Wollo Zone of Amhara Regional State Education Bureau

I ASTUDY ON THE PRACTICE AND PROBLEMS OF ( .A.LTERNATIVEBASIC EDUCATION PROGRAM IN SOUTH ~ WOLLO ZONE OF AMHARA REGIONAL STATE EDUCATION BUREAU I" A STUDY ON THE PRACTICE AND PROBLEMS OF ALTERNATIVE BASIC EDUCATION PROGRAM IN SOUTH WOLLO ZONE OF AMHARA REGIONAL STATE .. EDUCATION BUREAU

BY ABRAHAM LEMMA

A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE OFFICE OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND RESEARCH ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ART IN EDUCATIONAL POLICY AND PLANNING

JUNE 2008

------ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY OFFICE OF GRADUATES STUDIES AND RESEARCH

A STUDY ON THE PRACTICE AND PROBLEMS OF ALTERNATIVE BASIC EDUCATION PROGRAM IN SOUTH WOLLO Z?N;O;;~~M ~N;VER;;"" I" i USRARles p.O.BOX 1176 t, 011. ""11. ETHlOPlA .. BY ADO'S A~tw\ . 1,~J.:, ABRAHAM LE A ,.. .. ~,f •• "" 1lJ', ...-.: ..... ,. ••"',."..t"- .,.~ t , ..~ tr ~ ~'.. . )" HfI'~ t1, ... ~ . ~ 1'\ DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT FACULTY OF EDUCATION

APPROVED BY BOARD OF EXAMINERS

'!.f.-j,{(,t n.o (). ~ liM< A\ b", l,\ l P\,.. .

AhdulMjij J1lASSitV\ ( Ph':P) EXTERNAL EXAMINOR ~~ATURE ~-----., -- ~I Jjp v1ls b h~7 INTERNAL EXAMINOR SIGNATURE Acknowledgements

I would like to make my first and utmost gratitude to almighty God for clearing of every obstacle all along the path. Next, I wish to express my sincere appreciation to my advisor, Dr. Zenebe Baraki for the guidance and technical advice as well as hi s generosity with his time.

My special thanks also go to Ato Seyfu Biratu, my immediate boss in Ethiopian Investment Agenc y for hi s cooperation in the course of action. My deepest gratitude also goes to Ethiopian Government E nterpri ses Inspection and Privatization Agency Privatization Business Process Reengineering (BPR) team members, Ato Ahmed Nur, Ato Waryo Gelgelo, Ato Netsanet Wondirad, W/r Etsegenet Tassew and Wit Zemzem Ahmed for their devotion to supI'lort my study.

Finally, I am indebted to the Office of Graduate Studies and Research,AAU for covering the financial expenses of this research work.

Last but not least I would like to express my heart-felt thanks to my younger brother Yosef Lemma, wit Fikirte Zewdu and other people who facilitated the data gathering and write up of thi s paper.

Abraham Lemma Table of Contents

Contents Pages

Acknowledgenlents ...... i Table of Contents ...... ii List of Tables ...... iv Acronyms ...... v ABSTRACT ...... vi CHAPTER ONE ...... 1 1. THE PROBLEM AND ITS APPROACH ...... 1 1.1 Background ...... 1 1.2 Statement of the probl em ...... 3 1.3 Objective of the study ...... 4 ., 1.4 Significance of the Study ...... 5 1.5 Deli mitation of the Study ...... 6 1.6 Limitation of the study ...... ( 1. 7 Definitions of Key Terms ...... 6 1.8 Organi zati on of the study ...... 7 CHAPTER TWO ...... 8 2. REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERA TURE ...... 8 2. 1. T he Meaning and Importance of Basic Educati on ...... 8 2.2. T he Chall enges of B asic Educati on Provision ...... 11 2.2. 1 S upply Side Probl ems ...... II 2.2.2 Demand Related Problems ...... 14 2.3. Addressin g the Cha ll enge of Basic Education Provision...... 16 2.4. Non-form al Education and Al ternati ve Basic Educati on ...... 18 2.5. T he Role of NGOs in th e Altern ative Provision ...... 22 2.6. Afri can Countries Best Practi ces ...... 23 2.7 T he Nine Building Blocks of Education ...... 27 2.8 T he Situation in Ethi opia ...... 29 CHAPTER THREE ...... 3::- 3.RESEARCH DESIGNE AND METHODOLOGy ...... 32 3. 1. Meth od of the Study ...... 32 3.2 Data Gath ering In strument and Sources of Data ...... 32 3.3 Sampl e Popul ati on and Si ze ...... 33 3.4 Procedure of the Study ...... 34 3.5 Data Analysis ...... 35

11 CHAPTER FOUR ...... 36 4.PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ...... 36 4.1. Characteristics of the Study Population ...... 36 4.2 Analysis of the Main Features of the Program ...... 39 4.2.1 Program Context ...... 39 4.2.2. Program Organization ...... 42 4.2.3 The setting ...... 44 4.2.4. The Facilitators, the Pedagogy and the Cuniculum ...... 48 4.2.5 Community and NOO In vo lve ment...... 55 4.2.6 T he Management and Financing System ...... 61 4 .3 Program Performance ...... 63 4.4 Challenges of the Program ...... 67 CHAPTER V ...... 68 5. SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..... 68 5.1 Summary of the Findings ...... 69 5.2. Conclusion ...... 74 5.3. Recommendations ...... 7G BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 77 APPENDICES ...... 82

11l List of Tables

Tables Pages

Table 1: Source of Data, Popul ati on, and Sample Representative and Instruments ...... 34 Table 2: Characteristics of the Respondents ...... 36 Tabl e 3: Ratin g of Factors Necessitate the ABE program ...... •...... 39 Table 4: T he Socio-economi c Contribution of the ABE Learners ...... 41 Tabl e 5: An"angement of the Program .....•...... 42 Table 6: Accom modation for Classes ...... •...... •... 45 Table 7a: Avail abili ty of Furniture ...... •...... ••..•....•...... 46 Table 7b : Avail abi lity of Necessary Faci li ties ...... •...... 47 Table 9: Facili tators Recruitment, payment and Training ...... 49 Table 8: Facili tators' Profiles ...... •...... 48 Tabl e 10: Teaching- learning Processes ...... •...... •..•...... •...... 52 Table 11: C UITiculum Issues ...... 53 Table 12: Community Involvement Area ...... 55 Table 13: Rating on the contribution of the community ...... 56 Table 14: The Contribution of Nongovernmental Organi zati ons ...... 57 Tabl e 15: T he Physical Features of ABE Centers ...... •...•...... 59 Tabl el6: Reaction on the Management of ABE Program ...... 61

Tabl e 17: Availability of Teaching Materi als ...... •.•...... •..•...... 6 ~ Tabl e 18: Rating on th e Quality, Rele vance, Effi ciency and Accessibility of ABE Program ..... 65

I V ~ ...... - ----"' -

AABE = Alternative Approach to Basic Education ABE = Alternative Basic Education Annual Education Statistical Abstract ANRS = Amhara National Regional States AREB = Amhara Regional State Education Bureau CHC = Central Management Committee EFA = Education for All ESDP = Educations Sector Development Program ETP = Education and Training Policy GER = Gross Enrollment Rate MDG = Millennium Development Goal MOE = Ministry of Education NFE = Non-formal Education NGO = Nongovernmental Organization SC-D = Save the Children Denmark SC-N = Save the Children Norway SIDA = Sweden International Development Association TGE = Transitional Government of Ethiopia UN = United Nations UNESCO = United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF = United Nations Integrated Child Emergency Fund UPE = Universal Primary Education

v ABSTRACT

Developing countries have been striving hard in meeting Millennium Development Goals. Universal Primary Education for All, among others is a goal to be achieved by the education sector and an instrument to meet the other goals. The Ethiopian government has launched Alternative Basic Education (ABE) Program to reach chi ldren whom the conventional m.ethod could not address. The purpose of this study wa~ to assess the practice whether it was in line with the ABE Strategy or not and problems of the program in south wollo Zone in which the enrollment rate had been falling for the last two years .. The study has made a brief review of the literature and concepts behind the strategy (ABE). Then investigation methods were developed administered and analyzed up on which findings were drawn.

Result of the study showed that the program succeeded in enrolling the target groups, oul of schoolchildren who are required to contribute in their household socioeconomic activities. The schedule designed according to their convenience so that it is responsive to the opportunity cost of their time. The program used locally available resources to avail classroom nearby villages though they are nol well organized with necessary facilities-furniture, latrine, playground and potable water supply. It also employed professional teachers who trained for the formal system. The program used its own curriculum though 80% of the respondents criticized it for its difficulty level. Hence, it has not enough strength in order to retain children and attract more others

The Government, the Communities and the NGOs jlnanced the program but many faculties were not adequately provided. The facilitators' salary scale was inadequate, the administration was nOl uniform among woredas and centers consequently facilitators' turn over we re aggravated, 81 .8% of the respondent dissatisfied with the salary scale. Regarding the managel?1ent, people at the grass toot level complained on the zone and the regional bureau for lack of supervision and timely provision of necessary materials like textbooks. It seemed that both the zonal and regional decisior makers left much of the implementation for woreda. Thus, it was concluded that the program addressed its target but not well organized and managed to deliver relevant education and bring about desired output so that it was suggested that apart from making school places accessible to the needy children, the actual learning material and environment also need certain improvement.

VI CHAPTER ONE

1. THE PROBLEM AND ITS APPROACH

1.1 Background Education enhances the overall development of the human personality. The mental, physical, social, moral and spiritual powers of human being develop through the processes and practice of education. It is through education that knowledge is acquired, skill is developed, attitudes and values are formed. These are instruments to improve the productivity of societies and their socioeconomic institutions (World Bank, 1990). Colclough (1982) stated that education has strategic importance in national identity formation as well as due to the benefits that accrue in terms of social and economic development.

Basic Education is a foundation for Education. Learning to read, to write and to do basic arithmetic is the beginning of the life long march of education. Children acquire life skills through education. Life skill comprises the base of knowledge and understanding about the world that enables people to reason, to solve problems and to decide the important iSSUe., facing th eir societies (Anderson, 1992).

Poverty is the major problem of developing countries and the role of education in poverty reduction transcends the mere preparation role of skilled labor. Many studies show that literate people can be more productive than their illiterate counter parts.

As Shultz (in Keith, 1993:22) indicates, for instance, a functionally literate man produce by a mean value of 1.3 percent better than the illiterate counterpart in a traditional environment and 9.5 percent in mode rni zed ones. In recognition of the role of education, the international community declared primary education as a fundamental Human Right (1948) and subsequent international conferences and nv(mative texts have reaffirmed this goal and sought to achieve it. Accordingly, UNESCO region al conferences (1960s) set target for universal primary education (UPE) by 1980 G.c. and developing nations taken it as among development priorities. Following that, several regional conferences discussed it and reaffirmed the urgent need to provide basic and functional literacy ski ll s for youth and Adults (UNESCO 1979, 1982 and 1985 in Birhanu, 2000). The Addis Ababa

1 (1961) and the Jomtien, Thailand (UNESCO, 1990) conferences had set target to access education for all by 1980 and 2000 respectively. Yet, the accomplishment still requires further time and the target has been postponed for the third time to 2015.

Ethiopia has recognized the right of all people to education and the importance of it for development since long years back and it has made due effort in order to change the situation. However, the effort could not be effective for long since it had depended only on the formal education mode of delivery system. The 1994 Education and Training Policy identified the major problems lay in the system. Lack of access to primary education; problem of equity; poor quality, relevance and low efficiency in uti lization of resources are the majors (MOE, 2002: 13-19). Accordingly, the government has set strategies to tackle the problems. The provision of primary education through non-formal approach was considered in the policy document (1994 G.C.).The Education Sector Development Program (ESDP II) which translates the policy into action said that the adult and non-formal education could serve as altemative approach/complementing educational program to increase access to basic primary education. Further, it indicated that Regional Education Bureaus with the ful l participation and contribution of the commu.lity and NGOs would use non-formal education as altemative way to provide basic education.

Hence, Regional Education Bureaus have launched Altemative Basic Education Program and established thousands of ABE. The program is assumed equivalent to formal education grade 1-4. It focuses on literacy, numeracy and environmental science to enable the learners to develop problem-solving abilities and change their mode of life (MOE, 2002:3 1).

The Amhara Region Education Bureau has developed a regional Altemative Basic (non-formal) Education strategy. The objective of the strategy states that ABE program is in place to alleviate the problem of access of children to basic education by establishing a cost-effective, flexible, and easily reachable and community based education centers that serve as satellites or feeders to formal primary schools. South Woll o Zone, the study area, has implemented the ABE program. Accordi ng to the data obtai ned from the zone education department, 34,927 chi Idren were enrolled in 406 ABE centers in 2006/07 academic year. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to assess the practice and problems of the program in the zone.

2 1.2 Statement of the Problem Ethiopia is the second most populous country in sub-Saharan Africa after Nigeria. The population was estimated at about 74.7 million in 2006, with a projected annual growth rate of 2.3 percent. The plimary school (grade 1-8) age population was estimated 14,753,l59 and the enrollment, excluding the Alternative Basic Education (ABE) was 12,657,342 (85.5 %). The edrollment for ABE was 817,332 that raised the total enrollment to 91.3%.

The 2005/06 figures show an increase of 6.0 percentage compared to that of the 2004/05 (ESAAP/ 2005-06/, 2007). In such a trend the path to the goal of Education for all by 2015 is , therefore seems attainable if the contribution of ABE rise in line with the demand. As Coombs (in Hetland and Abel , 1984) noted that it became clear that developing countries simply could not rely on the formal educational models they had been enthusiastically expanding to meet all the diverse and rapidly growing learning needs of their people. According to the author, non-formal educ ation has a potential to serve important learning needs and clienteles beyond the reach and capabilities of formal schools. In this perspectives, ESDPII places emphasis on alternative basic education to reach out-of school children. However, the coverage could not exceed 5.5 % of the school age population until 2005/2006 academic year (ESAA /2005-06/,2007).

Furthermore, the enrollment for ABE has decreased in some regions like Amhara region where ABE program is expected much to contribute on the enrollment rate. The following graph shows ABE enrollment trend in Amhara region.

- - -- '- ...

The Gross Enrolment of ABE Students(2002/03- 2006/07)

300000 250000 c: -CI) 200000 E 150000 (5... c: 100000 w 50000 0 2002/3 2003/4 2004/5 2005/6 2006/7 Academic Years

Source: - A study report made by Amhara region education bureau in collaboration with SCD-E & SCN-E.

As indicated in the above graph, the enrollment rate was initially increasing and reached a peak in the final year of the first batch of learners. Nevertheless, a drop in the enrollment rate has occuned following the completion of the first batch. In 2006/07 G.c. academic ye ar, both the region and the zone performed far below the plan.

The problems associated with ABE and reported by the Regional Education include conversion of ABEC into formal schools; high dropout and transfers of students from ABE centre to formal schools, and lack of quality education and inflexible scheduling.

Thus, diagnosis of the existing system to uncover the causes of the problems, which need to be resolved through change of strategy, planning and policy statements, is indispensable.

The purpose of this paper is to assess the practice and problems of the program in terms ~ f inputs and process in depth.

1.3 Objective of the Study

The General Objective is to make a diagnostic study of the educational program with the help of latest available data and emsirical evidence, to identify the shortcoming of the program and the pressing problem that need immediate intervention. The study specifically aims -

4 1. To assess the level of community participation particularly in designing the schedule 2. To assess the adequacy of resources and facilities; 3. To evaluate the internal efficiency of the program; 4. To assess the overall problem encountered in the program.

To guide the study with in the scope specified and make the attainment of intended objectives possible, the study tries to answer the following basic questions: 1. What are the major practices of the Alternative Basic Education Program operating in south wollo? 2. Is the ABE program in line with the Regional strategy, the demand of parents, and the needs of children? 3. What are the major problems of the program in relation to the desired education quality and standard? 4. What should be done to tackle the problems of dropout?

1.4 Significance of the Study

Stakeholders could not meet the goal or objective of universal basic /primary education unless the importance of non-formula delivery system gets proper consideration since it helps the efficient use of scarce resources, expansion of educational services, and promotion of equity in educational opportunities and enhancement of the relevance of education to the demands of socio economic development. Hence, the study provides a better understanding and raises the awareness of stakeholders about the issue and its problem. Besides, the findings of the study would help the national and regional education planner.;:, policy makers and others stakeholders to explore possibilities of deve loping more effective strategies to improve the implementation of the program and thereby speed up the progress toward the ultimate goal of UPE. Furthermore, the study would serve as a springboard to make further research and reali zation of the implementation of al ternative basic education program. It also enriches the existing knowledge.

) 5 1.5 Delimitation of the Study

The study is delimited in terms of mode of delivery, educational indicators and Geographical area to make it manageable to the student researcher. Though the provision of basic education is mainly effected through formal delivery system of education, the contribution of non-formal approach is significant and gained due consideration. Hence, the study is delimited to the non formal altemati ve basic education for out of schoolchildren.

The study focused on south wollo zone of Amhara National Region due to some reasons. Time and money inadequacy limit the study with in the respected area. Besides, the practical experience of the student researcher in the respected geographical area encourages him tv see the problem in depth. Therefore, the study is delimited to uncover problems around the inputs and process of the program.

1.6 Limitation o.f the Study

The researcher faced some problems during the course of action of the study. It was intended to collect information from different sources on the practice of ABE program. However, people intended for focus group discussion were not found fully so that some members represented ABE centre committee and parents. Besides, education officials and experts were not being available

in offices due to many reasons -field visit and prolonged meeting. On top of that, the~ 1 had not enough information about the work. For instance, they did not know the data on textbook - student distribution ratio and drop out rate as a result the study depended on opinions given by facilitators and students at the grass roots level.

1.7 Definitions of Key Terms

Alternative Basic Education: a non-formal provision of education required in primary school, basic literacy and numeracy from grade 1-4 (MOE, 2002:31). Basic Education: The very minimum of knowledge, skills, attitudes and va lues that will enable individual to operate with a reasonable expectation of success in their commun;ty or society (UNESCO, in Haggis, 1995 :2).

6 structured "education system" spanning lower primary school and the upper reache n of the university (Coombs and Ahmed, 1974:8). Non-Formal Education: Any organized, systematic education activity carried on outside the framework of the formal system to provide selected types of learning to particular subgroups in the population, adults, youth as well as children (Coombs and Ahmed, 1974:8). Universal Primary Education: the second United Nations Millennium Development Goal to "ensure that by 2015, chi ldren everywhere, boys and girls alike will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling."(Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia,2008).

1.8 Organization of the Study

This study consists five chapters. chapter one deals with the problem and its approach whereby, background of the problem, statement of the problem, significance of the study, delimitation of th e study, limitation of the study, definition of terms, limitation of the study and organization of the study are presented. Chapter 2 is the review of the related literature that lays conceptual framework of the study. Chapter 3 deals on the research design and methodology. Chapter 4 is concerned with the analysis and interpretation of data and discussion on important issues .while chapter five presents the summary of the findings, conclusions and recommendations of the study. Finally, lists of reference materials used for the study, sample questionnaire, interview guide and classroom observation checklist are attached to the appendix of the report.

7 CHAPTER TWO

2. REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter deals with the Meaning and importance of basic education and challenges to provide it .The challenges are categorized under supply and demand related problems. Demographic pressure, relevance and quality of education, school mapping and were treated as supply side problems while opportunity cost, poverty, parents' culture and illiteracy were demand side problems. The problem that is occurred following HIV/AIDS was also seen. Nun-formal education, among others contributes to address the challenge so that the paper assessed its character. African countries experiences were also seen to take a lesson and nine building blocks of basic education were drawn as a success factors. Besides, the situation in Ethiopia, policy and program response, the current policy and practice and finally the situation in Amhara region were issues incorporated in the chapter

2.1. The Meaning and Importance of Basic Education. A. The Meaning of Basic Education

Countries across the globe Ii ve and work in heterogeneous culture and experiences so that they define basic education in their own way (World Bank, 1995; UNESCO, 1998). Basic education is a fundamental human right that should be delivered to all. In addition, the goal necessitates a joint effort that should have been begun with a common understanding on the matter. Thus, the Jomtien (UNESCO, 1990) conference came up with a comprehensive definition.

Basic education refers to education intended to meet basic learning needs; it includes instruction at the jlrst or fOlJndation level, on which subsequent lying can be based. It encompasses early childhood and primary (or elementary) education for children, as well as education in literacy, general knowledge and life skills for youth and adults; it may extend into secondary education in some countries.

The necessities of learning were defined as "basic learning needs that refer to the knowledge, ski lls , attitudes and values necessary for people to survive, to improve the quality of their lives, and to continue learning".

8 According to the above definition, basic education must be understood as basis as the bottom and not as the top of the educational development of each individual. People begin their lifelong education with it by acquiring learning skills, literacy and numeracy. It includes secondary

education in some countries while limited to the primary or elementary level of instruction In others. Although basic education is the beginning of education career, it does not confine to children. It also serves youth and adults who did not have access to formal education at the right age. In this sense, basic education suggests articulation among formal, nonformula anr! informal mode of delivery of education. Regular schools or any out-of-school organized arrangements provide it. It can be also acquired th rough informal means through individual initiative.

As Rajapt (1996) indicated, the content of basic education has to be adopted to the particular circumstances of learner group and derived from an analysis of knowledge and skill needs in the specific environment. This implies that the content vary according to the need and interest of the clientele. Children, youth and adults could not need the same curriculum because there is age difference that determines their interest. Nevertheless, all equally need the early of learning skills literacy and numeracy.

In Ethiopia, basic education refers to primary education only provided for children at lower primary schools (1-4) and non-formal education for children, youth and adults. The curriculum contains instruction in literacy, numeracy, environmental education, crafts, home science, health and civics (ETP, 1994). Thus, the Ethiopian instruction also encompasses both the instruments fO! learning and knowledge, skill and attitude for survival.

The Ethiopian definition is similar to that of Hawes (in Bishop, 1986), Basic education refers to the first cycle of schooling (three to five years) and an alternative structure parallel to primary education: and the acquisition of basic knowledge, skills and attitudes by all citizens in or out of school. Therefore, basic education is a learning that takes place in any convenience. The "ontent is fundamental in the learning hierarchy. It serves all regardless of age.

:: B. The Importance of Basic Education.

In the first instance, education is a basic right of all people. It is the right that is protected under the 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In line with this internationally agreed EPA goals specify that primary schooling should be free and compulsory. Here, the term free indicated that it is a need for all as other basic needs.

Moreover, basic education is very essential for socio-economic life. Regarding the economic importance of primary education, a number of studies concluded that a person who passes through primary education could produce much better than the illiterate counterpart could. According to the World Bank (1980), a farmer who had completed four years of primary schooling produced 13 .2 percent more than hi s counterpart who had not been to school can produce. In line with this, the cUITent Ethiopian education policy is designed to produce literate peasant and there by achieve the agricultural lead industrial economic policy. Education also has social benefits. The educated mother can manage her family better than the uneducated one. She knows how she limits the number of her children. Women with more than four years of education have 30 percent fewer children than women with no education, and their children have mortality rates only half as high ( Anderson,1992 ).

Oxfam indicated that babies born to mother without formal education are at least twice as likely to suffer form mini stration, or die before the age of five, than those babies born to mothers who completed primary school (UNESCO, 2007).

Education also helps to access primary education for all. Children of educated parents are more likely to enroll in school and to complete more years of school than children of uneducated parents (Lockheed, 1989; world Bank;1999). As educated people have better economic poteT'tial , they may not need their children' s labor for the household economy, so that children have better chance to go school and attend. In addition, parents can provide all the basic inputs essential for learnin g.

According to UNESCO (1985), Rose and Greeley (2006), the imperative for basic education IS even greater than contribution to development and growth. It can also be impol1ant to ensure security as indicated below:

------The right to learn is not a cultural luxury to be saved for some future date. It is not the next step to be taken once basic needs have been satisfied. The right to learn is an indispensable tool for the survival tool for the survival of humanity. If people have to enjoy better health, and are to avoid war, they must learn to live in peace, and learn to understand each other (Birihanu, 2001 J.

However, millions are denied of the access yet. This is because of various socio-economic factors lie on the demand and supply sides.

2.2. The Challenges of Basic Education Provision The EFA Global Monitoring Report (2007) estimated that around 72 million children, 57% of them girls, are out of school. Brune (2007) further noted that more than half out-of-school chi ldren have never been in school and may never enroll without additional incentives. A major equity challenge remains to enroll and retain all children, especially the poor and disadvantaged, and those living in fragile states as indicated in the report further.

Ethiopia, a land of world poverty is not among the countries where the levels and trends is not among the countries where the levels and trends in access (GER below 70%) to school point to the difficulty of achieving UPE. The 2007 EFA Annual Monitoring Report shows that the country has reached 100 % GER (UNESCO, 2007).A country's distance from UPE appears most clearly in terms of the net enrolment ratio (NER), the share of children of official primary school age who actually enroll in primary school.

Countries with NER above 90% are closest to UPE (UNESCO, 2007). The sub-Sahara Africa countries are countries where the situation remains most critical. More than 60% of these countries have performed below 80% and more than one-third below 70%. Ethiopia has performed only 68% (UNESCO, 2007). Different demand and supply side factors have made the situation worse.

2.2.1 Supply Side Problems

A. Demographic pressure: it is the major challenge for the supply of education. A large projected increase in primary school age population is expected in sub-Saharan Africa (22%) for the next decades (UNESCO, 2007). Since the school age people are economically dependent and ever

11 budgets. In addition, the rising unit costs of schooling and increasingly severe financial constraints on educational expansion made universal primary schooling a more distant goal in many countries to day than when the target was set as further indicated in the report.

Thus, the provision of basic education is remaining as it is unless fel1ility rates fall substantially and the proportion of economicall y able society increases.

B .Relevance of Education

Irrelevance curriculum makes parents reluctant to send their children to school. Parents, particularly in the rural area want val ue and support cuniculum mere closely related to the dail y lives of students and providing practical skills for life (Serpell, 1993). In developing countries, life depends on daily household ac ti vity, so that parents need a curriculum that can contribute knowledge and skills used for immediate consumption. On the contrary, formal education uses a unitarily, centrall y determined curriculum, which is generally designed for pupils famili;)r with an urban environment and may contain elements that conflict with local customs and beliefs (Atchoarena and Gasperin i, 2003).

The un-reached groups are the vast majority of rural people and urban poor who need flexible curriculum that matches their need and interest. These un-reached groups are various who demand various provisions. The E thiopia cases for instance, need different cuniculum correspond to th e socio-economic condition of the people. Pastoralists and cereal growers should not be served with same curriculum. Thus, the curriculum should be designed in accordance with such factors. Otherwise, parents may see no point in sending their children to school.

C .Quality of Education

The quality of primary school inputs such as teachers, facilities and other materials also affects school enrolment, attendance and completion (Ibid).

The key ' input', teachers are generall y poorly trained, supervised, supported and remunerated. They must cope with ill-equipped classrooms overcrowded with children of several ages (Ibid). Regarding crowdedness, the writer often remember the expression that a teacher, at one of the near

12 past nationwide teachers' conference took pl ace in Amhara region said that she had to move aside the stretched leg of students in order to move from one side of the black board to the other in her self-contained classroom.

On top of that, teachers of urban origin are often reluctant to take up rural assignments and those who do accept are hard to retain in rural communities (Atchoarena and Gaspelini, 2003). This is because less or no supply of utilities as compare to urban areas. Thus, difficult working conditions combined with a low salary tend to weaken the morale of even dedicated teachers. These in turn affect teacher's effecti veness and thereby school efficiency.

According to Davico (1992), unmotivated teachers and their inadequate support to poor children increased rates of repetition and dropout in Brazil. Another researcher, Hanushek (1995) affirmed that students respond to higher school quality with lower dropouts. They tend to stay in good schools and dropout in poor ones. In another work in Egypt, Hanushek and Lavy (1994) concluded that students going to high quality schools are much more likely to stay in school than those going to low quality schools.

Therefore, school must be adequately organized with the required human and material in puts in order to attract and retain children/students.

D. School Mapping

School Mapping and the physical environment also largely determine the enrollment rate. Children cannot walk a long distance between their home and school. Primary school age children walking distance is in most cases limited to 3 km (UNESCO, 1996). In addition, parents want to follow their children's condition in school. They often worry about their children's safety in school and on the way to school. However, it is difficult to provide formal schools with in walking distance of every household in an area where people are sparsely settle.

13 E. School Supply

The adequacy and repair of the classrooms, the lack of separate toilet for girls, and the supply of drinking water also influence parents' decision to send their chi ldren to school (Atchoarena and Gasperini , 2003).

The supply of subsequent class education also determines parents' decision to send their children to the preceding cycle. They aspire beyond primary education for their children. Therefore, the provision of primary education should not be considered in isolation of the Subsequent classes).

Thus, unless such worries are alleviated, children in general and girls in particular will continue to be missing or withdrawn from school, especially as they approach puberty.

2.2.2 Demand Related Problems

A. Opportunity Cost

Various social and economic obstacles prevent some children from attending the available schooling. The opportunity cost of schooling is a among the main problems of children of poor family, who would lose income or services gained from their children's labor, either in the home or in the fields or in other work places. For such a family school learning may appear quite irrelevant and unnecessary in respect to their more immediate survival needs (Atchoarena and Gasperini , 2003; Anderson, 1988; Lockheed and Verspoor, 1992).

As studies indicate, there are millions child laborers around the world. NumericallY, ar"und 351 million children aged 5 to 17 are engaged in economic activity in the world (http: //www.ilo.org). Consequently, schooling must offer an attractive and affordable alternative in order for such families to accept to enroll their chi ldren in school forego their labor.

B. Poverty

Poverty is another major factor linked to the problem of opportunity cost. Although education is free, children of the poor are the least in attending or completing school because parents incur other direct costs such as uniforms, paper and pen, transport, lunch and health expenses and others

------which often result in the exclusion of poor children from school (Nkinyang, 1982; C: limombo, 1999).

Children who are undernourished or otherwise in poor health have difficulty in concentratin g and attending class regularly though they get to school. WFP (2001) described the situation as follows: "when poor children do go to school, they often leave home on an empty stomach" .Three hundred million of the world's children are chronically hungry. The approximately 170 million of these children who attend school must learn while fighting hungry (WFP, 20091).Therefore, society must enhance the environment for learning. This in turn requires another provision of education adult education.

C. Parents' Culture and Illiteracy

The parental characteristics and socio-cultural status of the household are other detelTents of education. The World Bank (1995) noted that the gender gap in school enrolment due to parents' demand for education for their daughters is substantially high reflecting both cultural norms and girl's work in and around the home. Literate parents are more likely than illiterate ones to enroll their daughters in school. Thus, the regions with highest proportions of illiterate adults are those with the widest gender gaps (Colclough and Lewin, 1993).

In addition, literature showed that in many cultures parents decide that education is not worthwhile for their daughters. Because they will move into their husband's family when they malTY and that gains in productivity or income due to education will accrue to the families of their sons-in-law rather than to them (Atchoarena and Gasperini,2003). Besides, early marriage hinders girls from schooling unless strong family law comes to practice.

Therefore, overcoming the gender gap will require not only providing more school place for girls but also overcome many parents' ignorance of enrolment rate, the dropout rate and thereby produce a graduate.

15 D.HIV/AIDS

Nowadays, HIV/AIDS significantly challenges effort to access education for all particularl y in

sub-Saharan Africa. The prolonged sickness, and death of those inflected exacerbates and depends existing poverty through the direct costs of illness and the loss of labor. The effect on young ad ults of chi ldbearing age has left many children orphaned. Some children carry the responsibility to take care of their sick parent or young brothers and sisters. As a result, they could not go to school regularly or attend learning effectively. In Zambia, or example, 30% of children are likel y to lose at least o ne parent by 2010 (Gachuhi , 1999).

In addi tion , the impact of the pandemic on performance of the education system is hard. Severe sic kness and attrition levels among the teaching force threaten to undermine efforts to improve th e quality of schooll11 g and thereby enrollment.

To sum up, demographic trend; school relevance, efficiency and quality; school mapping and suppl y of next step education on the supply side wile opportunity cost, poverty, illiterac y on the demand side and finally HIV/AIDS pandemic on both side are challenges of the education syste m .

2.3. Addressing the Challenge of Basic Education Provision The effort to meet the learning needs of the majority of developing nations' people has passed decades and significant improvement has been achieved. Lessons drawn from countries' ex pe ri ence help in order to go further, but no single short-term solution or strategy that ensures success. A combination of measures is required to e liminate proble ms and succeed in th e etlort . Therefore, government and society have to work in favor of the following points:

I. Political commitment: government's commitment to rea ll ocate resources both to educati on and within education sector Itself should be considered. A number of countries have achi eved UPE through th e re-orientation of funds away from less producti ve expenditure e.g. mi litary spending .Besi des, there should be a considerable reallocation of budget that should take place

within the education sector itself. Most of the time, the needs of primary education are not met because higher education has more vocal and politically influential constituents (DFlD, 200 I).

16 2. Make primary education free and compulsory. No child is denied his/her right to education because its parents or guardians cannot pay for it. Besides, government should target incentives and exemptions to lessen the burden on poor people because some direct costs are often passed on it the form of changes for books, uniform, transport and the like (ibid).

3. Ensure commitment to gender equality. It is necessary to launch programs that advocate the importance of girl's education to raise demand for, and acceptance of girls' education. For example, teaching society about the importance of girls' education with mass media, increasing opportunities for women teacher and head teachers to make them role model for girls. In this regard, Anderson (1988) noted that the sex of the teacher affects teacher-pupil interaction with female teachers acting as role models and thereby providing more encouragement to girls than male teachers. In Amhara region for instance ABE centre facilitator's recruitment criteria grants 30% of the quota to women to compete each other while they compete with male candidates for the 70% space (AREB, 2003 E.C).

4. School construction and other strategies .Construction of new classroom and schools; adoption of double or multi-shift alTangement to access children are feasible strategy in a place where shortage of school prevails (Bishop, 1989, Lockheed, 1991). The multi grade class organization for sparsely populated areas where the number of children in a given class is minimal is appropriate approach (Torres, 1991; UNICEF, 1993).

5. School mapping and adoption of small feeder or satellite schools. Schools need to be located nearby children's home. Long distance between home and the nearest school often deter children, particularly girls from attending school, or dissuade their families from encouraging their education, for fear of mishap, violence or abuse.

6. Employ indigenous delivery system. Explore the way in which the indigenous forms of education can be used to enhance the delivery of basic education. Church and Koranic schools have major role in this regard (UNESCO, 2004).

7. Understand and strengthening the demand for education. There are many complementary activities, which encourage parents to send their children to school, and to keep them there. The availability of early childhood care and development programs and local and-:cessible secondary education, among others win the interest of parents.

17 8. Improve quality of education offered to children. Parents are unwilling to invest in their children's education unless they are convinced of its quality and value.

9. Develop an integrated sector-wide approach to primal'y education. Civil society including children and their parents should be consulted in order to ensure participation in policymaking and its implementation (DFID, 2001).

10. Develop coherent polices and coordinated strategies. Education is a service that should be provided one after the other so that it should be planned integrally in consideration of the demand of the society. Appropriate early childhood education, opportunity to continue to secondary education or into vocational training promote positive attitudes to school and motivate students to complete the primary phase (ibid).

11. Launch non-formal basic education program. It is an appropriate approach to respond to the demand of various kinds of beneficiaries. It is an inclusive program flexible to the needs and circumstances of all excluded children. Complementary non-formal primary education acting as alternati ve del i very structures or bridges into school provides important routes into education and valuable lesson for the formal system (UNESCO, 1990).

12. Improve the capacity of institutions in planning, management, monitoring, and accountability. Stakeholders at the grass root level should be capacitated in order to charge their responsibility properly and affectively (DFID, 2001)

13. Take action against HIV/AIDS. Governments should pay urgent attention on the impact of HIV/AIDS on education systems. The difficulties of predicting future pupil numbers ancl teacher requirements will be compounded. In Zambia, for example, projection of deaths from AIDS suggests that would have predicated using recent data on population growth trends. Thus, decentrali zed planning models that allow schools and local administration sufficient flexibility to react quickly to changing circumstances is required (ibid).

2.4. Non-formal Education and Alternative Basic Education A. The need for non-formal educations

According to Thompson (2001) the current non-formal approaches are:

1. The direct results of the dysfunction of a formal education;

18 2. the desire of communities and group to decide what and how their children must learn;

3. the education for all initiative and other related regional initiatives; and

4. the impact of educational philosophical thoughts.

The inadequacies and problematic of the formal education system manifesting in low leV( 's of both the internal and external efficiency, high rates of dropout, low rate of persistence, didactic methodology and unfavorable setting gave rise to the need for alternative.

Article 25/3 of the universal declaration of human rights has given prior right to parents to decide on what and how their children must be learned.

Although the EFA (UNESC0,1990) declaration continued to vIew non-formal education for children and youth as a gap-filling for malfunctioning formal primary schools, attention to non formal al ternative approaches was still not apparent unless the 1980 UPE targets would not be met (Hoppers, 2006). As a result, the Dakar world education forum (2000) gave greater recognition for alternative provision.

The philosophy of education (Freire in Thompson, 2001) advocate participation, empowerment, freedom and consciousness rising is become additional back up for the alternativeness of non formal education.

B. The characteristics of non-formal education

The concept of non-formal education was introduced by Coombs (1968) in his analysis of a global crisis in education gave rise to fierce criticism on formal education (Illich in Hoppers, 2006). Coombs and Ahmed (1974) described non-formal education as any organized educational activity outside the established formal system whether operating separately or as an important f( . ture of a broader activity that is intended to serve identified clientele and learning objective.

Thus, it is a planned activity to meet the need raised by clientele. It targets a certain group and learning objective that indicate its various categories.

19 As cited in Hoppers (2006), currently there are SIX distinct categories share common features. These are:

i) Para-formal education;

ii) popular education;

iii) personal development activities;

i v) professi onal and vocati onal traini ng;

v) supplementary NFG programs; and

vi) Early child hood care and education program

The concern of this paper is Para-formal education and the discussion will focus on it.

C. Non-formal Alternative Basic Education

The term 'Para-formal education' comes from Argentina (Gall art, 1989), where it has been usefully applied as term for educational activities in between the formal programs and the array of loosely structured, part-time out-of-school provision. It is defined as educational program that provide a substitute for regular full-time schooling. The main objective is to offer a second chance to those, who, for various reasons, could not benefit from the regular school system at the ordained moment. They include evening classes, official literacy and distance education programs, private tutoring, and certain programs for street children, and forms of vocational and technical training (CalT-Hill et aI, 1991 ).

Given the focus of this paper on children and youth, special attention in thi s regard has given to alternative school programs.

As Hopper (2006) further discussed, Para-formal education programs have in the past been generally initiated and run by non-governmental organizations like the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC). Presently, ministries of education are becoming more and more interested in directly initiating and administrating non-formal systems in order to speed up EFA. As the program provides formal education via an alternative route, it has taken the name alternative formal education (Bhola in Hoppers, 2006).

20 The common features of non-formal education Programs are flexibility, open entry and immediate

relevance. The clientele are non-enrolled or dropouts of the formal system. T~ey could be socially/economically marginalized groups such as rural children, urban poor and the like.

It used people with little training and remuneration as a facilitator. In this regard, Hunter et al (1974) noted that non-formal education offers a less costly, more attainable alternative in the development, utilization and maintenance of manpower. The young primary school graduates thus may be the input of non-formal education out put.

The pedagogical methods are different that operate at different times and places and for varying lengths of time. It is not restricted to established setting. It employs the available building prepared for other purposes public and civic organization and even individual houses and under shade. The curriculum and schedule are designed according to the need and interest of the clientele with their full participation (Hunter et ai , 1974).

Therefore, it has distinct characteristics that can be convenient to serve people who miss the formal system.

d. The priority Area of the Program

The Jomtien (UNESCO, 1990) Education for All (EFA) initiative redefined universal pnmary Education (UPE) as meeting the basic learning needs of all school age children. The conference emphasized that "Serving the basic learning needs of all requires more than a recommitment to basic education as it now exists. What is needed is an "expanded vision that surpasses present resources levels, institutional structures, curricula, and conventional delivery systems while building on the best in current practices."

The 1990 declaration (Ibid) further elaborated in its articles III-VII that the following points have to be the priority area of the course of action:

1. Universalizing access and promoting equity: no child, female or male misses the chance for quality learning in whatever conditions wherever she/he is. All children should receive basic education at acceptable level of quality standard.

21 2. Focusing on learning: education should not long be viewed as a more participation and measured by years of exposure. It would be learning acquisition that must be me,,;, ured at a certain level of standard that shows whether learners reach fullest potential.

3. Broadening the means and scope of basic education: formal schooling cannot be the only vehicle of basic education persisting through out life. Therefore, it is necessary to look at other means and integrate them together. Some organized pre-school activities and a VaJity of non-formal education provide basic learning opportunity for out-of-school children, adolescent and adults in addition, information and communication technologies enhance lifelong learning.

4. Enhancing the environment for learning: education requires an environment where baITiers of learning are handled properly. Therefore, it is important to go through all hindering factors along demand and supply sides. In this regard, the educations of adult play signifi cant role to aware them about the importance of education and thereby gain their support.

5. Strengthening partnership: - governments' effort alone could not bring the intended achievement. Close cooperation among all stakeholders of basic education is a prerequisite to make meaningful progress. Many actors in various sector, both government and non government-operating at various levels, from national to local should involve and organize the effort to meet the goal.

2.5. The Role of NGOs in the Alternative Provision As basic education is a basic need essential for every citizen, governments should take the primary responsibility in accessing it for all. On the other hand, education is the largest, most widespread key service given many cultural, social and economic dimensions; it could not address all the need only through government effort. Besides, developing countries cannot make adequate provision in their education budget. They have not also the administrative capacity to manage it. Thus, it requires others' intervention. NGOs have the capacity and administrative skills that match the specific characteristics of beneficiaries. On top of that, they are attached with the lines through which international donors release fund.

22 In line with this ETP (1994) has recognized the imp0l1ance of NGOS. ESDP II underlined as follows:

It was commonly accepted that non-fonnal education could be a short cut and cost effective alternative way of providing basic education. Therefore, Regional Education Bureaus would use those opportunity to the maximum and gave due attention to the expansion of the non-fonnal education programs with the full participation and contribution from communities and NGOs.

However, in such a situation state need to maintain its legislative role in accordance with the types of services intended to be complementary to, or substitutes for its provision because the driving motive of NGOs could not only be philanthropic.

NGOs play different roles in supporting education service delivery. Some are primarily involved in advocacy the others are involved directly in provision of the excluded. According to UNESCO (2004) educational exclusion in compasses those 'hard-to-reach' with respect to gender, street chi ldren, orphans, child soldiers, demobilized children in post conflict areas, pastoralists, indigenous groups, language, faith, disability, refuges, child laborers etc ...

2.6. African Countries Best Practices The aim of this sub-topic is to present and analyses some selected successful ",xpenences In alternative approaches to basic education. Hence, some selected cases are presented below:

A. Lchekuti (shepherds') program in kenya rural

As Thompson (2001) presented, the program was established in response to the felt need for education raised by the pastoralist community in Sambru district with the aim to provide educational opportunities for their out of schoolchildren. The program was a non-formal education program which incorporates aspects of alternative approaches in the form of multi-grade and multi -shift modes of learning.

23 are free from their shepherd's acti vit y. Enrolment and attendance are all owed to fluctuate according to th e prevailing weather.

Local pnmary school 's teachers and other vo lunteers trained by NGOs served as fa cilitators/teachers. The curriculum in cluded mother-tongue literacy, animal husbandry, numeracy, cultural and re ligious education, busin ess education, childcare and national language class.

The program was successful. The community initiated and organi zed it based on th e nef.":s of O UI of-school children and yo uth ; it used flexible scheduling that gave adequate considerati on for domes ti c chores; th e agents were member of the community; and it gave chance for learn ers to in vo lve in the process of curri culum development and preparation of curriculum support material s (Thompson , 2001).

B. Complemental'Y Basic Education in Ghana

A co mpl ementary basic education program was introduced in three regi on of th e country in th e mid-1990. The benefiCiaries are chi ldren aged 8-12 who do not receive prim ary sc hooling. The curri culum compri ses basic education in reading, writing and arithmetic. FleX ible sc hool calendar lake 9 months a year, S days a week and three hours a day is employed. It uses primary sCl lools and ot her suitable places when they are free from their regular duties. T he facilitators are vo lunteers from the local community. As a result , one third of the learners can read and write after nin e months and more than 60% of th e graduates entered the formal school system and continued their education.

However, the program faced some considerable chall enges. One of the di ffi culti es was unabl e to ensure quality of complementary basic education considering fi nancial, physical and human re sources gap s.

T he ot her one was ensuring ac ti ve community participation in monitoring attendance, ensurin g access of the most vuln erable children in cluding chi ldren with disabilities; ensurin g that

24 complementary basic education was not treated like a separate program rather than a complementary to the formal system, and the formal primary school was regarded as 'real' school and provision of adequate funding for the program.

C. Second Chance Schools - Morocco

It was a non-formal basic education program launched by the government to reach 2.2 million out of schoolchildren aged between 8 and 16 over three-quarters of those children live in rural areas and some 45 percent were girls.

The program was guided by flexible and adaptable scheduling principles. The weekly schedule, varied from 4 to 24 hours over 6 days were determined in each locality.

The content of the instruction was adapted to the learning needs of each group. It comprised literacy and numeracy, health, environment, civics and religion and leisure activities.

The facilitators were recruited within the community. They were given training by trainers who had been trained by inspectors and teacher educators in the formal education system.

Classes took place in various facilities; rooms offered by local association, government offices and even private homes.

In order to mobilize materials and human resources the government (Ministry of Educc,~ion) has worked in partnership with a number of NGOs, civic educations and the communities.

The ministry of education had set out a framework of cooperation and work plan that defined the responsibilities of each party. The ministry provided funding to pay the facilitators, trained them, supplied the educational materials and evaluated the overall program.

The program had served more than 87,000 children (57,000 girls) in four years. Literacy, an imal husbandry, numeracy, cultural and religious education, business education and childcare were incorporated in that program.

D. The Village schools of SCFIUSA in Mali

Following low access to formal education in Mali, different forms of community initiative began to emerge by the end of the 1980s. Individuals, communities and associations started various types of private village schools.

25 In that context, vi II ages focused on primary schooling gained attention from donors and government.

A model developed for providing education with lower costs, lower teacher qualifications and lower materials. The program is characterized by: community construction of the centers; a supply of basic materials by SCF together with initial training and continued supervision of locall y recruited teachers paid by the community; use of modified three-year curriculum with; .. struction in the local language.

The initial emphasis was literacy and numeracy, knowledge of village life, health and the work environment. A village-based school management committee was responsible to run the schools.

The major achievements were low cost and high promotion rates better than public schools; the demand for education becomes high with complete parity. School Committee constituted community representatives.

Flexible calendar and time table, as well as adaptation of the curriculum to the local environment with quality supervised by the education authorities highly appreciated by those commun:.ies.

The success of the program revealed by 1998 through provision of instruction, use teachers with very little formal education, and establishment of similar 1,423 village schools with an enrolment account 10 percent of th e total enrolment in the country.

E. The Cobet program of Ministry of education and culture in Tanzania

In 2002, the Tanzanian Ministry of Education and culture initiated a nation-wide NFE program aimed at nearly 3 million children estimated to be out of school.

The program initially set up as a pilot to develop an effective fast-track strategy to offer formal basic education to 11-13 age groups. Eventually, the Ministry established a policy to eJwol1 those seven to ten years olds in standard one, provided a non-formal version of the seven-year primary curriculum.

26 The principal characteristics of the centers are proximity to children's homes; shorter time frame (three years instead of seven); responsive curriculum, child-friendly and centered pedagogy; a safe and secure school environment and high level of community involvement. They were monitored not only by the center committees and local communities, but also by the Adult and primary Education Departments. Moreover, much effort should be exerted in order to train centre management committees.

2.7 The Nine Building Blocks of Education

Anderson (1992) identified the factors that are essential to and supportive of education as "nine building blocks" of education. The leamer, the teacher, time and place are the four factors considered as the basic education building blocks. Parents & community groups; the curriculum & pedagogy; the administrative and management system; and finally financial support are five additional blocks th at support the four basics. She noted that the lesson about education concern these building blocks in order to meet todays educational challenge (ibid).

1. The Child-the learner: the education system should provide children with schools facilitated with the necessary inputs like furniture, latrine etc .. . Consequently, it can be succeeded in attracting and retaining them.

2. The Place: the place where schooling is offered should be safe and nearby children's home. As experience has shown, parents decide not to send their children to primary schools situated far away from their vision (Kelly, 1987).

3. The Timing of School Schedule: it determines a great extent whether children attend and stay in school. Parents want a schedule convenient to children' s work otherwise; they prefer not to send children to school (Lockheed and Verspoor, 1991).

4. The Teacher: teachers must be willing to live in the area where disadvantaged chi ldren live. Hence, they should be selected from the community. A brief well-designeu training can provide people with sufficient skills to be effective teachers. Mastery of reading and writing and simple arithmetic are enough to start as teacher of basic education. The additional knowledge and skills can be acquired in brief pre-service courses and reinforced through regular follow up and in service training.

27 5. Community Involvement: expenence shows that program to provide educational opportunity to hard-to-reach groups are far more likely to succeed when parents and community are actively involved (Lockheed and Verspoor, 1991).

6. The curriculum: it must be relevant and quality. A relevant curriculum is OTIC th(lt presents the basic learning skills that interest parents through its importance for the daily lives and expected futures of their children. Relevant education enables children to live productively in their day-to-day life while their qualities make them more advantageous in the broader world (Anderson, 1992).

7. The Pedagogy: the approaches and tools used by teachers to engage children's mind to learning are as important as the content of lessons. Children learn best when they interact verbally, physically and intellectually with the material being presented (Ibid).

8. The Education Administration and Management System: educational management system becomes effective when it combines the central capabilities with decentralized responsibility. It should involve Community to promote local activities and trust ::.;cal ideas while a central authority are needed for supervision and supply of teaching materials. A central administration has access to expertise to provide collegial support that focuses on ideas and problem solving (Ibid).

9. Financial Support: the primary education system will become effective if countries increase allocation of resources and improve efficiency in utilizing it (Lockheed and Verspoor, 1991).

To sum up:

The parent!community involvement building block under girds the four essential described before. Inside the "school", defined by the time and place where children and teachers meet, the curriculum and the pedagogy make all the d~fference as to whether children stay in school and what they learn while there. The system of administration and management that puts the whole structure together and supports its different elements is pictured as the foundation (Anderson, 1992).

Therefore, these building blocks should be properly assembled In order to attract and retain children to schooling.

28 2.8 The Situation in Ethiopia It was a century a go that literacy and basic education were realized as means of development and modernity when Emperor Minilik II declared (in 1886 E.C i.e. 1993/94) that every chil rl male or female, should get education after the age of six (Zewdie, 1998 E.C).

However, most efforts by the subsequent governments' leaders confined to the linear and homogeneous expensing formal school structures. It was characterized by declining quality, wastage in the form of dropouts, repeaters and failures, educated unemployment, in equalities between different social groups, disparities between boys and girls, between rural and urban, and among regions (ETP, 1994; Tekeste, 1990,1996).

A. Policy and Program Response

As Mammo (2005) indicated, the effort to reach education for all has not limited in formal education approach. There were attempts in the non-formal direction. The first attempt was made by "Association of the National Army for the Alphabet" with a given motto of' Let everyone learn" (1957 E.C).At about the same time, a Ministry of community Development included provision of basic education in its rural development activity list. The "Work-Oriented Adult Literacy program (1968-1973 E.C)" is also noted for its contribution in developing good and relevant learning materi als for basic education (Mammo, 2005).

The military government (1976-1991) development campaigns that were known as "Development in cooperation-campaign for knowledge and work "and" the National Literacy campaign" contributed their own part to reach education for all, too ( Mammo ,2005). The writer of this paper was among the young campaigners who taught so many thousands of children though the program was not specifically designed for the purpose.

Mammo (2005) further indicated that a total number of 393, 418 individuals continued their education in formal school in grade 3-12 and an additional number of 153 were in higher education in stitutions in 1985 G.C after being initiated by the campaign. Again, a friend of this writer, who initiated hi s education in the literacy program, was a student of Bahir-Dar teachers coll ege in 1987/88-89/90.

29 B. The current policy and practice

The CUlTent Education policy (1994) degrees that non-formal education (NFE) will be provided and be integrated with basic education at all levels of the formal education though nothing had been said of it in ESDP 1.

Furthermore, ESDP III (2004) document invites and encourages local governments, religious and international organizations, private sector and communities to offer non-formal education and training.

Accordingly, Regional Education Bureaus have developed their own strategies In order to run basic alternative education program. The concerns of the program (ABE) are eliminate regional , urban-rural, and gender disparities; develop power to school level; strengthening local initiatives, monitoring progress; strengthening institutional capacity; improving the scope of coll aboration and cooperation; creating enabling environment and strengthening the link between education and povelty (Ayalew in Amarech, 2007).

The curriculum of ABE is equivalent to the CUITiculum for formal basic education (Grade 1-4). It is intended to cover only essentials of literacy and innumeracy. It encompasses materials such as syllabi, textbooks, facilitators' guides, assessment guides and registration forms (Amarech, 2007). The Amhara Regional Government Education Bureau has developed its own cuniculum in collaboration with ICDR and save the children Norway (SCI-N). In addition, it has been running the program since 2003/04 academic year.

C. The Situation in Amhara Region

Amhara National Regional State is the second largest federal state covering 161 ,831 square kilometers. It is subdivided into 11 zones and 140 (MOE, 2006) Woredas. The altitude ranges from 700m to 4,620m above sea level. In 2003/04, the population of Amhara Regional state was estimated to be l7,266,387 with annual growth rate of 2.86. School age children account 3,755 ,304 of the total population by the year 2004/5 academic years.

The livelihood of about 89% of the population of the region is based on mixed agriculture. Out of all Woredas, 42.5% are exposed to food shortage due to recunent drought and shortage of rainfall.

30 The health coverage is estimated to be about 4l.4% and drinking water coverage is llmited to about 23% in rural areas. Harmful traditional practices such as child marriage, abduction, physical maltreatment and child labor are common in the region affecting the children's right to protection. HIV/AIDS is rampant (AREB, 2003).

Large proportion of orphans of the country is found in the region. It is clear that the provision of quality primary education has a significant positive impact on uncontrolled population growth, technological development, increment of household income, food and nutrition security, health, water and sanitation provisions, averting harmful traditional practices, protection and prevention of HIV/AIDS, etc.

According to Ministry of Education (2004/05) Educational Statistical Annual Abstract, the primary school gross enrolment rate in Amhara region was 75.9% with a gender parity index of 0.92. This achievement compared to that of the previous year (64%) is very high. The establishment of more than 800 additional primary schools, training and employment of more than 10,000 primary school teachers and establishment of 1,881 Alternative Basic Education Centers (AREB) have contributed to the significant increments.

However, this achievement is still in adequate when it is analyzed in terms of net enrolment. The net enrolment rate of the region is only 68%, leaving 32% of the eligible school age chi ldren (about 1,239,250) out of school. Most of these out of schoolchildren are from rural areas and girls. The marginalized groups comprise higher proportion. This shows that there remains a 10. to do in order to meet the millennium development goals/MDO target for both boys and girls by the year 2015(Amhra Region Education Strategic Plan ,2003/04-2005/6).

31 CHAPTER THREE

3.RESEARCH DESIGNE AND METHODOLOGY

3.1. Method of the Study

The study employed a descriptive survey method as it aims to gather data and fact th at provide descriptive information on the program and enables diagnostic investigation about the practice and problems of the implementation. Therefore, data gathering and fact-finding were the primary task of this study to indicate what happened in the past and levels the present situation.

3.2 Data Gathering Instrument and Sources of Data The study employed different types of data gathering instruments. Accordingl y, document analysis, interview, questionnaire, focus group discussion and field visit (Alternati ve Bas ic Education centre) were the instruments contributed much to acquire sufficient and relevant data.

The document analysis, aimed in investigating and conceptualizing problems, focused on Amhara Regional State Alternative Basic Education Program strategy, rules, and regional ESDP documents and Annual educational abstract. Besides, it targeted and assessed the zone and Woreda Education Office documents. Interview and focus group discussion were another tool to collect data from zone and woreda education office, local administration, ABE Management Committees, and parents.

Regarding questionnaires, close and open-ended type of questionnaires were prepared, pre-tested and administrated for students, facilitators , primary school head teachers , cluster level education supervisors ,woreda and zone level education officials/experts. Besides, the researcher observed the teaching learning process at selected centers to observe assessment and lesson planning. He developed and employed a checklist of activities and recorded results based on the indicators.

32 3.3 Sample Population and Size South wollo zone has 406 alternative Basic Education centers distributed over 21 woredas. There were 702 facilitators and 34,927 students in the 200617 academic year. In order to make the size of the sample manageable and at the same time representative the researcher stratified woredas in to three equal groups. The 200617 academic year enrollment performance helped to categorized woredas in to three groups. Then, two woredas were randomly selected from each stratified groups and totally six woredas were selected as representatives while they should have been seven. This is because the annual performance report of the respected zone did not incorporate three wordas.

Regarding the alternative basic education centers, only two centers were randomly selected and visited in each woreda. Distance, time and money constraints limited the number of ABE centers visited in the field trip.

In the case of respondents ,South wollo Zone Education Office education programs team leader, non-formal education professional, six woreda education offices non-formal education unit heads /members, six cluster school supervisors and twelve primary schools heads were selected based on the purposive sampling techniques. Besides, twelve ABE management committee members, two kebele representatives and six parents were selected from each ABE cent ~~ based on purposive sampling techniques. Besides, 242 students and 53 faci litators were selected for the study. Details of the total target population, samples, and instruments used to collect data are presented in a table below.

33 Table 1: Source of Data, Population, and Sample Representative and Instruments No Data Sources Total Sample Representative Applied Instruments Target population Planned Achieved I Zone education office I I 2 200% Interview/q uestionnaire 2 Worda Education 21 6 6 100 Interview/questionnaire office 3 Alternati ve Basic Education centers - ABE center 406 12 13 108 Observation rheek list - Facilitators 702 53 45 77.58 Questionnaire

- Students 34927 242 243 100.4 Questionnaire -ABE management 702 12 12 100 Focus group discussion committees Kebele 702 12 6 50 Interview Representati ves Parent 34927 15 6 40 Interview

4 Formal primary 763 12 9 75 Interview questionnaire School directors & cluster schools supervisors Total population 73 ,151 368 342 92.9 4 Source: - South wollo zone educatIon offIce 200617 annual report.

3.4 Procedure of the Study Once the Problem is outlined and necessary related literature was reviewed m order to gam insight about the issue, then the problem was stated. Based on the review of literature and experience, assumption were made about the practice and challenge of the program in the study area. In this regard, document, statistical abstracts and reports were investigated in order to collect relevant information. Then the researcher paid a visit to south wollo zone Education office to collect relevant document and information as a preliminary survey.

Having the required information basic questions were formulated; objective and significance of the study were stated.

After the research advisor modified and validated, the questionnaires were administered; interview and focus group discussions were held, observation was conducted and data was

34 collected. Then the collected data was organized, analyzed and presented with possibl e recommendati on.

3.5 Data Analysis A different method of data analysis relevant to each variable was employed to analyze both the qualitative and quantitative responses. The respondents were categorized into three groups, education officials lexperts, facilitators and learners and frequencies were tallied and computed using the following logical and statistical techniques.

Information from the respondents was analyzed by developing indicators into a matrix derived from the descriptive characteristics of the nature of the program. A five point likert type scale was employed. The scores rated by the respondents were analyzed and interpreted. Percentage, frequency counts and mean scores achieved from the data analysis were interpreted as per th e nature of the questionnaire and based on the set acceptable level of performance. The mean scores were further exposed to higher statistical analysis using t-test for the level of significance.

The statistical analysis of the data and the interpretation of the results of the analysis were based on a nonparametric (assumption free) statistical method that uses kurskal-wall's test. This tool was preferred because it does not involve the kind of regroup and theoretical sophistication as th e parametric statistical method. It is also useful in providing the opportunity to rest differences in a friendly manner and could be applied with great ease (Eshetu in Birhanu, 2000).

35 CHAPTER FOUR

4.PRESENTA TION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

4.1. Characteristics of the Study Population. This chapter deals with presentation and analysis of the data. In general, four groups of data sources were involved in the study. The first three groups of respondents were approached through questionnaires and interview while the remaining one was exploited via focus group discussion.

Table 2: Characteristics of the Respondents.

No Education Facilitators No=58 Learners No =243 Characteristics officials No=22 No % No 0/0 No 0/0 1 Sex a) Male 20 90.9 25 55.6 128 52.7 b) Female 2 9.19 20 44.4 115 47.3 ir ota~ ~~ ~ oq ~~ ~ oq ~4~ uoq 2 Age a)7 -10 years-old 157 64.609 b)11-14 years-old 79 3:.51 c)15-17 years-old 5 2.05 d) 18-25 years-old 5 22.7 29 50 e)26-31 years-old 3 13 .6 11 18.96 f)32-40 years-old 8 34.4 g)41&above years-old 6 27.3 (rota] 12~ IIOq I4q ~ 8.9 ~ 12 4 ~ ~ oq 3 Educational background a) grade one 62 25.5 b )grade two 74 30.5 c )grade three 104 42.8 d)10tl1 gradecompleters 8 17.8 e)TTI 10 45.5 37 82.2 f)Diploma 8 34.4 = g)First degree 4 18.2 iI'ota] ~~~ U O~Q ~.~ ~ 1·5~ giq ~;7e, 4 Work Experience a)Less than a year 17 37.8 b)less than 2 years 17 37.8 c )More than 3 years 8 36.6 11 24.4 d)3-7 years e)7 years & above 14 63.6 rrota~ 12 ~ ~oq !4.~ 17 7.~ R R

36 Nearly three si mil ar types of questionnaires were prepared and distributed to 320 people and 310(96.9%) were fi ll ed out and returned.

As reveals in tabl e 2 above, the first group (22 people) included education officials lexperts such as Zone and Woreda Education Offices education programs team leaders, Non-formal and primary education experts, school cluster supervisors, head teachers and teachers. Regardin g their educational background, 10(45.5%) of them have teacher's trai ning institute certificate, 8(36.7%) have college diploma while the rest 4(18.2%) were first-degree holders. They were in the age range of 18 to 55. Eight (3 6.4%) of them were between 32-40 years-old, six (27.3%) were above fo rty-one while th e rest groups of three (13.6%) and five (22.7%) were between 26-31 and 18-25 years-old respectively. Thus, the group comprised people with different level of education and experience.

With regard to their work experience 14(63.6%) of them have long years of experience - ranged 7 to 27years. The other seven (31.8%) have one to three years of work experience in th e education system. Eighty one point one percent of the group member responded that they had ever Visited th e ABE centre and thereby acquainted with the program. H aving this mi xture of educational background and experience, different and sound data will be expected.

The second group was facilitators' group . It constituted 25(55.6%) male and 20 (44.4%) female. Of these, 29(46.4%) were between 18-25 years old while the other 11 (24.4) were between their 26 and 31. Regarding their educational background, 37 (82.2%) of them were certified as first cycle primary schoolteachers whi Ie the rest 8(17.8%) was grade 10 completers. As far as their work experience as a facilitator is concerned, two groups of 17(37.8%) had worked for two years while th e other 11 (24.4%) had worked more than three years. The group members were distributed among the three level of ABE classes, 18 (40.0%) level one, 16(35.6) level two and 11 (L.'-t.4) level three.

Thus, the group had professional background with experience so that it is believed that they gave relevant and sound information about the program.

37 The student respondent, the third group constituted 243 people. Of these, 115(47.3%) were female and 128(52.7%) were male. With regard to their age, 157(64.6%) were in their 7 to 10 while the 79(32.5%) was fall between 11 and 14. Five were beyond the primary school age range. They were distributed among the three education level, 62(25.5%) in level one, 74(30.5%) in level two and 104 (42.8%) in level three .And 214(88.1) of all came from illiterate parent. Therefore, the group was typical representative of the target population of the ABE program so that they could gi ve dependable data.

Interviews were also held with the Zone and woreda education offices education program team leaders, nonfonnula and primary education experts.

The fourth group was a group of parents and ABE centre committee. Twenty people were participated on the di sc ussion. Thus, broad and realistic data were gathered from the available stakeholders so th at the actual practice and problems of the program revealed as the out-come of the study.

38 4.2 Analysis of the Main Features of the Program 4.2.1 Program Context

Table 3: Rating of Factors Necessitate the ABE program

N Item Respondents 0 Education officialJ Experts Cvrlu N=22 Facilitators N=45 -Xavi e er 1 2 3 4 5 x SD 1 2 3 4 5 x SD 1 School - 4 3 1 6 3.15 1.66 21 4 3 5 9 3.54 1.68 3.4 0.78 distance 2 Poverty - 3 3 6 10 4.3 109 10 9 9 8 8 3.11 1.43 3.4 2.58 3 Tradition of 1 3 8 4 4 2.65 1.13 9 8 9 11 6 3.06 1.36 2.8 0.88 the people 4 Parents 2 3 4 11 1.90 1.29 7 4 3 14 17 2.33 1.46 2.1 0.84 Illiteracy 5 Opp0!1unity - 1 5 4 10 1.90 1.11 3 2 10 6 24 1.97 1.25 1.9 0.16 cost of education 6 Direct cost 4 4 10 2 2 3.15 1.21 12 2 7 14 9 2.86 1.S 1 2.9 0.571 of education - Average 3.0 3.1 mean value Weighted 2.78 mean value

Rating scale_ (1=very low, 2=low, 3=medium, 4= high and 5=very high ), N= Number of respondents, X = weighted mean, x _ave= average mean, SD = standard deviation, significant at t=±1.96, P=:SO.OS two tail.

Many factors prevent children from school participation. ABE program is designed to address such problems. Table 3 above comprises factors that necessitate special intervenlion tl) access education for the un-reached. Based on such perspective table three shows the magnitude of challenges in accessi ng basic education in the area. School distance, poverty, tradition of the people, opportunity and direct cost of education and parent illiteracy were taken as challenges that necessitate the intervention. As per the nature of the responses the data were obtained using a five point likert type scale and mean scores were interpreted as 0.5 -1.49 very low, 1.5-2.49 low, 2.S- 3.49 medium, 3.5-4.49 high and 4.S- 5.0 very hi gh.

39 The 2.S and above mean score was set as considerable level of challenge that requIre special intervention (ABE program) to access education in the area. Based on this the quantitative results from the questionnaire indicated the degree of the overall challenges necessitating AR[ program computed as an average mean value of 3.0 by education officials / experts and 3.1 by facilitators. The result showed the need for the program to access education to the un-reached children.

With regard to the magnitude of each variable, school distance and direct cost of education were found to be serious challenges with an average mean value of 3.1S each .While opportunity cost of education and parent illiteracy weighed an average mean value of 1.92 and 2.16 respectively.

In order to check the variations in opinions between groups of respondents t-test was computed .The obtained result reveals significant difference among the groups on poverty variable at p

Table four below shows the socioeconomic contribution required from the ABE learners. These factors were taken as reasons that necessitate the program in the locality the data was obtained using a five point likert scale and mean scores were interpreted as O.S - 1.49 very 10w ,1.S - 2.49 low ,2.S3 -3.49 medium,3.S - 4.49 high and 4.S -S.O very high. The 2.S and above mean score was set as significant level of duty that need flexible scheduling in the education system.

As it can be seen from the table, the magnitude of the socioeconomic contribution of the ABC learners found to be significant amount with a mean value of 2.9 and 2.77 given by educational officials and facilitator groups of respondents respectively. That was an indication of considerable opportunity cost of sending children to school. Thus, the on gong ABE program helped to reduce the cost and thereby improve retention.

40 Table 4: The Socio-economic Contribution of the ABE Learners. , No Item Respondents Educational official/experts N=22 Faci li tators cvalue

N=45 1 2 3 4 5 x SD 1 2 3 4 5 SD x 1 Care for siblings / household 0.99 activates. 0 7 2 6 5 2.55 1.23 0 4 7 25 8 2.15 .83 2 Care for domestic animal 0.72 0 0 6 6 1.27 .45 0 1 6 9 29 1.53 .81 3 Farm activities 0 7 7 4 3.3 3.35 .93 2 10 13 10 10 2.64 l.19 1.82 4 Petty trade 17 2 0 0 1.1 4.7,5 .3 3 20 12 7 3 3.28 1.03 4.91 5 Labor 3 5 9 4 0 2.66 .96 2 3 5 4 1 4.25 l.18 3.90 A verage means 2.91 1.008 Weighted mean 2.84 0.49

Rating scale (1= very low, 2=low, 2=medium, 3=high, and 5= very high). N=number of respondents; mean=x, weighted mean= X, average mean =x_ave, SD = standard deviation, significant at t = ±l.96, p= ~o.05 two tailed.

41 The t-test was computed to check the difference of opinion between the groups showed a significant difference only on the variables petty trade and labor at p< 0.05 significance level.

Besides, the focus group di scussion held with ABE centre committees and parents asserted that the ABE program satisfied their interest. Children had the opportunity to attend their education and cany out household activities. The establi shment of learning centre nearby learners' vi ll age enabled parents to feel easy of the security of th eir children, too. Besides, flexible school schedule introduced with the program made the schooling convenient to the daily and seasonal li velihood ac tivities as disclosed by the stakeholders.

4.2.2. Program Organization

Arrangement of the program

Table 5: Anangement of the Program

No Item Respondents Education official s/ Facilitators N=45 Experts W=22 No % No % 1 The target group of the ABE program a) Out of school children 18 8 1. 8 43 95.6 b) Drop outs - - 2 4.4 c)Both out of school and drop outs 4 18.2 - - mi ssin g va lue - - - - Total 22 100 45 100 2 A verage class size

a) 25-35 4 18.2 8 17.8 b) 36-45 10 45 .5 17 37.8 c) 46-55 3 13.6 11 24.4 d) 56 and above 1 4.5 9 20 missing value 4 18.2 - - Total 22 100 45 100 3 School calendar decision maker

a) Community 14 63.6 21 46.66 b) Parents 8 36.4 17 37.77 c) Government body/ kebele - - 7 15.6 M iss in g va lue Total 22 100 45 100

42 Table 5 above shows the organization of the ABE program. As can be seen from item one, 95% of the facilitator and 81 .8 % of the education official/expert respondents asserted that th e target group of the program was out of schoolchildren. The data seemed realistic as 236 (97.1% ) of 243 student respondents were in primary school age group (7-14 years-old). Therefore, the implementation was going on in line with the objective of the program.

As the targets of the program are children having different socioeconomic problems, th e facilitators ' follow-up determine rate of retentions in schooling. This requires manageable class size. Accordingly, the Amhara Regional state Education office Alternative Basic Education program guideline limited the number of students in a classroom to 40-50 people. As asserted by 37.8 % of facilitator respondent, on average there were 36-45 students in a classroom. However, 17 .8% of the same group of respondents limited the class size between 25 and 35 students. T he other significant number (24.4%) of facilitator respondent raised the average number of students in a classroom to between 46 and 55 pupil. The remaining 20% of the group raised the class size above 56 students.

Thus, the data indicated uneven distribution of students among ABE centers which indicates different amount of demand for the program. This by itself makes the progrc.m appropriate intervention. Regarding class size, the zone education office did not have data. Hence, there was poor communication between administrators and implementers or lack of follow up.

Non-formal education is characterized by non-formality or flexibility of scheduling that provides opportunity to the target groups. Item 3 of the above table asked about the ABE schedule. As responded by 47.7% of facilitator and 63 .6% of education official, the community as a whole decided on school calendar (timing), but 37.7% of the former and 36.4% of the latter groups replied that parents of the learners decided on scheduling.

Hence, all the data indicated that the beneficiaries were involved in the decision of t: e schedule so that the school calendar was designed in line with the interest and convenience of ABE learners as well as their families. Thus, the practice satisfied the basic guiding principle of the program.

43 As indicated in the Amhara National Regional State Children' s Alternative Basic Education Strategy (AREB, 2003) document the program is a three-year cycle of 210-220 learning days in a year. There is a five days class in a week and the daily learning stay for 3- 4 hours on the average at the time and dates agreed by parents. The reduction in the length of learning as compared to the formal school hours might satisfied the interest of parents who are in need of chi ld labor. However, the reduction of a four years first cycle primary schooling to three-year program seemed frustrated parents. A significant number of faci litator respondent, 27(60%) indicated that ABE student faced problems when they joined the formal system. They justfied that the school community assumed that the ABE products were favored grade four. Furthermore, 36.8 % of the facilitator respondents indicated that the ABE background students were not psychologically fit to grade five of formal school. The other 26.3 % of the same respondent group believed that ABE background students could not fit to grade fifth curriculum si nce they had not enough time to capture the prerequisite courses in their earlier classes.

On top of that, the zone and woreda sources were not sure that whether the program was can-ied out based on the designed schedule or not. Classes were closed due to various reasons. For instance, there were not classes in the long wi nter season and market days. In general, the three year program could not enough to capture the curriculum as result students were not fit to grade fi ve classes.

The classroom organization was self-contained approach in which teacher take responsibility on the learning of a given group of students.

4.2.3 The Setting

A. Classrooms

Nonformal education approach allows using avail able resources as a setting and thereby ensures cost effectiveness. Based on the perspective new learning centers were built from local materials whi le other available houses were used as a classroom. Private houses, civic associations' halls, kebele or other organizations' offices were used as ABE centers. The following discussion will focus on it.

44 Table 6: Accommodation for Classes Respondents No Item Educati on official! Facilitators N=45 Experts N=22 1 Learning take place in No % No % a. Private house 9* 40.9 15 33.3 b. Formal school classroom 6* 27.27 1 2.2 c. Speciall y constructed 12* 54.54 28 62.2 classroom d. Shed 12* 54. 54 3 6.7 e. Association's house 1 4.5 6 13.3 f. churches or mosques - - - -

missing - - - - Total 22 100 45 100 2 Acceptance of th e accommodations by a. parents 16 72.7 39 86.7 b. Educationalists 17 77.3 40 90.9 c. Opinion leaders missing 10 45.3 27 61.4

missing value Total 22 100 45 100

*Multiple answers

Table 6 above reveals data on class accommodati on. For the first item that asked place of learning, 54% of educati on official and 62.2% of facili tators replied that learn ing take place in a classrooms constructed to serve the same purpose. The other 40.9% of education officials and 33.3% of faci litators indicated that ABE program had been taking place in a classrooLl donated by ind i vi duals. As asserted by 54.54 % of educati on officials, sheds were also used as classrooms. Onl y few peopl e (6.7 %) of faci li tator respondent shared it.

------The quality of classrooms varied from place to place. Some localities were able to prepared better classroom for the program while others used shed. A classroom should be prepared at least to th e extent that it prevents any barriers affecting students' attention.

The responses in the above table also indicate the reaction of the stakeholders on ABE centre. According to 86.7 0/0 of facilitators and 72.7 0/0 of education officials, parents accepted th e accommodations. As asserted by 90.90/0 of facilitator and 77.3 3 % of education officials ' respondent gropes, people with in the system also accepted the setting. The opinion leaders in the area also accepted the setting as a classroom as 45.30/0 of education officials and 61.4 0/0 of fac ilitators respondents indicated.

B. Facilities

School faci lities are determinant factors in order to attract and keep students in schooling. The availability of appropri ate seat to stay for long at and desk to write up on are n eceSS~lJ y. The suppl y of water and separate latrine for female also have important role particularly to convince female students to come to school.

Tabl e 7a: A vai lability of Furniture. - Respondents

No Item Education Expert No= 22 Facilitator N=45 t- val 5 4 3 2 1 X SD 5 4 3 2 1 X SD ue Avail ability of 20.3 1 0 1 2 2 17 l AO .85 20 13 4 2 6 3.86 1. 39 furnit ure 8 Weighted Mean 2.63 Rating scale (1= very lo w, 2= low, 3= medium, 4= high, and5= very hi gh). N=number of respondents; mean=x, weighted mean= X, average mean =;_ave, SD = standard deviation, significant at t = ±1.96, p= s..o.05 two tailed.

Table 7a above is about th e availability of furniture in ABE centers. Statistical results of responses on the avail ability of furniture in ABE program was rated using likert scale and the calcul ated average mean were interpreted as 0.5-1 .49 very low, 1.5-2.49 low, 2.5- 3.9 medium, 3.5-4.49 hi gh ,and 4.5 -5 very hi gh. When the average mean value on the availability of furniture compared with the given average mean, it was found to be medium with a weighted mean value of 2.63. In order to verify the difference of opinion between th e two groups, independent (two sampled) t test was

46 computed and significant opinion difference of among the groups was observed at p< 0.05 significance level.

During field visit the writer of this report observed "medeb" (local seat made up of stone .. nd mud) and coarse bench were used for seat in all of his sampled centers.

Table 7b: A vai lability of Necessary Facilities

Respondents No Item Students ,N=243 Facilitators, N=45

1. Availabi li ty of potable water No 100% No 100% a. Available 27 11.2 14 31.8 b. Not available 215 88.8 30 68.2 Missing 1 1 2.2 Total 243 100 45 100 2. Availability of latrine a. Available 31 12.8 3 6.66 b. Nothing 210 86.4 41 91.11 missing 2 0.82 1 2.22

Total 45 100 44 100 3 Play field a. Available 70 28.8 15 33.1 b. Not available 173 71.2 29 64.44 Missing value 1 2.22 Total 243 100 45 100

Table 7b above is about the supply of water, latrine and play field at the ABE centers and 88.8% (215) of student respondent replied that there was no water supply at their ABE centre while other 11.2%(27) of their friends told that there was potable water supply. Thirty-one point eight (31.8%) percent of the facilitator respondents asserted the availability of water supply while Olller thirty (68.2%) reported the scarcity.

The availability of latrine was minimal. Almost all the facilitators (93.2%) and the majority (86.4%) of student respondents reported the inaccessible of latrine at the ABE centers.

The last item of the table is about the issue of playing field. According to the data, the supply of playground was better than other facilities. Twenty-eight point eight (28.8%) percent of the student and 33.1 % of facilitators respondents reported that they had playing field. However, still th e majority of the ABE centers lacked the facility as reported by 7l.2% of students and 64.4% of

47 facilitator respondents. Therefore, the implementation of the program missed important inputs that could have raised the enrollment and retention rate.

4.2.4. The Facilitators, the Pedagogy and the Curriculum.

The supply of well trained and motivated facilitator enable to employ appropriate pedagogy depends on the type of the instruction. Besides, the use of relevant curriculum helps facilitators to win the interest of the learner as well as their parents. The following discussion will focus on th e respected issues.

A. Facilitators

Table 8: Facilitators' Profi les

No Items Facilitators No % 1 Sex a)Male 598 63.5 b) Female 343 36.5 Total 941 100 2 Level of Education a)10th grade complete 58 6.2 b)TTI 883 93.8

According to the data which are reveal in table 8 , the teaching force constituted both female (36.5 %) and male (63.5 %) facilitators, showing less participation of females as facilitator. There was around a 27% difference between the two sexes. The number of female facilitators did not verify the 30 % recruitment quota advantage for women (AREB, 2003). It might not be d:'own from th e lack of derive to employ women in stead it was due to the shortage of supply in the market. However, the availabl e number of female role models was encouraging since the ABE centers located in remote areas where trained teachers do not prefer to live in.

Regarding the training of the facilitators, 93.3% of the facilitators had gone through the training level required for the formal basic education program.

The use of professionals helps to implement the program at a desired quality. Active learning approach and condensed curriculum intended to finalize the lower primary cycle in a shorter time need well-trained work force. Therefore, facilitator's selection practice was implemented inl ine

48 with the strategy, which set completion of grade 10 or the better of the available quali Lcation as recruitment criteria (Ibid).

The following di scussion is about recruiting parties and criteria, terms of employment, salary scale and stakeholders reaction on it, and finally training issues.

Table 9: Faci litators Recruitment, payment and Training

No Item Respondents Education Expert Facilitator N=45 No=22 No Valid % No Valid % I Parties In volved in recruitment a. Community I 4 .5 - - b. Woreda Education 13 59.19 39 86.7 c. office 4 18. 18 6 113 d. Kebeles Administration I 4.5 - - Missing value 4 18. 18 - - Total 22 100 45 100 2 Primary recruitment criteria a. Education level 21 95.5 42 93 .3 b. Ability test - 6.7 c. Proximity in Residence I 4.5 6 d. Government body recommendation Missing value Total 22 100 3 Salary scale a.300-400 Birr II 50 37 82.22 bAO 1-500 Birr 7 31.81 6 13.33 c.501-600 Birr - - - - d.601- 700 Birr 2 9.09 2 4A Missing va lue 2 9.09 Total 100 45 I flO 4 Reaction on amount of payment a. Satisfactory 4 18.2 8 17.8 b. Not sat isfactory 18 81.8 37 82.2 Missing value - - Total 22 100 45 100 5 Availabi lity of initial and in-service training a. A va i lable 10 55.6 34 79.1 b. Not available 8 44A 9 20.9 Missi ng vitlue 4 2 Total 22 100 45 100 6 Importance of the training a. V. Good 12 54.54 16 35.6 b. Good 9 40.9 25 55 .6 c. Poor I 4.54 4 8.8 Missing value - - - - Total 22 100 45 ._--100

49 As indicated in table 9 above both respondents, 59.19% of education officials and 86.7 % of faci litators replied that woreda education office took the leading role and responsibility In facilitator selection. As reported by 18.18 % of education official and 13.3% facilitator

_ 1_ ------• • -- , • • - ~ -.~ " ~,,u" ":>L l UL1 V lI (It;:,V t',Ull\,;JiJaLeu In me selectIOn. In addition, the interview held with the zone educ ation experts cleared that the selection committee comprised representatives of all stakeholders: parents, NGO and Woreda education office people.

Since both the respondents did not know the involvement of the community, the practice did not go in line with the strategy. The strategy underlined that Community should have decision role in order to hire and fire faci litator.

The second item reveals data on selection criteria. Accordingly, 95.5 % of education official and 93.3 % of facilitator respondents underlined that educational background had been used as th e primary selection criterion. They used Proximity in residence as a criterion though few respondents, 45% of education official and 6.7 % of facilitators asserted it.

The ABE strategy put completion of grade 10th or better, ability test, residence to the community and good personality as the main criteria (AREB, 2003).

As the Zone Education Program team leader disclosed m the interview and woreda education officials approved, the term of employment was contract base. T hey further clearec' that the faci litators would have a possibility to transfer to formal schoolteacher if they perform better during their three years ABE classes. The assumption was to encourage facilitators to work hard and achieve better result. It seemed feasible if the facilitators could not have an option with in the period. T he data obtained in the field revealed that there was high turnover of faci litators. Besides, among the 45 faci Ii tator respondents, two groups of 17 served less than a year and two academic years only.

The other issue reveals in the above table is the salary amount paid to faci litators. The initial salary was biIT 300 whi le the highest paid person earned biIT 617 per month. The majority (82.2%) of th e faci litator respondent were paid between biIT 300- 400. Hence, 81.8% of educational ofltcials and 82.2% of faci litators reacted that the salary scale was unsatisfactory.

50 As lon g as the system need to employ people with better qualification, the pa yment should have been equal to the salary of lower primary school teachers otherwise the des ired OLlt come coul d not be achieved. The other point that could affect the program is the application of different sa lary scales among facilitators who had similar educational background and service period within and among woredas. As long as the salary covered with government budget, the adm ini stration should have been uniform. Otherwise, this create feeling of dissatisfaction in employees. Consequently, th e program mi ght be crippled.

With regard to training, the faci litators we re pro vided with two major types of training. The first was a short initi al training stayed for 10 days fo llowed by contin uous in-service monthl y trainll1g conducted by peopl e from woreda educ ation office as responded by 75 .6% of th e facilitator. Besides, 26.7 % and 53.3 % of the facilitator respondents respecti ve ly reported that they had gone through 1-15 days lI1ilial and in -servi ce training.

As as serted by more than 80% of the facilitator respondents, the content of the trainin g compri sed general teachin g methodology, lesson planning, child psychology, active learning, documentation and sc hool community relation. Besides, 54.5% of the education officials rated the importance or th e training ve ry good whil e 35.6% of th e facilitator respondents said it was good. Aboul -'5 .6% or the facilitator respondent fel t th at the quality of th e training was poor. However, 95.2 % th e facilitator respondents believed th at th e training helped to fill the gap in th ei r teaching acti vities.

People with appropriate competency should have carri ed out th e preparation and presentat ion or th e training. It has to be design ed based on the need of the target group and prese nted by peopl e who ha ve appropriate knowledge, skill and attitude. Despite all the inconvenience -low and un even salary scale, poor wo rking condition and facilities, 77 .8 % of th e facilitator respondent s reported that they enjoyed th e Job.

51 B. The pedagogy

Table 10: Teaching-learning Processes. No Item R espondents Education Expert No= 22 Fac il itator N=45

No % No 0/, I Most used teach ing method A) Student centered 10 45.5 44 97.8

54.5 - - B) Lecture method 12 -.- C) B oth th e above two - - I 22 M issing va lu e Total 22 100 45 100 2 How is the learn i ng progress measured A) Achieveme nt test 2 9 .5 - - B) Continuo us assessme nt 16 76.2 37 82.2 C) Bother the abuve two 3 14 .3 8 17.8 M issing Total 22 100 45 100

Tabl e 10 above reveals data on most used teaching and assessment methods. According to 45°/c) 01 educati onal officials, fac ili tato rs had used student centered or acti ve learning teachi ng rn pthod. On the other hand, a bit large number of colleagues (54.5%) belie ved th at lecture method dominated th em.

Regarding fac ilitator respondents, 97% of them asserted that they had employed student centered teaching method when they teach their in struction. Data obtained from student respondents supported facilitators.

Students were asked w heth er th eir fac ilitators give the m, c lass work and homework and react on it. They were also asked w heth er they parti cipate in c lass acti vities. Thus, 96% of them replied th at fac ilitators had given ho me work s and class works and reacted on it. Besides, they responded th at fac ilitators used teaching aids to support the in structions.

In addition, 57 .7 % of student respondents reported that they had participated in the c lass acti vit y w hile 39.4% of fe ll ow brother and sister limited th eir c lass acti vit y to at times. Howe ver, the c lass observati on dUrin g fi e ld visit c leared th at th e teaching learning process was goi ng on using traditi onal approach or lecture method.

52 T he other issue indicated in th e table is the issue of assessment. As responded by 76.2% of educati on expert and 52.2% of faci litator respondents, Continuo us assessment was used to measure the achi evement le vel of chi Idren and thereby decide on their promotion fro m on level to the next. Nevertheless, 14.3% of education experts and 17 .8 % of faci litator responded that both achievement test and continuous assessment were employed to measure student progress.

Wi th regard to student promoti on fro m the ABE to 5th grade level of fo rmal SC hOO l, th e zone and woreda educati o n offic ia ls disclosed that there was an achi evement test administerin g at cluster level. F urther, they expressed th at self-contained c lassroom m anagement was employed.

C. The Curriculum

Table 11: Curric ul um Issues

No Ite m Respo ndents Educatio n Expert No= 22 Fac ilitators=45 No % No o/c I Are there c urric ulum materials a. Yes 2 1 95.5 4 3 95 .6 b. No I 4.5 2 4.4 M issing va lue Total 22 100 45 100 2 Is it accepted by A .Parents 16* 34 38 34.5 b. Ed ucat ions 18* 38.3 41 37.3 c. Opinio n leaders 13 * 27.7 3 1 28.2 Missing value T otal 22 45 100 3 Is the c urri c ulum appropriate to the leve ls a. Yes 8 44.4 9 20 b. No 10 55.6 30 80 Missing value 4 - - - T otal 22 100 45 100 4 Is there c urri culum appropri ate to the levels a. Yes 9 40.9 28 62.'2 b. No 13 59. 1 17 37 .8 Missing Total 22 100 45 100 5 Do children o f ABE fit to formal school system a. yes 11 52.4 28 62.2 -- - " - b. No 10 47.6 17 37.8 Missing value I Total 22 100 45 100

53 Table 11 above reveals core cUJTiculum issues. It is evident that the alternative approach to primary education needs new set of learning materials that can satisfy the basic philosophy of acti ve learning methodology. Looking at the first and the second items of the data reveal 95.5% of both education expert and facilitator respondents were aware of the availability of specific cUJTiculum materials for ABE program.

Besides, above 80% of education experts and 86% of facilitator respondents believed that parents, educators and opinion leaders accepted the curriculum. However, a significant number (55.6%) of education expert and 80% of facilitator respondents were in doubt about the appropriateness of th e curriculum to the level. Data obtained from the learner supported the idea, 56.7% of student respondents reported that the content of English subject textbook was difficult to learn with while other 10% said the same about mathematics.

The follow of students between the two programs (formal and non-formal) is expected to be two directional and smooth. However, the obtained data indicate a single direction flow of students, from ABE program to formal school. The opposite direction or the flow of students fn' 'l1 formal school to ABE program was not allowed.

Besides, the situation of ABE background student in formal primary school was not encouraging. According to 47.6 % of education experts and 37.8% of facilitators, the students were not fit to the formal system. That was a significant number in order to question the quality of ABE program though 52.4 % of the former and 62.2 % of the latter group responded that the ABE student were fit to formal school system.

Therefore, the curriculum of ABE program needs some simplification in order to manage learning and teaching with it. As the sources further indicated, students come from ABE program lacked both psychological preparedness and competency that should have been acquired from their ABE classes.

54 4.2.5 Community and NGO Involvement

A. Community Involvement

Table 12: Community Involvement Area No Item Respondents Education Expert Facilitator No=45 No=22 No % No % 1 Scheduling Itime table 17* 21 15* 15 2 Land provision and state selection 14* 17.3 9* 9.3 3 Labor and material provision 14* 17.3 12* 12.4 4 Fund in cash 2* 2.5 3 3.0 5 Mobilization and promotion 14* 17.3 13 * 13.4 6 Student enrollment and attendance 14* 17 .3 26* 26.8 7 Facilitator selection and firing 3 3.7 6 6.2 8 ABE committee selection 2 2.5 5 5.2 - 9 Provision of ABE classroom 1 1.2 8* 8.2 Missing Total 81 100 98 100 N: B * Multiple answer

Table 12 above reveals data on community participation. As can be observed from the table, they involved in many aspects. According to 63.6% of education experts and 57% of facilitator respondents, the community participated to get children to school and keep them in the system. The other significant participation area ,,'.'as class scheduling as reported by 77.3% of education experts and 33.3% of facilitator respondents. The community extended its contribution to site selection, labor, material and centre provision, committee and facilitator selection as well as program promotion. The following table reveals the rating of community contribution.

55 Table 13: Rating on the contribution of the community

No Item Respondents Education Expert No= 22 Facilitator N=45 5 4 3 2 1 x SD 5 4 3 2 1 x SD I_ value I. The over all contri bution of the 3 12 4 1 2 3.59 1.09 26 8 9 - 2 4.24 1.06 5.8 community. Rating scale (1= very low, 2= low, 3= medium, 4= high, and5= very high). N=number of respondents; mean=x, weighted mean= X, average mean =x_ave, SD = standard deviation, significant at t = ±1.96, p= ~0.05 two tailed.

Table 13 above shows the magnitude of community overall contribution to the implementation of ABE program. Accordingly, the community had made remarkable contribution. Stlhistipl results of responses on the contribution of the community in ABE program was rated using likert scale and the calculated average mean were interpreted as 0.5-1 .49 very low, 1.5-2.49 low, 2.5- 3.9 medium, 3.5-4.49 high ,and 4.5 -5 very high. When the average mean value on the participation of the communities compared with the given average mean, it was found to be high with a weighted mean value of 3.9. In order to verify the difference of opinion between the two groups, independent (two sampled) t test was computed and significant opinion difference of among the groups was observed at p< 0.05 significance level.

Information gathered from the focus group discussion held with community members supported the above data. However, the discussion cleared that the level of community participation varied among woredas and centers. There was serious problem around parents to let children to school. That might be due to lack of awareness about the importance of education. Sources mentioned that parents in some area like kalu woreda were not willing to send children to school because they intended to sacrifice their children's time to Kuranic School.

56 B. The Participation of' NGOs.

Table 14: The Contribution of Nongovernmental Organizations. No Item Respondents Education Expert No= 22 Facilitator N=45 No Valid % No valid% l. Is there any NGO involvement in ABE a) yes 9 42.9 18 64.3 b) no 12 57.1 11 35.7 Missing value 1 - 17 - Total 22 100 45 100 2. What type of contribution have they made? a) financial 3 13.6 15 33.3 b) material 4 18.2 7 15 . c) Financial and material 4 18 .2 - - d) Technical - - - - Missing value 11 50 23 51.1 Total 22 100 45 100

Table 14 above reveals data about the contribution of NGOs for the ABE program. The first item tell s about the availability of any NGO involvement in the implementation of the ABE program, and 64% of facilitators and 42.9% of education experts assured the participation of donors. Nevertheless, 37.8% of the facilitator did not respond on the question. Thus, people at the grass root level might not know much of the involvement.

The other point displayed in the table is the kind of contribution made by NGOs. Again, half (50%) of the respondent did not react on it. Nevertheless, 18 % of education experts and 33.3% ot facilitator respondents respectively replied that NGOs contributed their own part in terms of material and finance.

In order to support the data obtained through questionnaire the researcher made an attempt to have information on NGO contribution. Hence, it was reported that Save the Children Norway (SCN-E), Save the Children Denmark (SCD-E), Sweden International Development Association (SIDA), Street Children Association, Grate Baptist church (GPC) and Catholic Relief had supported the program. The first two (SCN-E and SCD_E) granted money through the regional education bureau for capacity building - training of facilitators and ABE committees.

57 SIDA also made remarkable support when the program initiated. It covered the cost of factory products such as nai I and Iron sheet to build ABE centers in 14 woredas of the zone. The . researcher had been involved in the execution when he was head of Woreilu woreda Education Office.

Great Baptist church CGPC) had been running two centers by its own. In addition, it had supported children in terms of stationary and other direct cost.

Ethiopian Street Chi Idren Association and Catholic Church had made significant support.The former had its own centre in Dessie ketema whi le the latter made money contribution to provide stationary to ABE children in Ambassel woreda.

58 Table 15: the Physical Features of ABE Centers

No Item Respondents Student No=243 Facilitator No=45 No % No % I How far do ch ildren walk to arri ve at schools? a. less than 15 minute 73 30 4 8.9 b. 15 to 30 minute I 202 42 17 37.8 c.30 minute to one hour 44 18.1 23 51.1 d. More than an hour 22 9.1 I 2.2 Missing va lu e 22 9.1 I 2.2 Total 2243 100 45 100 2 What probl em are occurred due to the distance of the ABE centre a) security problem 3 I.7 - b) co nsume much time 48 19.8 - - c) fatigue 8 33 d) no problem lIS 47.3 Missing - 68 28 Total 243 100 3 Is the classroom crowded a. yes 152 62.6 b. no 88 36.2 Missi ng val ue 3 Total 243 100 4 Is the classroom clean a) yes 93 38.3 b) no 149 61.3 Missing value I Total 243 100 5 Is the furniture com fortable to sit long a) yes 49 20.5 b) no 190 79 .5 6 Is there potable water a) yes 27 11 .2 b) no 2 15 88.8 Total 243 100 7 Is th ere separate lat rin c service for male and fem ale a) yes 3 1 12.9 b) no 2 10 87.1 miss in g va luc 2 Total 243 100 8 Is there play ground a) yes 70 288 b) no 173 71.2 missing val ue I Total 243 100 9 Is there playing material .• a) yes 57 23.5 b) no 186 76.5 Missing va lu e - Total 243 100

59 Table15 above shows information about the physical features of ABE centers. Except the first item, all others depended on data from the learners with the assumption that they are the fi .rst sources to show the real situation. The first item indicates how long ABE learners walk to get at their ABE center. Accordingly, 42% of student replied that they walked for fifteen to thirty minute between their home and ABE center. While 30.5% responded that, they went for less than fifteen minute. A significant number (18.3%) of student responded that they walked for forty minute to an hour. Besides, there were ABE centers located at a distant taken more than an hour as observed by 9.1 % of the students. The faci litators also supported the data. According to 51.1 % of the faci Ii tator, students were required to walk fifty minute to an hour to an-ive at ABE center while 37.8% of their colleagues observed that ABE children walked fifteen to 30 minute to get school.

Literature indicates that primary school age children should not go more than three kilometer (less than 30 minute) between home and school. Hence, the actual practice did not coincide to th e literature. With regard to the problem occuned due to the distance of the ABE centre, 27.4% of th e respondents reported that they unable to anive at school in time but 65 .7% of the students responded that there was no problem occurred due to distance.

As long as the program is designed to alleviate baniers of student participation, no childicn should be late behind or denied of access to education due to problems like distance. Regarding classroom supply and other related facilities, the same table indicates the opinion of students, and 63.3% of them replied that they were learning in a crowded classroom. Besides, 61.3% of them indicated that their classroom was not clean. On top of that, 79.5% of the same group replied that the seat was not comfortable to stay at for long. Therefore, student might not capture the instruction while they were discomforting in sitting. Though the program should use local materials to prepare the necessary inputs, the concerned body should exerted much effort in order to provide better service otherwise parents would not send their children to places where they believe that it is not safe.

Availability of water and latrine servIce is considered as factors of safety for some parents particularly who send their daughters. Accordingly, the table reveals data on the supply of water

60 and latrine around ABE centers. As responded by 88.5% and 86.4% of the student respondents respectively there is no supply of latrine and potable water at the ABE centers.

Much of the instruction at primary school need play ground. Besides, children should be provided with enough space to play at. Based on such perspective data were collected about the availability of playground. Accordingly, 71.2% and 76.5% of the students respectively replied that there were no playground and playing material in their ABE centers.

Therefore, the ABE center were not that much attractive and comfortable to come and sta".

4.2.6 The Management and Financing System

a. The Management

Effective schooling requires effective school management and well-developed guideline and structure. Organizational structure is the context within which management take pl ace. Professional support and technical assistance to individual schools require regular school vi sits. The following discussion will reveal the existing practice on the respected issues.

Table 16: Reaction on the Management of ABE Program No Item Res pondents

Education Expert No= 22 Facilitator NO'--i5

No % No %

I Is th ere a guideline to guide th e program? a. yes 86.4 39 87 .7 b. No 19 9.1 4 8 9 Mi ss ing value 2 4.5 2 4.4

Total 22 100 45 100 2 Is th e guideline being employed a. Yes 17 77.3 40 88 .9 b. No 3 13.6 5 1l.2 Mi ss ing value 2 9.1 Total 22 100 45 100 3 How much is th e program supervised by wo reda education offi ce people') a. Once a ye ar 8 36.4 19 42.2

b. Twice a year 10 45.5 21 46.i' - c.Three times and above 3 13.6 2 4.4 Mi ss ing value I 4.5 3 6.7 Total 22 100 45 100

61 Item one in table 16 above is about the availability of specific guideline on ABE program, and 86.4% of educational officials and 86 .7% of the facilitator responded that there was the guideline. · The next item is about its implementation, and 77.3% and 88 .9% of education official and facilitator respondent consecutively responded that it was being used.

According to ABE program strategy (2003), the woreda education and training board will have the responsibility in providing overall leadership while the kebele's education and training board do the same at its level. The ABE center education committee elected by parents' assembly is responsible for issues of ABE centers. However, it was reported that the ABE centre committee had not done properly in discharging its responsibility. On the other hand, ABE committee member complained that they could not run their individual business together with their public responsibility as they disclosed on focus group discussion.

Woreda Education offices in general and non-formal education experts in particular are responsible to inspect and supervise the ABE centers. Data on item 3 of table 16 reveals that people from woreda education office had visited ABE centre twice a year as responded by 46.7%01' facilitators and 45.5 % of education officials. Significant number of respondents, 36.4% of education officIal and 45.2% of facilitators believed that woreda education experts visited ABE centre once a year.

Furthermore, the field visit cleared that ABE centers are clustered in a group of five or six schools in order to work together on educational material and manpower utilization. A supervisor had been permanently assigned to coordinate the clustered schools. He/she regularly meet with principals and teachers of satellite schools to ensure the proceeding of the program. Every ABE centre was clustered formal schools. The principal of formal schools were responsible for the overall activities of the nearby ABE centers though they could not perform well. As ABE centre were located at a minimum distance of an hour away from formal school, principals could not go there regularly. Instead, facilitators come with ABE activities report and received any necessary support whether material or technical.

The zone education office education programs team lead admitted the gap existed in th e management of ABE centre. In addition, he said that the administration should not have been left to only kebele Administration and centre committee.

62 b. Financing the ABE program

As indicated in Amhara region ABE program strategy document, government, NGOs and community are intended to be source of finance.

According to the obtained data, government grant covered facilitators' salary and training cost. The woreda Administration determined the amount of salary given to facilitators. The ABE guideline set the minimum amount of salary not to be less than Birr 300. The allocated subsistence allowance was intended to enable facilitators to support and sustain their life in their respective community. However, the respondents were not satisfied with the salary scale as it was not enough to cover their living cost.

Nongovernmental organizations had made financial support the Regional Education Bureau had coordinated the execution, training of facilitators and centre committee, Preparation and distribution of teaching materials take place-using money granted from donors.

Besides, woredas had used different NGOs in their locality as a source of finance. For instance, SIDA (Sweden International Development Association) supported money in order to buy factory products used to construct ABE centers.

4.3 Program Performance The performance of the program might be indicated in terms of student enrollment, supply of teachers and other inputs. According to the obtained data, The Zone ABE program could not achieve the goal in student enrollment. In 1999 E.C academic year, the office received a plan from the regional education bureau to enroll 68,725 students across the zone and achieved only 50.8% of the plan. Now in 2000 E.C the regional education bureau planned to enroll 73,02'7 students across the zone but the zone achieved only 65.4% of the plan or enroll 47,777 students so far.

Based on the obtained data the researcher asked how the performance could not be met or closed to the plan. The zone and woreda education office people responded that they could not find School age children at the required number when they registered. They further disclosed that the stati sti cs used by the regional bureau to plan the work is not tangible as it was projected number. Therefore,

63 the performance of the program on student enrollment was become below the plan. The other performance measure will be discussed below.

Table 17: Availability of Teaching Materials

No Items Respondents Facilitators N=45 Student N=243 1 Do student ha ve textbooks? No % No % a) yes 39 86.7 236 97.5 b) No 6 13 .3 6 2.5

Missing - 1 Total 45 100 243 100

2 Distribution of text book a) one to one 29 64.4 167 70.6 b) one to two - 1 2.2 82 8 c) one to three or four 5 11.1 18 7.6 d) one to many 10 22.2 51 2 1.4

Missing va lue - 7 Total 45 100 238 100

3 Availability of teachers' guide

a) available 42 93.3 - - , b) minimally - -

c) not available 1 2.2 - - Missing 2

Total 45 100 243 100

Table 17 above reveals data on the availabi lity of textbook and teachers' guide. Accordingly, 236(97.1 %) of the student respondents reported that they had text books and 86. 7% of their facilitators and 21.4% of the students made the ratio one to many. with regard to teachers' guide the data is obtained from the facilitators and they almost all (93.3%) assured the availability of teachers' guide. The avai lability of learning materials, be it student text books or teachers' guide are very determinant factors to have the desired out put. However, as further disclosed by officials involved in the study the distribution of the materials among woredas and centre were not fair. Many woredas had not been provided with the necessary materials. The regional bureau could not send textbook on time. As a result, many recently opened ABE centers had been preceding without textbooks. Therefore, the provision of all the necessary inputs should precede the enrollment if there IS a desire to achieve the required out come-sustainable literature.

64 I . I . ~

Table 18 : Rating on the Quality, Relevance, Efficiency and Accessibility of ABE Program

No Item Respondents

Education officials/experts Facilitators No=45 -X au t-value No=22

X SD 1 2 3 4 5 -x SD 1 2 3 4 5

J The quality of the 4.5 6.03 1 4 8 2 4.06 1.29 25 6 4 6 2 4.3 4.3 0.3 program

2 The Relevance 4.62 88 13 1 1 - 1 3.56 1.57 20 6 4 7 7 4.1 2.31

3 The efficiency 2.36 1.17 5 10 2 4 J 2.3 63 ,- 4 22 109 4 2.3 0.17

4 Accessibility 4.04 92 2 - 2 107 3.54 1.68 9 5 3 4 2J 3.8 1.08 1.08

A verage mean 3.9 3.4

weighted mea 3.6

Rating scale:5=very good,4=good,3=medium,2=poor, and l=very poor=mean, SD= standard deviation, X-ave=average mean and

significant at t= ± t=1.96,P=~O . 05 two tailed.

65 Table 18 above shows date on the quality, relevance, efficiency and accessibility of the program. As per the nature of the responses, the following data was obtained using a five point likert type scale of one=very poor, 2= poor, 3= medium, 4= Good, and 5=very good. The mean scores achieved from the data were interpreted as follows. 0 .5 -1.49= very poor, 1.5-2.49= poor, 2.5-3.49 =medium, 3.5-4.49= good, 4.5-5.0= very good. The 2.5 and above mean score was set as the acceptable level of performance value. Based on this the quality of ABE program was found to be good with the mean value of 4.45 and 4 .06 given by education official and 4.06 by facilitators respecti vel y.

Regarding the relevance of the program, both the education officials and facilitators rated very good and good with the mean value of 4.02 and 3.56 respectively.

However, the program seemed inefficient. Respondents, the education officials and facilitator groups rated it as poor with the aggregated mean value below 2.5. The last item in the table returns to the good news. The performance of the program in accessing education was found to be good. The education official as well as the facilitators groups rated 4.04 and 3.54 respectively. In order to check an opinion variation between groups of respondents' C test was computed and the calculated test result indicated that there was a significant opinion difference only on the relevancy of ABE program at P<0.05 significance level.

The field visit also cleared that there was a problem of absenteeism and drop out. As observed on student attendance list of 13 ABE sample centers, 69.3% of the students were absent for on average two days in a week. Drop out rate was found to be high in stage I as observed by 88 .9% (40) of the facilitators. The problems of dropout was also prevailed in the upper two le vels through it was not that much serious

66 4.4 Challenges of the Program. In order to have the free opinion of the respondents about the over all problem and possible solutions open-ended question were forwarded to all the parties involved in the study. Accordingly, many problems were raised and their solutions recommended. Thus, the summery is categorized under demand and supply sides as follows.

A. Demand Side Challenges

The firs issue emphasized by all the respondents was the awareness of parents to ward education. Most of the parents did not know the decision to send children to school meant that enabll11g them to acq uire the foundation knowledge that determines their fate. People should go through education in order to live better. Nevertheless, the parents had not sent children to school by their own

initiative. Some pressure was ne~ded from the government, the keble administration. However, the kebele administrators were not clear about their duty. Hence, the decision to send children to school was left to parents as the right. Meanwhile children had been denying access to education.

In some woreda like " kalue' and "kutaber" parents did not send children to school instead they sent them to mosque. That was because they thought that school would alienate their children from their religion. They were not aware of the commutability of the secular school with that of religious learning. Therefore, special intervention through adult education program ",\' ould go parallel to the ABE program.

B. Supply Side problems

The other problems were supply side problems. The existing ABE centers lacked potable water, playground & materials, latrine, furniture, textbooks and even classrooms. Consequently, the system not only failed to attract children from the field and home but also unlabeled to retain the enrolled ones. There was serious shortage of classroom, stationary and other in puts that was aggravating the drop out rate particularly in the first level.

The other problem was in adequate amount of payment to facilitator and lack of motivational strategies and incentives. The majority of the facilitators (82.8%) were paid below bilT 400 per month but their friends in the conventional system had earned more than birr 600 per month. Therefore, the concerned body needs to alleviate the problems.

67 CHAPTER V

5. SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDA TIONS The purpose of this study was to assess the practice and identify the problems of Alternative Basic

Education program Implementation in South Wollo Zone of Amhara Regional State Education

Bureau with the following specific objectives.

1. To assess the level of community participation particularly in designing the ~checlHle,

2. To assess the adequacy of resources and learning facilities,

3. To evaluate the internal efficiency of the program, and

4. To assess the overall problem encountered in the program.

In order to answer the specific objective the study was guided by the following basic research ( questions.

1. What are the major practices of the A lternative basic education program operating in south

wollo zone?

2. Is the ABE program -performing in line with the regional strategy, the demand u{ parents

and the needs of children?

3. What are the major problems of the program in relation to the desired education quality

and standard?

4. What should be done to tackle the problems?

The study emanated from the stand point to identify the reasons why ABE program participants" number does not rise whi Ie the Ollt of schoolchildren are there.

Both the region and the study area have performed below the plan for the last two years including the current academic year. The south wollo zone education office performed only 51.5% of its

1999 E.C plan while it can rise to 65.4% in the on going academic year (2000 E.C). ":'hus, the study focused on the practice and constraints of the ABE program. The researchers therefore believed that the findings would help educational planners, implementing agencies and decision makers to draw sound policy decisions and operational guide for future planning, organization and

68 implementation of alternative basic education program. It will also add a drop in resources used to make further study.

In dealing with the basic research questions, the related literature was reviewed. Three categories of respondents: the education officials/experts group, (which comprised the zone education officials and experts, woreda education office experts, supervisors & school principals), facilitators and learners groups were involved in responding to the questionnaire.

Out of 320 questionnaires distributed 310 (96.9 percent) were filled out and returned.

In addition, document analysis, personal interview and focus group discussions were conducted with concerned authorities and community members. Observation of the actual classroom atmosphere and proximity of the centers to students' village were also done on thirteen sites. From the study conducted, the following major points are summarized.

5.1 Summary of the Findings i. Program context

a) The existing alternative basic education centers are established in an area where the challenges of the education system were rampant. Distance, opportunity cost, poverty and illiteracy were among the mains which necessitated the intervention. The weighted mean score on the challenges . was found to be considerable (2.7).

b. The learners of the existing ABE centers are required to involve in their household socioeconomic activities, which determine their schooling. The weighted mean score on the socio economic contribution was found to be significant (2.84).

c. The program has been initiated by the government in 1996 E.C academic year to provide opportunities to out-of schoolchildren. In this academic year (2000 EC), there are 512 ABE centers with 47,777 students across the zone.

69 ii. The main Features of the program a) The learners

The target of the program is out of schoolchildren (7-14 years old) who are expected to share their time between their education and the household socioeconomic activities. Ninety-seven point one

(97. 1 %) percent of the student respondents were in their school age.

b) The Place

As a principle, all available settings with minor adjustment could serve as a classroom with the intention to access education at a least cost. Accordingly, learning has been taking place in a shade, private house specially constructed centre and association houses. The centre are accessible with in the walking distance (less than 3 km that takes 30 to 40 minutes) of primary school age children as asserted by more than 90% of the respondents, facilitators and students. , The focuses group discussion result has also indicated that the location of the learning centers are not far children's homes. The proximity of the schools to the home has a positive ",ontribution to children particularly girls' enrolment for whom distance is perceived as a deten-ent -time and security. The accommodation have got acceptance of the stake holders such as parents, educators and opinion leaders as asserted by more than 83 % of both respondents, education officials /expert as well as facilitators.

c) The Scheduling

The program uses flexible schedule and shorter duration to delivery education. It is a three years cycle of 630-660 learning days to complete the first cycle primary education level (grade 1-4). Each academic year is divided into 210-220 learning days' with 3-4 hours daily contact time on the average, fi ve days a week at the convenience of parents.

d) The Curriculum

A condensed curriculum focus on Amharic & English languages, Arithmetic and Environmental science as core subject areas is being implemented.

70 As data obtained, specifically designed self-learning student materials and instructional guides for teachers are availed, 68.7% of students and 64% of facilitator respondents asserted a one to one ratio distribution of student textbook. The majority (93.3%) of the facilitator respondent assured availability of teachers' guide.

However, the cUITiculum was criticized by 55.6% of education officials lexperts and 80% of facilitators for its difficulty level. It is very difficult to learn and teach with and to complete it with the given period as further disclosed by the above data sources.

e) The Pedagogy

Self-contained classroom organization is preferred as best approach. As reported by 37.8% of facilitators, the average class size is 40. But it varied to the lower 25 and the highest 56 on average as reported by 17.8% and 20% of their colleagues respectively.

The most used teaching learning method and approach are assumed active learning or participatory method. In addition, 97.5% the facilitator respondent reported that they use the respective method though they were supported by only 45 .5% of educational official/expert group. As 54.5% of education officials observed and the field visit made clear, the old traditional method lecture method is still the dominant approach in the program.

With regard to the flow of students from non-formal to the formal system, it is normal but the . reverse is not true. Free promotion scheme is lIsed to transfer students through levels. Besides, achievement test is intended to give at cluster level to decide on student's promotion to 5th grade level .

f) Teachers IFacilitators

The program has been used professionals. According to the document obtained from the zone education office, (89.4%) of the facilitators are certified as lower cycle primary school teacher.

The rest 10.6% are grade loth completers. Woreda education office together with community' s representatives selects facilitators. As indicated in the strategy the minimum criteria include at li st: 10th grade education level, proximity in residence and good personality. However, 95.5%and 93.3% percents of facilitators and education official respondents respectively reported educational

71 background is taken as the primary recruitment criterion. Besides, the use of females as a role model is being practiced, as 36.5% of the facilitators were females.

As asserted by 75.65 % of the facilitator respondent, the short initial, in service refreshment and certification training schemes were employed. Besides, 26.7% of the same group had initi al training took 1-15 days while 53.3% of the group took part in additional refresher training. Onl y two facilitator respondents reported that they had the certification training.

The term of employment is contract base with a promise for transfer to permanent formal schoolteacher to professionals. The mode of payment is in cash covered with government budget. However, satisfaction of the facilitators against their salary scale was found to be unsatisfactory as reported by 81.8% and 37% of education officials/experts and facilitator respondents respectivel y.

The initial salary scale is 300 birr while the highest paid person earned birr 617 per month. There is no uniform payment system; it varies within and among woredas.

g) Community Involvement

The program implementation has involved communities. The communities are expected to get involved in all aspects of the inputs. The participation revealed in scheduling, land provision, si te selection, labor and material provision, student enrollment etc. Rating result indicates of th e overall contribution of the community good with the mean value of 3.59 and 4.24 by education offici als and facilitators respondents group respectively.

h) Non -governmental Organizations Involvement

Findings show that non-governmental organizations involved in the ABE program though some of the respondents was not aware of it. Only 42.9% of the education official/expert respondent group responded that they known th e participation of some NGOs. Save the children Norway -Ethiopian and save the children Denmark -Ethiopian had supported much through the ABE scaling up project. The project adjusted about birr 30,927,719 for three academic year-2004-2006GC (Abraha Asfaw and Befekadu Zeleke, 2007).

72 1) Financing

Government, the community, individuals, associations and non-governmental organiL~ions are intended to finance the program. However, the program was suffered from shortage of money to run day-to-day activities.

J) The Management

Woreda education and training board has the responsibility to provide overall leadership intended to be practiced through Woreda education office in general non-formal education expert in particular. Every centre is governed by centre committee selected from the community and a nearby formal school principle responsible to give overall support to the centre.

However, the monitoring and supervision of ABE centers was found to be very low. Woreda education office visit ABE centre twice a year as responded by 46.7%of facilitators and 45.5 % of education officials. Significant number of respondents, 36.4% of education official and 45.2% of facilitators believed that woreda education office visit ABE centre once a year.

iii) Performance of the Program

The performance of the program will be expressed in terms of access, equity, relevance, quality (input supply) and internal efficiency.

a) Response on program accessibility was found to be high. The weighted mean score was 3.8. The performance result on equity showed a 4.8% difference between sexes -male 53.4% and female 47.6%. It is believed that it minimized geographical and socioeconomic di sparity though quantitative rating was not carried out.

b) The weighted mean score rating for quality of the program was found to be 4.3, which , indicate high score. For example, there is an 89.4% trained teacher supply with 1 :50 teachers- student ratio.

c) The response on the relevancy of the program was found to be a weighted mean 4.4 of five , which also indicates high or good performance.

d) The weighted mean score rating for the internal efficiency of the program was found to be 3.8 that relatively indicate high score.

73 iv.Challenges of the Program.

A. Demand driven challenges

Most of the parents did not know the decision to send children to school meant that enabling them to acquire the foundation knowledge that determines their fate. Consequently, most parents had not sent children to school by their own initiative. On the other hand, kebele administrators were not clear that th eir duty in cl ude to playa role to get children to school. Meanwhile children had been denying access to education.

B. Supply Side problems

The existing ABE centers lacked potable water, playground & materials, latrine, furniture, textbooks and even classrooms.

5.2. Conclusion Non-formal Alternative Basic Education Program is designed to reach the un-reached by the formal system. I t employs the available human and material resources, appropriate place, convenient schedule and relevant curriculum. It needs a separate management system flexible enough to experiment, to identify mistakes and to correct them speedily but it should combine central capabilities with decentralized responsibility. The financing of the respected program need strong individual , community and government commitment (Anderson, 1992).

The finding of this study revealed the feature of the program and the following conclusions are drawn.

1. According to the finding of the study, the area is characterized by different challenge of education provision such as distance, poverty and illiteracy with the aggregate mean score of 2.7. Besides, the area is known for children who incur high opportunity cost to attend formal education. The aggregate mean of chi ld's socio economic contribution found to be 2.84. Therefore, it can be concluded that the program is launched in the appropriate area where provision of education requires special intervention.

2. School located nearby villages, works in student convenience in terms of schedule and curriculum can also attract and retain many children. ABE centers in the study area found within a walking distance of primary school age children as asserted by 90% of th e respondents. The schedule is designed with the involvement of parents!community. Thus, it

74 can conclude that the program is successful in attracting, ABE accounted for 7.9% of th e 105% zonal GER.

3. Cost effective specially designed classroom, private houses, shade and other houses are used as a classroom in the program. Besides, people trained for formal schools are served as a facilitator. Therefore, the program has been providing education at a low cost that enables to reach all.

4. Anderson (1992) noted that program intended to reach hard-to-reach groups is far more likely to succeed when parents and the community are not actively involved. According to 63 .6% of education experts and 57% of facilitator respondents, the communities participate to get and keep children to school. Thus, it is a successful program to attract and retain children and their parents.

5. The content of the cuniculum affects the likelihood that hard-to-reach children will either attend or succeed in school. According to 55.6% of education experts and 80% of facilitator respondents, the curricul um is not appropriate to the level. Therefore, the program is fai led to provide relevant cuniculum.

6. The most effective education management system combines central capabilities with decentralized responsibility. Besides, well-designed teaching material and school supplies improve teachers' effectiveness. However, the finding revealed that the woreda education office supervised ABE centre only twice a year, the Zone and the Region Education officials did not involved in supervision ABE centers. Therefore, the program is not managed well .

7. According to 80% of the respondents, the amount of salary paid to the facilitator is not enough to moti vate and retains them. Besides, the ABE centers are not fulfi lIed wi th the necessary facilities such as furniture, latrine, water supply etc. Hence, the program is not • financed well.

To sum up, the time and place were organized in accordance with the need and interest of the beneficiaries. However, the cUITiculum is not relevant and the facilitators lack motivation. The community were not fully mobilized and oriented in order to make their best. Thus, the nine building blocks were not intelligently assembled as a result children might not be attracted and retain any longer at schooling.

75 5.3. Recommendations Based on the findings of the study and conclusions drawn, the researcher would like to recommend . the following points.

1. The utilization of available place with minor adjustment is a basic principle of non-formal education. Hence, the implementers should work hard in order to complete the incomplete facilities such as potable water, latrine, playground and furniture. In these regard the researcher remembers his preschool church literacy class. All children came with a bottle of drinking water. In addition, he remembers his classroom in the national literacy campaign. The classroom was full of local made teaching aids and seats. Proper community mobilization and donor impressed project help to do so.

2. Authorities in the education field criticized that a four years primary education could not be enough to ensure sustainable literacy. Besides, the finding of the study revealed that the three years ABE curriculum could not be completed and acquired within the given period. Hence, the three-year cycle ABE program should be raised to a four year.

3. Money is hygiene factors that bring about feelings of dissatisfaction when it becomes insufficient. The salary scale of the facilitators was criticized for its insufficiency as the finding of the study revealed. Thus, the payment should be at least equal to the lower primary school teacher's salary scale.

4. The education participation of children depends on their family's educational background. Children come from literate family perform well and retain long while fellow brothers and sisters from illiterate parents or guardians known for their absenteeism and dropout. Hence,

the alternative basic education program should be guideline accompanied by adult literacy program.

5. As the study found out, the program lacks attention from decision makers. Thus, awareness raising program on the goal of ABE to local governance should be designed and practiced so that they would understand the role of education on poverty alleviation.

76 BIBLIOGRAPHY

A.BOOKS

Anderson, M.B. (1988). Improving Access to Schooling In Third World: A Review. Bridge Research report series 1.

___. (l992).Education for All: What are we waiting for? New York: UNICEF.

Atchoarena, D. and Gasperini, L. (2003). (Ed.). Education for rural development: towards new policy responses. A joint study conducted by FAO & UNESCO (IIEP) Paris: UNESCO.

Bishop,G.(l986).Altemative Strategies for Education. London: Macmillan Publisher.

__---'.. (l989).Alternative Strategies for Education. London: Macmillan Publishers Ltd.

Carr-Hill,R.A.(l991 ).Nonformal Education:Information and Planning Issues.Paris:lIEP-UNESCO.

Colclough,C.( L982). "The Impact of Primary Schooling on Economic Development: A Review of the Evidence". World Development 10(3): 167-185

Colclough,C. and Lewin,K.M.(l993). Educating all the children: strategies for primary schooling in the South. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Coombs,P.H.(1968).The World Educational Crises a System Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press.

~ __. (l984). "The Big Gap in Educational Planning: Non-formal Education". In: Hetland, A. and Abel. G.!. (1984). (eds.). Educational Planning in Developing Countries. Stockholm: Almquist and Wiksell International.

Coombs,P.H. and Ahmed,M.(l974).Attacking Rural Poverty .How Nonformal Education Can Help. Washington D.C. : International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.

CSA. (I994).The 1994 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia. VoU.Addis Ababa: CSA.

Davico,1.(l992).The Repetition and Dropout Problem: Study in Brazil and the Role of the Teachers. Prospects, 20, 7-1l.

DFID. (2000).Learning Opportunities for All: A Policy Framework for Education. London: OED.

___. (2001). The challenge of universal primary education. Strategies for achieving the international development targets. London: DFID.

77 Gachuhi,D.(l999).The Impact of HIV/AIDS on Education Systems in the Eastern and Southern Africa Region and the Response of Education Systems to HIV/AIDS. New York: UNICEF.

Gallart,M.A.(l989).The Diversification of the Educational Field in Argentina.(IIEP Research Reports 73).Paris: UNESCO.

Haggis,S.M.(1995).(Ed).The Education for All: Teacher Training Package.Vol.l.Paris:UNESCO.

Hanushek,E.(1995).International Recent Research on Schooling in Developillg ~ountrie s. Washington, D .C .: World Bank.

Hanushek,E and Lavy,V.(l994).School Quality, Achievement bias and Dropout in Egypt. Li vin g Standard measurement study working paper no.107.Washington D.C.: The World Bank.

Hunter,l. and others. (1974). Program of studies in non-formal Education: Team Reports Economics and non-formal Education Michigan: Michigan State University.

Lockheed, M.E and others. (1991). (Ed).Education Technology Sustainable and Effective use. Washington, DC.:World Bank.

Lookheed, M.E. and verspoor, A.M. (1992). Improving primary education In Developing countries: A Review of policy options. Washington, D.C World Bank.

MOE. (2002). ESDP II : Education sector Development program (2005/06). Addis Ababa: MOE.

___ . (2007).Education Statistics Annual Abstract ,1998 E.C(2005/06).Addis Ababa:MOE.

OXFAM. (2001). Education Tackling the Global Crisis. Briefing paper. Oxfam: UK.

Rajput, 1.S. (1996). Universalization of Elementary Education. NewDelihi:vikas publishing Prt.Ltd

Serpell,R.(1993).The Significance of Schooling: Life Journeys in an African Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Tekesta Negash. (1990). The Crises of Ethiopian Education- Some Implication" for National Building. Uppsala: Uppsala University.

___. (1996). Rethinking of education in Ethiopia. Uppsala: Uppsala University.

UNESCO. (1985). Manual for statistics on Audit Education Paris: UNESCO.

78 ____. (1990). Framework for Action to Meet Basic Learning Needs. World conference on Education for All, Jomitien.

___. (1996).School Mapping and Micro Planning in Education. Paris: UNESCO-lIEP ..

___. (l998).Wasted Opportunities. Paris, UNESCO.

_ ___.(2000).The Dakar Framework for Action. Education for All : meeting our collective commitments. Paris: UNESCO.

____.(2004).Global Monitoring report, 200S.Education for all the Quality Impressive. Paris: UNESCO.

___. (2007). Education for All by 2015 Will we make it? Paris: Oxford University Press.

UNICEF. (1993)."Reaching the Unreached".Nonformal Approaches and Universal Primary Education. Education Cluster. New York: UNICEF.

Verhine, R.E.(1993). Educational alternatives and the determination of earnings in Braeilian industries. Frankfurt am-main peter lang.

WFP. (2001). A Compendium of FAO experience in basic education: Education and Food for All. Rome: FAO.

World Bank. (1980). Primary Education and Economic Development: a Review of the Evidence. Washington, OC.The World Bank.

____. (l990).Primary Education: A World Bank Policy Paper. Washington D.C. : The World Bank

__-----:. (1995). Priorities and strategies for education: a world Bank Review. Washington, DC the World Bank

___. (1999). Education: Education sector strategy. Washington, D.C. : World Bank.

79 B.JOURNALS

Chimombo, J. (2005). "Issues in Basic Education in Developing Countries: an exploration of policy options for Improved Delivery". Journal of International Cooperation in Education, Vol. 8, No.1, PP 129. CICE Hiroshima University.

Kelly,G.P.(l987)."Setting State Policy on Women's Education in the Third World: Perspecti ves from Comparative Research". Comparative Education.VoI.23,No.1.

Nkinyangi, J. (l982)."Access to Primary Education in Kenya: Contradictions to Public Policy". Comparati ve Education Review, 26(2), 199-217.Journal

Rose and Greeler.(2006)."Collaborating in Education for All Experiences of Government support for non-state provision of basic education in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa". Public Administration and Development .Vol. 26 No.3, PP 219-230.

C. Unpublished

Abraha Asfaw and Befekadu Zeleke. (2007)." Review of the Scaling up of the ABE Program in th e Amhara Regional State".(unpublished). Mid-Term Report, Addis Ababa:AREB,SCD-E and SCN-E.

Amarch Kebede.(2007)."An Assessment of the Implication of Alternative Basic Education Program in East Gojjam"(Unpublished) Masters Thesis, Addis Ababa University.

Birihanu Seboka. (2000)."An Assessment of Alternative Primary Education Programmes in Two National Regional States of Rural Ethiopia" (Unpublished) Master Thesis, Addis Ababa University.

AREB.(2003)."Amhara Region Education Bureau Strategic Plan(2003/04-2005/05)."

Biruk Mitikie.(2006)."The Provision of Adult & Non-formal Education by Government & NGOs in Addis Ababa" (Unpublished) Master Thesis, Addis Ababa University.

ETP.(l994)." Education and Training Policy of Ethiopia". (Unpublished). Addis Ababa:MOE.

:1'9°;hC-~' n.C' .(2003). "r~\@7t. 'ndbt.ce ntv,ce ou'}"}{):/· ~\OTJt.6fJ> rU

.( Xj!.~:t~l"rfl@7Ir ,ndbt.ce nAt'\ce ou·}"}{)r}. ~\OTJt."J]' rU'1'1r}. ouOL:f'ce '~'9°UC'"i' TC'"}t·9" r~\6.

80 Electronics

Chimombo,lP.G.(l999)."Implementing Educational Innovations: A Study of Free Primary Education In Malawi". Unpublished D.phil.thesis, University of Sussex. www.unesco.orgliiep.

Hoppers,W.(2006). Non-formal education and basic education reform: a conceptual review.( IIEP ).Paris: UNESCO. Ult:www.unesco.orgliiep

Mammo Kebbede. (2005). "Ethiopia where and who are the world's illiterates?" Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2006, Literacy for Life.ULT:WWW.unesco.orgliiep. http://www.microsoft.com/products/encarta (2007).

Thompson, E. (2001) "successful experiences in Non-Formal Education and Alternative Approaches to Basic Education in Africa" .Discussion Paper prepared for tin;; ADEA Biennial Meeting Arusha, Tanzania, October 7-11 , 2001. http:/www.adectnt.org/wgnfe/Publications.

TOlTes,R.M.(2001).What Works in Education: facing the new century. Document prepared for th e International youth fo undation. Buenos Aires: Instituto Fronesis. Retrieved from www.unesco.orgliiep.

Wikipedia.(2008).Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_ Primary_Education

81 Appendices

Annex -one Addis Ababa University School of Graduate Studies Faculty of Education Department of Educational Planning and management

Form A: Questionnaire to be filled by Zone and Woreda Education Offices experts, Supervisors and Formal School Head Teachers or Teachers. The purpose of this study is purely academic and in no way affect you personally, and yet, th e success of the study highly depends on your genuine, frank and timely response. The out come of the study will help all concerned bodies to draw practical solution to the problem occurred in the implementation of the Alternative Basic Education Program. Therefore, please fill in the questionnaire honestly and responsibly. I sincerely express my thanks for your co-operation! Note: 1. you do not need to write your name. 2. Circle the letter, which indicates your response, or write in the space provided 3. For additional explanation or comment, write in short and to the point in the space provided. I. Personal Information. 1. Sex: a) Male b) Female 2. Age: a) 18-25 b) 26-32 c) 33-39 d) 40 and above 3. Educational Level a) Certificate (TTl) b) diploma c) First degrade d) other 4. Your organization is a) Zone Education office b) Woreda Education office c) cluster centre d) school 5. Your current position ______6. Total years of service related to education ______

II. Program Context Issues 7. Do you ever have the opportunity to visit and know of ABE centers? a) Yes b) No • 8. If yes, how do you rate them in terms of the following points? 8.1 Availability of furniture a) Very good. b) Good c) Average d) Poor e) Very Poor

82 8.2 Please put a tick mark in front of your response performance No. Inputs available Not remark available 1. A vai labi lity of playing materials 2. latrine 3. Potable water 4. Play field

9. Who are the targeted group of the program? a) out-of schoolchildren b) Drop-outs c) Repeaters d) Others 10. What are the major social and economic roles of the targeted group? (Please rank in order of priority starting from no. "1")

a) Care of Siblings g) No occupation b) Care of live stocks h) labor c) Farming I) other d) House hold works e) Petty trade 11. What were/are the major factors affecting the participation of primary education in the area? (Rank in order of difficulty using numbers: 5=very high, 4 = high, 3=medium, 2=l ow and 1= very low)

a) Distance f Opportunity costs/child labor demand b) Poverty g Direct education costs c) Poor quality of education j Parental awareness d) Relevance of curriculum I Other e) C ulture/social beliefs

III. The Physical Facilities for the Alternative Program 12. Where th e learning does takes place? (More than one answer is Possible) a) Private house d) sheds or "Dases" b) Primary schools e) Others c) Specially constructed center f) cooperative Halls

13. Average number of students in the class you have ever visited~ a) Less than 25 b) 25- 35 c) 36 - 45 d) 46 -55 e) above 55 students

14. Is the accommodation for classes acceptable to? 14.1) Parents a) Yes b) No 14.2) Educators a) Yes b) No 14 .3) Donors a) Yes b) No 14.4) Opinion leaders a) Yes b) No

15. How much are ABE centers furnished?

83 15 . How much are ABE centers furnished? a) Very good c) Moderate e) Very poor ( b) Good d) Poor IV. The ABEs Facilitators 16. Who recruit and assign the facilitators? a) Woreda Education Office c) Centre Committee b) Kebele Administration d) Other____ _ 17. What is/are the primary requirement to recruit a facilitator? a) Educational background c) Government's recommendation b) Examination d) other ______

18. What is the mode of payment? (To woreda experts) a) In cash b) In kind c) Both in cash and in kind d) Other____ _ 19. Who covers the cost of facilitators' salary? (To woreda experts) a) Government b) community c) parents d) NGOs e) others ______

20. How much do facilitators receive per month? (To woreda experts)

21. Is the payment satisfactory and motivating? J a) Yes b) No 22. Are the facilitators trained? a) Yes b) No 23 . If yes, how often and long are they trained? (To woreda experts) a) Initial training , duration (in days) ___ b) In-service training , duration (in days) ______24. Who are the trainers?

25 . What are the major training contents/components? (To woreda experts) a) General teaching methodology e) Assessment of student performance b) Child psychology f) Record keeping and reporting c) Active learning g) School community relation '1 d) Unit and lesson planning h) other______

.J' 26. How do you rate the importance of the training? a) Very good b) good c) poor

V. curriculum issues 27. Is there curriculum material specifically developed for the program? (To zone and woreda experts) a) Yes b) No

84 28. Is the cUlTiculum accepted by the 28.1) Parents a) Yes b) No 28.2) Educators a) Yes b) No 28 .3) Others a) Yes d) No 28.4) Opinion leaders a) Yes b) No 29. Are all the necessary textbooks distributed to students? (to woreda education experts and supervisors) a) Yes b) No 30. What is the distribution ratio the text books in your ABE center? (to woreda education experts and supervisors) a)1:1 b)1:2 c)1:30r4d)onetomany 31. Are textbooks appropriate to students' capacity? a) Yes b)No

VI. The Teaching Learning Process 32. Who determine the school cal ander, timing /schedulel? a) Parents b) community c) Government body d) School committee e) other 33. What kind of pedagogical approach is mostly employing? (to woreda education experts and supervisors). a) Teacher centered b) learner centered c) other

34. How is learning progress measured? a) By achievement/ability test b) continuing assessment c) Other 35. Is there smooth flow to and from or a mechanism that link children of the alternative program to the formal school system? a) Yes b) No 36. If yes, do the children fit into the culture of formal school system after transfer? a)Yes b) No

37. If not, what is the reasons? ______

VII. The Learner and the program 38. How do you rate the learning acquisition of the ABE centers' products? a) Very good b) good c) average d) poor e) very poor 39. Are the ABE products fit to formal school? a)Yes b) No

VIII. The Management Issues 40. Are there clearly stated strategy and guideline? ( to woreda education experts and supervisors). a) Yes b) No 41. If yes, are they employed? a) Yes b) No

85 42. How many times is the ABE center supervised by woreda education? a) Three times a year b) Twice a year c) one time a year

d) Not at all. 43 . What contribution communities make? (Multiple answers is possible) a) Land provision b) site selection c) fund in cash c) Labor and raw material d) monitoring learning and attendance e) Teacher selection and firing g) advocacy and promotion h) Scheduling j) committee selection j) other 44. How do you rate the contribution of the community? a) Very good b) Good c) Medium d) lowe) Very low

45. Is there any NGO involvement in the program? a) Yes b) No 46. If yes, what do they contribute? (Multiple answers is possible) a) Finance b) material c) other 47. How much do they contribute? (to woreda education experts and supervisors). a) Very high b) high c) average d) Low e) very low r 48. How do you rate the performance of the program in terms of the following parameters? Very good = 5, Good = 4, Average = 3, Poor = 2, Very poor =1 48.1) access __ 48.2) efficiency_ _ _ _ 48.3) quality ____ 48.4) relevance___ _

IX. General Comments 49. What are the major problems of ABE program?

50. What do you suggest to solve the problems and improve the program?

THANK YOU VERY MUCH!

86 f I Annex-A

Addis Ababa University School of Graduate Studies Faculty of Education Department of Educational Planning and Management

Form B: Questionnaire to be filled by rae litator of ABE center. The purpose of this study is purely academic and in no way affect you personally, and yet, the success of the study highly depends on your genuine, frank and timely response. The out come of the study will help all concerned bodies to draw practical solution to the problem occurred in the implementatir)D of the Alternative Basic Education Program. Therefore, please fill in the questionnaire honestly and responsibly. I sincerely express my thanks for your co-operation! Note: 1. you do not need to write your name. 2. Circle the letter that indicates your response or write in the space provided 3. For additional explanation or comment, write in short and to the point in the space provided. I. Personal Information. l. Sex: a) Male b) Female 2. Age: a) 15-20 b) 21-26 c) 27-32 d/33 and above 3. Educational Level ______

4. Woreda, ______

5. Total years of service as a facilitator~------6. Grade level you teach ______7. Average number of students in the class you teach ___ a) Less than 25 b) 25- 35 c) 36 - 45 d) 46 -55 e) above 55 students 8. Your status is a) Conventional teacher c) Mixed ("a" and "b") b) Para-professional d) others, ______9. Who recruit and assign you? a) Woreda Education Office c) Centre Committee b) Kebele Administration d) Other____ _ 10. What was/is the primary requirement criterion to be a facilitator? a) Educational background c) Government's recommendation b) Examination d) other ______11. Terms of your employment a) Full-time b) part-time workers c) Volunteers 12. What is the mode of payment? a) In cash b) In kind c) Both in cash and in kind d) Other____ _ 13. Who cover your salary? a) Government b) community c) parents d) NGOs e) others. ______

87 14. How much do you receive per month?

15 . is the payment satisfactory and motivating. a) Yes b) No 16. Have you got training? a) Yes, I have b) No, I haven't 17 . If yes, how often and long are you trained? a) Initial training , duration (in days) ___ b) In-service training , duration (in days) ______18 . What are the major training contents/components? a) General teaching methodology e) Assessment of student performance b) Child psychology f) Record keeping and reporting c) Active learning g) School community relation d) Unit and lesson planning h) other______

19. Does the designed training package address gap In need or compensate for your knowledge and pedagogical experience? a) Yes b)No 20. How do you rate the importance of the training you received for your performance? a) Very good b) good c) poor

II. Program Context Issues 21. Who are the targeted group of the program? a) out-of schoolchildren b) Drop-outs c) Repeaters d) Others 22. What are the major social and economic roles of the targeted group? (Please rank in order of priority starting from no. "1")

a) Care of Siblings f) Bonded labor b) Care of Ii ve stocks g) No occupation c) Farming h) other d) House hold works I) poor quality of education e) Petty trade h) other

23. What were/are the major factors affecting the participation of primm y ed11cation in the area? (Rank in order of difficulty using numbers: 5=very high, 4 = high, 3=medium, 2=low and 1= very low)

a) Distance f Opportunity costs/child labor demand a b) Poverty b Direct education costs c) Poor quality of education j Parental awareness d) Relevance of curriculum I Other e) CuI lure/social beliefs

88 .. III. The Physical Facilities for the Alternative Program 24. Where the learning does takes place? (More than one answer is Possible) d) Pri vate house d) sheds or "Dases" e) Primary schools e) Others f) Specially constructed center f) cooperative Halls 25. Is the accommodation for classes acceptable to? 25.1) Parents? a) Yes b) No 25.2) Educators? a) Yes b) No 25.3) NGOs a) Yes b) No 25.4) Others a) Yes b) No 26. How much are classroom furnished? a) Very good c) Moderate e) Very poor b) Good d) Poor 27. Which of the following school facilities do you think are adequately available? Please make a tick ( ../ ) mark against your choice. Availability No . Facilities Available Not Available Remark

27.1. Potable water r 27.2. Latrine 27.3. playground 27.4. Playing material

IV. Curriculum issues 28. Is there cUlTiculum material specifically developed for the program? a) Yes b) No 29. Is the CUlTiculum accepted by the 29.1) Parents a) Yes b) No 29.2) Educators a) Yes b) No 29.3) Others a) Yes d) No 30. Are all the necessary textbooks distributed to students? a) Yes b) No r 31. What is the distribution ratio the text books in your ABE center? a) 1:1 b) 1:2 c)l:30r4 d)one to many 32. Are you provided with the teaching guide? a)Yes b)No 33. Are the textbooks appropriate to the capacity of learners ? a) Yes b)No

V. The Teaching Learning Process 34. Who determine the school calendar, timing /scheduleJ? a) Parents b) community c) Government body d) School committee e) other

89 35 . What kind of pedagogical approach do you employ mostly? a) Teacher centered b) learner centered c) other

36. How is learning progress measured? a) By achievement/ability test b) continuing assessment c) Other 37. Is there a second cycle primary formal school nearby? a)Yes b) No

38. Is there smooth flow to and from or a mechanism that link children of the alternative program to the formal school system? a) Yes b) No 39. Do ABE children face any problem in formal school system? a) Yes b) No

40. If yes, what is it? ______

41. Are the ABE products fit to the formal school curriculum? a.)Yes b)No

VI. The Learner and the program

42. Which grade is more affected by dropouts? a) Grade 1 b) Grade 2 c) Grade 3 43. How much do the dropouts' rates affect the program? a) High b) Average c) low

44. How long do students walk to the center on the average? a) Less than 15 minutes b) 15-30 minutes c) 30 minutes up to 1 hour d) over one hour

VII. The Management Issues

45. Are there clearly stated strategy and guideline? a) Yes b) No

46. If yes, are they employed? a) Yes b)No 47. How many times is the ABE center supervised by woreda education? a) Three times a year b) Twice a year c) one time a year

90 48. What contribution communities make? Please put a tick mark in front of your choice/s (Multiple answers is possible) contributions

a Land provision f Teacher selection and firing b site selection g advocacy and promotion c fund in cash h. Scheduling d. Labor and raw material 1. committee selection e. monitoring learning and attendance j. other

49. How do you rate the contribution of the community? a) Very good b) Good c) Medium d) lowe) Very low

50. How do you rate the performance of the program in terms of the following parameters? Very good = 5, Good = 4, Average = 3, Poor = 2, Very poor =1 50.1) access_ 50.2) efficiency__ _ 50.3) quality ____ 50.4) relevance ___

VIII. General Comments 5l. What are the major problems of ABE program?

52. What do you suggest to solve the problems and improve the program?

THANK YOU VERY MUCH!

91 Annex ·A Oh-'til hOC] ("'LOCil ~Ul lJDl:P oolrhDJOC r-rSJUuc-r ~~At r-rSJUuC-r tJ~ ~c; hoo~C -rSJUUC-r tltj::A

Forme: \'noot--"t" ooLPl;1''f th,c;:,· :"9"UC:" oolU'1llC nt.~~9" 'f'1c:"f :''1:,. oomf,:":: qftOlj:· \'II.U oomf,q' qftOlj m,Oljt--6J,"b UDLPl;1''f :'·rVCr). ool.h'111C ',t. 'lor ft,e (\Olj.Y.l'1 rr'l r). ool:v. (\001'1111'111 'UD':: {)M1. v \,el'lH':"'} rr )'el: ?J:r. orr'} :pel: oUtJ'}o·n ooA{) \' )'I1ro"} 6,Y.A Ooon011 ro,e'}9n Ort'l'Imro· n~:" (l;J~ ft,e OUD~tj:: h'H':')'UDAI'I' :'·mr:pft1"v·::

hli'.CI 1i1~:- 1im,.il,l! ODl~

1. 1.1 n U1J l, 'T' OD UJ l ;t lJ? t IJD UC t U1J 1I 'n ~ }JJ IJD ------~------

ID l ~ ------ n(\, ------

2. 1.1 t U1J l illJD 'n ~ n 9 t ------t l, ~ i C ------

3. 1I ~ IJl), ------4. l);t ------

5. 1.1 t U1J l 1.1 ~ ' IJD UC t J1.l ~ ------6. I.1lDil~U / 7i 1D,l!1JD I.1nUJ~1U / 7i I.1tlJDUct J1.l~ 1JD1~1 Hfr?

ul 1.1 n [l~' 1.1 t IJD UC t J1.l ~ ------

(l/ 1.1 ~ 'l t 1.1 t IJD UC t J1.l ~ ------

rh l 1.1 n UJ ~ 1 1.1 t IJD UC t J1.l ~ ------

7. I.1ID il ~ I 1.1 n UJ ~ 1 1.1 ill, n,P. H ------ .8. I.1lDil~1·u/7i1 nU,P.ID~ · ODlJ'C u.'I,;t "1(1B/"1(1m:: ul ~ 'l~. ------(l/ n[1 'r ------9. il1 'l- 1D1Jl:1JD'l il1~' ~ut n(lU/7i ? ul ------ID 1 Jl: IJD (I I ------~ Ut 10. nrtt utili ID,P.IJD 'nrtt utm CI(\ rill, f1l-1t IJDh19t 'ntIJDUC 'r rtt tl9(17i /(lU ? ul n CI CIJD

u. n1Jl: '1>1 rho !}Jilt '1>1 OD. 1JD11JD nL"l'1>CIJD

92 nl n~ci'i JPl,+ nlJl)ll1 lID I ~lrnt nlID"'1>1JU wi \J Et 1 n lID Tn rrn il II (1,1', 'n In '1 MI ------hl'i'." lJ.nt: ilnt9D\Jct 1Jl)1'I'nn. m,l!9D t9D\Jct I1T lJ. ... ;t 13. lillJUtlJl)~nt hr;." IiItrn'1~'1> HIt? ul n91 nI lilt rn lJ ~ '1> n,l! Jl. n IJU

14. lillJUtlJl)~n'r hl;." 1&\J HIt? ul n91 nl 1&\J n,l!Jl.nlJU 15. nhr;." rn'ili lillJUt'1>lIDrTtn~' n'1>IIDJ;tt lJUii HIt? ul n91 16 . lillJU ~, IJl) ~ n ~, n IJl) l, 'T' lID W l ;t 'e t IJU \J C'r IJl) lJ 'n " rn ,l! IJU t IJU \J Ct 11 t IiIIJII. m"l lIt IJ n n ? ul nnlIt nl IiInlItlJU 17. lillJUtlJl)~n~' nlJl)l,'T' IIDwl;j''e t9D\Jct IJl)lJ'n" rn,l!1JU tlJU\Jct I1t n

19 . 'n n t \J I 1i rn Jl. n IJl) l, 'T' lID W l .t 'e t IJU \J Ct IJl) lJ 'n " rn ,l! IJU t IJU \J Ctnt tI OD 'i JI: 1JU1 J' \J " 1tL ,l!rnflJl:illJ"/i'i" ? ul '£lIS Jl. ~ J' fI 'n 'I' n il \J /1i + '1 C n n ? ,l! m '1> fI : ------hl'i'.CI I'II'IT:- nJPClJt-T9D\JCT 1'I,l! 21. IiIIiI 'r~1It IiItlJU\JC~' n,l!~~' IiIlIDlJl)lJ' IIDR'IJr;. nn\J/1i? l'nnlJ1: nl'l,l! IID"f1 IIDflmt J'.;fI'l,,::1 ul nlJl)C~ rhl 'LUJil nl ~11I\H~ 22. IiIliIt~lIl IiItlJU\JC'l' n,l! ~t IiIlIDlJl)lJ' IIDR'Ur;. ,l! 'nilJl:U" rn,l!1JU ,l! 'nilJl:i'i"? 'nnlJ1: nl'l,l! IID"f1 IIDflmt ,l!.fl'l"::

u. IiInIJl)C~ n. liI~l'1I\H~ rho 1iI'Lr'til lID. n'r]rm r't,l! lf1 w. lJ.1r IJU 'n rt JI: ~ 1Il

93 hll.Il ill.t nonDIJC DlJiltDIJC lJ.~t i'I.e 23. onlJUU1.1 ((lon.ff:f,) l't,PiltlJU~ (lilWilIL 1 lH. il'nrr'f1: II.l'ln 'IlC'J1'f1 m'p'lJ1I n.rr'f ~1't.p(l'f1 .em.pDIJit?

24. nonDIJC DIJ()tDIJC '!~ t 1',P't' nononl"l(): 1',P't' nonm(J.p nn-J1:1 ()l. nonl'lDIJl.t mHt tl'tt<.I"IU tl'ttl.,Pl"ln? U. (191 LHl lH.

U. (191 l'11'tm' ,PCDlJit rh • (I .e 1'1 ffi' IJU (I ,P CDD' IJU

26. onlJUU1.1 ((lon.f1~:1·) (lilWim·1 lH. (Jut ()l. l'11'tm' 'pCDlJit, U. (191 l'11'tm' ,PCUIJit rh . (I .P.I'I ffi' IJU (I ,P CDD' IJU

27. onlJUU1.1 ((lon.f:lq~·) iltt lH. nl't1JU1t ()1t <1>1 'nhll..:l .P.l.it , U. (l1J1: <1>1 1"1. l}l"It <1>1

94 Annex-Two Form D: Interview Guide for Zone and Woredas Education Offices Heads and Experts

1. What are the major innovative features of the existing alternative primary education programs and how can they help to speed up UPE? 2. What political/policy support measures exist to promote innovations in basic education? 3. What economic opportunities exist to effectively undertake alternative basic education programs? 4. Is partnership exists at the grass-roots level ? 5. Is there a demonstrated societal demand and support for such alternatives? 6. What advantages are envisaged in the alternative program? 7. What is the extent of motivation and involvement by concerned stakeholders? ( acceptance and involvement) 8. Are NGOs involved in the program? 9. What issues, concerns or problems do you like to mention in terms of opportunitif'<:, threats, strengths and weaknesses for program sustainability? 10. Would you recommend potential solutions of the problem? 11 . Additional comments, opinion or recommendations if any Thank you!

Form E: Focus Group Discussion with Parents and Alternative Basic Education Centre's Committee I. Background Information Woreda______Kebele______ABE Center______No. Participants: Male Female_ _ _ II. Guide Questions 1. What are the major importances of the establishment of alternative basic education centers in the area? 2. Is there a demonstrated societal demand and support for the establishment of such center? 3. What issues, concerns or problems do you like to mention in terms of opportunities, threats, strengths and weaknesses for program sustainability? 4. Additional comments, opinion or recommendations if any

95 Annex Three Form -F Alternative Basic Education Centers Observation Checklist Name of the Woreda------Kebele ______Name of the ABEC ______Level of Grade ------Date of Observation No. List of Obse.-vation Yes No l. Facilities • Student seat • Potable water supply • Toilet • Play ground • Fence • Facilitators office • Suitabil ity of location

2. Teaching learnin g materials • Syl labus and guides • Text books • Teaching Aids • Lesson plans 3. Teaching learning Process • Classroom organization • Teachi ng method(learner centered) • Classroom management j 4. Documentation • Stud ent attendance • Mark li st • Time table • Reports Annex Four Sample woredas Data so urces from each sampled woredas. population No Woreda ABE Centre Facilitator Student Sample Total Sample % Total Sample Total Who received Who filled & returned questionnaire No % 1. Dessie Zuria 33 3 65 17 13 76 3223 80 100 2. Woreilu 30 2 40 12 9 75 2148 49 100 3. Ambassel 27 2 59 11 8 72 2979 68 100 4. Kalu 16 2 36 9 7 77 1579 36 100 5 Tenta 12 2 12 5 4 80 472 10 100 6. Wogdi 8 2 8 4 4 100 406 10 100 Total 126 13 220 58 45 77.58 10,401 253 100

97 Declaration

I, the undersigned, declare that this thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree for any other university, and that all sources of materials used for the thesis have been fully

acknow Jedged.

Candi date f1;'r'fIvt-..£VW\ Le,{v\.- t~ Signature ~ Place: Addis Ababa University. Date of submission ______

This thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as a university advisor. Name: X~ g~ C~ · ) Ti tie: ____----" ,.....-______

Sign ature__ -f.J fIfI-__-.- _