of Youghal from 1588-1589), Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork, Oliver Cromwell (wintered here in 1649), Queen Victoria through the ‘Youghal Lace’ of her coronation veil, the distinctive figure of Tom Thumb, a chapter concerning its very own witch and corresponding witch trial, settlers such as the Vikings, the Anglo Normans, reminders of a Medieval era, Georgian era, a Victorian era, and town walls that were built in 1250 AD, still proudly facing the sea below. Youghal’s strengths are in its historical offering and in its exquisite beach location. There are 4.5kms of beach available to the visitor, along with four town parks: 1798 Memorial Green Park, Millennium Park, Keane Park and College Gardens. Youghal offers a rich tourist menu that on a global stage is significant. Historically, Youghal’s importance in the region was associated with its role as a Port Town and an industrial centre. Unfortunately, the 1980s witnessed a decline in these roles and the town’s population waned (Youghal Town Council, 2010). Recently, however, from a tourist destination perspective, Youghal has benefited in that is was chosen for a pilot programme of the Historic Towns Initiative, together with the towns of Listowel & Westport. This initiative is with the Department of Arts, Heritage & the Gaeltacht, The Heritage Council of Ireland and Fáilte Ireland. This new research specifically examines the tourist product offering in Youghal and attempts to identify new offerings after the severe economic downturn in Ireland. This research was conducted in conjunction with Fáilte Ireland, the national body responsible for Tourism Marketing and Development in Ireland. The research will aim to identify and analyse the region’s tourism product and services offering, with the specific intention of providing hope for the region in terms of local employment, increasing visitor numbers, and driving the local economy. METHODOLOGY For the research approach, the empirical data for this study was gathered using both in- depth face to face interviews and projective techniques. The qualitative element consisted of in-depth interviews with 22 relevant people purposely drawn from local industry, the local business community, local residents and local and national politicians and economists.

Additionally, 71 people were picked at random to participate in the projective techniques applied in this study which yielded some significant findings. This combined triangulated research approach yielded relevant and implementable findings for the future of the tourism industry in this important historic town. Findings Positive indicators from this research identify that Youghal is known for its significant international heritage, high quality and accessible natural amenities, it’s hosting of large-scale cultural arts events, and its warm and informed welcome in shops and hotels. Youghal is a desirable place in which to live, work, visit and ultimately invest for the future of the local economy and the broader region. With no major industry, this town has relied on Youghal’s Socio-Economic Development Group [YSEDG], alongside local groups, to oversee the implementation of meaningful projects across a range of disciplines. Youghal’s heritage-led regeneration strategy has seen restoration works to Youghal’s Town Walls, (dating from 1250, - they are the second longest surviving stretch of Medieval Town Walls in Ireland), and The Clocktower Gate Building (built in 1777). Youghal’s natural heritage has also been developed with the roll-out of the Youghal Eco-Boardwalk. CONCLUSION The findings of this research outline a wealth of product offerings for the tourist and visitor alike, and ways that the town can profit, and successfully market itself again in the aftermath of the Irish recession. This research indentifies gaps and new opportunities for the future of the tourist product offering, together with recommendations for future development and marketing strategy with immediate actions to boost the tourist and long term projects and plans. KEYWORDS: Youghal, Tourism, Funding, Historic Towns Initiative, International Heritage, Natural and Built Environment.

Climate change and glacier tourism in New Zealand: Past, present and future (?)

Jude Wilson, Heather Purdie, Stephen Espiner, Emma Stewart Lincoln University New Zealand [email protected]

The Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers of South Westland, New Zealand have attracted tourists since the late 1800s and the region’s first tourist hostel opened in 1897 (McCormack, 1999). By the mid-1920s, walking tracks had been built to take visitors (on) to the glaciers and to various glacier viewpoints, and a network of huts was established to facilitate mountaineering excursions for those who wished to venture further. However, the limitations of the wider regional infrastructure, including poor roads and the absence of a southern route beyond the glaciers, kept visitor numbers low. McCormack (1999) reports 2000 annual visitors to Franz Josef Glacier in 1930, increasing to 5000 by 1947. Today, the glaciers are a key destination on the popular South Island touring route and attract an estimated 500,000 visitors each year (Wilson, et al., 2014). The glaciers are easily accessed from the nearby tourist villages. There are (free) glacier viewpoints close to the terminal face of each glacier and commercial companies offer scenic flights (many with a glacier landing) and guided hikes on the glaciers themselves. However, a period of accelerated glacier recession has significantly changed (and is continuing to change) the visitor experience. In addition to glacier retreat (i.e., shortening in length), the ice has also thinned significantly in the lower reaches and rockfall, from the surrounding exposed valley slopes, has increased the amount of debris on the ice. A mixed-methodology (incorporating scientific data, in-depth interviews with tourism stakeholders and a visitor survey) facilitated an examination of climate change impacts at the glaciers across three perspectives: the physical changes in the glaciers; challenges for destination management and tourism business operators; and, impacts on visitor experience. Findings indicate that while, historically, the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers are highly dynamic the current rate of retreat is unprecedented. The safety issues inherent in the provision of glacier access are exacerbated by the recent retreat and have brought significant changes to the glacier tourism experiences and products available to visitors. When asked to reflect on the future of glacier tourism, stakeholders were positive, quick to mention the capacity of the community to adapt to change as evidenced by a long history of tourism and change at the glaciers.

For the 500 visitors surveyed, many of whom were at the glaciers for the first time, these recent changes (both physical and touristic) were less obvious, but still impacted on their glacier experiences in a variety of ways. While visitors appreciated the free and easy access to glacier viewpoints, many had expectations of getting closer to the glacier and of seeing a bigger and cleaner glacier. Almost a third reported that the images of the glaciers they had seen prior to visiting were inaccurate. The survey also reinforced the importance of the glaciers for tourism at the destination, with almost half indicating that they would not have visited the region if they thought they might not be able to see the glaciers. In the face of ongoing (climate) change impacts at the glaciers this research suggests an uncertain future for this glacier tourism destination.

Impressions after visiting the backstage through tours: the case of favela tours and Katrina tours

Konstantina Zerva University of Girona Spain [email protected]

Recently, the paradoxically positive relation between tourism and present crime in the same geographic area has been increasingly observed, questioning the influence of insecurity in touristic flows. Under the label of dark tourism, a particularly interesting social externality is formed by the so-called ‘voyeurism’, the phenomenon that visitors are visibly interested in the spatial motives and behaviors of other visitors and the settings within which they develop those behaviors. Many investigations have demonstrated the importance of tours as a safe access to the backstage of some destinations that are considered dangerous or where social conditions of living are problematic, while less research has paradoxically again indicated that the main attraction of these tours is the basic social situation they wish to fight through the economic benefits. Through such tours, the market has offered tourists with a service they can experience in less safe areas, in an organized package, with the official primary motivation of knowledge acquisition and economical support. Albeit much has been researched on the motivations of these tourists, little has been investigated on their actual post-travel impressions of accessing the backstage of some destinations and their connection to the voyeuristic spirit of a visitor. For this reason, this paper focuses on the analysis of tourists’ comments on Tripadvisor for two different types of dark tours: the favela tours in Rio de Janeiro and the Katrina tours in New Orleans, where human suffering is caused in the first case by other humans and in the second one, by a natural disaster. The analysis of these comments – separated by the webpage in five categories from most positive to least positive - was developed through the method of frequency content analysis and codified by EdEt - a computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS). Primary findings indicate that positive comments were focused mostly on emotional arguments to take the tours, converting the backstage into a touristic “must-see”, while the negative comments were based on a rational points of disappointment of expectations, where the “turistification” of backstage, its lack of risk, and organizational deficiencies did not justify the price of the tour.

Special Track 1 - Latin America

Ana Goytia Prat University of Deusto Spain [email protected]

Antonio Paolo Russo University Rovira i Virgili Spain [email protected]

On the second day of the conference there will be a Special Track on tourism in Latin America including two different sessions:  Academic Session with conference and communications, entitled "State of the art in research and education in tourism in Latin America"  ATLAS Work Session AMERICAS responsible for identifying and Action Plan 2015- 2016

ATLAS Latin America seeks the constitution of a body consisting of universities, other institutions, individuals, professionals and researchers in the field of leisure tourism in Latin America. It aims to be a meeting point between academics and practitioners in the field of tourism and leisure in various Latin American countries.

Os impactos do Transporte Público Urbano nos deslocamentos da população autóctone e dos visitantes.

Camila Aparecida de Carvalho, José Augusto Abreu Sá Fortes Universidade de Brasília (UnB) Brasil [email protected]

The disordered urbanization processes in the Brazilian cities has caused several issues of land use and occupation, environmental deterioration, decreased quality of life and frequent difficulties in transport and traffic. (Gonçalves e Portugal, 2007). These problems affect the displacement of the autochthonous population and also visitors (tourists and travellers). In this context, MCIDADES (2008) states that a trunking transport system, such as the subway or the Bus Rapid Transport (BRT) may be some of the solutions to minimize the urban mobility matters, as well as the land use and occupation issues. Correia e Goldner (2009) highlights that the trunking system not only articulates all the city transport but also modifies the urban space in its surrounding. Also, Gonçalves et all (2003) defends that the subway - railway system’s features is to aggregate activities in its surroundings and as a result, reinforce the centrality, incentive new ventures and increase the number of trips. Therefore, the subway might have direct reflexes in the urban mobility, enhancing the life quality of the served population, besides the economical and environmental favorable impacts, generated on all influence area, allowing the users a higher dedication in activities like work, leisure, sports and culture.(COMPANHIA DO METROPOLITANO DE SÃO PAULO, 2014). In particular, regarding to the leisure and tourism activities that can be developed within the subway influence area it is important to stress the Trip Generator Poles (Polos Geradores de Viagens – PGVs) with their nature turned to these activities. In this sense, Portugal e Goldner (2003) point out one of the most significant examples in the icreasing of passengers flow are the shopping malls, mainly when it has a direct connection to the station. Ettema e Schwanen (2012) highlight that the leisure places can enable correlated activities, but this depends on its accessibility as well as its functionalities and environmental characteristics, in addition to an adequate planning of the transport system aligned to the land use planning. It is thus, the objective of this paper to verify how the subway system of the Administrative Region (Região Administrativa – RA) of Samambaia has affected the urban mobility, as well

71 as the land use issues, in particular the land use for the purpose of tourism and leisure. The theoretical reference of this paper was based on the bibliography that approaches the relations in between the dynamics of land use, transport planning and development. Hence, Image 1 shows a transport cycle that served as base to the development of the theoretical part of this conducted study. Image 1 – Transport Cycle (Lohmann et all, 2013) Image 1 also helps to evaluate the relations among transport, leisure and tourism, which are the objects of analyses of this article. In the case of this paper the analyses will be done specifically from the subway – railway mode and the surveying for the tourism and leisure options in the RA of Samambaia. The image presented shows that the changes of the land use and occupation generate movements and the increase for the transport demand, thus boosting, the accessibility and modifying the land value. In this way, Cervero e Radish (1996) concluded that people who live in more compacted regions, with a mixed land use and pedestrian facilities, in an average they carry out trips with a higher frequency (which are not related to work), using non – motorized modes of transportation or public transportation for tourism and leisure activities. In that way, the development of the social-economical, cultural and leisure spaces in the subway influence area in regions in which there are few attractions, such as in the RA of Samambaia, it is an option to decentralize the activities, making the region more dynamic, boost the local touristic potential, allow the access to the leisure and culture areas, in addition to improving the life quality of the autochthonous population. The methodology of this study conducted in the RA of Samambaia covered many phases: (I) Contextualization of the study area and surveying of the social-economical spaces, (II) Description of the current system of Urban Public Transport, (III) characterization of the demand, (IV) analyses. Due to the range of the developed work and to this extend of the treated variants, the results of this article are going to cover essentially: (I) the surveying of the most important touristic attractions and potential (II) description of the current urban public transport system, specially the subway – railway mode. Applying this technology it was possible to understand the impacts on the land use and occupation issues for the purpose of tourism and leisure in the bordering areas to the subway in the region of Samambaia. It was also possible to comprehend the current configuration of the subway – railway system and its influence on the access of both population and visitors to the main touristic attractions and potential in the region. As a result of this work, regarding to the characterization of the study field and the attractions surveying, it has been perceived the need of these spaces in the bordering areas to the subway in the region of Samambaia. Also, this transport system is not working as a development inductor, for there are few commerce and leisure activities in the subway proximities. Regarding to the land occupation for the purpose of leisure and tourism, it has been noticed that although this region presents few spaces and activities of this kind, in this region is pointed out permanent and street markets, squares and parks, aside from some culture, sports and night entertainment options. However, from the surveying made, it has also been noticed that, great part of these touristic attractions or potential are not located within the subway influence area. The most part is located in more than 2km of distance, which does not incentives the use of subway to the development of the leisure and tourism activities, for according to the area literature the maximum distance for the walking displacement is 500 meters. It is highlighted on D*’s adopted methodology, is referring to the approximated distance between the subway station and the attraction. Thus, it was verified that the distance to the nearest subway station to each attraction. There are three subway stations in the Administrative Region of Samambaia. Given the initials (SAM) referring to the subway station Terminal Samambaia, the initials (SUL) to the station Samambaia Sul and the initials FUR to the Furnas station. Regarding to the urban public transport it was observed that it is yet very precarious and poorly efficient in relation to both the terminal infrastructure and the stations as well as the transport operations. It was also verified that there is a lack of adequate integration between the subway and other transport modes. The subway is not very used in this region, for its influence area covers few houses and commercial and leisure areas. For this, it was possible to identify that the subway is used for only 5% of the population displacements. However, when it is about leisure trips this number drops even more, for the subway does not have an adequate integration to the other transportation modes, besides, according to the previously demonstrated the majority of the cultural and leisure spaces are located outside the subway influence area. From the analyses of the Image 2, elaborated from a Geographical Information System (SIG), specifically TransCAD, it was possible to

72 detect that only a small portion of the RA of Samambaia is considered by the subway-railway system. By doing the expansion of the subway covered area, it was noticed that a significant part of the subway influence area does not present any kind of land use (residential, commercial or leisure) due to the existing high – voltage wiring system near Furnas station. In the areas presenting occupation, it is verified that there is hardly any touristic attractions or potential. Image 2: Subway influence area Finally, it is clear that the subway in the city of Samambaia is not working as an inductor of the tourism and leisure spaces development. It is understood that the lack of transport planning coupled to the land use and occupation issues, are one of the elements that outburst this scenario. Hence, the current study, supplies important subsidies for the transport planning in the region tied to the land use and occupation issues. For it is believed that the investment in social and leisure spaces in the subway surroundings may generate a better life quality to this people, and incentive this kind of activity in a region where these spaces are needed. Besides, it is important to stress that the methodology of this study can be used in other regions and cities with a bigger touristic potential, even generating a rate capable to evaluate the efficacy of the subway – railway system in the terms of integration with the tourism and leisure options in the big urban centers. Thereby, it is possible to outline political strategies to improve the region regarding to the leisure options not only for the tourism, but also for the autochthonous population, thus improving the life quality of this population.

Travel advisories - Coercive economic diplomacy in disguise

Aman Deep Auckland University of Technology New Zealand [email protected]

Travel advisories - Coercive economic diplomacy in disguise. Travel advisory warnings were first issued by the US State department to its general public during the First World War against traveling to the European belligerents. It was only during the 1980’s when governments worldwide began sharing on a more regular basis information with their citizens about the potential consequences of travel to certain countries. Following the globalization of media, travel advisories have become even more potent in the age of the World Wide Web. Today more than 70% of tourists from developed nations regularly access travel advisory webpages before undertaking trips and 90 % of tour operators strictly follow travel advisory warnings. The original purpose of travel advisories — to help public to make informed decision — has recently become more sinister. Authorities in developing countries assert that travel advisories originating in developed nations are also being used for political purposes. Specifically, the developing nation must conform to the developed nations’ ideas or risk being punished economically through being denied the revenue tourism brings. Allegations have been made that the issuance of the travel advisories contradicts set global regulations such as GATS, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) agreements, 1975 Helsinki Accord agreement and the 1989 Hague Declaration — regulations formed to protect the freedom of movement and right of people to travel. Consequently, developing nations have demanded reforms from the UNWTO to oversee travel advisories. The aim of this paper is to critically evaluate the use of travel advisories as a means of coercive economic diplomacy designed to achieve political aims/objectives. Specific objectives will: (1) evaluate whether the travel advisories warning constitutes a violation against freedom of movement and free trade; (2) analyze the process through which individual decision making is influenced by the travel advisory; (3) analyze the process through which a travel warning brings adverse impacts on the tourist destinations; (4) assess whether counter measures could neutralize the effects of the travel warnings. To achieve these objectives, the paper first analyses literature on global provisions existing to protect the right to travel and freedom of movement. The paper then develops two conceptual frameworks. The first models travel advisory effects on tourist decision making and consequent impacts on the destination. The second provides a model process for neutralising inappropriate travel advisories. The evaluation accompanying the conceptual frameworks suggests travel advisories are in fact in violation of GATS and other agreements. Findings further indicate travel advisory warnings

73 negatively impact tourists’ cognitive and affective decision-making. Findings also reflect, in the long run, a continuous negative perception of the destination creating a downward spiral of decline in its tourism sector. As a solution the paper suggests creating a cohesive team for innovative marketing and for putting pressure on the government issuing the travel advisory, and for encouraging new developments for the tourism industry to enable a quick recovery. The paper thus has significant practical implications for those countries being adversely affected by politically and economically motivated travel advisory warnings.

Safety and Risk Management in Touristic Activities of Madeira

Daniel Márcio Fernandes Neves Universidade de Lisboa Portugal [email protected]

Monitoring and reporting of risk in the activities of madeira island tourist - The occurrence of natural phenomena with catastrophic effects in recent years has contributed to a paradigm shift in terms of knowledge as it relates to risks in tourist areas. This has led to many tourist destinations, such as the island of Madeira, adopting open and transparent policies in order to improve their image and reputation, as well as boost market confidence. In adopting such policies, the greater difficulty proves to be how to effectively communicate such risks: conveying pertinent and useful information regarding perilous situations to ensure that tourists feel safe, while being a protagonist in their own safety. This can lead to the omission of dangers and generate prejudices related to the scaremongering and negative impacts on the image of the tourist destination.

Impacts in the tourism after biohazard (virus H1N1) in the Mexican Caribbean destinations

Oscar Frausto, Luis Mota University of Quintana Roo Mexico [email protected]

The purpose of this study is to identify the effects of the influenza type A H1N1 pandemics in the Mexican Caribbean tourism destinations. The particular moment of the beginnings of the pandemic coincide when effects of the global financial crisis started during the second semester of the year 2007. The declaration of the pandemic is behalf of the World Health Organization in 2009 generated a series of actions and policies from the national authorities with the purpose of diminish the infection and the possible casualties. The first case in Mexico was confirmed on April 2009. Tourism activity implies by itself more contact with people, use of massive transportation and visitation to public spaces that could be regulated by sanitary national authorities. Likewise, there is an intangible value associated with the tourism destiny´s valuation. It means that image of the country as a tourism destination might be affected beyond formal restrictions, as a result of tourism decisions of not travel to specific destinations where riskless stay is not guaranteed. According to Mexican Caribbean destinations results, there is information available that allows determining with precisions the effects of the pandemic in the tourism activity. However, this exploratory investigation apple to a variety of information sources that allowed the analysis of official data and the perceptions of actors involved in the tourism sector in order to approach some effects of the biohazard pandemic of Influenza A (H1N1) in the Mexican Caribbean destinations of Cancun, Playa del Carmen and Cozumel.

The Effectiveness of Risk Relievers Adoption in Online Lodging Services Purchases: A Framework for the Brazilian Market

Anderson Gomes de Souza, André Silva; Maria de Lourdes Barbosa Universidade Federal de Pernambuco Brazil [email protected]

Introduction: Tourism product buying process, such as hotel services, is surrounded by risks. This occurs largely due to the intrinsic characteristics of the industry itself, particularly concerning the lack of physical evidence of the product offered. It is well known, however, that not only the aspect of 'intangibility' makes it impossible for the consumer to assess the quality of these sort of services, but the means used for the purchase transaction may hinder the consumption process, especially when it comes to the internet. This is because the lack of a traditional (physical) retail environment still causes discomfort in some people while purchasing tourism services, which increases their likelihood of perceiving risks in online transactions. Accordingly, these consumers face the challenge of not making a wrong decision and, thus, engage themselves in risk reduction strategies in order to ease the uncertainties regarding the consequences of their choices. Such a fact has greatly affected online lodging services acquisition once the own product’s nature precludes consumers to experience it before the purchase action. Objective: Thus, this study aimed to propose a framework of perceived risks for the Brazilian lodging services purchases virtually. Consequently, its core purpose was to connect four specific types of risk, strongly related to the e-commerce, to the most effective risk reduction strategies, according to consumers’ opinion. In addition, it was also investigated the extent to which consumer’s online lodging purchases frequency could influence the relations between the types of risks perceived and the set of strategies often adopted by them. Methods: This research is characterized as a descriptive transversal study whose development was performed on the basis of data collected through an online survey, carried out with a non-probabilistic sample of Brazilian hotel services consumers. During the period data were collected, approximately two months, a total of 300 participants accessed the survey’s webpage and filled in the study’s questionnaire individually. For that purpose, the snowball sampling was employed, which means that participants’ social networks were the main sources for recruiting new participants to the study. [Analyzes] Data analysis was performed based on the Preference Ranking Organization Method for Enrichment Evaluation – PROMETHEE (Brans & Mareschal, 2002). Therefore, those strategies pointed by the consumers as being more effective in reducing perceived risks when purchasing hotel services virtually were ranked. Thus, an overclassification tool was used to create a matrix of decision-making process based on the relations between the alternatives (types of risk) and criteria (relievers) investigated. In order to shed light on those possible relations, the multicriteria PROMETHEE II was employed which, according to Almeida (2013), is such an effective option for generating a complete pre-order of the examined alternatives by using the preference (P) and indifference (I) threshold. At the same time, the weights assigned to each of these criteria were obtained by applying a SMARTER method, which consisted in ranking the criteria according to the importance demonstrated by the decision makers, herein represented by the consumers surveyed, whose relative significance was considered based on the Rank Order Centroid – ROC (Gomes et al., 2009). Results: The results indicate the existence of two distinct groups of decision makers in Brazil regarding the consumption of hotel services in the virtual environment: (a) the group of consumers with little or no purchases behaviour frequency, the 'Casuals', and (b) the group of consumers whose purchases behaviour frequency tends to be moderate to high, the 'Regulars'. Based on the application of the SMARTER method, criteria were ordered according to their weight and the marks assigned by the interviewees, once normalized, conducted to the proposition of the forthcoming relations. For the 'Group A', the criteria that showed greater relevance in supporting the process of purchasing hotel services online were: (1) Government accreditation, (2) Accredited certifiers’ endorsement, (3) Free service sample, (4) Money-back guarantee, (5) E-tailer image and (6) Most expensive option. These results demonstrate that the lack of habit increases sharply the level of risk perceived by consumers when purchasing of hotel services over the internet. Consequently, that demands

75 greater efforts on the part of suppliers in providing consumers a set of clues to assure the quality of their services. On the other hand, for the 'Group B', the set of criteria pointed as being more relevant in terms of reducing risks perceived in hotel services choice virtually was: (1) Endorsements, (2) Word of mouth, (3) Alternatives comparison, (4) E-tailer image, (5) Provider image, (6) Brand loyalty. It is quite remarkable that in this case the strategies adopted by consumers reveal a greater degree of independence and confidence on their part. It was clear that, except for the first strategy (Endorsements), all others demand the consumers themselves to search for traces of product quality in order to reduce the likelihood of failure when choosing lodging services online. However, it must be emphasized that in both cases e-tailer image plays a distinctive role in the decision making process. Implicações: There is a certain barrier concerning the consumers’ primary experiences in purchasing hotel services in the virtual environment. Such obstacle, once surpassed, may modify their behaviour toward the adoption of risk reduction strategies when choosing this type of service. This assertion, which is a result of this research, contributes to the study of consumer behaviour by bringing new insights regarding the risks surrounding the online hotel services buying process. Moreover, the definition of certain consumer groups, based on their online purchase frequency (or experience) and the criteria used by them in order to minimize the perception of risk associated with the buying operation, constitutes such a valuable information. Thereby, lodging sector managers might benefit from this comprehension not only in terms of helping them develop better relationship strategies that meet current customers’ expectations, but, especially, attract and retain casual consumers in order to turn them into their regular online buyers.

A arte como roteiro: o centro do Rio por visitantes e moradores

Ana Carolina Mendonca Oliveira Universidade Federal Fluminense Brasil [email protected]

O presente artigo é o resultado da pesquisa realizada pelo olhar indicativo do papel das artes na interpretação do espaço urbano no centro da cidade do Rio de Janeiro. Assim, a pergunta de partida foi se a perspectiva artística induz a uma percepção diferenciada do centro dessa cidade tida como maravilhosa. Buscando responder a essa questão, foram exploradas as multiplicidades de discurso do centro da cidade através das artes. Para tanto, o referencial teórico dialogou, fundamentalmente, com os seguintes eixos: a espacialidade e a temporalidade; a cultura; o turismo; a visibilidade. Dessa forma, a relevância do tema está intimamente ligada à necessidade de um aprofundamento teórico sobre as distintas percepções de turistas e moradores sobre o espaço urbano, de modo a contribuir na construção da cidade. Uma vez que apropriado por determinadas políticas, o turismo torna- se um ambíguo instrumento capaz de manter desigualdades e reforçar a dominação, na medida em que faz escolhas a despeito da relação da população com sua cidade. Por outro lado, o mesmo turismo pode promover a revisão de valores históricos e afetivos, inserindo novos sujeitos na história e considerando aspectos subjetivos e identidades marginalizadas. A metodologia de análise utilizada é bibliográfica, além de uma pesquisa de campo com a aplicação de formulário na região central, com questões relativas a percepção do centro da cidade do Rio de Janeiro, para moradores e visitantes. A bibliografia - publicações nacionais e internacionais, como livros, artigos, periódicos, teses e dissertações, livros e web - são os materiais que respaldam o estudo. Assim, foi possível identificar na arte uma capacidade de valorizar o diverso, o múltiplo, em lugar da história única. Nesse sentido, é fundamental a sensibilização dos habitantes da cidade com o objetivo de que percebam e participem da “produção” dessa cidade múltipla. A metodologia definida proporcionou a discussão da participação da arte na construção da experiência do turista e do morador com a cidade e identificou possíveis interpretações do centro do Rio de Janeiro através de experiências artísticas. Essa análise está intimamente ligada tanto a experimentação do cotidiano quanto ao planejamento de políticas públicas (em um momento de profundas mudanças na região).

La residencialización del turismo en el nordeste de Brasil

Claudio Milano GRIT, The Ostelea School of Tourism and Hospitality - EAE Business School Spain [email protected]

El fenómeno turístico se expone constantemente a múltiples perspectivas y propuestas y ocupa constantemente nuevos nichos de mercado para responder a nuevos escenarios turísticos. La variedad de gama de procesos de interés turístico se han ido diversificando y actualizando a las especificidades de las sociedades contemporáneas. De igual manera los estudios de turismo desde una perspectiva antropológica se han ido ampliando en el último par de décadas. El turismo, ha convertido en una de las industrias legales más pujantes de los últimos 60 años, y como fenómeno social e transnacional continúa diversificándose gracias a los procesos de globalización. Tras su rápido crecimiento en América Latina se ha posicionado como un principal sector de productividad económica y, a la vez, ha inducido las ciencias sociales a problematizar las diferentes prácticas turísticas y sus interacciones con los tejidos sociales locales. En las últimas décadas Brasil se enmarca en relaciones geopolíticas y macroeconómicas globales como pone en relieve el caso de la “balearización global” o el llamado “salto atlántico” donde la circulación de capitales inmobiliarios de la industria turística de origen balear actúan en Latinoamérica y en el Caribe. La presente comunicación se basa en el trabajo de campo durante trece meses desde el 2011 hasta el 2014 y enfoca las dinámicas que han acompañado la promoción turística y la inversión turístico/inmobiliaria en el Delta del Parnaíba, Brasil. Desde mediados de la década de 2000 el Delta del Parnaíba es objeto de una enérgica promoción turística de corte neoliberal, y contempla complejas negociaciones en las que intervienen las políticas públicas del Gobierno Federal, el sector privado con la inversión de capitales turístico/inmobiliarios, los propios moradores y las agencias internacionales de desarrollo. A partir de un análisis de un amplio paradigma de movilidades turísticas la presente comunicación observa las dinámicas inherentes a dicho fenómeno en el escenario del Delta del Parnaíba y concretamente analiza la relación entre las divergentes nociones de turismo inmobiliario y desarrollo local.

Antecedents of Brazilian Students’ travel: Are they ready to adventure New Zealand?

Asad Mohsin, Jorge Lengler University of Waikato Management School New Zealand [email protected]

1. Introduction Youth travel is emerging to be an important segment for tourist destinations, not only in terms of their current interest but also as future tourists with potential for a repeat visit. In trying to assess the inner drive of young students as travellers, Chhabra (2012) finds that for the majority of students, super ego was in harmony with their inner drive to travel. Youth travel behavior continues to be an area of research interest as it is noted that young university student travel behavior is different from that of the general population (Chen, 2012). As a young university student even a short-term study related travel has shown to impact on their attitude, awareness and cross-cultural perceptions (Peggy, 2011; Bywater, 1993). Such experience is seen to be beneficial to young students as it influences their longer travel plan (Ballantyne et al 2012). The change in travel attitude is also evident from the fact that young Americans now think beyond Europe and head towards China, India, Kenya, Peru, Nicaragua etc. (Deresiewicz 2009, Field, 1999). Youth travel research further explores and compares travel behavior from a cross-cultural perspective as well. Xu et al. (2009), in comparing young student travel behavior from the UK and China, note some similarities between the two groups. Both groups enjoyed beach holidays and placed importance on having fun, preferred to eat local food and were motivated to discover somewhere new. There were some differences also that were evident for example Chinese students were keen to see famous sights and learn about other cultures and history. On the other hand British students were keener to have fun, to socialise and enjoy the challenges of

77 outdoor adventure (Xu et al., 2009). Considering the rapid growth of outbound travel market from Brazil which records that outbound trips grew by 62% between 2000 and 2010 (European Travel Commission, 2013), the country is one of the new emerging travel markets in Europe, scarce research with regard to Brazilian students’ travel behavior specifically in relation to New Zealand prompted the current research. In recent years, over 11,500 Brazilians visited New Zealand annually, with numbers increasing by more than 10% annually over the past four years (Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2013). It partly may be because Brazilians travelling to New Zealand for less than three months do not need to apply for a visa beforehand. In addition, the Brazilian education market is estimated to be worth at least NZ$57million per year to New Zealand (Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2013). The importance of Brazilian as tourists and the scant literature with regard to motives to visit New Zealand as a tourist destination provides the impetus for this study to explore the travel motivations of young Brazilians based on the Leisure Motivation Scale suggested by Beard and Ragheb (1983). The current study analyses the effects of the leisure motivation of young Brazilians on their perceptions of New Zealand as an attractive tourism destination. This emerging Latin American market segment of young university educated students from Brazil are potential travellers expected to subsequently enjoy careers with above average incomes and possess both the means for and interest in vacation travel. Hence, the specific objectives of this research assess: (a) What do young Brazilian search for relaxation on their vacation? and what are their perceptions about New Zealand as a holiday destination? (b) What do young Brazilian search for ‘feel-good’ experience when on vacation? What are their perceptions about the natural tourism features of New Zealand? (c) What do Young Brazilian search for socialization on their vacation? What are their perceptions about New Zealand as a beneficial social connectedness destination? (d) Does the perceived importance of natural experiences and connectedness impact their intention to travel? 2. Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses Development Anticipating consumer behavior in the tourism sector is one of the main challenges marketing agents have been faced with (Peter and Olson, 1999). This challenge involves understanding consumers’ attitudes, feelings and behavior regarding the tourism services offered by tour agencies. With that goal in mind, tour agencies use market segmentation tools capable of helping them identify consumer characteristics among groups of individuals (Formica and Uysal, 1998). In the tourism literature, market segmentation has been singled out as a useful tool that helps managers develop more fitting marketing and positioning strategies (Bryant and Morrison, 1980; Cha et al., 1995; Loker and Perdue, 1992; Mo, Havitz and Howard, 1994; Mudambi and Baum, 1997; Cho, 1998, Sung, Morrison and O’Leary, 2000). The study seeks to explore holiday motives of young Brazilians segment of the tourism market, identify their travel motives and activities that would be of interest. It proposes a theoretical model that adds to the literature on youth travel segment motives by testing importance of constructs such as relaxation, ‘feel-good’ experience and socialisation towards natural experience and beneficial connectedness within the context of young Brazilians. The following hypotheses have been developed to test and propose implications from this study. H1: the more young Brazilians explore relaxation on their vacations, the higher they perceive the importance of natural experience as an attraction to visit New Zealand. H2: the more young Brazilians explore relaxation on their vacations, the higher they perceive the importance of connectedness as an attraction to visit New Zealand. H3: the more young Brazilians explore ‘feel-good’ experiences on their vacations, the higher they perceive the importance of natural experiences as an attraction to visit New Zealand. H4: the more young Brazilians explore ‘feel-good’ experiences on their vacations, the higher they perceive the importance of connectedness as an attraction to visit New Zealand. H5: the more young Brazilians explore socialisation on their vacations, the higher they perceive the importance of natural experiences as an attraction to visit New Zealand. H6: the more young Brazilians explore socialisation on their vacations, the higher they perceive the importance of connectedness as an attraction to visit New Zealand. H7: the more young Brazilians perceive the importance of natural experiences as an attraction to visit New Zealand, the higher their intention to discover new places and things. H8: the more young Brazilians perceive connectedness as an attraction to visit New Zealand, the higher their intention to discover new places and things. The theoretical relationships and respective results are presented on Figure 1. Figure 1 Conceptual Model and Results Note: * p 0.10). The path coefficient for Hypothesis 4 was also non-significant (0.202; p>0.10), indicating that there is no relationship between the feel-good experiences by young Brazilians on their vacations and the perception

78 of importance of connectedness as an attraction to visit New Zealand. Furthermore, the relationship between the search for socialisation during vacations and the perception of importance of natural experiences as an attraction of visit New Zealand was found significant and positive (0.422; p 0.10). Thus, H8 was not supported.

The outdoor experience, place meanings and the volcanoes risk perception: the case of Villarrica National Park, Araucanía Region, Chile.

Andres Ried Luci Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Chile [email protected]

This paper refers to some leisure manifestations in which the place is the center of experience, further physical environment is the main object of enjoyment and interest becomes like a question inseparable of leisure behavior (Iso-Ahola, 1980). Leisure Humanist Theory categorizes these manifestations of leisure, in the Ecological Environmental Dimension (Cuenca, 2003), and in the others fields has been conceived as outdoor recreation and / or ecotourism. Such experiences have been described as leisure experiences in wich they are arise and living through physical environment or place. That is, the space is not only necessary element if not becomes a trigger for the experience, becoming from an undifferentiated space to a "place" made sense and meaning to people in their lives (Tuan, 1977; Relph, 1976). What is revealed here is that the environment does matter in experience, but not any environment. In this regard, we can say that there is a substantial difference between urban and nature (Arnould & Price, 1993; Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989; Kellert, 2005; Louv, 2011), in other words, the place is very relevant in leisure practices, some visitors prefer choosing activities in and with nature that in the absence of it. Along with the widespread evidence collected on the benefits that provides outdoor experience (Driver, PJ, & Peterson, 1991; Tinsley & Tinsley, 1986; H. Tinsley, 2004; Ried, 2012) there is another aspect that stands out from the experience of leisure in nature, which is the generation of deep and permanent links with natural spaces, that give meaning and significance to the life of individuals and groups (Patterson, Watson, Roggenbuck , & Williams, 1998; Eisenhauer, Krannich, & Blahna, 2000; Schroeder, 2000; Jorgensen & Stedman, 2006; Roberts, 1999; Ried, 2012) and even the tourist destinations (Jorgensen & Stedman, 2006; Campelo, Aitken, Thyne, & Gnoth, 2014). These links have been referred to in the literature generically as “Sense of Place” (Tuan, 1977), and have appeared diverse specifications and models of analysis like as Place Attachment (Altman & Low, 1992; Anderson & Fulton, 2008), Place Meaning (Williams, Patterson, Roggenbuck, & Watson, 1992; Wynveen, Kyle, & Sutton, 2010) and Special Places (H. Schroeder, 2000). This paper shares some preliminary results of an ongoing research that aims to identify, analyze and understand the "place meaning" that visitors (tourists and residents) of protected areas, perceived about these territories. It also seeks to know how volcanic risk perception influences the construction of these meanings. Using a qualitative methodological approach, diverse and rich information that facilitates understanding of the meanings of place that visitors ascribed to the protected areas and how they perceive the risk by the presence of an active volcano in this natural area is collected. The instruments used were interviews and literature review. The research is conducted within the range of Villarrica National Park. Located in Chile in the Province of Cautín (Araucanía Region) and the Province of Valdivia (Region of Los Ríos), 12 km southwest of Pucon, in an area of big volcanoes and mountains reaching 3,776 meters. The park area is 63,000 ha. This protected area has some features that make it an ideal space for this research. Presents high rates of visitation (it is considered the 3rd most visited park in Chile), receives a different (foreign, domestic tourists, residents and local fans) public, has exceptional economic conditions such as glaciers, forests and the presence of indigenous communities Mapuche around. Additionally, within their margins the Villarrica volcano, one of the three most active volcanoes in Chile is located. The last eruptive cycle has started March 3, 2015 and the date of submission of this article, activity continues. The (albeit preliminaries) current results suggest that emerge similar meanings than other studies developed in protected areas in other latitudes like a; contact with nature,

79 exploration / discovery, sense of humility / simplicity, learning and social ties. Nevertheless, are important differences in assignment of meanings of where residents and visitors, especially residents belonging to the Mapuche native people. Preliminarily we can see that the perception of risk is not a factor that restricts or limits the visitation, by contrast, in subjects of this research appears as an element of attraction that even gives a unique character to the Villarrica National Park.

(Re)constructing Rio’s World Heritage: Heritage Rehabilitation and the Development of a World Tourist City

Antonio Russo, Gülden Demet Oruç, Alessandro Scarnato University Rovira i Virgili Spain [email protected]

Rio de Janeiro is rebuilding its appeal as a tourist destination, after decades of bad reputation for criminality and urban decay, also thanks to a program of global events (Fifa Cup, Olympics and the 2012 insertion in World Heritage list), which triggered urban transformations that could fit sustainable tourism. This has raised various issues of contestation, among which the risk to further social polarization as in other areas of the city and the dangers of the adoption of mainstream models of strategic planning. The paper focuses on the central area, which includes the colonial and postcolonial vestiges of the former Brazilian capital, and was once the cultural heart of the ‘exotic capital of the world’, Lapa, a bohemian neighbourhood between tradition and innovation, at a crossroads between gentrification and marginalization, as well as other neighbourhoods which have been left behind the construction of the modern extension of the city southwards. These areas showcase a continuum between heritage and new global languages, which the current urban reforms may either valorize by strengthening their social and economic embedding, or undermine through strandardisation and displacement. Such issue can be appreciated in several Latin-American historic cities, and deserve a further discussion about how to preserve an ‘urban cultural landscape’ through tourism, and which concerns should a development strategy address.

Ecological Slums? Environmental concerns and tourism mobilities in Rio de Janeiro favelas

Camila Maria dos Santos Moraes Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro Brazil [email protected]

Introduction: In the past 20 years, important theorists have discussed 'green movements' in rich societies, those societies that have already surpassed the basic struggles for rights, but it is important to study how environmental questions are being debated in emerging countries amongst the poor and their effects. In my PhD research, I am investigating three favelas (shanty towns) in Rio de Janeiro which have been turned into eco-tourist attractions mainly due to the fact that they are located within environmental preservation areas where local residents are leading ecological projects. This is rather peculiar if one notes that in Brazil favelas are usually classified as risk areas and/or environmental problems. Objectives The main objective that I am attempting to address on my PhD thesis is why favela dwellers, living in precarious territories which are often considered as ecological problems by society at large, are devoting material and symbolic resources to environmental issues, raising a ‘green flag’ in those areas. In addition, I am seeking to understand the uses and effects of those ecological projects on the shaping Vidigal, Babilônia and Chapéu Mangueira as tourist destinations and the impact that those new mobilities have on residents daily lives. Methodology: The work that follows is the result of the analysis of the literature as well as official documents produced by government agencies and community associations. The main

80 objective of this work is to investigate the apparent paradox of ecological projects in favelas, places that in the conventional wisdom are believed to be “anti-ecological” for encroaching on native forest and causing pollution. In addition, I examine how they have become examples of ecological sustainability and tourist attractions. In particular, I carry out a comparative study between two cases of reforestation around two of Rio Janeiro’s favelas that have become tourist attractions and leisure spaces. These are the reforestation of Babilônia Hill, located between the Leme and the Urca districts, and of Dois Irmãos Hill, located between the districts of Leblon and São Conrado. Both are situated in the south zone of Rio de Janeiro, near the beach. The respective hillsides are occupied by favelas: Babilônia Hill by the Babilônia favela; and Dois Irmãos Hill by Chapéu Mangueira and Vidigal favelas. Results and Discussion: In the city of Rio de Janeiro, favelas were originally formed on hillsides, encroaching on remnant areas of Atlantic Forest. The areas where some hillside favelas are located were later designated as environmental conservation units. Thus, these favelas (as opposed to those that later developed in other areas of the city) occupy areas considered environmentally fragile, largely located on hillsides, with apparent precariousness of the buildings, historically associated with illegal occupation, causing them to be classified as areas of environmental, social and political risks (Gonçalves, 2012). An analysis of public policies in the favelas located close to or within the Atlantic Forest was done and a number of projects and technical reports can be found by the former State Foundation for Environmental Engineering (Fundação Estadual de Engenharia e Meio Ambiente -FEEMA), now called the State Institute of Environment (Instituto Estadual do Ambiente - INEA). These reports presented a diagnosis of deforestation in the city of Rio de Janeiro and in favelas and proposed a series of Eco-Development Projects. The aim was to create a method to address environmental problems in slum areas (FEEMA, 1982). These reports identified the need for a study to examine the relation between slums and deforestation, as these are often considered the cause of the problem. In this sense, a series of assertions was made about the Rio’s favelas, both in the media and in academia. Licia Valladares (2005) identifies three ‘dogmas’ concerning the representation of favelas in media accounts, literary pieces and in academic discourse. The first dogma presented refers to the specificity of the favela. According to the sociologist, favelas are considered “different” mainly due to the fact they usually develop from illegal land occupation and their construction is helter-skelter. The second one refers to the categorization of favela as "locus of poverty and violence," that is, the territory par excellence where the poor reside, symbols of social problems. For this reason, they attract academic interest, government social projects and non-governmental investment. The third dogma refers to the "uniqueness", the only analytical and political treatment of the favela, in other words, the tendency to treat all favelas in the same political and analytical way. The occupation of hillsides in Rio de Janeiro has been the subject of dispute between classes for over a century. The first hillside favelas developed in the late nineteenth century as housing for marginalized social groups such as former slaves and poor immigrants, in many cases people who had been evicted from housing in flat areas of the city due to urban renewal projects. Since then, several removal and containment policies have been established. The removal policy peaked during the military dictatorship from 1964- 1985, and a few favelas were totally removed. With the democratization process, segments of Brazilian society began to question the continued removal policy and debates about the theme "Right to the City" increased, for instance, programs for regularization of land ownership and normalization of public utility services were placed on the political agenda, along with continuing policies to prevent further expansion of favelas into forested areas (Compans, 2007). Throughout history, therefore, a series of public policies sought to contain, define and control the expansion of favelas, if not eliminate them altogether, with the designation of "environmentally protected areas of occupation" or "risk areas". Because of this, favelas turned to be considered "environmental problem" by the state, media and academia. In this sense, we can notice one new assertions made about the Rio’s favelas, that can be identified as a 4th dogma – favelas as "environmental problem". However and against all odds, in the 2000s some of these supposedly anti-ecological areas became tourist attractions, and in some cases ecotourism attractions. This is the case of three favelas: Vidigal, Babilônia and Chapéu Mangueira. Vidigal is located on Dois Irmãos Hill, in the south zone of Rio de Janeiro, rising from Niemeyer Avenue, which starts in the Leblon district, one of the toniest areas of the city. In 1980, FEEMA devised an eco-development project for Vidigal, whose main objective was to conduct research for solution of environmental

81 problems, taking into consideration factors of local reality. The project intended also to raise the community's awareness of the physical characteristics and the local resources available (FEEMA, 1980). During the development of this project, FEEMA started reforestation around Vidigal, which was carried out by some residents who worked with the community association. Hiking is now practiced in the reforested area and some travel agencies sell guided outings to foreign tourists that include the Dois Irmãos trail. This trail is one of the most used in Rio de Janeiro nowadays, and is Vidigal’s main attraction. The highlight of the trail is the "unique view" of Rocinha, the city’s most famous favela and the one most often visited by tourists. In the 2000s, a new reforestation initiative began in Vidigal, this time led only by residents, who founded the Sitiê Ecological Park in a former dump. According to reports from one of the park workers, in the 1990s the site had been cleared irregularly for use as a trash dump, causing sanitary problems and landslides. In 2002, a group of residents who live around the dump began to remove the garbage from this site and reforest the area. Babilônia and Chapéu Mangueira are interspersed among the districts of Botafogo, Urca and Leme, also in the prestigious south zone of Rio de Janeiro. Today, these favelas are known as entrances to the newly created Carioca Municipal Natural Park, sponsored by the city government in 2013, considering that cultural landscape Rio has been a World Heritage Site since 2012. According to residents, the process that culminated in the creation of the park began in 1980, when favelas expanded on the hill. At the end of the 80s, fires caused by the extensive growth of grasses on the hill became a risk to the residents, as well as to Rio Sul shopping center and to middle-class buildings around Babilônia Hill. Given this scenario, all these actors came together in 1989 and began a "struggle for reforestation". The city government earmarked funds to initiate reforestation of Babilônia Hill, but the funding was only brief. In response, the Rio Sul management company took over the funding of reforestation as a social and environmental responsibility project. Studies conducted by sociologist Bianca Freire-Medeiros found that local agents had begun to organize tours as a form of sustainable development of the community, without allowing interference of external agents (Freire-Medeiros, 2007). In 2007, the trails began to be marked, to promote development of ecotourism in the region and sustainability of the community, as well as to introduce visitors to the work carried out in the area. Besides the Park, another green initiative was founded in Babilônia, the Organic Favela project, led by a local resident, who started to teach dwellers reuse of food and opened a buffet. In the project’s workshops, she teaches recipes of dishes that can be made from parts of produce that are usually discarded (along with much of the nutrient value). This project has grown and diversified over the last three years. Today she teaches residents to assemble organic gardens in their homes and organizes organic fairs in the favela with this production, and other events, all revolving around the green and sustainable theme. Conclusion These favelas saw the entrance of the Pacifying Police Unit (UPP), in 2009 in Babilônia and Chapéu Mangueira and in 2012 in Vidigal. These UPPs are part of an effort by the state government to establish a permanent police presence in favelas areas, to overcome their domination by criminal gangs, accompanied by other public agencies providing services to citizens (Carvalho, 2013). Among the effects of these units is the increase of tourists in these areas. It is important to note that in these favelas, all of these ecological projects started because of problems such as fires, landslides and trash dumps in the communities. These problems are now being overcome to some measure, making life more amendable for residents and generating a new flow of tourists in these favelas. Mimi Sheller and John Urry (2004), in the book Tourism Mobilities: Places to play, places in play, discuss how various places, especially tourist destinations, are constructed and reconstructed, or formulated and reformulated, by tourism. This is certainly true of Vidigal, Babilônia and Chapéu Mangueira. They have been in constant motion, being drawn up and reworked, variously at the initiative of public authorities, environmental NGOs, community organizations and other actors interested in developing eco-tourism projects. These favelas are now known for their trails and ecological projects. They have been attracting the attention of visitors, largely on the basis of the paradox of ecology in the favela, which is surprising since historically favelas in Rio were viewed, as previously mentioned, risk areas and anti-ecological because of their encroachment in natural forested areas.

Special Track 2 – Risky Gastronomies and Foodscapes

Greg Richards NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences Netherlands [email protected]

The ATLAS Annual Conference in Lisbon in October 2015 has the general theme of Risk in Travel and Tourism: geographies, behaviours and strategies. In line with this general theme, we invite papers for a special conference track on issues of risk in gastronomy and foodscapes. We take the notion of risk in a broad context, to include not just physical risks, but also the emotional risks and vulnerabilities of food production and consumption, the identity risks associated with the globalization of food, or the creative risk-taking necessary to develop new and innovative cuisines. We particularly welcome papers that take risks themselves in terms of the use of new methodologies, the exploration of new theoretical perspectives or the exploration of new gastronomic frontiers.

Possible topics include, but are not limited to the following:  ‘Risky foods’ and authenticity in tourism and gastronomy  The risky geographies of foodscapes (gentrification through food, pacification by cappuccino, polentafication of ‘poor’ foods)  Risks of food production for tourists, such as replacement of local foods, over-reliance on tourism in food chains  Performing food and emotional risk in gastronomy  Small and medium enterprises and economic risk in gastronomy and tourism  Risks to the sustainability of gastronomic tourism  Gastronomic diplomacy and the use of food and foodways as conduit for culture  Gastronomy as a creative industry – the creative and emotional work of chefs and gastronomers in making destinations  Globalisation and regulation as risks for local food and local food cultures  The risks of decreasing food diversity for local economies and tourist destinations

Social and organisational determinants of risk management in the production of food for restaurants

Marek Bugdol Jagiellonian University Poland [email protected]

This article focuses on the specific character of risk management in facilities producing food for various recipients such as restaurants or hotels. This specificity is related to the following factors: • guarantee of compliance with applicable sanitary standards, which entails people's behaviour consistent with instructions, procedures, discipline regulations, • possibilities of influencing the health and life of other people, i.e. food consumers, • possibilities of lowering the quality of produced food (e.g. by applying substitutes, supplements, etc.). Risk in management occurs “when we cannot foresee with complete certainty the consequences of selecting a given possibility, but we we have enough information to determine the probability of achieving the desired result” (Stoner, Freeman, Gilbert 2001, p. 247). There are very many types of risk as well as methods of risk reduction. However, the scope of this article is limited to the following specific types of risk: a. behavioural risk, which is related to employees' improper conduct, attitudes and organisational behaviour, b. risk of losing quality and reputation (in consequence of improper behaviour, attitudes, people management methods), c. risk of losing customers' confidence. Obviously, all kinds of risk entail the risk of losing financial resources. This article is based on the assumption that risk management has to be integrated with human resources management processes and result from the overall personnel policy. Otherwise, risk management programmes will become yet another

83 organisational fad. Risk reduction activities cannot be conducted beside employees, but they have to concern employees by way of everyday interactions as well as planned teaching and learning processes aimed at increasing employees' awareness. Properly trained employees are better at foreseeing threats and planning their work. The article discusses social and organisational determinants of risk management in the food production sector. The group of social determinants includes the following: a. behavioural problems related to risk reduction (such as safe and quality-oriented behaviour favourable for the quality of provided food; unethical behaviour which does not threaten the safety of food, but can indirectly lower food safety levels and quality; unethical behaviour, including sabotage, targeting directly food safety and quality), b. problems related to the shaping of required attitudes and value systems among employees and stakeholders, c. the influence of managers on behaviour ensuring food quality, d. problems related to organisational learning with particular attention paid to criteria included in quality standards and norms, data analysis, taking corrective and preventive measures, internal and external communication, personnel competencies management, and risk tolerance. The group of organisational determinants includes the following: a. problems related to guaranteeing food safety within supply chains and networks, b. threats related to the outsourcing of services (including the danger of lower quality, unethical behaviour, lost reputation), c. structural problems of food production and distribution d. the possibility of using the ISO 31000 standard in risk reduction, including problems related to risk management policies, employee empowerment, employee involvement, control mechanism implementation, risk management process implementation, separability, the design and implementation of a risk management framework, process integration and others.

The enhancement of local products. The case Eataly

Roberta Garibaldi University of Bergamo Italy [email protected]

Eataly is a chain of stores in medium and large specialized in the sale and administration of Italian food of high quality, it is a case history of success in the activities of enhancement of production of the territory. the company selects the culinary excellence, valuing the small productions that otherwise threaten to leave the market, giving them a marketing channel that allows not only survival, also given to the development. All the aspects of marketing are well kept, form the equipment to packaging, from communication to the services offered in the stores. It is now a Benchamrk in the sector worldwide.

Perceived Risk and Food Consumption by Tourists in Brazilian Northeast Beaches: Eat or not to Eat?

Anderson Gomes de Souza, Maria de Lourdes Barbosa; Mariana Bueno de Andrade Universidade Federal de Pernambuco Brazil [email protected]

Food security is a type of concern that is increasing and has led to discussions between public and private organizations about initiatives that have to be carried to assure consumers that products are not harmful to health. In developing countries, such as Brazil, the industrial, commercial and urban growth in recent decades has favored the proliferation of the informal labor market, especially the segment of street food (FAO, 2011). Among the products sold in the informal market stands out street foods, which are foodstuffs and beverages ready for consumption, prepared and / or sold in public places, for immediate or later intake, without additional steps of preparation or processing (WHO, 1996). Considering the nutritional aspect, the street food comprises part of the food supply of people, however, from a health point of view, many foods sold in the streets are presented unacceptable for consumption,

84 because of chemical contamination and/or biological (ROAD-GARCIA et al, 2002;.. GARIN et al, 2002), posing a risk to the health of those who eat them and representing individual spending and public administration (ARÁMBULO III et al, 1994). In this context, real risks exist in the consumption of street food, but the risks perceived by tourists who consume these products have not been known. The perceived risk may be real, but consumers are influenced only by the risks they perceive (SCHIFFMAN; KANUK, 1997). Thus, the relationship between risk and consumer behavior is addressed in this study in order to investigate the construct perceived risk regarding the consumption of foods that are sold in the Brazilian Northeast beaches, focusing on groups of tourists, in order to analyze possible differences in perceptions of the types of risks covered by the specialized literature. It has also sought to verify the propensity to take risks and differences in the perception of the benefits of food consumption on the beaches. To achieve this goal we conducted a quantitative study, type survey, questionnaires being applied to a sample of 500 domestic and foreign tourists on the beaches of Recife, Maceio, Joao Pessoa and Fortaleza. For the analysis applied to the technical reliability of scales, using the alpha coefficient; Descriptive statistics for a better understanding of the database; factor analysis to identify the theoretical dimensions in relation to food consumption on the beach (MALHOTRA, 2011). The survey results showed that few tourists who do not realize the risks in the consumption of food and beach, among the perceived risks, one stood out: the health risk, since food consumption is directly linked to physical integrity of individuals. Although most respondents perceived risks in the consumption of beach food, it was found that the greater the propensity of tourists to take risks, the lower your perception of the risk. The main risk reduction strategies used by tourists were the presentation of the food and the presentation of the seller. It is believed that the results of this research can contribute to support the government in designing new policies for improvement and monitoring the sale of beach food. This is considerate relevant because the information can provide tourists that come to these important tourist destinations in the Northeast of Brazil, safer consumption of food on the beaches, which will consequently collaborate to a better image of the cities and a higher quality of all tourist offers on these destinations.

Staging local cuisine to mitigate neophobic risks: case study of the Mauritian destination

Chaya Hurnath Universite de Toulouse France [email protected]

Food and tourism are inextricably linked (Boniface, 2003; Hall and Mitchell, 2000; Hjalanger and Richards, 2002; Long, 2004). Though eating is basically a physical necessity, studies from sociological and geographical perspectives have explored the wider significance of food which can mirror national and local identities (Beardsworth and Keil, 1996; Bell and Valentine, 1997; Caplan, 1997; Cook and Crang, 1996; Warde and Martens, 2000). Furthermore, food can act as a heritage asset as it can be a window onto a destination’s history (Bessiere, 1998). In fact, it can be a key influence over a destination’s selection and affect the overall enjoyment of a trip (Enright and Newton, 2005; Karim, 2006). As such, destination marketers employ local cuisines as means of positioning and differentiation (Au and Law, 2002; Boyne et al., 2003; Fox, 2007; Frochot, 2003) and its images are carefully constructed to convey a sense of place (Du Rand et al., 2003; Hjalanger and Corigliano, 2000). However, despite the obvious benefits of food in the overall tourism experience, it is postulated that it is more complicated to produce nutritious, hygienic and culturally acceptable food to tourists (Cohen and Avieli, 2004). With taste acting as the principle regulator, tourists measure risks in partaking a destination’s local cuisine. Risks can be measured according to Fishler’s (1998) distinction between ‘neophobics’ and ‘neophylics’. Both tendencies are influenced by biological and cultural factors. As such, culinary establishments in destinations intervene in order to mitigate this notion of risk by transforming/staging local foods in order to adapt them to tourists’ palate. The term ‘staging’ is derived from the model of the ‘tourist culture’ developed by Laplante and Trottier (1985)

85 which posits that tourist activities imply a theatrical production, based upon the cultural system of both the tourist and the host. As a continuation of the work of Cohen and Avieli (2004), this study proposes to look at the ways in which culinary establishments in the 3-star and 4-star hotels in the Mauritian destination stage local cuisines in order to mitigate neophobic risks with tourists. Poulain’s food model (1998), consisting of dimensions such as the system of edible food, the food system, the culinary preparations and the modes of consumption will be used to study the ways in which the local Mauritian food is transformed. Two main methods of data collection such as observation in culinary establishments and interviews with cooks will be used. Ultimately, the objective of this research is to present a spectrum of different types of culinary establishments which deal with familiarity and strangeness with local cuisines so as to reduce neophobic risks of tourists.

Distinct meanings and consumption patterns of local food amongst Portuguese rural tourists

Elisabeth Kastenholz, Maria João Carneiro, Celeste Eusébio, Elisabete Figueiredo Universidade de Aveiro Portugal [email protected]

Distinct meanings and consumption patterns of local food amongst Portuguese rural tourists Oftentimes local food is identified as a (more or less) appreciated and sought ingredient of rural holidays, with some tourists apparently travelling for the sake of enjoying particular wine and culinary experiences (Sidali et al 2013). Associated to local food are frequently nostalgically embellished healthy lifestyles as well as local culture and identity, due to the assumption of the ingredients being produced locally at these destinations, by small farmers and not the large-scale agro-industry using traditional processes. Additionally, the purchase and consumption of these local food products, after the tourist experience, at home is also recognized as a way of pleasantly prolonging the destination experience (Kastenholz et al 2014). However, local food includes many distinct product types (some agriculture produce, some manufactured and refined products) and its consumption occurs in distinct contexts, at the destination and at home, both integrated in classic tourism supply and in general commercial outlets, which may be more or less directed to the tourist market. Additionally, not all rural tourists are the same, with differences observed in motivations, behaviors, demographics and impacts produced (Frochot, 2005; Kastenholz, 2004). Also the market of local food is diversified as most consumption markets nowadays, requiring a more precise understanding of the dynamics underlying its demand amongst those interested in visiting rural destinations for tourism purposes. A better understanding of this link may help both improve the tourist experience lived at the destination and enhance the market success of local food products in the global, extremely competitive food market context. The present study aims at shedding light on the consumption patterns regarding local food amongst Portuguese visitors of rural areas, based on results of a survey directed at the Portuguese population . For the present study, only those living in urban areas, who had visited rural areas for tourism purposes before and who simultaneously indicated consumption of locally produced food items, with known origin from rural areas (N=610), were considered. A cluster analysis based on main reasons for this food consumption led to 3 clusters differing not only in reasons for local food consumption (e.g. cluster 1 stressing the importance of “trust” in the origin of the food), but also in the kinds of products consumed (e.g. Cluster 1 mainly purchasing meat products), as well as in some travel behavior (e.g. Cluster 1 tasting more than the other groups local food when travelling) and socio-demographic variables. This heterogeneity of the local food products market, the respectively most valued dimensions of this food demand and specifically associated food products has implications on food product and rural tourist experience marketing, where the risks of standardization of more industrialized forms of food production may be countered by new demands of healthy, traditionally produced quality local food products.

The influence of risk on food tourism decisions of tourists

Yuri Kork University of Exeter United Kingdom [email protected]

As healthier approach to life is becoming increasingly popular across the globe (Schreiner et al., 2003), health-consciousness is affecting various sectors and industries. Consequently, health and wellness tourism is becoming an increasingly popular and significant type of tourism (Mak, Wong and Chang, 2009; Pearce, Filep and Ross, 2011). Mak, Lumbers and Eves (2012), have attempted to examine food and eating in the context of tourism and Chang (2014) examined the influence of attitudes towards healthy eating on food tourism decisions of Taiwanese tourists. This study adhered to the recommendations of Chang (2014) and conducted a similar research on German population to detect differences in food tourism decisions of two sample groups. As this study draws majorly from the research by Chang (2014), it adopted the framework of Chang (2014) in the investigation. The research by Chang (2014) consists of two consequent phases: a series of focus group interviews with a purposive sample followed by a questionnaire survey; the interviews determined how respondents perceive healthy eating and explored their travel eating behaviours and the survey then quantitatively examined the resulting framework. This project adopts the second stage only and implements a quantitative survey similar to the survey in Chang’s (2014) research but targeting German tourists. One of the examined factors was the role of risk in food tourism decisions: Lepp and Gibson (2003) discuss that tourists may perceive food and health as factors of risk during international travels and associate food consumption with health risk. The study determined that the “risk avoidance” behaviour has similar meaning for both Taiwanese and German tourists. Both sample groups noted the importance of avoiding risk in their food consumption choices while travelling and identified the connection between perceived food risk and hygiene issues and food-borne illness. As per Changs (2014) reasoning, food consumption while travelling may be perceived more risky than at home (Elsrud, 2001; Larsen, Brun, Øgaard, and Selstad, 2007).The only aspect that German tourists do not majorly perceive as risky is the consumption of raw foods. In addition, the study suggests that the importance of “risk avoidance” may increase when travelling to the foreign destinations (Elsrud, 2001; Larsen et al., 2007). One of the main conclusions of the study is that German and Taiwanese samples have a number of similarities and differences, but mostly behave in similar patterns. Where the deviations in the behaviour of the two groups occur, they may have a cultural (as with Germans not perceiving meat eating as an unhealthy eating behaviour) or geographical nature (for example, European food perceived as safe by German tourists because of EU food safety regulations). It may be suggested that cultural and geographical characteristics of the tourist group may have an impact on their travel eating behaviour and additional research is needed to deeper understand the importance of such factors in the decisions of the food tourists.

The quality management and risk minimization in regard to culinary tourism products.

Justyna Maciąg University of Economics in Katowice Poland [email protected]

The aim of the paper is to present the model solutions in the field of quality management, including risk minimization in regard to culinary tourism products. The paper is based on the argument that the establishment of network quality standards in the regional culinary tourism products has a significant impact on reducing the risk, ensuring originality of products, also helps to improve the customer satisfaction. The article is based on the results of a critical analysis of available literature on the subject, as well as the results of the author’s own research conducted in the form of interviews with the leaders of tourism networks and local government. The study covered the regional culinary tourism products: The 'Silesian Tastes'

Culinary Route and the chosen museums on the Industrial Monuments Route ie. Tyskie Brewery, Brewery in Żywiec and the Museum of Bread. The culinary heritage becomes the basis for the creation of regional culinary tourism products in the form of objects (eg. museums, factories, regional restaurants), routes (culinary routes) and culinary events (fairs, culinary performances, festivals, etc.). Most of these products are effect of interorganisational cooperation therefore we can define them as a tourism network products. Quality of network product is seen, among others, by built and established in network a technical and organisational standard. Thus the assessment of the tourism product quality should also take into account the benefits of participation in a network effect (guarantee, safety, minimize risk, ensure the originality of product). The quality of the product will be determined by the quality of the products supplied by the members of the network, their relationships, the attitude of the leader, the established way of coordinating the network, including the adopted models, methods and tools of quality and risk management. The originality of the paper lies in the presentation a holistic approach to quality and risk management of products in the regional culinary tourism. For selected examples will be presented the model which consisting of two spheres of action: at the level of organization and at the network level. Creation of high-quality culinary tourism product requires not only the implementation of solutions required by the European and national regulations (i.e Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point HACCP0. There is also a need to implement international standards in terms of quality and food safety and risk management (ie. BRC Global Standard Food, IFS International Food Standard, ISO 22 000, ISO 9001, ISO 31 000) and EU system of protection for regional and traditional products. However, in order to build the reputation of a culinary tourism product a significant importance has a creation of network quality standards in the form of regulations and traditional recipes. Also it is important to build a system for monitoring of these standards. Such solutions have been applied in the case of the The 'Silesian Tastes' Culinary Route and the Industrial Monuments Route, which are two prestigious regional tourism products Silesia Province.

Taking risks with traditional gastronomy – a route to innovation?

Greg Richards, Carlos Fernandes NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences Netherlands [email protected]

It has long been held that traditional food is an attraction for tourists. However, not all traditional food is attractive or accessible for tourists, and in some cases only becomes a tourist attraction when presented in the guise of ‘scary food’ (Gyimóthy and Mykletun, 2009). One of the problems is that traditional food which is an embedded part of the local culture is not easily readable to tourists who are not familiar with the culture. There is therefore a need to engage with more globalised cultural markers that can help to link the food culture of the destination with the culture of the visitor. In the past the marker of ‘tradition’ has often provided a convenient tourist marker, but the wave of gastronomisation sweeping the globe has tended to push traditional cuisine into the background in favour of innovative and globalised forms of consumption. This paper argues that in the current climate of rapid gastronomic change, destinations increasingly need to take risks in order to present an attractive gastronomic offer to tourists. Not only are established ideas of ‘traditional’ food being challenged by globalisation and localisation, but the growing mobility of tourists and local populations is reducing the previously hard divisions between ‘locals’ and ‘tourists’. In many cases the contemporary ‘foodie’ has a knowledge of foodways and food cultures to match that of many locals. In this situation creating engaging food experiences requires an innovative approach to the re-invention of traditional food that uses local knowledge as a basis for innovation. However, since local knowledge alone is unlikely to be sufficient to fully engage with the global networks that can attract the gastronomic tourist, it should also be recognised that innovation needs to take place in a way that can appeal to influential ‘switchers’ or ‘selectors’ within those networks (Wijnberg, 2004, Richards, 2014). This paper examines different strategies that destinations can adopt to stimulate gastronomic innovation, arguing that a certain amount of ‘risk’ is involved in all of these strategies. In

88 particular, the adaption of food to global tastes can run the risk of separating food from its gastronomic roots, and turning it into a tourist pastiche. Trying to stick to closely to traditional methods and presentation is also risky because it may fail to engage the global consumer. A calculated risk in gradual adaptation is therefore often seen as a potential solution. We examine how foods are being adapted to international foodie taste, using examples from Portugal and Spain. We particularly concentrate on the Minho region of Portugal and Catalunya in Spain, both designated as European Region of Gastronomy in 2016. Gyimóthy, Szilvia and Mykletun, Reidar Johan (2009) Scary food: Commodifying culinary heritage as meal adventures in tourism. Journal of Vacation Marketing July 2009 vol. 15 no. 3 259-273. Richards, G. (2014) Between tradition and innovation: Contrasting approaches to gastronomy in Portugal and Spain. Paper presented at the ATLAS Tourism and Gastronomy Group Meeting, Viana do Castelo, May 2014. Wijnberg, N. M. (2004). Innovation and Organization: Value and Competition in Selection Systems. Organization Studies, 25(8): 1413–1433.

Russian tourists’ perceptions of authenticity of food based on trust

Marjo Särkkä-Tirkkonen, Sinikka Mynttinen, Johanna Logrén, Teija Rautiainen University of Helsinki Finland [email protected]

Russians are the largest national group among tourists visiting Finland, even after the recent downturn caused by the economic situation/devaluation of the Ruble. Russian tourists in Finland spend money mainly on food, household goods, sweets and children's clothing. Thus, food is a fundamental element of the holiday experience. Finnish food products are highly valued by Russians, and, therefore, Russian tourists are an interesting target group in order to understand the perceptions of authenticity better in relation to local food as a tourism experience. Moreover, the research focused on this topic has been quite scarce so far. Foods and drinks engage all the senses and have strong connections with place, because we have personal, sensory memories of consuming them in a certain setting. It can be argued that food has an ability to recall emotions and that is why tourists often search for authentic experiences via food products. Furthermore, they buy food e.g. as souvenirs in order to relive the holiday events with family and friends at home. Among Russian tourists also cross-border food tourism is common based on perceptions of high-quality foodstuffs and authenticity of the products in their original environment. The process of forming the perception of an authentic food experience is very sensitive. An essential element in this process is trust, which is founded upon past experiences and knowledge and, at the same time, upon expectations for the future. Further, it is proposed that together with pre- contractual trust, trust in individuals and collective entities plays a role in the process of creating predictability. Thus, tourists’ perceptions of authenticity of local food are argued to relate to their trust in the food chain as a whole as well as in its actors: farmers, processors of food, restaurants, retail and the control system. This study applies qualitative methods to reach a more in-depth understanding of Russian tourists’ relations to local food during their visit to Finland, especially, their trust in its authenticity. The results show that there is an interaction between the three forms of trust and perceived authenticity of local food among Russian tourists. The perceived authenticity and trust, accordingly, seem to be based on a positive image of Finnish food throughout the post-soviet period, the institutional performance of the Finnish food system as well as one’s own and other’s experiences. Keywords: food, tourism, trust, authenticity, gastronomy Topic: Risky foods and authenticity in tourism and gastronomy.

Barcelona’s Foodsphere: What is Local?

Elsa Soro Autonomous University of Barcelona Spain [email protected]

Culinary experiences in the framework of a cosmopolite urban landscape contributes to create dynamic glocalized spaces. This paper adopts a semiotics approach in order to seize the processes of spatial value creation operating when different forms of mobilities intersect through the analysis of discourses, practices and texts encrusted within diverse foodscapes. We use the concept of foodsphere to understand food as a cultural operator that catalyses encounters, intersections, and contaminations among different identities and cultures in the multi-ethnic and tourist scenario of the city of Barcelona. By describing different food experience and culinary projects intersected by tourist flows and the mobilities of immigrant communities and temporal residents, the case illustrates different types of hybridized place identity construction that take place in Barcelona. By focusing both on the culinary concept behind each site and the mise en scène of the dining experience, we reflect on the recreation of a hybrid local space associated with the concept of authenticity, and the risk associated to that, in the frame of a contemporary touristic metropolis.

The Study of Gastronomic Festivals Based on Cultural Heritage

Diana Tikhonova, Valery Gordin, Julia Trabskaya National Research University “Higher School of Economics” in Saint-Petersburg Russia [email protected]

In recent years, the gastronomic festivals have been considerably risen in number and popularity around the globe. At the same time, the issues of revival and consolidation of national and local traditions, preservation of cultural and historical heritage are becoming increasingly popular in Europe and other countries that influences on the events concept, specifically in the field of gastronomy. The linkage with the territory, its specific character, and culture is stated among the key values of contemporary gastronomy (Richards, 2012). Hence, the questions of locality and authenticity of gastronomy experiences are becoming vital nowadays. Today among the leading topics of gastronomic events are reconstruction and conservation of cultural traditions, authentic cuisine, gastronomic customs and traditions at local, regional or national scale, and promotion of local produce. Therefore, the research of gastronomic festivals based on cultural heritage seems highly important. The main aim of the present study is the identification and typologization of gastronomic festivals connected with local, regional or national cultural heritage (in European countries and in Saint Petersburg, Russia). The authors of the paper put forward an assumption that today cultural heritage is widely used as a tool for creation and promotion of European food and drink festivals whereas it is poorly developed among St Petersburg festivals. Various Internet sources served as empirical data of the research, including diverse event catalogs, calendars and portals, official web sites of destinations and food festivals. The basis of the study was the analysis of three major event catalogs, which permitted the authors to collect 206 European gastronomic festivals in 2015. Above all, the content analysis of the sample was conducted to detect those events linked to cultural heritage followed by their typologization based on various criteria related to heritage and the similar analysis of St Petersburg festivals. The research of European gastronomic events allowed discovering 94 festivals (46%), based on cultural heritage. The further analysis developed a set of elements constructing those festivals and linking them to the heritage of the hosting territory, among which the local and traditional gastronomy appeared to be the most frequent. These characteristics let the authors distinguish several types of the festivals based on heritage. On the other hand, the study of St Petersburg food festivals showed that its organizers almost do not use the local and national heritage. In result, based on European experience several

90 recommendations were developed for creating a gastronomy festival in Russia successfully implementing its local heritage for the festival promotion and destination branding. Thus, the research findings allowed proving the hypothesis. Resources Richards, G. (2012) Chapter 1. “An overview of food and tourism trends and policies”, in OECD Food and the Tourism Experience: The OECD-Korea Workshop, OECD Studies on Tourism, OECD.

Managing Risky Food in Less Developed World: Mediating Role of Familiarity and Information

Wan-Hafiz Zainal Shukri University of Surrey United Kingdom [email protected]

The lure of exploratory eating during travel involving unfamiliar even risky foods is often viewed as an ‘attraction’ in experiencing authenticity; nevertheless not all tourists are prepared when confronted with strange and unfamiliar food, especially in less developed world. The purposes of this study were to explore factors influencing Western tourist’s willingness-to try unfamiliar food and to examine the mediating role of familiarity. Drawing from the semi-structured interviews and photo elicitation data of western tourists’ travel experiences in Malaysia, the findings revealed that western tourist’s variety-seeking behaviour were influenced by sensory affective factor and by the frequency of unfamiliar food resembling existing food product (familiarity). Familiar ingredients and familiar flavour played an important mediating role, bridging between familiar and unfamiliar food. Findings from photo elicitation also indicated that Western tourist’s uses information to minimize risks from digestive problems and eating food perceived as disgusting. When more information relating to ingredients, spices, cooking style and level of authenticity were provided, Western tourists were able to relate to the unfamiliar food, which increase their willingness-to-try. On the other hand, unappealing food presentation, food safety concerns and lack of information regarding unfamiliar ingredients enhance disgust, which increased the barrier towards unfamiliar food acceptance. This study enhances our understanding on the characteristics and boundary of Western tourists’ food consumption behaviour in less marketed destination in Asia, providing useful theoretical framework for future studies. The implications for our understanding on the concept of familiarity in food by Western tourists will be further explored.

Special Track 3 - Terrorism and tourism

Cândida Cadavez ESHTE (Escola Superior de Hotelaria e Turismo do Estoril) Portugal [email protected]

Thinking back of the 80s and 90s, one can easily remember some different situations in which tourists were victims of terrorism – 1985 Achille Lauro hijacking, 1988 Lockerbie bombing, or 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games bombing.

In the new millennium the industry of tourism has been forced to deal with other situations, whose global impact and awareness have made them impossible to be forgotten by all players as iconic heritage in tourism destination is also at stake, as happened in 2001 with the Bamiyan Statues in Afghanistan or with the Twin Towers, in New York, in 2002 at the Dubrovka Theater, in Russia, or in March 2015 at the Bardo Museum, in Tunis.

This track welcomes papers that discuss precisely how the tourism activity is being affected by regional or national social/political conflicts that end up messing with a sector which is globally recognized as a tool for the promotion of peace and understanding, as stated by the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism.

Possible topics include, but are not limited to the following:  How destinations deal with (global) security threats;  How far security threats interefere (or not) with the promotion of the destination; how destinations represent/re-design themselves;  How the decision-making process is influenced by past terrorist threats to destinations;  How the targetted places and/or icons are recycled;  How stakeholders handle the label of “unsecured” destination/attraction;  How WTO, the European Union and other entities deal with terrorist threats in tourism destinations.

Effects of Terrorism on Tourism Industry- A case study of Jaipur

Kumar Ashutosh University of Delhi India [email protected]

Tourism becomes every year more important for national and local economies; the sector is facing some changes. Factors such as decrease of working time, urbanization and development of communication means give the opportunity for other kinds of tourism to develop. People coming from the cities want to escape from their stressing daily life and enjoy during their holidays a peaceful, safe and good quality environment. Travel and tourism have been important social activity of human beings since times immemorial. The urge to explore new places within one’s own country or outside and seek a change of environment & experience has been experienced from ancient times. Tourism is one of the world’s most rapidly growing industries. Much of its growth is due to higher disposable incomes, increased leisure time and falling costs of travel. As airports become more enjoyable places to pass through, as travel agency services become increasingly automated, and as tourists find it easier to get information on places they want to visit, tourism grows. It is also crucial for people to travel to safe places before finalizing travel plans, with immense information resources, the internet allows tourists to scrutinize hotels, check weather forecasts, read up on local food and even talk to other tourists around the world about their travel experiences for a chosen destination and also the safety standards of destination. There is no doubt that security has increasingly become a larger part of everyone’s life. Business and leisure travelers alike emphasize on security and safety of the destination. The incidence of

92 terrorism adversely affects the tourism for example incidence of bomb blasts in Jaipur had serious consequences on tourism in Jaipur. First time in the history terrorists had targeted Jaipur city also knows as Paris of India, tenth largest city and one of its most popular tourist destinations.The bombs were planned near historic monuments at one of the busiest times of the day on dated 13th May 2008. Nine bombs at seven locations exploded within fifteen minutes. (Source- www.rediff.com/news/2008/may/13rajblast.htm). These attacks have badly affected the tourism not only in Jaipur city but in whole Rajasthan. The paper will discuss the after scenario of the lethal blast took and its subsequent impact on evergreen tourism industry of Jaipur. The paper will also examine the opinion of tour operators, tourists, hoteliers and other stakeholders of tourism. The paper will present the importance of tourism in the growth of the economy of a destination and how terrorist attacks adversely effect the growth of tourism and the development of the nation.

Tourism and Terrorism: Strange Companions

Cláudia Patrícia de Almeida Seabra Moreira, Antunes, M.J.; Paiva, O.; Vicente, M.; Abrantes, J.L. ; Herstein, R Politechnic Institute of Viseu Portugal [email protected]

Terrorism became an important and recurring topic in in the XXI century public discourse since in the last decades the world assisted to the growing of terrorist attacks. In its domestic and international form is practiced by revolutionary groups, being a constant in modern life (Feichtinger et al., 2001). The terrorist groups are increasingly sophisticated, dangerous and destructives. Paradoxically, international terrorism and tourism share some characteristics. They both cross national borders, involve citizens from different countries and use the new travel and communication technologies. Terrorists often use tourism to gain publicity and support to achieve their goals. Tourists are chosen as targets for their symbolic value representing Western capitalism, consumption, and values such as wealth, freedom of choice and independence (Richter & Waugh, 1986). For terrorists, the symbolism, high profile, and news coverage brought by international tourists makes them too valuable to leave to be explored (Sonmez et al., 1999). This paper tries to gather research and data based on this strange link between terrorism and tourism on the last 35 years.

Charlie Hebdo terrorism act and its impact on risk perception of the destination Morocco by the french tourists

Sair Aziz University Ibn Zohr Morocco [email protected]

The stability of the flow of tourism depends on issues of security. Terrorism events in the world from 80's up to the recent Charlie Hebdo attack shaped the perception of the tourists and designed a new map of flows. The coverage of the media of the terrorist attacks has a great impact on the risk perception of the potential tourists in their choice of the destination. Charlie Hebdo terrorist attack "on the media" , on a topic concerning caricatures of the prophet Mohamed could only fuel the debate on Islam, Islamism , fanatism... by the media that was considered as a target. The solidarity effect of the French media with Charlie Hebdo, that went up to the demonization phenomenon, contributed actively in moulding the perception of their audiences. Consequently the generalization effect caused a huge damage to " Muslim " destinations . Morocco suffered from a drop in arrivals right after the terrorist attack from this generating market that is considered as its first market. In this paper we will try to study the impact of the media coverage through the recurrence of different terms such as Islam, terrorism , fanatism , Islamism in the french media and its impact on the perception

93 of the French and to compare it with time series analysis of arrivals of the French tourists in Morocco in the first quarter of 2015.

A brief look at Portugal’s security: Is the Algarve a tourist destination free from terrorism?

Dario Fernandes, Jacqueline Santos, Rui Neves, Claudio Mira, Hugo Saúde, Claudio Ribeiro Universidade lusofna humanidades tecnologia Portugal [email protected]

A brief look at Portugal’s security: Is the Algarve a tourist destination free from terrorism? Portugal opened up new paths to the old world[1], traded knowledge and wealth the world over. This ancient, small, sunny, sea-facing southwest European country, from where once men sailed to find new horizons was, in years to come, to find itself a member of the European states, but with all the benefits of such membership and alliance, new challenges were also to await these friendly and humble people. After the 1974 peaceful and solidary revolution, known as the Carnation Revolution which ended 30 years of isolation, its membership of the European Union, and the ups and downs of its less than established economy highlighted the necessity to take advantage of its geographical location, thus this historical sunny corner of the old world, would capitalize on and make of tourism a key foundation and crucial aspect of its social and economical development. Despite the geographical location of the Iberian Peninsula, part of Portugal has been an ancient Islamic territory, perhaps due to the openess of its people, whose characteristics tend to be rather peculiar, a Portuguese citizen does not distinguish between rich or poor, nor does it discriminate against ethnic groups, ideologies or religious belief. Portugal is internationally considered an Islamic Terrorrism or ther type of threat riskless country. Despite its geographical location off the Iberian Peninsula[3], part of Portugal has been an ancient Islamic territory, due perhaps to the openness of its people whose characteristics tend to be rather peculiar in that, a Portuguese citizen does not discriminate between rich or poor, nor does it discriminate against ethnic groups, ideologies or religious belief. It can be said that Portugal is internationally considered to be a threat-free country from Islamic or indeed other types of terrorism, effectively making it a country devoid of risk [4]. This essay has as its aim, to present Portugal as country with the fastest growing touristic industry[5] that makes it an attractive destination that combines both security and leisure. Unlike other European countries or, more distant tourist destinations, there are no incidents of records of major terrorist occurrences [6] or indeed, other forms of violence. From the top North, in the city of Porto, the Douro river snakes its way through Coimbra - the capital of tradition, kingdom of knowledge and heiress of the brightest of minds. Lisbon, also known as the city of the 7 hills, faces and embraces the river Tejo (Tagus River), whilst the brownish green plains grace the Alentejo region before reaching the Algarve, the tourism capital with its beautiful beaches and scorching sun. It would be safe to declare that Portugal not only offers a wealth of wellbeing and leisure facilities [7] but, perhaps most importantly, it possesses an historical track record in terms of its security and safety [8], which some may view as a winning combination along. This research aims to show a country which is committed to both its citizens and visitors, and which has developed a package that is preventive in nature in relation to anti-terrorism, internationally cooperative with the law [9], and which possesses an allied group of security forces[10] well formed and trained to prevent, protect and reduce the risk of terrorist attacks. In the unlikely event of a [terrorist] attack, this is a country however, for which its resilient society is ready to overcome the negative psychological effects and restore the public order and the ordinary lifestyle. Algarve an international tourist destination: case study.

Safety at home impacting on fear of terrorism in international travel

Elisabeth Kastenholz, Claudia Seabra, José Luis Abrantes Universidade de Aveiro Portugal [email protected]

Tourism is a complex phenomenon involving a wide range of people, increasingly seeking for new and unique experiences in order to satisfy the most diverse motives, reason why the world tourism landscape has been changing in the last decades (Seabra, Abrantes & Kastenholz, 2014). The motivations of tourist as the destinations they seek are no longer related with the traditional sun, beach and beautiful sceneries. The concept of ‘pleasant diversion in pleasant places’ is changing and broadening into new market demanding, more complex and even unusual (Wight, 2006). This is the case of dark tourism, considered as the phenomenon which encompasses the presentation and consumption (by visitors) of real and commodified death and disaster sites (Lennon & Foley, 2009). Dark Tourism, understood as the type of tourism that involves a visit to real or recreated places associated with death, suffering, misfortune, or the seemingly macabre (Stone, 2006), is not a new concept, even from a touristic point of view (Farmaki, 2013). In fact, places of war, disasters, death and atrocities always fascinated humans and are subject to visits (Cohen, 2011; Logan & Reeves, 2009; Stone & Sharpley, 2008). Since people are able to travel have been drawn, purposefully or otherwise, towards sites, attractions or events linked in one way or another with death, suffering, violence or disaster (Stone, 2005). The concept of dark tourism has been designed and studied for the last years and many are the destinations around the world where it has been implemented, playing an important role in both a country’s economy and its image. However, there is a gap in literature about this specific type of tourism. The main goal of this paper is to present a literature review about this new tourism product where the thrill seeking is the main motivation. Specifically it is our objective to bring Dark Tourism definitions, history and evolution, also its typologies and the most important dark tourist sites all over the world.

Does terrorism threaten Portugal as a tourists paradise? The Case of the Algarve

João Paulo Martinho, Manuel Lage; Mário V. Martins Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias Portugal [email protected]

Security issues are a recognized reason for tourists to stay away from areas where their leisure could be interrupted by a varied set of threats. Standing out among other security issues is the threat of terrorism: a growingly complex area as it affects the diverse sectors of society, particularly the tourism sector, which is an economic activity that enables worldwide movement of people. As a phenomenon, terrorism is characterized by the use and threat of violence, affecting people and goods unpredictably and indiscriminately, and generating consequent suffering and feelings of insecurity. Due to its mediatization terrorism has become one of the most studied and debated issues of our time with regard both to its emergence and its impacts. In the Portuguese case, a large number of foreigners entering Portugal are tourists who plan to visit the country. This theme is of strategic importance for the state and must therefore be treated as national economic interest if we consider other perspectives. Indeed, in 2014, according to the Bank of Portugal, revenues from foreign tourists amounted to 10.4 billion euros (Turismo de Portugal, I.P., 2015) an average of 28 million per day. Considering that there are a significant number of visitors in relatively limited geographical areas, tourism is an attractive “soft target” for terrorists (Paraskevas & Arendell, 2007, p. 1560) and, moreover, capable of having a disproportionately large and sustained impact on the Portuguese economy. A terrorist attack, or a credible threat of an announced attack on a touristic zone has as an immediate consequence a decrease in the number of visitors, and an impact on the local economy that could spread to the regional and, in some cases, national economy. There is also a high cost of recuperating tourist confidence in order

95 to have tourists return to the area in the same numbers as prior to the attack. This paper focuses on the evaluation of the potential consequences that terrorism may have on tourism in Portugal, particularly in the Algarve, with recourse to the available literature on the subject and to data analysis provided by official agencies. It assesses the nature and extent of security measures of hotel organizations, concluding with the proposal of measures deemed effective and efficient in the areas of prevention and resilience that could be adopted by those organizations from the perspective of maintaining a safe and relaxed atmosphere for its guests and to attract others.

Special Track 4 – Independent Travel

Cody Morris Paris Middlesex University Dubai United Arab Emirates [email protected]

Kevin Hannam Leeds Beckett University United Kingdom [email protected]

Consistent with the general theme of the ATLAS Annual Conference in Lisbon in October 2015, we invite papers for a special conference track on “Independent Travel and Risk”. We invite papers that explore the inherent relationship of ‘risk’ with Independent Travel /Backpacking.

Possible topics include, but are not limited to the following:  Identities of Risk for independent travelers  Negotiating risks and crisis via new technologies  Gendered perceptions of risk for independent travelers  Creative Risks: construction of narratives of risk and adventure by independent travelers  Conflict, Terrorism, Security risks and Independent travel  ‘Risky destinations’ and independent travel  Personal Health and ‘Risky behavior’ of independent travelers

Security in tourism territories: the case of Inhambane municipality in Mozambique

Helsio Amiro Motany de Albuquerque Azevedo Escola Superior de Hotelaria e Turismo de Inhambane Moçambique [email protected]

The safety, security and tourism are concepts that must keep engaged in the process of tourism planning and management to value the landscape of tourist territory. Security, as part of the tourist offer, should not be ignored in the process of development of territories, because they may lose the image quality and the benefits from the sector. This situation can install the chaos in a unprecedented way to devaluate the tourist landscape. The study aimed to show the importance of safety for the development of tourism at Inhambane municipality (IM) in Mozambique. In a time that tourist demands are more exigent and qualified and the competition bigger between the tourist destinations, the activities of planning the territory through studies of touristic offer, are crucial, to public and private managers. Through bibliographic and documental review, the use of questionnaires and interviews, observation and a workshop, sought information’s that supported the theoretical construction of tourist safety and also elucidate the real situations of tourist destinations that experienced by weakness in its security systems. Mozambique and the IM are not far from this reality, because the study demonstrated that there are problems in the tourism planning and management, in general, and specifically in the tourism safety. It’s understood that the IM and Mozambique, singular and in general, are destinations that can see their efforts doomed to failure if in short and medium time, the managers of tourism, not incorporate, into their planning and management, specific actions that contribute to improving the quality of tourist offer. Political and military conflicts and the exposure of the territory to extreme events as cyclones, for example, associated with the lack of resources and weak preparedness of private and public managers are the main risks that could "undermine" the tourism development, specifically, and local development in general. The situations described support the thesis that the stakeholders in the tourism sector, in Inhambane municipality,

97 ignores the tourist safety and security as a key element for provide positive social and spatial dynamics, situation that will lead the tourism sector to failure.

Quality analysis of hotel rating portals – theoretical and empirical evidence

Monika Bandi University of Bern Switzerland [email protected]

The increased travel experience and facilitated communication possibilities lead to more independent travel behaviour: Independent travellers increasingly choose long-haul and culturally very different destinations. When staying at remote destinations, it is particularly important for them to find an accommodation where they feel safe and comfortable. However, prior to having experienced it, they can hardly evaluate the nature and quality of an offer. Their decision is therefore subject to a relatively high degree of perceived uncertainty. Online reviews potentially reduce this uncertainty stemming from asymmetric information between travellers and service providers. By sharing their experiences, travellers can help others to select an accommodation which meets their expectations. Following the AIDA model, online reviews are primarily important during the interest phase. A new aspect is that a feedback mechanism from the action to the interest phase takes place, when travellers write a review themselves after their stay. In sum, sites like Trip-Advisor have become an important information source for independent travellers. The dynamic online communication process between travellers also represents a possibility to discuss potential risks via new technologies. Nevertheless, doubts about the authenticity of all reviews are often reported. Due to these concerns and the great variety of travel portals, it has become difficult for independent travellers to decide which portal is credible and could best meet their informational needs. Because of missing scientific knowledge in this context, the study develops and applies an instrument for empirical comparative analyses of the quality of such portals. Based on established theories on information processing, information adoption is considered a useful target concept for the analysis. It can be defined as the (sub)conscious process of accepting an information as being true and applying it to a decision. Only upon fulfilment of information adoption, online reviews are likely to reduce travellers’ uncertainties. Portals and their contents should therefore optimally be set up such that the probability of information adoption is maximized. In this study a theoretical model of information adoption is refined and adapted to the context of online rating portals. There is practical evidence that some travellers take their decisions on the basis of superficial research, while others inform themselves profoundly. As long as this holds, the model implies that portals should at best be able to handle both routes of information processing to support most travellers optimally. This leads to an analysis instrument consisting of the quality criteria “source credibility”, “argument quality” and “provision of fast decision aids”, which are operationalized with different indicators and 36 single variables. The instrument is exemplarily applied to ten relevant portals. Data is collected by carrying out a content analysis of the portals’ websites. The empirical results indicate that the greatest differences between portals lie in their investments to increase “source credibility” and “argument quality”, while “fast decision aids” seem to be their core competence. The overview of their quality profiles can help independent travellers to decide which portal could best support them with travel planning. Therefore the study could contribute to the special track “independent travel”.

Risk as transgression: the backpackers experience

Denise Falcão Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais Brasil [email protected]

This research focuses on backpackers on their customary trips. It seeks to reveal how the forms and styles adopted in this kind of trip (self-organization, flexible itineraries, low cost lodging, contact with local people, use of public transport etc.) cause a tension with other kinds of tours promoted by specialized agencies in the capitalist logic of consumption. Developed as an Interdisciplinary Master's Degree in Leisure Studies – UFMG/Brazil, 2013, this research favors a qualitative approach, within which multiple methods were used to interpret this human experience, such as: literature search; field research and observation; semi-structured interview; snowball sampling and data analysis. The interviews were conducted with eight backpackers and six hostel managers in different locations (Paraty-RJ, Paraty-Mirim-RJ, Trindade-RJ and Belo Horizonte-MG in Brazil, Córdoba and Rosário in Argentina). The backpackers, research subjects, are Brazilians over the age of 29 who declare themselves as backpackers. The criterion of a higher age group (adults) was adopted to research subjects that make this practice an option, thus eliminating a large contingent of young people who "backpack" by the fact that they have little money to travel. No specific profile was chosen for the hostel managers. From the central point of the discussion, i.e., the subject in their mediation with the world, through their activity, are able to self-express in tension with society, "risk" emerges as one of the social and personal meanings that constitute backpacking and the backpacker. Some tensions of this practice in contemporary society were considered. Backpackers are found not to condone with transforming the trips into consumption goods. They understand this practice as a life experience, through which they give meaning to their existence in a unique way. This singularity, a subjective constitution of the subject, is triggered by the choice process they experience, creating tension and taking risks as they violate the existing system, especially when it comes to how to travel.

Risk perception and management in hard adventure tourism: an instructor’s perspective

Viachaslau Filimonau, Hannah Clinch Bournemouth University United Kingdom [email protected]

Recently, hard adventure tourism (HAT) has demonstrated substantial growth. Despite risks that this sector of the tourism industry is associated with, it attracts increasingly large number of participants. This has brought about a new strand in tourism research with a focus on HAT. Within this strand, research has however been limited in scope of analysis. This is because its primary focus has been on the participant’s psychology where expectations, perceptions and motivations of tourists for taking part in risky activities offered by HAT have been examined. A number of studies have also looked into injuries and fatalities as a result of tourist’s participation in HAT. There is no empirical evidence of research conducted on the topic of risk perception and management in HAT from the perspective of its facilitators, i.e. HAT instructors. This issue calls for better understanding as instructors take responsibility for participant’s safety and comfort. The shortfall in research on the instructor’s perception and management of risk implies that the industry may potentially be unable to develop HAT activities in a safe and sustainable manner. This paper aims to plug this knowledge gap. It reports on the outcome of a qualitative study based upon in-depth semi-structured interviews conducted with qualified HAT instructors in Dorset, the UK. It examines the instructors’ perception of risk, reveals approaches to risk management; identifies the key challenges and opportunities for more effective risk management; and outlines the best practices which can be adapted by operators to minimise risks associated with participation in HAT, thus

99 enhancing safety of participants and facilitating long-term sustainability of HAT businesses. Managerial and policy-making recommendations are proposed to improve the robustness of future risk management in HAT enterprises.

Traveling the world sharing your home

Roberta Garibaldi, Francesca Forno Università degli Studi di Bergamo Italy [email protected]

Contemporary societies have observed the expansion of alternative, non-institutionalized travel trends, which oppose mainstream tourism by providing consumers with a broader range of alternatives. Between alternative forms of tourism, very few studies have focused on home-swapping and this is in spite of its rapid growth, which has recently been observed even in countries where it has long remained a niche phenomenon. With this formula, tourists have the opportunity to organize custom tailored trips without seeking the services of travel mediators and with the only cost of the loan of their own home. As other fast-growing online travel lodging services, home-swapping is based on peer-to-peer relations between house owners which are frequently built via the Internet before the departure. As often pointed out, new information technologies facilitate the creation of trust between strangers lowering transactions costs and enabling sharing to take place conveniently. The paper presents and discusses the results obtained through a worldwide online survey with more than 50 closed questions launched in April 2013 among the members of HomeExchange.com. As the data analysis points out, home swapping is a form of tourism which requires trust, respect, an open mind, inventiveness, preparation, enthusiasm and flexibility. If the economic aspect is certainly a factor to take into consideration in the explanation of the growth observed by this type of tourism, the possibility to cut the accommodation costs is certainly not the whole story here.

The risks when travelling in a wheelchair. The case of Lisbon

Ilidia Catarina Gonçalves Carvalho University of Lisbon Portugal [email protected]

The study of such an interesting activity like tourism has always been of most interest but never before we were as much aware of the complexity of this phenomenon and the consequences it may have in our life and society. Nevertheless sometimes we tend to forget the inherent risks when travelling but fortunately we are also getting more aware of some difficulties and we are now even concerned about accessible tourism. Accessible tourism is an increasing reality today. As a result of several factors like the ageing of the population, the change of mentality about impairment and some technological improvements, people with special needs are travelling all over the world and they are even willing to take some risks that they are well aware of because of their limitations. These risks can be of different nature depending on the barriers presented to them and knowing these risks can allow us to prevent them and allowing even more people to travel. We must consider not only the physical but also the human and the information barriers that can be considered as risks in travel and tourism for those that are, for instance, travelling in a wheelchair. The “tourism chain”, which includes all aspects concerning a trip, is an important issue that must be present in our minds when we are talking about these tourists, because if tourism sometimes can be a risky activity, since not always things happen as they are expected to when we are on holidays, for these tourists, with special needs, risk is even larger since there are simple situations impossible for them to overcome. Is interesting to see how we find different behaviours facing these barriers/risks and how people tend to develop some

100 strategies to overcome the difficulties. As example of this, we will present some results of several interviews made to tourists and day visitors in a wheelchair that came to Lisbon. Lisbon which is considered to be one of Europe’s most important tourism destinations already started preparing for accessible tourism. Some of the most important touristic areas in this town, like Belem, Baixa and the Park of the Nations, already present a certain level of accessibility, but there are still many aspects to be considered and developed for this town to be presented as an accessible tourism destination. In this paper we also intend to show the risks that a tourist in a wheelchair may face when coming to Lisbon and how this town should prepare in the future to receive them properly and allowing them to have a positive experience.

Risk perceptions of Brazilian women in independent travels

Gisele Maria de Olivera Carvalho, Maria Manuel Baptista, Carlos Costa University of Aveiro Portugal [email protected] reflect about the risks of danger that independent travellers are exposed to during their journeys is not one of the easiest tasks, since it involves subjective aspects of the human behaviour. Moreover, regarding the women experiences in these travels some singularities come up that deserve to be stood out, because they reveal gender issues that are beyond the daily life, that is, situations that sometimes are worsen when women travel alone. Before the growing demand of women for independent travels it is important that we know the profile of these travellers to allow the prevention of risks inherent to this kind of travel, besides offering more adequate services to these clients. In this study, we deeply interviewed fifteen Brazilian women in their independent travels to the exterior due to leisure that report different perceptions of eminent risks. The research done is of qualitative nature that prioritises the richness of the reports of the interviewed women, together with a critical theoretical review about the gender and travels subjects. The technique used for women selection was the non- probabilistic or “snowball”, with semi-conducted interviews and content analysis with a theoretical approach. The interviews were done between January and December 2014, being six face-to-face and nine through a digital media, using the Skype program. The analysed profile is of women with high academic qualifications, from a degree to a PhD, being most of them single, without children and working predominantly in the human and social sciences fields. So, by approaching the topic of the risks lived by a woman during an independent travel several aspects that should be considered come up, among which the gender and nationality issues. The study revealed that there are different ways to understand and deal with the risks to which they expose themselves in these travels. The researched scenario also reports common situations of vulnerability, fear and insecurity that undertake these women before unexpected events that threat their physical and emotional integrity. Finally, it is interesting to stand out that the majority of these women deals with these risks in a creative way transforming the experience in actual learning to their lives.

Degrees of Risk: the independent travel experiences of international students

Martin Selby Coventry University United Kingdom [email protected]

The decision to study abroad involves an element of risk in financial, academic, cultural, and personal terms. The challenges facing international students in terms of acculturation (Smith and Khawaja 2011), adaptation (Russell et al. 2010); intercultural competency (Taylor 1994), and language, are well documented. Yet, international students also frequently take the opportunity to travel independently in both their host country, and the continent/region in which they are studying. Indeed, many international students – including those in this study –

101 are officially defined as tourists by the WTO (1995). Such independent travellers are influenced by both the representations they encounter before a trip; and the cues of risk, or ‘incivilities’ they encounter at the tourist destination (see Selby at al. 2010). The aim of this paper, therefore, is to evaluate perceptions of both safety/security and risk amongst international students travelling in the UK. Objectives include evaluating the sources of perceived risk in tourist destinations; factors that encourage a feeling of safety; and representations that contribute to expectations and place images before a trip. The study uses focus groups and semi-structured interviews to evaluate the travel experiences of international students studying in Liverpool, UK. The findings suggest that in addition to unsurprising incivilities such as touts and drunken behaviour, there are more subtle cultural differences at play.

Dark Tourism, an alternative type of tourism

Carla Silva, Ana Fonseca, Claudia Seabra Polytechnic Institute of Viseu Portugal [email protected]

The concept of “pleasant diversion in pleasant places” (Wight, 2006 p.119) is changing and broadening into new market niches, considered complex and even unusual, as in the case of Dark Tourism. Dark Tourism is the act of travel to and/or visitation to sites, attractions and exhibitions that have real or recreated death, suffering or the seemingly macabre (Stone,2006) as a main theme. These destinations considered as Dark Tourism sites could be, cemeteries, prisons, memorials, slums, concentration camps, war scenarios, attacks or other places of tragedy. Despite of Dark Tourism being considered by some authors as one of the oldest forms of tourism, its academic and scientific interest is very recent and the understanding of the demand of this type of tourism is still limited (Stone,2006; Biran et al,2011; Jamal and Lelo,2011). The current investigation study intends to present a conceptual analysis on Dark Tourism and the core objective is the construction of a specific scale based on the demand motivations of this alternative form of tourism. The methodology will be based on the review and discussion of the existing theoretical literature on the conceptualization of Dark Tourism, as well as an analysis of the tourist motivations associated. The conceptual model encompasses fourteen motivation dimensions: (1) identity; (2) social; (3) cultural; (4) historical; (5) authenticity; (6) curiosity; (7) novelty; (8) nostalgia; (9) sacralization; (10) artifacts; (11) memory; (12) experience; (13) adventure; (14) educational. Given the limitations of the study namely of the Dark Tourism demand ( Biran et al., 2011) it is expected with this study to give a theoretical contribute to the development of the existent literature concerning the motivations and the conceptualization of Dark Tourism .

Tourism in North Korea: The (in)authenticity of the risk or the risk of (in)autenthicity

Ricardo Torrão University of Lisbon Portugal [email protected]

North Korea is not an obvious choice as a tourist destination. Usual labels include the hermit kingdom, mysterious and even the most dangerous country in the world due to its authoritarian regime and repressive control of the population, propaganda and personality cult, lack of human rights, food shortages, military politics and everlasting tension with South Korea. We intend to reflect on the widely publicized risk associated with traveling to North Korea, analyzing the standard tour package that tourists undertake and discuss some tourism concepts that, when applied to the North Korean uniqueness, give rise to some curious contradictions. Portraying the idea that is almost impossible to get a visa, this notion of unattainable and singular destination operates as an attractive, a marketing tool stimulating the desires of tourists craving for a sole experience. Analyzing this unique way of

102 performing tourism, we try to deconstruct the common belief of the high inherent risk, not forgetting the relevance of the role of tourism as one of the few opportunities to unravel a little more of this isolated country. By experiencing its (in)authenticity, staged for tourism, perhaps one can have a better understanding of the whole picture, and even perceiving other associated risks, covert by the staging.

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Special Track 5 - Tourism and Transport: Issues and challenges

Elisangela Machado University Brasília – UnB Brazil [email protected]

Nuno Costa University of Lisbon Portugal [email protected]

Since 1980s tourism studies have highlighted the importance of transport in the expansion of tourism activities. Transport technological evolution has allowed going further, faster, cheaper and safer, therefore boosting tourism flows worldwide. However, transport is not only an origin-destination flow or an in-between spatial component; transport is a powerful business activity and is increasingly seen as a touristic product and a key determinant of the success/failure of tourist destinations. Companies, destinations and tourists, are all strongly dependent on internal and external trends, challenges and risks tourism and transport is facing, from a technological, environmental, social or political perspective.

This track welcomes papers that discuss the relation between tourism and transport and how tourism activity is being related to transport development. Possible topics are - but not limited to - the following:  Tourism and transport facing risk and uncertainty;  Tourist’s mobilities: users/consumption patterns;  History and future of transportation in tourism;  Competing places and destinations: the role of transports;  Smart, inclusive and sustainable transport in tourism;  Safety and security in tourism and transport.

The network for motorhome accommodation in Algarve

Alexandre Domingues, José Brito Comissão de Coordenação e Desenvolvimento Regional - Algarve Portugal [email protected]

In 2006, when CCDR Algarve initiated the first approaches to the motorhome tourist niche, Algarve was dealing with serious problems resulting from the informal development of this type of tourism. Every year, mainly in winter and spring months, the unprepared Algarve territory was confronted with the arrival of tens of thousands motorhome vehicles proceeding most of them from central and northern Europe. The regional net of camping sites was clearly insufficient and, in most cases, inadequate to receive the large number of motorhomes. Problems came up, in many domains: huge concentrations reaching sometimes more than 200 vehicles; occupation of highly sensible landscape and environmental sites; the spilling of waste effluents in the public ways; security and safety problems, complaints coming from dwellers and economic agents to whom official entities could not provide a clear answer; the deterioration of the region’s image, in a region highly dependent on tourism. In order to face the issue, CCDR Algarve set up a front of works with two great components: to know the real expression, the volume and the essential features of this type of tourism; and present a set of proposals and measures to provide a frame to this subject. The resulting study identifies, in addition to the negative effects, the weaknesses and the threats, the advantages and the potentialities that the motorhome affluence to Algarve, once a qualified offer exists, can bring to the region and to its economics. Tourism in Algarve, as well as the whole regional economic activity, is highly marked by seasonality associated to the summer period, so the constitution of an appropriate offer and accommodation to the motorhome tourism can contribute decisively to the weakening of

104 seasonality. Along with this study, the consultation to official entities aiming the renewal of the Juridical Regime for Touristic Facilities took place. Once the opportunity came up, CCDR Algarve proposed the legislator the inclusion of a new touristic facility typology, beyond the classical camping site, which would be able to create a simplified facility for motorhome accommodation. The proposal was accepted and the typology of “sites exclusively for motorhomes” (art. º 29º, Portaria 1320/2008, 17th November). Since 2008 several of these sites were built and, together with the existing classical camping sites which successfully upgraded and adapted to accommodate motorhomes, both provide today a more diversified and better territorial allocated offer, essential to accommodate the growing motorhome vehicles’ figures arriving to Algarve every year. The system implemented in those new sites in order to create a numeric registration confirms the growing importance of this new offer. In 2014, in 13 of these new sites (not counting the movement in classic camping sites), were visited by almost 30.000 motorhomes, accommodated 188.000 overnights and generated an income around 540.000 €. The important issue, besides everything else, remains in the fact that each one of these vehicles staying in a licensed site is one less vehicle practicing the informal overnight, the starting point and the essential issue of this project. Recently, last January, CCDR Algarve with the Intermunicipality Community and the tourism entities signed a Protocol that aims to create an official net for motorhome sites. The principal objectives are to promote this net, in Portugal and in international fairs and events (where there is a growing demand), and to coordinate the actions with the municipalities and other official entities in order to expand the net and to prevent the illegal and informal practices.

Portuguese Cruise Tourism Ports and their Areas of Influence - City and the Region

Rui Manuel Laranjeira Marvanejo Instituto de Geografia e Ordenamento do Território Portugal [email protected]

An analysis at different scales (global, regional and sub-regional), cruise tourism is booming and the Portuguese cruise ports increased in a sustained number of scales, passengers embarking and disembarking and cruise passengers, are competing as destinations in Western Europe and Mediterranean regions, in a global market of large cruise basins, emerging destinations and expanding cruising routes. The destinations of the cruise ships are built around a relationship between various players or stakeholders such as cruise companies and their ships, private and publics companies, port and local (city) authorities, Destination Manegement Office (DMO), and a wide range of other entities that provide services within the tourism practices. Associated with sightseeing cruises in ports host (eg. Scale port), are itineraries, various resources (cultural heritage, equipments, infrastructure, services and local communities), connected to visiting places and tourist practices, sought by cruise passengers that on land choose normally daily tours. An analysis of the space connected to cruise tourism in the ports of Leixões, Lisboa, Portimão and Funchal, allows the (re)construction of the concept of hinterland, also based on tourist flows on land and consolidating an area of influence that extends well beyond the port and the port city - to the region where it operates. The tested methodology proposes to define an area of influence or hinterland defined in crowns from the seaport cruises, allowing distinguish different contexts of territorial insertion for each of the case studies mentioned above. The study of the hinterland also allows a dynamic perspective, studying space and time, showing that suffers adjustments resulting from supply and demand, more or less structured (2010/13). The areas of influence fit into a space influenced by the demand and offered programs and excursions, modes and transport solutions, accessibility (absolute and relative distances), and connectivities between different spaces or visitation sites organized in a network (connections and circuits). Besides allowing the analisys of the territorial insertion of the cruise port, the proposed methodology also contributes to the perception of a tourist territory visited and it is assumed as a structural element for the planning of tourist areas. The model also has advantages for the management of a tourism destination associated to the cruise tourism product, enhancer element for a DMO intervention. An offer based on itineraries and tourist routes, structured in crowns on which stand a network of places to visit, can

105 consolidate a tourism development potential in urban areas (Funchal), metropolitan areas (Lisbon and Oporto), or even strong regional presence (Portimão and Barlavento algarvio). The model applied in another case study, the sea port of Figueira da Foz, shows a potential tourism development in the central region of the continent, as a potential destination cruises in Portugal.

Transport systems models for tourism and territorial development

Elisangela Aparecida Machado da Silva, José Augusto Abreu Sá Fortes, Guilherme Lohmann University Brasília - UnB Brasil [email protected]

Systems theory is a recurring approach in the literature of transport and tourism, but the territorial component, its elements and components are subtly delimited, resulting in difficult perception of the object that identifies them. With the purpose to know the essential role of transport systems for tourism and its interfaces in the territory, proposed to study the models, theoretical and conceptual foundations, culminating in a minimal model for evaluating the developing tourist areas. A new proposal compared to the systemic models adopted for the study of tourism so far. In the model proposed transport for tourism are now related to regional development, not only as infrastructure and services to tourists, but as a promoter structure of territorial development in the destinations, integrated with other systems responsible for mobility. In this study the transportation system for tourism is assumed to be strategic, system that plays an important in the territory, It is inducing the development, composing, by the public and private sphere, bunt of a strategy in which the attractions, services and tourist facilities can be distinguished influenced by the policies adopted. The understanding of this process by systems theory is establishing itself as an important technical and conceptual support for the study of the tourist territory. The main objective is to design a systemic model with the determination of transport indicators for tourism in order to assess its influence on the development of the territory. The proposed model analysis had as initial point the study Leiper (1979) and Lohmann (2005). And the conceptual framework assumed for the system, conceived as a logical way of apprehending reality, consists of environment (internal and external), elements, relationships, inputs and outputs, and its new systemic component the territory. Defined in this way, the system becomes a collection of connected elements such that they form a logical unit and established interactions and effects on the territory - the regional tourist destinations. Interconnected by transport infrastructure allocation that promotes the circulation of the flows for the functioning of tourism. The proposal confirms to identify the level of organization of the transport network, their specialization, level cooperation and integration among the tourist destinations. Application to different destinations, the model makes it possible the comparison between territories. This allows to evaluate and compare the results of public policies and effects on development.

Transport and tourism in the favelas of Rio de Janeiro

Sergio Moraes Rego Fagerlande, Rachel Coutinho Marques da Silva and Fernanda Gomes de Oliveira Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Brazil [email protected]

The city of Rio de Janeiro has always been important as a tourist destination, with a large number of places to visit. From the 1990s a new tourist attraction begins to rise on a rather unusual city spot giving birth to the so-called Slum Tourism. The favela of Rocinha emerged as the first prominent place of these activities, especially the so-called jeep tour, where visitors can be guided on top of open vehicles, much like an urban safari (Freire-Medeiros,

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2009, p. 91). In recent years, thanks to past and upcoming events like the 2014 World Cup and the 2016 Olympics, favelas have received large infrastructure and public safety investments. Some of these were designated to mobility and public transport works, as was the Complexo do Alemão cable car and Cantagalo, Pavão and Pavãozinho lift-observatory; these are important slum clusters being the first located in the north of the city and the second in the south near the city main hotels, between Copacabana and Ipanema. From this context, this paper will analyze how tourism has been developing in these areas and how the different ways of accessing them can interfere on it's tourism development, throughout the case studies of Complexo do Alemão and Cantagalo, Pavão and Pavãozinho slums. A first look shows that the creation of certain new infrastructures in these slums directs the tourist activities, such as the cable car at Complexo do Alemão, where tourism is based on visitation at the areas of system stations. In the Cantagalo Pavão Pavãozinho case the tourism-related activities are based on both the new Lift-Observatory and the motor vehicles access or even by foot, but no jeep tour included. This study embarks on the perspective of authors such as John Urry and his mobility studies, Guilherme Lohmann and Stephen Page and their touristic transport researches, Lily M. Hoffman, Susan S. Fainsteinand Denis R. Judd and how the city is governed by tourism, and authors dealing with the very history of tourism in slums, as Bianca Freire Medeiros. This paper is an outspread of a laboratory research of Urbanism and Environment of the Postgraduate Program in LAURBAM Urbanism PROURB FAU UFRJ. The on going research has been examining the relationship between slum tourism initiatives like hostels, bars and restaurants, and cultural activities such as musical events and product sales sites for tourists, and local crafts. Thus tourism has been seeking new ways of relating to slums, either by their topographical, cultural or socio-environmental aspects, and transport have been taking an important role allowing access to areas previously unvisited as well as directing tourist activities.

Transportes Turísticos na Amazônia: problemas e soluções dos principais pontos de acesso para a região

Fabio Romero de Oliveira e Silva Brasil [email protected]

2O presente trabalho visa elucidar a importância dos terminais de acesso na competitividade de destinos turísticos distantes de seus mercados emissores, como a Amazônia. A escolha do destino amazônico se dá pela sua importância econômico e, sobretudo, ambiental para o Brasil e o mundo, além da carência de estudos deste porte na região. O trabalho, composto por quatro partes e nove capítulos, explora os referências teóricos, propondo como objetivos identificar quais os principais problemas e soluções dos principais pontos de acesso a Amazônia e a criação de uma metodologia, chamada Terminal Amigo do Viajante, que visa auxiliar os administradores dos terminais a melhor conhecer as necessidades de suas demandas. A pesquisa, baseada em dados de fluxos turísticos para a região, identificou as quatro cidades e seus respectivos terminais de acesso, caracterizando um corredor turístico de acesso a Amazônia. Os terminais pesquisados foram quatro aeroportos e três portos localizados nas cidades de Belém, Macapá, Manaus e Santarém. Os instrumentos de coleta de dados foram as entrevistas para gestores e operadores; e questionário para os terminais de transporte. Dentro da cadeia produtiva do turismo, especificamente, no terminal/ponto de acesso, identificamos dois grandes intervenientes, os gestores de terminal e os operadores turísticos. Os resultados demonstraram: que parte das problemáticas decorre da falta de conhecimento mútuo das dificuldades que afetam estes intervenientes da oferta turística e este fato afeta a competitividade do destino, diminuindo o aspecto qualitativo do produto regional. O questionário Terminal Amigo do Viajante possibilitou avaliar e construir uma base de dados sobre os terminais/pontos de acesso avaliados.

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A legalidade do guia de turismo e sua importância na atividade econômica: Implicações para o consumidor, efeitos jurídicos e sociais

Fabio Romero de Oliveira e Silva Brasil [email protected]

Neste artigo analisamos a legalidade do profissional Guia de Turismo, num contexto econômico, com foco nas implicações para o turista, enquanto consumidor do produto turístico; os efeitos jurídicos e sociais desta relação dentro da atividade turística. O desenvolvimento deste trabalho possibilitou uma visão mais didática sobre os aspectos ilegais da atuação de empresas e pessoas no mercado de trabalho, levantando questionamentos relativos à qualidade do produto turístico, as derivações jurídicas e a violação do direito profissional. As consequências desta estruturação da oferta turística impactam negativamente na atividade, aspecto observado em diversos mercados, sobretudo nas viagens nacionais e internacionais, os âmbitos geográficos da análise. A metodologia considerou fundamentalmente as fontes bibliográfica e documental, permitindo uma abordagem mais nacional e global da temática. Profissionalmente, o Guia de Turismo, apesar de possuir um aspecto relevante econômica e socialmente dentro do turismo, encontra-se desvalorizado; além do prejuízo legal ao consumidor final, o turista.

Avaliação do visitante sobre a infraestrutura de transporte à Ilha do Combú, Belém (PA, Brazil)

Flavio Henrique Souza Lobato Universidade Federal do Pará – UFPA Brasil [email protected]

Com a gênese e desenvolvimento de viagens turísticas de lazer pelo mundo, fomentadas, principalmente, pelas revoluções e transformações informacionais (PADILHA, 1992: 36), surgiu à necessidade de revolucionar os sistemas de organização dos serviços, dentre eles o transporte, que figura-se como um dos elementos essenciais para a implementação e desenvolvimento da atividade turística. Nessa direção, Rodrigue, Comtois, & Slack (2013) reiteram que desde os 200 anos da passagem de criação dos transportes, sobretudo, mecanizados, o progresso e o desenvolvimento econômico do mundo foram sumariamente importantes para o surgimento das inovadoras tecnologias de aperfeiçoamento dos transportes. Na atual conjuntura, contudo, tem-se uma sociedade detentora de maior conhecimento sobre seus direitos e deveres, uma sociedade mais crítica, logo, mais exigente com os produtos e serviços adquiridos. Nessa perspectiva, não basta apenas se ter meios de transportes para realização de deslocamentos, é indispensável a existência de uma infraestrutura básica, com vias de acesso em bom estado, mobilidade urbana dentro dos padrões aceitáveis, terminais (pontos de embarque e desembarque) seguros e confortáveis, tendo inclusive os próprios meios de transportes, que oferecer boa infraestrutura, segurança e comodidade durante toda a viagem (LOBATO, AIRES & SILVA, 2014: 1561). A cidade de Belém, capital do estado do Pará, situada na região amazônica, ao norte do Brasil, é cercada por Ilhas e entrelaçada por rios e igarapés, apresentando, dessa maneira, um potencial expressivo para o modal de transporte fluvial (hidroviário). Contudo, o principal modal de transporte utilizado é o terrestre (rodoviário). Tal fato faz com que o enorme potencial fluvial desta região não seja aproveitado e dinamizado, sendo este utilizado, normalmente, por pequenas embarcações, que realizam o transporte de passageiros ou mercadorias entre as ilhas próximas e cidade de Belém (e vice-versa), como é o caso da Ilha do Combú. A Ilha do Combú faz parte do Município de Belém do Pará, ficando localizada à 1,5 quilômetro ao sul da cidade. Apresenta uma área de aproximadamente 15 (quinze) quilômetros quadrados. Estando situada entre as coordenadas cartográficas: 01°29’20″ (extremo norte), 01°31’11″ (extremo sul), 48°29’34″ (extremo oeste), e 48°25’54″ (extremo leste) (PARÁ, 1997). A população residente na Ilha constitui a denominada comunidade ribeirinha, por morar às margens do rio Guamá, tendo a

108 pesca, o cultivo, a coleta e a extração de gêneros alimentícios a base de sua subsistência, bem como fonte de renda. A Ilha, por meio da lei estadual de nº 6083, em 13 de novembro de 1997, ganhou o status de Unidade de Conservação – UC5, sendo classificada de acordo com o Sistema Nacional de Unidades de Conservação (SNUC)6 como Área de Proteção Ambiental (APA)7, por apresentar uma diversa e peculiar biodiversidade da flora e fauna amazônica. Neste sentido, com base neste artigo 15 e na lei de criação da APA da Ilha do Combú, são vedadas ou restringidas quaisquer criações ou funcionamento de empresas que possam causar a poluição, contaminação ou perda da flora e fauna. Porém, a APA pode ser utilizada por instrumentos que visem conservar e promover a importância do uso racional de seus recursos naturais, evitando a degradação ambiental e o comprometimento da qualidade de vida da população local (PARÁ, 1997). Atualmente é administrada e fiscalizada pela Secretaria de Estado de Meio Ambiente/SEMA do Pará. A beleza e a biodiversidade amazônica, somadas ao bucolismo e peculiaridade da Ilha, têm atraído visitantes de diversos locais do estado, do Brasil, e, sobretudo, da própria Região Metropolitana de Belém. Afinal, ir ao Combú para tomar um banho de rio, principalmente, em períodos que registram altas temperaturas, é um dos programas prediletos de alguns paraenses. No entanto, não são somente o banho de rio e a beleza natural, os grandes diferenciais da Ilha do Combú, esta possui diferentes restaurantes, entre eles o “Saldosa Maloca”, que apresenta cardápios variados, geralmente formados por gêneros alimentos típicos da região amazônica, como: o açaí, a farinha, os peixes: pescada e filhote, entre outros, sempre acompanhados dos tradicionais: feijão, arroz, vinagrete e farofa. Além disso, alguns restaurantes possuem áreas de lazer, trilhas ecológicas lojas com produtos artesanais confeccionados pelos moradores da própria Ilha e serviços de internet, que com o uso de aplicativos para celulares, acabam facilitando ainda mais o pedido de pratos. Em períodos de alta temporada, em média, segundo a administradora do Restaurante Saldosa Maloca, o restaurante chega a atender 700 pessoas, por final de semana. Todavia, as embarcações que realizam as viagens entre as Ilhas e a cidade de Belém apresentam estados estruturais visivelmente em precariedade, o mesmo ocorre com os terminais de embarque e desembarque, que apresentam péssimas condições de infraestrutura: não ofertando, sobretudo, segurança e acessibilidade adequadas os usuários. Foi diante deste panorama que o presente trabalho se acentuou, tendo como objetivo avaliar como se apresentava a infraestrutura dos terminais e dos meios de transportes utilizados para o deslocamento até Ilha do Combú, Belém (PA), correlacionando esta avaliação com/ao (eco)turismo desenvolvido no local, a partir da percepção do visitante sobre a estrutura e a segurança dos meios transportes e dos terminais de acesso à Ilha. Para tanto, utilizou-se de uma abordagem quali-quantitativa, com pesquisas documentais, bibliográficas, bem como pesquisas em campo, onde foram empregadas como técnicas de pesquisas e coletas de dados: observações sistemáticas in lócus, registros fotográficos e aplicação de questionário, sendo os dados tratados com base em suas interpretações e apontamentos da Escala Likert. Os resultados revelaram que as pequenas embarcações e os terminais que materializam o transporte à Ilha do Combú, apresentam precárias condições estruturais, não oferecendo segurança, comodidade e acessibilidade, sobretudo a idosos e a pessoas com necessidades especiais. Para além dessas questões, não há um local apropriado para a espera do transporte, nem postos de informações turísticas que possam esclarecer dúvidas e pontuar questões referentes à Ilha, aos horários das viagens e a outros assuntos correlacionados. Este preocupante cenário tem gerado implicações negativas ao desenvolvimento da atividade turística da Ilha, visto que o visitante sente insatisfeito e temeroso com a insegurança ao qual se vê exposto. Destarte, para a minimização desta problemática estudada, se faz necessário um maior planejamento por parte do poder público, sendo indispensável a participação da comunidade local, para que se possa oferecer ao visitante ambientes bem equipados, seguros, que promovam e sanem as exigências e necessidades do visitante da atual conjuntura. Deixando margem para que um número maior de pessoas possa está visitando a Ilha e, consequentemente, gere renda para a comunidade local. No entanto, deve ser tudo muito bem planejado para não comprometer a capacidade de carga da ilha e impactar seus recursos naturais, assim como o sossego, a paz e o equilíbrio sociocultural entre a comunidade local e os turistas. Este estudo se apresenta como relevante por ter contribuído com o esclarecimento dos questionamentos que foram postos em conformidade com o cenário problemático apresentado e com o objetivo traçado para esta pesquisa. Sendo possível, com este, relatar algumas

109 características dos transportes para/na Ilha do Combú – Belém, Pará, além de sua correlação com o desenvolvimento da oferta de serviços turísticos na ilha.

The Business Travel Experience

Natan Uriely Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Israel [email protected]

The study explores the business travel experience as a framework of time with four phases: trip preparations, passenger experience, destination experience and homecoming. In-depth interviews with business travelers indicate that their experience as passengers consists of “moments of relaxation” and is often perceived as a sort of “time off," in which they enjoy their familiarity with airports, the comforts provided to privileged passengers and the limited connectivity during flights. The other phases of the trip are devoted mainly to work-related obligations and shape the nature of the business trip as primarily a vocational experience. The conceptual analysis refers to various perspectives, including George Simmel’s philosophy of experiences, postmodernist ideas of deconstruction and the “mobilities” paradigm.

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Special Track 6 – Placemaking and Events – Risks and strategies

Greg Richards NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences Netherlands [email protected]

Marisa de Brito NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences Netherlands [email protected]

How can cities and regions make themselves more attractive for people to live, visit and invest in? This is a crucial question as competition between cities to put themselves on the global map increases. Different cities or regions present different strategies: bidding to large events, copying successful events from elsewhere, or designing new concepts. Is there a best strategy depending on the region?

Possible topics include, but are not limited to the following:  The role of events in enhancing place identity  The role of events in increasing well-being of users, such as locals and tourists  Cities, regions and different Events strategies  The role of events in community building  Events and (mitigation of) risks for regions and cities  Placemaking and Events: the role of regional geopolitics  Societal changes and challenges in cities and regions and the role of events  Events: environmental impacts in cities and regions  Events and Placemaking: typologies of risks

Designing a portfolio of major events in Auckland: Key dimensions

Vladimir Antchak Auckland University of Technology New Zealand [email protected]

One of the strategies that is increasingly used by cities across the world in an ever-lasting desire to promote and capitalise on their competitive identity is the hosting of large-scale sporting and cultural events. In the attempt to become an ‘eventful city’ (Richards & Palmer, 2010), many destinations have been motivated toward the development of portfolios of events. A well-planned event portfolio can be seen as a strategic tool to deliver a range of benefits to the host city. These include economic, social-cultural as well as sport positive outcomes and leveraging opportunities. Despite the increasing popularity of an event portfolio strategy among city event planners, there is a lack of developed theoretical concepts and empirical research into the nature of portfolio design. To address this knowledge gap, a qualitative multi-case research has been conducted in New Zealand in three cities: Auckland, Wellington and Dunedin. The primary aim of the research was to explore how different destination contexts and host city’s objectives shape the strategic nature of a portfolio of major events in large urban areas by New Zealand standards. The research methods included semi-structured interviews with event planners from city councils and relevant council controlled organisations and the analysis of event-related city documentation. This paper provides an overview of the preliminary findings of the case of Auckland. In order to explain the complexity of the Auckland’s portfolio of major events, a strategic portfolio design framework is proposed. The paper will outline and discuss key dimensions of the framework. It will specifically address aspects of the strategic nature of the event portfolio in the city, its structure, objectives as well as key factors that influence portfolio planning and management. The study shows that portfolio design in Auckland is 111 shaped by a so-called outcomes-driven approach. The Auckland’s Major Events Strategy (MES) does not specify the content of the portfolio. The specifications include only the set of expected outcomes, including (1) bringing new money into the economy; (2) growing visitor nights; 3) increasing liveability, and 3) increasing international exposure. Major events may be supported if they can guarantee the achievement of at least one of the outcomes. This ‘agnostic’ attitude to the composition structure of the portfolio in Auckland advocates a new design approach, whereby a conventional split of events by genres is replaced by the programming on the basis of audience motivators (to celebrate, to participate, to support) and audience directionality (family, youth, subcultures). Portfolio objectives and roles of separate events within the portfolio reflect the objectives stated in MES. Such objectives relate to provision of liveability, international promotion, economic prosperity and urban renovation and business development. Key factors that influence the decision-making with regard to major events in Auckland are seasonality, geographic location, industry capacity and local resources. The current economic slant of the portfolio strategy questions the sustainability of this approach and its fit to the recently promoted image of Auckland as the world’s most liveable city. This calls upon the careful examination and possible re-fresh of MES and generation of a new proactive approach to the event portfolio development in the city with the focus on leveraging programmes and growing of own anchor events. Overall, the analysis of the city of Auckland’s case serves as a good starting point in revealing key aspects of portfolio planning, its optimal composition and role in place making within large urban areas.

Local identity and placemaking: “Delícias da Comunidade” Gastronomy Festival in Recife, Pernambuco

Carla Borba da Mota Silveira, Beatriz Gondim Matos; Maria de Lourdes De azevedo Barbosa Universidade Federal de Pernambuco Brazil [email protected]

The city of Recife is the third gastronomic center of Brazil on restaurant’s quantity. In addition, there are about 10,000 formal establishments registered by the Brazilian Association of bars and restaurants interested in participating in food festivals that promote creativity and indigenous, european and african mixes. Gilberto Freyre sociologist already had emphasized the brazilian culinary influences. However, only from 2006 has been effected public policies in order to value local cuisine by festivals. This enabled discoveries of local residents themselves, as regards the recovery of new flavours and mixtures involving uses of various spices, tropical fruits and seafood typically common to daily l. However, there is a higher value attributed to local context. In this context, the "Delícias da Comunidade" festival was created as a product in order to strengthen the "terroir" food, regional cuisine that emphasizes quality products and tradition. The main proposal is to strengthen the local culture while promoting food as heritage because of the local identity role developed by the method of preparation, the recipe or the tradition. There is also the appeal to the "way of Recife people eating." It is seen by the vast movement of people consuming in public places such as open markets, street food, pub food. As highlighted (Aubert-Gamet & Cova, 1999), places services have a linking feature which refers to the meeting place, communication and social exchange. In 2013, Brasilia Teimosa community was chosen to join the festival. Since then, the community witnessed the impact of increased membership of tourists and local residents looking to attend the festival and taste the dishes assigned to the event. Brasilia Teimosa is a poor community of Recife. It has a history of resistance that, like other features, tend to prevent the entry of new buildings in local urban setting in contradiction to their surroundings already taken by buildings, restaurants and other high-value attractions. Among some difficulties, social security is one of the problems faced by the neighborhood. The constant promotion of events and the Recife tradition are facilitators for well succeed food festivals. However, in order to understand other aspects that influenced the success of these festivals it is taken a people-centered approach. Richards (2015) highlighted that approaches to placemaking are usually presented as a top-down process properly planned and organized. On the other hand, contemporary approaches help to understand in the events

112 context the placemaking as a bottom-up process that strengthens urban identities. Then, there are two considerations. The first is since the establishments participated on the festival the owners have changed the running way of their business. The second is that since the festival brought a greater movement of locals and tourists who seeking to enjoy the food offered. It starts from the assumption that the festival served as a strengthening element of local identity, but also while promotes this temporary membership had influence to risk reduction awareness. The purposes of this research are: i) to understand what were the purposes of carrying out this event for the eating establishments that participated; ii) to understand the motivations of consumers who frequent establishments, as well as reasons to others consumers became regulars customers after the festivals; iii) to evaluate how is the risk perception by consumers.

Rotterdam: a continuous state of placemaking

Marisa de Brito NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences Netherlands [email protected]

Rotterdam, just after the Second World War, was a city of ashes in serious need of rebuild. In barely two decades after World War II, it managed to claim the title of the largest Port in the world, which kept for about 40 years. The rebuilt was not only of the physical city but also of the socio-cultural pillars leading to the city being awarded in 2001 as European Cultural Capital. This year, 2015, Rotterdam was awarded ‘best city’ by the prestigious Urbanism Academy. This is a recognition for the innovative architecture of the city, high quality of infrastructure and public spaces, and good governance along social, economic and environmental indicators – thus for the overall attractiveness of the city for families and businesses (Urbanism Academy, 2015). Rotterdam can be said to be an almost experimental playground for architecture and urbanism, and a fertile ground for newfangled festivals. Festivals and events have an important economic weight for the city with about 200 million euros turnover annually, with almost 10 000 professionals and volunteers involved. Not surprisingly, Rotterdam received the ‘The World Festival & Event City Award’ in 2010 by the International Festivals & Events Association. Rotterdam has in place an active festival policy as from 1993, with the strong belief that festivals and events can strengthen the city, its communities, its allure for both tourists and its inhabitants, and therefore quality of life, in general (Rotterdam Festivals, 2015). The rebuilt of the city was only possible due to incoming labor from abroad, including the former Dutch colony Surinam; Turkey, and Morocco, among others. As a result, Rotterdam is today a multicultural vessel with about 50% of its inhabitants not being born to parents of Dutch origin (Guidikova et al., 2012). For any city to have their inhabitants sustaining a sense of belonging, and at the same time, giving space for a multitude of ethnic expressions is not straightforward (Savage, 2005). Thus, Rotterdam path to repositioning was not without risks. In this research we look into how Rotterdam did make itself more attractive as a place to live, visit and invest in, and what was the role of events and architecture. On the one hand, events can be an effective means to enhance social capital, social cohesion, and community participation and pride in its city (Richards et al., 2013). At the same, architecture and urbanism plays a role in place attachment (Manzo, L. and P. Devine-Wright, 2013). The research makes use of ethnographic methods, including participant observation and interviews with different stakeholders among which: different user typologies and decision-makers. In order to illustrate what place-making means for Rotterdam, we take the recent inaugurated Market Hall as a case: a place where inhabitants from different social stratus and tourists meet, an everyday practice redefining the identity of this cosmopolitan city.

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Karneval der Kulturen a controversy community building event

Alba Colombo Vilarrasa Universitat Oberta de Catalunya Spain [email protected]

Events have become an important channel for the exchange of cultural symbols at global level, helping to generate and circulate symbolic value. In doing so, many of these events help to configure the fields in which they operate, as well as to construct a community around it (Falasi 1987, Colombo 2009) The proliferation of events and festivals in Europe is a consequence of several factors, including changing approaches to urban management, structural changes in economic production, and the use of culture as a means of wealth and job creation, among others (Quinn 2006). Such development has also led to interrogation of what is meant by a festival or event especially in recent times when the historical focus on festivals as a part of sacred and religious celebrations has been complemented by the development of festivals with a more artistic focus (Smith 2012). Overall festivals can perform two vital roles in contemporary life; (1) one as part of social processes where individuals and communities participate in a public celebration that offers a potentially beneficial experience to the audience; (2) and another as an element in delivering a political and cultural strategy, which operates over a longer time frame and is cross policy in its influence. Hence may be festivals are platforms to be taken in to consideration for cultural encounters in cities with a growing cultural diversity. The demographic structure of Berlin has been changing during decades, as several communities have been established in the city, transforming the local society into a multicultural social network. The city council and other social actors have been working for several years on unidirectional and bidirectional intercultural and social initiatives, creating a cultural exchange and communication between this communities and the local society. Unlike in a culturally homogeneous society, the members of a multicultural society do not share a common vision of a good life, and disagree about the value to be assigned to different human activities and relationships (Rattansi 2011, Kymlicka 2001, among others). Since this situation involves several cultures, their interaction should both respect the diversity and the disintegration of a traditional consensus on life’s guiding principles requiring space and a commitment for dialogue (Parekh 2005). This paper analyses the goal of an event to generate community building in a complex structure as a multicultural society. Observes the Karneval der Kulturen of Berlin as an event that maximises the society participation, also represents diverse cultures living in the city and is organised by the public administration in conjunction with several groups of the civil society. The analyzed data are mainly based on in-depth interviews held in Berlin with event organizers, journalists, artists, local experts and politicians. In addition secondary data from the several years of operation of the carnival are analyzed in order to illustrate changes in the cultural symbols representation potential of the event over time. The paper concludes with some critical reflections on the goal of events, such as this carnival, as a community building platforms. This goal is seen to be produced on two directions even this has some controversies: first from the active participants underling its capacity to generate community inside the groups; secondly by positioning the event as a community by itself, involving in this case the audience.

A Committee of Volunteers: A Risky Endeavour?

Tara Duncan University of Otago New Zealand [email protected]

Getting a group of people to work together to organise a community event is always a risk. Will the event get off the ground? Will it be successful? Will personalities clash and cause insurmountable problems? Will people do what they say will do and are they capable of the tasks they are given or want to do? Will the event make a profit, or benefit the committee, or

114 do whatever it was supposed to do? Using the example of the Port Chalmers Seafood Festival in the South Island of New Zealand, this paper discusses the risks associated with a community event. The focus of the paper will be to consider how building community networks and social capital as part of a volunteer committee may mitigate some of the real and imagined risks inherent in organising a community event. This paper will use first-hand accounts of being on the organising committee for the Seafood Festival. Through stories, texts, photographs of the event and observations before and after the event, a nuanced account of the role of a volunteer organising committee and the risks inherent in taking on such a role will be explored. A bi-annual event, the Port Chalmers Seafood Festival was established in 2011 to raise the profile of its local community. Whilst quickly becoming recognised in the region as a local ‘hallmark’ event, it relies upon an ever-changing group of volunteers to organise, manage and ensure its success. Such reliance repeatedly places the event at risk. There are no guarantees that each new Festival Committee can successfully organise an event that continues to grow in reputation and prominence. The social networks and social capital built in the lead up to the event – in the 18 months of planning – lead to a growing sense of confidence in the eventual success of this Festival. As a not-for-profit endeavour, the event aims to highlight the positives in the local community and give back, through donations to local groups and causes. Yes, at every step along the journey, from initial planning to eventual distribution of donations, there are inherent risks. Alienating the community, failing to comprehend health and safety requirements, problems with liquor licensing, alongside the risks associated with getting over a dozen individuals to agree to the direction the Festival should take, all fight to overwhelm the enthusiasm and motivation of the volunteers involved. In spite of the many risks and pitfalls that such an event could fall prey to, Festivals such as this are regularly (very) successful. The paper will conclude by suggesting that the social capital gained and the networks established through being part of such a committee mitigate the fears and risks involved in thinking about organising a community event.

Risking the Rabbit Hole: Systems Thinking for Events and Placemaking

Paul Fynn Glion Institute of Higher Education Switzerland [email protected]

Systems perspectives have had a long influence on tourism studies, having been popularised by Leiper (1990) and Mill and Morrison (1998) amongst others. Implying a systems approach, Short and Kim (1999) placed the hospitality, leisure and event industries firmly at the centre of the emerging service economy and place identity. The field of events is often explored from the perspectives of underpinning social, economic and political processes (Hall, 2012) and interactions between different actors. As self-regulating systems, destinations create or bid for events as an adaptive response to external change, and events themselves must adapt to meet the constantly changing demands of their stakeholders in a turbulent environment. Getz (2014) suggested an unfulfilled need to consider a range of perspectives and event stakeholders. Phi, Dredge and Whitford (2014) saw complex event stakeholder management as requiring the use of problem structuring methods (PSMs) adapted from soft systems. Further areas for development within the event context were suggested by Getz (2014) to include emergent outcomes, output measures and systems learning. The phenomena associated with events at both local and global scales are thus seen as complex and multi-faceted and researchers look to systems thinking for its potential to illuminate the events field further. The challenge for event researchers and event practitioners alike is that of the complexity of the systems field itself, and the novitiate and unwary systems thinker can very quickly find themselves ‘falling down the rabbit hole’. Whilst Kohl (2005) suggests that the bottom of the rabbit hole is indeed where the greatest revelations (paradigm shifts) are to be found, Meadows (1997) suggested more accessible points of thinking about systems that also offer leverage, but at a level commensurate with the level of intellectual commitment. Checkland and Holwell (1998) differentiated data (that which is given) from capta (that which is taken). The challenge for those seeking to apply

115 systems thinking and practice to events is therefore to choose carefully from the systems field and sub-disciplines, and take that which is appropriate. This paper aims to narrow down some of the complexity in the events-systems interface by reviewing specific areas from systems thinking to support event researchers and practitioners, and to illuminate potential applications and future research directions. This paper will review systems thinking through both classical and contemporary systems authors and link these to contemporary event research issues. The three essential elements in a process of systemic intervention were suggested by Richardson and Midgeley (2007:179) to be critique, judgements, and action. This work will seek to relate the boundaries and values of relevant sub-disciplines to those of events, to determine which prominent methods can best support event research and practice, and to provoke action in the form of a raised level of dialogue and use of systems thinking amongst the events research community.

Knowledge-based events as place-making strategy

Lenia Marques Bournemouth University United Kingdom [email protected]

Although only in recent years public engagement has become a major issue in academic research related fields, the fact that activities have been developed for communicating science is not new. These activities, many of them festivals or other type of events, have been for a long time associate with science. The increase of this type of event and also its exponential growth also as a result of outreach activities within academic research projects, is on the one hand the willingness to reach the non-academic community and, on the other, to provide opportunities for professional development for certain local communities of practice. Within the framework of the knowledge economy and in particular how this has been incorporated in regional strategies for community involvement, the aim of this paper is to interrogate the neighbouring concepts of public engagement, science communication, knowledge exchange and communication and knowledge-based events from the perspective of the field of event studies. This analysis and the use of a case study approach in the UK brings new insights on the contribution of knowledge-based events as a place-making strategy namely for local communities of practice. Preliminary findings point out to the high importance of knowledge-based events for increasing the connection between educational institutions and professional communities, which contribute to a stronger sense of collective identity and sense of place.

Cultural democracy in arts festivals – a view inside the Göteborg Film Festival

Soraia Silva University of Lisbon Portugal [email protected]

The festivalization of the cities is part of an array of urban culture-related policies fomented by the capitalism and the need for city competition as a means of balancing financial income and attracting foreign investment (Brenner and Theodore, 2002). Quinn (2005) identifies the arts festivals as being image makers and tourist attractions, but they can also be thought as communities, constituting a hybrid place “where cultural identities, notions of belonging and values systems are celebrated, contested and negotiated” (2005: 935). This idea of arts festivals being “transitory topographies” (Waterman, 1998), where power relations are performed and challenged into the (social) production of space, is central to justify a geographical interest on the theme. A perspective we believe not to have been so explored yet in geography and urban studies is, however, to centre the research on the event as both an agent for and result of local cultural policies. Accordingly, we consider relevant to study

116 arts festivals as an arena of interplay among cultural, social and economic objectives in cultural policies, as seen from a multiscalar perspective. International film festivals are a good example of this interplay, as they have to respond simultaneously to local (and regional) audience cultural necessities, to local (and regional) territorial branding and tourism, to (regional and) national film industry development and to a definition of its role in the international circuit of film festivals, balancing their own priorities in agreement with the main funding stakeholders. Departing from the notion of cultural (policy) instrumentalization (Belfiore, 2002, 2010; Brito Henriques, 2002; Caust, 2003; Hesmondhalgh e Pratt, 2005; Gray, 2007; Lysgård, 2012), in this article we position Göteborg Film Festival (GFF) as an almost 40 year old event that is, in itself, a indissociable stakeholder in local and regional cultural policies, both in terms of public film exhibition and meeting platform for the Nordic film industry. With the use of both primary and secondary data (interviews, an experimental survey to 85 adult spectators and documental analysis – mainly policy reports and news), we discuss in more detail the Göteborgs Lilla Filmfestival (a festival organized by GFF for the children and juvenile audience the weekend before the main event) as a ‘side-activity’ that may contribute to more democratic cultural practices of participation. While there seems to be a struggling in balancing the different interests considered in the main event (risk of prioritization of industry goals over broadening cultural participation), the Göteborgs Lilla Filmfestival constitutes a good example of the effort of the non-for-profit association to broaden the possibilities of participation in GFF. In this case, there are intended goals of educating future audiences, as well as to (re)capture the interest of potential immediate spectators to GFF (the parents), while both politicians and the parents see the event primarily as an important local opportunity for raising cultural awareness of the children.

The touristification of a conflict zone: The Case of Bil'in

Natan Uriely, Yaniv Belhassen, Ortal Assor Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Israel [email protected]

This study examines the evolution of the Palestinian village of Bil’in as a site that attracts international tourists and analyzes the factors that enable this process. Based on an analysis of primary and secondary sources, this paper shows how the village developed from a site of a local dispute into an international symbol of resistance. The study illuminates the involvement of tourists in shaping a political struggle. Our analysis of the tourist experience demonstrates that Bil’in provides visitors with touristic thrills, but in quite a protected bubble, where the risks are contained and the action is controlled. We conclude that different actors are involved in constructing and staging the events as authentic experiences and that in so doing they generate a suitable platform for the performance of political tourism.

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