UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI

Date:______

I, ______, hereby submit this work as part of the requirements for the degree of: in:

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Soft Edge Architectural Thresholds in the Urban Landscape of San Diego

Jessica K. Lane

Thesis, Master of Architecture . University of Cincinnati . May 30, 2008 Contents

01 Abstract

02 Introduction 02/01 thin skin/thickened surface

02/02 background

02/03 position

02/04 tactics

02/05 evaluation

03 Landscape 03/01 location

03/02 alternative place names

03/03 borderlands and the non-integrating gap

03/04 post-industrial voids

03/05 figure/ground

03/06 bodies of water, knowledge

02 03 04 urban design 04/01 flow of traffic

04/02 bloodletting

04/03 foreign bodies

04/04 slow scale

05 architecture 05/01 curtain wall

05/02 homestead

05/03 containment 06 Skin 07 Foundation & Roof 08 Conclusion 09 Bibliography 10 Appendix 10/01 glossary

04 05 Abstract

The recent intensity of urban development in San Diego is prefigured by its frontier mentality of compounded edge conditions. Regional geography, international politics, economics and history reinforce a pattern of local containment superimposed with the smooth space of militarized, infrastructural and technological corridors that collapse dis- tance. The frontier is multiple: “borderlands” of shifting margins where ephemeral lines of exchange physically divide and polarize terrain and bodies. This thesis will explore borderlands as scalar phenomena mate- rialized architecturally; infrastructure spanning from microscopic tech- nology to tools of globalization is actively interfaced at the scale of the body by architecture that permits or denies access. In this context, bor- derlands are places of possibility, where architecture’s human scale can re-territorialize communication and exchange trajectories by tapping into and supporting conditions of intersection. If architecture as the “third skin” of the body has been a point of departure for investigating function and materiality, it still has not mitigated the “surface;” place- lessness and sensory deprivation pervasive in southern California’s built landscape. Using tactics of softness and flexibility, architecture in these selectively porous nodes can re-infiltrate and re-connect urban marginal space with the flow of resources and collective life of the city.

06 07 Introduction

02/01 thin skin/thickened surface Michel Foucault’s view that “[architects are] not the technicians or engineers of the three great variables – territory, communication, and speed” seems to contradict theorists like Henri Lefebvre and Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, for whom architecture is continuous with other human methods of producing and changing space. Human society manifests itself in its organization of space – Foucault’s techne1 – the capacity of geographic occupation generally, but architecture specifically – to be used as a technique to enact or subvert political, cultural and economic pressure on the territory and the populace. Particularly in light of architecture’s historic connection with military strategy and fortification, urban habitation/colonization and land use constitute thick thresholds in the form of corridors, grids, or dead ends. In contrast to Rem Koolhaas’ view that the suburban “Generic City” is just “what happens naturally,” and that planning makes no difference; urban areas, architecture defines territory, communication and speed by default. In their pre-eminence, buildings, the homogeneous matrix of capitalistic space, successfully combine the object of control by power with the object of commercial exchange. The building effects a brutal condensation of social relationships…It embraces, and in so doing reduces, the whole paradigm of space: space as domination/ appropriation (where it emphasizes technological domination); space as work and product (where it emphasizes product); and space as immediacy and mediation (where it emphasizes mediations and

1 Techne, for Foucault, is a critical tool, a rational approach for considering ideology, methods and forms of architecture. It has to do with the techniques of architecture as a system that negotiates between the concrete and practical concepts of the state and the inexact results practiced by the general populace. Michel Foucault, “Space, Knowledge and Power: an interview with Paul Rob- inow,” Rethinking architecture: a reader in cultural theory, ed. Neil Leach (London: Routledge, 1997), 367. 08 09 mediators, from a technical materiel to the financial ‘promoters’ of construction projects).2 Allowing Lefebvre to respond to Foucault; while architecture may never “engineer” territory, speed, or communication, it channels these things, its role is transitioning from that of surface – a visual sign, shaper of city “ground,” and spatial divider – to increasingly that of the skin – a thickened interface between the infrastructural flows of the city/global networks and the body. In Southern California, Modern architects viewed such variables as communication and speed as the fundamental components of a continuous network over the land. In an effort to correct architecture’s disconnect with technology and engineering, architecture sought to integrate infrastructural amenities, while separating from the urban fabric to become objects placed sculpturally in the landscape. San Diego, like other borderlands, is a compendium of superimposed edge conditions: geographic, political, economic, and cultural; it has tended to make its own rules. The development of San Diego succeeded in combining the ‘connected expansiveness’ of the international frontier with the containment of the political and economic border that helped maintain a favorable power imbalance. Again, to quote Lefebvre, “The illusion of a transparent, ‘pure’ and neutral space – which, though philosophical in origin, has permeated Western culture – is being dispelled only very slowly.”3 The emphatic declaration of the marginality of the borderland itself indicates the reciprocal concentration of power in San Diego; today, the city exists as a globalized center precisely as a result of combined consolidation (of power and resources) and dispersal - shedding industries and services that are now more profitably located elsewhere.

In the last decade, urban San Diego has enjoyed an unprecedented on county traffic congestion. This rapid growth has also seen the construction and investment boom, fueled by the perception of disappearance of open land in the county; with strict zoning and little incentive to preserve habitat or open land, the natural beauty that prosperity4 and the attractiveness of its dramatic natural beauty and laid-back lifestyle. Following the established pattern of sprawling is one of the area’s most unique features disappears at exactly the development overcome by heavy-handed infrastructure, explosive rate that people seek it. Unsurprisingly, developer-friendly policy economic and population growth entrench the systematic disparity has quickly adapted, shifting back towards the urban region where of access to resources as wealthy suburbs draw services from their own developers have focused efforts on extensive urban revitalization tax bases and poorer districts are left with fewer resources. The city’s projects, especially the $411 million Padres ballpark and East Village overextended infrastructure strains to provide municipal services like complex. In a pattern of gentrification familiar to many American fire protection, schools, water and electricity over the great net of the cities, low-income residents are shunted to suburbs distant from municipal area. Despite continuous investment, growth continues to city resources while the city imports suburban extremes of privacy, outstrip the capacity of the city infrastructure to service it; constant security, leisure and commodity. A nationwide survey conducted in road-widening and freeway extensions have little lasting impact 2006 showed that, for the first time in history, “the suburban poor outnumbered their city counterparts by at least 1 million.”5 This reversal of postwar white flight reflects a socio-economic shift that 2 Henri Lefebvre, “The Production of Space” In Rethinking Architecture: A is potentially more detrimental to San Diego than the 1950’s move Reader in Cultural Theory, ed. Neil Leach, 2005th ed. (New York: Routledge, to the suburbs; as low-income families are priced out of dense urban 2005), 227. 3 Ibid, 293 areas, the thinness of suburban infrastructure means that they no 4 San Diego is one of the wealthiest cities in the nation. Rancho Santa Fe, for example, is the wealthiest community with more than 1000 households. San Diego shared second place with San Francisco for the wealthiest urban 5 Alan Berube, co-author of the report for the Brookings Institution, a Wash- center in the nation, according to the 2007 Census. ington-based think tank. 10 11 thresholds that spatially enact passage or blockage; it is indicative of a large-scale pattern that owes its force to a system of redundant and overlapping borderlands that operate many scales. The difference between the two-dimensional and absolute boundary of surface and the thick functionality of skin constitutes a borderland, a region of negotiation, for example, between smooth and striated space. While this occurs most obviously at the large scale of international politics or urban planning of freeway trajectories, each one ultimately performs site-specifically, at the scale of the body – the precise instant of physical entrance or exclusion. And yet, these thresholds are not limits – they have both density and voids – and this very thickness suggests that each solid and volumetric limit is to some extent an interface that contributes to the overall result of access or denial. It is easy to see this as an abstract procedure – and, indeed, the negotiation of thresholds involves historic patterns of domination, constructed social conventions, political implications, and economic requirements – yet the act of crossing itself is fundamentally experiential and is mediated materially through the built landscape. The continuity or discontinuity of this landscape has recently come to attention as potentially the most important determinant of the cohesiveness of the city, giving rise to such sub-disciplines as “landscape urbanism,” “infrastructural urbanism,” “hyper-architecture,” and “infra-architecture”6 to name several. The hyphen is a stand-in for dialogue that does not yet exist; the scale-shift tears at structures that must remain relevant to the human body. This thesis is concerned with the operation and nature of access and denial that occurs at the seams of the urban landscape, and an architecture of intersection that opens gaps for resurrecting the production of collective social space.

longer have access to transportation, social and economic services, and collective support. The shear distance separating members of 6 Lieven De Cauter and Michiel Dehaene, “Meditations on Razor Wire” In these communities from the services, jobs, resources, and each other Power: Producing the Contemporary City, eds. Christine de Baan, Joachim De- literally leaves them outside the city walls. clerck and Veronique Patteeuw (Rotterdam: Nai Publishers, 2007), 233. Urban development itself has focused largely on existing mixed- use areas close to the urban core. At the edges of the city, zoning was put in place in an effort to separate residents from industrial operations and contaminants; it is precisely at this margin that city policy begins to enforce single-use zoning that results in low-density, horizontal development. With the exception of military industry, production has almost entirely disappeared from this area, shifting to lower-cost conditions overseas or across the border. Large post- industrial voids left areas that are already connected to infrastructure represent an opportunity to redirect the urban development of the city. The introduction of density and urban multiplicity to San Diego presents an opportunity to communities and individuals who have been systematically marginalized by city infrastructure and policy to reappropriate a collective space of resistance.

The border is just one instance of a system of selectively porous 12 13 02/02 background Tijuana’s bars and clubs, stopping in San Diego as a waypoint9. The military and economic elites, the predominant forces within the city, As a result of the New Deal to postwar era politics, the growth of now benefit from the inevitable porosity of the border. Inexpensive Southern California was characterized by a utopian optimism that Mexican labor force and American factories just across the border favored razing the past to make way for the new. Ironically, this produce northward pressure, resulting in increasing demands for catalyzed the demise of the “new” developments as well and setting border “security” with heightened police and military expenditures in motion a cycle of renewal as a means of achieving progress and and greater involvement in the shaping of the city. The existence of urban improvement. In Los Angeles first, then San Diego, growth the border justifies a militaristic approach to what is allowed within 7 was specifically informed by issues of scale, upheaval/ provisionality , the city. San Diego’s embedded military presence uses this situation and the development of property rights as distinct from unwritten as both its testing ground and justification. Fear accumulated and ideas about civic duty. Scale alone is a critical factor to the outcome woven into the operations of the city over the course of centuries of each project: the sheer volume of projects and growth initiatives in causes a deeply embedded system of dependency on and exploitation Southern California cities and the bravado these projects implied set of the border. the tone for the larger scheme of the city. In attempting to meet the demands of Depression refugees and returning soldiers, urban projects bear the distinct mark of the American Dream of individual ownership 9 Mike Davis, Under the Perfect Sun: The San Diego That Tourists Never See (New and reveal the complexity of reshaping growth patterns in America. York: New Press, 2005), 21. In the rush to build housing quickly, however, “architecture” was relegated to decoration of structures that engineers or politicians had deemed effective, and had no influence on functionality or economy.8 The pace and scope of development projects necessitated a “rational” and calculating attitude towards individuals and communities that stood in the way of change, facilitated by an emerging property rights doctrine. Current development ideologies and practices have direct lineage to these precedents and are predicated on Californians’ habituation to the ritual of upheaval. Ultimately, it is the state of change that remains constant; the results of provisionality are more permanent than the site conditions themselves.

San Diego, in particular, originally had no permanent reason for being. Cut off by mountains to the east and the border to the south, the region grew initially only by encouraging traffic through it. The international border is subject to pressures of dependency that have historically run both ways, north and south, effecting a smooth transaction. During the Prohibition, San Diego was dependent on Tijuana; the Hollywood set would pass through on their way to

7 Dana Cuff, The Provisional City :Los Angeles Stories of Architecture and Urban- ism (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000), 380. 8 As Rem Koolhaas points out, architects gave in to the fact that surface complexity was a far more popular suburban model than Miesian boxes. 14 15 16 17 dealerships as storage space, and by FedEx to access the Lindburg 02/03 position Field Airport. A guard at a gate watches over the entrance to the The site lies on either side of the section of Washington Street army recruitment base to the north. between India Street and Pacific Highway in San Diego. It is in the Mission Hills neighborhood, which contains a number of contested Strict city-wide zoning is evident in the disconnected sections of spaces where the negotiation between the margin and the core takes Washington Street. Residential high on the hill, but quickly becomes place. The neighborhood lies north of the downtown grid by only a entangled with map-plots of several, and then many, different zones as mile, canyons and slopes stretching roughly north-south between the one descends toward the ocean. At the intersection with India Street, flattened harbor basin and the mesa plateau to the east. Washington one single block on an oddly-shaped piece of land contains a pub, a Street forms one of the only east-west axes connecting the mesa gelateria, several restaurants, a language institute, apartments, and a neighborhoods with the small commercial zone at the base of the hill, shoe-repair shop, jumbled on top of one another in apparent disarray, as well as three major freeways, the train and trolley stops, and feeder confounding the single-layer concept of zoning. roads for the airport and harbor. Its proximity connects it with urban infrastructure and allows it to resist to strict zoning in transitional, while its distance means that the built landscape is predominantly post-industrial.

Lines of zoning, ownership, permission and exclusion are rapidly drawn, crossed, and re-drawn. The proximity to the city is evident the density of infrastructure of highways, boulevards and surface roads, trolley and bus stops. Starting at the top of the mesa to the east and moving west, Washington Street runs down a canyon on a wide and uninterrupted, sidewalk-free stretch between residential areas. Reaching India Street, there are a series of traffic intersections with relatively diverse buildings and uses stacked up within single blocks, re-used older structures (something that almost never occurs outside of the city in Southern California), and small, older houses. India Street itself is a busy intersection, with varied and stacked uses at a dense scale. Thereafter, the residential and multi-use density begins to break down near the large I-5 freeway and Pacific Highway underpasses, and the strange, curved slices of space cut by the arc of freeway offramps are occupied by used car dealerships, junkyards, weedy lots and billboard bases. The underpasses themselves bear evidence of habitation, and one large underpass space shelters a guerrilla skateboard park. Finally, beyond the skateboard park, chain link fences partially veil vast open lots to the south, used by car 18 19 02/04 tactics The fact that the border has allegorically been characterized as a line instead of a cross is indicative of the predominant use of thresholds in San Diego to categorize bodies. Before there can be blockage at a wall, there must be the conceptualization of a path to be blocked. This thesis will explore the interplay between access and denial at the threshold of architecture, landscape and urban detail specifically as this relates to the scale of the body. Situationist psychogeographic ideas about emotional responses to space will serve as one way to understand the very real material indications that people “read” in a space when deciding how to interact with it.

I will use Henri Levebvre’s concepts of the social production of space in a sort of reverse order, questioning Foucault’s assurance that architecture cannot engineer such things. If “society” no longer exists in a space because people cannot inhabit it at its current scale, my work will attempt to re-establish a scale at which people can use it. I will also draw on Henri Lefebvre’s rhythmanalysis to pull apart the layered, temporal phenomena of the space, which give it a particular life and pattern of occupation and use. This technique emphasizes the simultaneity and interdependence of rhythms at various paces and scales, allowing for a more nuanced understanding of interconnected forces there. Lefebvre also insists on referring to occupants of space as “subjects” rather than “users,” a semantic preference that has resonance with postcolonial and feminists ideas about identity and access that are also significant sources of methodology. From different vantage points, both feminist and postcolonial theories suggest ways to see assumptions about identity, and to dismantle binary oppositions that normally maintain power imbalances and impair communication. The spatial implications of a pressure-charged inside/outside borderland mirror entrenched subject/object methods that feminism and postcolonialism resist.

From a disciplinary standpoint, this thesis veers at times far into planning and urbanism;10 while it is not the primary purpose of the work, it is critical for understanding how architecture is and is not relevant to user/subjects and the city as a whole; too often, otherwise “good” (well built, sustainable) architecture in Southern California makes no impact beyond its own footprint. This negligence implicates designers along with the developers in entrenching coded

10 In hindsight, I think this points to the way that disciplinary division is propagated in the academy; architecture is divided from planning and inte- rior design to allow each field to be studied in greater depth. But especially in light of the planning crises of many cities and the frequent irrelevance of architecture to these problems, it seems clear that disciplinarity has achieved depth at the cost of context. I felt strongly that, especially in San Diego, where systemic inequality is manifested spatially, I needed to understand and engage urban and regional realities to make a relevant architectural design. My lack of training in planning issues unfortunately means that some of that discussion may sound basic. 20 21 stratification in the city. To the extent that informality is the opposite of the heavily structured San Diego urban zoning has achieved a seeming interplay of uses and efficient apparatus of chain stores, it is also flexible, constantly by sub-dividing into more and more specific codes that attempt to evolving, opportunistic, and grows out of local contingencies and needs. “allow” for the different spatial dynamics of flow and interchange. It is local in the most basic sense, in that it privileges communities and Technically a planning issue, zoning not only heavily regulates individuals that inhabit a very specific position, which relies on an individual structures; it designates a consistent set of relationships that ambiguous and yet strong social network and a keen awareness of the tie architecture into the city, and is precisely how networks of flow constraints in which business/building can operate (for example, a have come to dominate city space. To meet the demands of these street vegetable vendor might need to have knowledge of police patrol regulations is a burden on small architecture firms; frequently, large patterns, migrant worker schedules, street-sweeping schedules, rush- developing companies make a template that meets the conditions of hour traffic peaks, harvest timetables, warehouse/exchange facilities, a particular zone, that they then reproduce in other instances of that secure versus unsafe places to do business, not to mention the people zone, saving time and cost in designing individualized solutions for who can be trusted to pay later). Spatially, informality implies both a each place. Themed predictability and homogeneity of the new city provisionality and a formal ambiguity that resembles the way that we spaces mirrors suburban big-box and strip mall typology, while co- could think about clothing. opting the signs of “liveliness” achieved by density and mixed use that are fundamentally in opposition to the concept of zoning. Architect Teddy Cruz has built his practice around the dismantling of restrictive 02/05 evaluation zoning through an arduous process of negotiation, one building at a Architecture can be strategically deployed on the urban scale to engage time, setting precedents: crossing conditions in ways that strengthen communities and physical resonance of urban space with the body. Using material thresholds as …the ultimate site of intervention is planning regulation itself, and points of departure, this thesis will show that the edge is incremental. the contamination of zoning in the form of alternative densities It will explore ways that architecture can strategically engage margins and uses, informal politics and economies, and in a search for new as spaces of crossing, materially renegotiating thresholds between the organizational strategies across the untapped resources found within corporeal and the urban scale to strengthen and connect collective diverse jurisdictions, communities, and institutions. It is in fact the space with the flows of the city. It posits that material transformation political and cultural dimension of housing and density as a tool for of these edge conditions in San Diego ultimately constitutes a radical social integration in the city that has informed my own proposals for recombination of real and imagined city space. an urbanism of transgression that infiltrates itself beyond the property line, a migrant, micro-urbanism that can alter the rigidity of the The project’s success will depend on the extent to which interventions 11 discriminatory public policies of the American city. at the detailed level of the urban seams produce effective changes in Casa Familiar, located in the Barrio Logan neighborhood south subjects’ “readings” of the space at the psychogeographic level: if the of downtown San Diego, is an example. The client, a non-profit architecture both avails itself of the existing infrastructure and creates organization that negotiates between the state and the monolingual body-scale connections to that infrastructure, it will have succeeded Hispanic population, is working with Cruz on a pilot project that on the urbanistic level. If it responds to the need for human services would combine health care, small informal business opportunities, in the area - if marginalized populations and individuals can use space community childcare, a public plaza, and residences. While in some flexibly and provisionally, using urban and interpersonal networks to ways this project mirrors the one-developer-one-city mentality, the connect rather than to isolate. The project will have succeeded if it simultaneous implementation of the various, unique and small-scale provides opportunities to “produce social space” again in urban San programmatic aspects ensures that the services become immediately Diego. relevant in relation to one another as a true community center. Cruz’ ideas about subversive planning tactics, mixed use, strategic engagement of transportation nodes, and intrinsically provisional and informal architecture have influenced a good deal of this thesis.12

11 Teddy Cruz, “Border Postcards Chronicles from the Edge,” James Stirling Memorial Lectures on the City (Canadian Center for Architecture: 2005). 12 During my internship at Estudio Teddy Cruz in 2006-2007, I worked on several projects that implemented these principles, most notably the Hudson development project in the town of Hudson, New York (unfinished as of this date). 22 23 Landscape

03/01 location Though geographically contained by the mountains, the sea and the international border with Mexico, the view of the frontier as “open” was in fact prefigured by a colonialist history that used territorial expansion as the basis for ephemeral operations of conquest – spiritual, political, and ultimately economic. The historic colonial subject/object dichotomy of the frontier manifests spatially at the international border as a pressurized inside/outside relationship. Postcolonial analysis reveals this seeming polarity as simplistic: San Diego not only relies on the otherness of Mexico, its success lies in the ability to defineand redefine the perimeter of that difference. The categorization and division of natural or “real” space is a fundamental human act, mirroring our awareness of abstract mental reality that constitutes an inner space moving within and through natural space; We are confronted by an indefinite multitude of spaces, each one piled upon, or perhaps contained within, the next: geographic, economic, demographic, sociological, ecological, political, commercial, national, continental, global… the very multiplicity of these descriptions and sectionings makes them suspect. The fact is that all these efforts exemplify a very strong – perhaps a dominant – tendency within present-day society and its mode of production. Under this mode of production, intellectual labor, like material labor, is subject to endless division.1 Henri Lefebvre describes human spatial understanding in terms of production – “the production of space” – and social practice. The mental/emotional conceptualization of space that does not naturally exist, is created through material manipulation; in late capitalism, architectural and urban space is interpreted by many theorists – including Lefebvre, Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, Ed Soja and

1 Lefebvre, The Production of Space, 8. 24 25 Teddy Cruz – in terms of economic production. Terrain is leveraged transformative potential; paradoxically, even as it manifests the greatest for agriculture, military training and strategic security, tourism and extent of human organization and control, it inevitably produces real estate. At the same time, terrain is collapsed through global, margins of heterogeneity and ambiguity that resist categorization. hypermobile networks of communication, travel and capital. This neutralization of space requires our own physical movements be restricted to the frictionless realm of car/plane travel and telematics, 03/02 alternative place names obscuring the connection between contested territory and contested To begin to understand the nature of development in San Diego, one “legal/illegal” bodies. need only turn to Google Earth, for both a tool and an indicator. At a certain scale near the international border with Mexico, California’s Currently, urban San Diego “revitalization” projects, with their measured grids and cul-de-sacs pull northward away from the border encroaching and organizing tendencies, demonstrate the oppositional and expose raw tidelands and hills, while jumbled Mexican barrios dialectic of striated towards smooth space as defined by Gilles Deleuze encrust the land, crowding right up against that line. In Google Earth, and Felix Guattari. However, Deleuze and Guattari’s ultimate with the “options” turned off, even as one sees the palimpsest of human characterization of the relationship between smooth and striated development and pressure on the land, the continuous flows of the space is not one of dialectic opposites, but of interdependence; topography dominate across the border demarcation. As one adds roads, symbiosis and a cyclical nature obviates value judgments and permits borders, business content and the promising-sounding “alternative instead a useful model of growth and change, which can empower place names,” human use of the land ceases to seem provisional; it is the fundamentally “undeveloped” smooth space of the city. Deleuze brought back to the level of hard data. In Google Earth, one is able to and Guattari’s definition of striated and smooth space has its basis the zoom in and out, add markers, and manipulate the type and amount concept of a world continuously impacted by human actions, which of information displayed; the level of manipulation possible with this is yet not simply the opposition of man and nature. Striated space software gives the use unprecedented visual access to geography, while at its most basic level refers not only to hierarchical relationships but the use of satellite imagery and land use data lends it an authority the proliferation of that hierarchy through space. It is the physical heretofore impossible with more obviously diagrammatic maps such manifestation of the human will to control and colonize; striation as road maps or topological maps. Historic hand-drawn maps are operates through homogenization and quantification – conceptual clearly aesthetically intentional; they celebrate territorial domination tools that facilitate order and control. Although striated space with symbols of their own cultural superiority – Christian cherubs organizes and orders, smooth space is not simply defined as that and angels, architecture’s classical antiquity, society’s philosophers and which needs to be ordered - by virtue of the fact that smooth space is kings and military galleons adorned maps meant to sell colonization ambiguous, moving, directional, unquantifiable, and non-hierarchical, and exploration to European investors. Cartography is the first it defies definition and control. Rather than polar, the relationship tactic of domination; categorizing, dividing and simplifying, giving between smooth and striated space is revolutionary – in the extreme Spanish names to sometimes empty landscapes, the frontier produced case, each quality becomes its opposite, and the process of change the conditions of colonization. Google Earth’s satellite technology, turns back on itself; “…the city is the force of striation that reimparts originally developed for military purposes, is meant for surveillance. smooth space, puts it back into operation everywhere, on earth and in Today, the use of satellite photography smoothly zooming in and out the other elements, outside but also inside itself”2. The city has vast removes this obvious level of interpretation, making the manipulation of the image all the more opaque – terrain as spectacle; The fetishistic appearance of pure objectivity in spectacular relations 2 Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari. A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987), 472. conceals their true character as relations between people and between 26 27 classes; a second Nature, with its own inescapable laws, seems to increments, is a region, a shifting territory continuously re-negotiated dominate our environment. But the spectacle is not the inevitable by squatter settlements, underground smuggling tunnels, informal consequence of some supposedly natural technological development. “minuteman” militias, border patrols and anonymously maintained On the contrary, the society of the spectacle is a form that chooses water stations for desert-crossing immigrants. its own technological content…If the social needs of the age in which such technologies are developed can be met only through their mediation, if the administration of this society and all contact between people has become totally dependent on these means of instantaneous communication, it is because this “communication” is essentially unilateral.3 The illusion of realistic representation lends legitimacy to the non- negotiable identity of place names, borders, and built conditions, that 03/03 the borderlands and the non- actually change on a daily basis. The total dislocation of the vertical satellite view from the horizontal view of a walking person requires integrating gap the subject to maintain a sort of suspension of disbelief to use the Architect and writer Teddy Cruz states that “… the Pentagon has re- software. The seamlessness of the satellite image defies the limits of conceptualized the perennial division of the world into northern and physical reality. Google Earth’s satellite imagery revitalizes the questions southern hemispheres, first and third worlds, what the Pentagon now posed by Walter Benjamin about authenticity, representation, and calls the ‘functioning core’ and the ‘non-integrating gap,’ respectively.”5 reproduction; “Even the most perfect reproduction of art is lacking Though the tendency towards sprawl in Southern California has in one element: its presence in time and space, its unique existence at been identified as evidence that there has not been enough control the place where it happens to be.”4 Maps may no longer considered exerted over development strategies, this physical dispersion belies the aesthetic, decorated objects that they once were, but the level of intense concentration of power at work in San Diego’s development interpretation and signification necessary to make them useful and decisions. In the ultimate geographical and political edge condition legible to us requires intentional representation. The cartoonish yellow of San Diego, urban development strategies mirror the tactics of the line that appears with the map “options” on is the representationally international border: they modulate the porosity of tactical thresholds opaque “border.” Cadastral information neutralizes and simplifies that maintain the inside/outside pressure difference there. the reverberations of this line on both sides. The dense barrios in Saskia Sassen points out that the seeming placelessness of global northernmost Mexico are informal squatter camps unplanned and networks, like the growth paradigm of capitalism itself, belies their unregulated by the government, lacking in basic services like sewers physical existence and reliance on specific situational dynamics and and running water. A similar lawless ambiguity extends into the ecological resources; “…many of the resources necessary for global amorphous swamps and footpath-crisscrossed chaparral on the US economic activities are not hypermobile and are, indeed, deeply side. The “border,” rather than a limit reached by increasingly minute embedded in place…we need to distinguish between the capacity for global transmission/communication and the material conditions that make this possible.”6 Linking global networks to the fact of 3 Guy Debord, Society of the Spectacle, trans. Ken Knabb (London: Rebel Press, date unknown), 13. 4 Walter Benjamin, “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduc- 5 Teddy Cruz, “Border Postcards: Chronicles from the Edge” (Van Alen In- tion” In The Continental Aesthetics Reader, ed. Clive Cazeaux (London; New stitute: 2005), 1. York: Routledge, 2000), 677. 6 Saskia Sassen, “The City: Strategic site/new frontier,” Quaderns d’Arquitectura 28 29 their construction and use at the local level permits communities to across by last century’s train tracks, even the uneven spaces between critically question and engage them. Read this way, Washington Street the mixed-use jumble of buildings up the hill on India street. These becomes the axis connecting local resources, which is mostly crossed voids within the supposedly dense fabric of the city suggest spaces of and divided by global flows (I-5, Pacific Highway, the railway tracks, exception – Ignasi de Solá-Morales’ concept of terrain vague.7 Solá- airline traffic) without effectively tapping into them. Recapturing Morales investigates photography as a means of seeing the city and the geography of globalization means either harnessing the points of understanding its transformation, the development of the phrase terrain crossing for the community’s benefit or strengthening the condition vague and its application. Using the photographic lens/photograph of crossing to re-connect local uses. text and the linguistic lens/written text as mediums between terrain vague and himself, Solá-Morales achieved what Baudrillard predicted in “Simulacra and Simulations;” he uses the signs to recognize the 03/04 voids substance. This inversion of “simulacra” allows terrain vague to be With its position at the edge of urban San Diego, the Washington read as the representation of smooth space. “Simulacra” in this case Street corridor once was a critical connection point between the does not connote superficiality and deception; it is used as a means industrial use along the edge of the airport and the downtown. of obliquely understanding the pregnancy of margins that would be Followed east to west, Washington street morphs from a single-family defined as “empty” if considered literally. residential zone to a post-industrial patchwork of small businesses, hotels, and the few industries that are holding on. This ambiguous Solá-Morales posits that urban voids speak of urban inhabitants’ classification is the result of curious deletions and omissions of city memories of gap-less pasts. He indicates the tension of the borderlands: planning that signal “unaccountable” nomadic space of the desert-scale simultaneous insecurity and expectancy regarding the emptinesses open lots, the junkyards, the skateboard park, the swaths of asphalt cut of the fabric of the city, and, inevitably, people’s “strangeness to themselves.” Solá-Morales advocates acceptance of undefined voids; striated space considers only questions of utility, but nomadic space should and must exist – not as an emptiness to be filled, but as a physical i Urbanisme Fronteras/Borders, no. 229 (2001), 12. manifestation of the psychical abandonments and expectancies of the city. This requires of architecture a particularly ecological perspective which does not automatically assume that land exists only for human use; this acceptance in fact re-connects social space to a natural space that reinforces physical reality and contrasts human intentionality and manipulation; How can architecture act in the terrain vague without becoming an aggressive instrument of power and abstract reason?...by

7 Sola-Morales lingers for some time on the definition of this term, specifi- cally as it is translated from French. Sola-Morales indicates that “terrain” has a more urban sense in French than the wild “terrain” we might think of in the United States, and yet because of the appellation “vague,” which can mean vacant, but also “free,” the phrase has to do with land that lies in an “expect- ant state.” Ignasi de Sola-Morales, “Terrain Vague” in Quaderns d’arquitectura i Urbanisme. 217 (1998): 15. 30 31 city – they instead inhabit it in such a way as to obviate the question of ownership. If to own is to use, they own urban paved surfaces. Skateboarders are banned from so many public spaces because they are not seen as producing or adding anything to the urban environment, and they do not “repay” their use of public space in any way.

The site beneath the Pacific Highway overpass was chosen for proximity to public transportation and the skate shop. But it was the vacancy of the land that permitted the Park to exist; it has no “value” from Southern California standards, is located under the freeway overpass and thus was already “occupied” by one owner, and is also protected from scrutiny by its relative isolation and the shelter of the highway. In this instance, the corridor of the freeway, the definition of striated space, has produced the aesthetically empty terrain vague that provides nomads and marginalized users a free space to envision their own use of the space. Without architects or planners to intervene, native bricoleurs10 can use the space and resources at hand to reappropriate space; native and informal use of the land constitutes a detournemont11 of global networks to local purposes.

03/05 figure/ground The “networks of flow”12 collapse distance with smooth trajectories by minimizing or eliminating the negotiation of intersections and cutting corridors through all types of local conditions, a legacy of automobile industry’s investment in the planning of Southern California. The conditions of suburban sprawl and architectural “openness” (material and temporal) pursued as part of the modernist interpretation of the relatively open Californian frontier represented a new absence in terms of traditional methods of representing architectural and listening attentively to the flows, the energies, the rhythms which collective space. In the absence of monolithic wall construction, the passing of time and the loss of limits have established…Only poché was no longer synonymous with the perimeter of the building, an architecture of dualism, of the difference of discontinuity installed and without urban density, figure-ground urban schemes no longer within the continuity of time can stand up to the anguished conveyed the three-dimensionality of collective space. At the same 8 aggression of technological reason, of telematic universalism… time, this renegotiation of “ground” began to dissolve collective space The unraveling of city zones into terrain vague is especially evident in by intensifying the polarity between flattened corridors of speed and the case of the Washington Skateboard Park, which developed as a islands of built space that plugged into these flows. The “negative result of programmatic proximities “reinstating smooth space on the space” of the ground as understood volumetrically in plans of dense basis of the striated”9 – in this case, the convergence of a bus route, cities or towns was dematerialized by the open frontier and the an empty lot under a freeway surrounded by other empty lots, and a nearby skateboard shop where several of them worked and many 10 Claude Levi-Strauss, “The Savage Mind (Exerpt)” In Theory of the Novel more hung out. In San Diego, skaters embody the tension between :A Historical Approach, ed. Michael McKeon (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins the city of capital and the city of the nomad. In my experience, University Press, 2000), 1. Levi-Strauss’ term indicates a person who works with their hands, yet not in the well-appointed method or specialized skill of skaters are predominantly white (although this is changing), and a craftsman, but as someone who builds any category of things and creates us- often come from families that are comfortable if not privileged, yet ing materials that ‘happen to be at hand’. It is the “heterogeneous repertoire they do not use their position or race to reduce friction with the which, even if extensive, is nevertheless limited” that gives rise to informal, unpredictable and unconventional interventions. 11 Detournemont is a Situationist tactic (roughly similar to “detour” as a verb) in which an object would be used for something other than its original pur- 8 Ibid, 20. pose in such a way as to clarify and draw attention to its true nature. 9 Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari. A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and 12 Network of flows refers to the infrastructure of exchange; of location, Schizophrenia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987), 482. goods, data, capital and communication) 32 33 prioritization of linear trajectories of speed; architecture responded by opening to the plane of the landscape while closing into itself as a series of singular islands in the stream. Today, architects consider nature, networks of flow and architecture to all be part of a continuous narrative landscape that can be designed simultaneously at the urban and regional scale13. This is not altogether a positive development, the compulsion to “fill in the blanks,” was precisely Ignasi de Solá-Morales’ reason for identifying the inevitability and necessity of terrain vague. Photographer Xavier Ribas observed the way Barcelona’s codified “public spaces” are incapable of containing or satisfying the many ways people actually want to use space; people use leftover, unprogrammed margins and voids in a totally spontaneous way, …it is in the marginal spaces where the boundaries of the urbanized are found that we experience most intensely the absence of order and of the corresponding social laws. The marginal spaces, like Watteau’s island of Cythera, are superfluous spots, on the limits of the strictly necessary…the interest in these spaces is due above all to the awareness that the periphery is a space of freedom.14 Washington Street shows a typical response to leftover pieces of land; the sloping embankments supporting raised freeways are covered in iceplant (that particular inhabitant of banks and oddly-shaped scraps of land) and odd lots become parking lots. “Landscaping” here both prevents other uses of these lots and justifies their emptiness of actual use. However, “landscape urbanism” relates to “infrastructural urbanism” as a tactic concerned with the capacity of flows of networks and of geography to connect the built environment to amenities and to the land. From this point of view, mitigating discontinuities, ruptures, and missed connection opportunities become strategies for correcting isolation and scale collisions. The connection of urban space to networks and geography comes about at a time when ecological analysis has led to an awareness of the damage done by conceiving of human labor and the built environment as separate from the natural world. The causal connections of natural systems are beginning to be used as models for understanding social systems, and for re-imagining architecture and flows of resources that reflect local, ecological realities and connect communities.

03/06 bodies of water, bodies of knowledge Deleuze and Guattari characterize the sea as “smooth space par excellence.”15 In San Diego, the military use the sea similarly to how

13 Kenneth Frampton, Modern Architecture :A Critical History, 4th ed. (Lon- don; New York: Thames & Hudson, 2007), 347. 14 Xavier Ribas, “Perfect Distraction/Sanctuary/Rooms,” Quaderns d’Arquitectura i Urbanisme 238 (2003), 9. 15 Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari. A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and 34 35 envisioned channels and spontaneous upwellings uncontrolled by the “capitalist land mass,” and the experience of the city with this open and emotional immediacy counteracted the spoon-fed images of the spectacle. The drift gave over intentional movement to whatever pull the city exerted on the body, breaking down the separation between the two by literally moving beyond obvious physical distinction of figure on ground. ‘Human beings’ do not stand before, or amidst, social space; they do not relate to the space of society as they might to a picture, a show, or a mirror. They know that they have a space and that they

are in the space.18 The body cannot be reduced to a figure/ground relationship, with its frontal and finite duality; in drawing attention to the possession of personal space and existence in that space, Lefebvre emphasizes the body as fundamentally tied to the person as a subject. In this way, he indicates that the concept of self, of belonging, and of existence develop through experience of the body in physical space. By implication, social space requires the presence of other bodies as well; collective space is necessary, in some sense, for the development of human society.

To Guy Debord, the fundamental characteristic of life in the society they use the border – simultaneously as a boundary and a medium of the spectacle is haptic separation achieved through prioritization of operation and a justification for presence and action. Like the of the non-touched visual, “Sine the spectacle’s job is to use various terrestrial frontier before the border fence, the sea was at one point specialized mediations in order to show us a world that can no longer an indivisible surfacee, which the military then began to carve into be directly grasped, it naturally elevates the sense of sight to the trajectories between points in political and maritime maps. The sea special pre-eminence once occupied by touch: the most abstract and has been integral to San Diego’s development, and ultimately, to easily deceived sense is the most readily adaptable to the generalized 19 its economic success. When numerous attempts to build a railroad abstraction of present-day society.” Visual “access” to terrain linking the city to the desert rail lines east of the coastal mountains through the internet, the windows of cars and airplanes and the successively failed through the 18th and early 19th centuries, San news replaces physical experience of it. The increasing breadth of Diego congressman William Kettner finally convinced the Navy visually accessible phenomena parallels the sense of increasing access to establish a base in the harbor, further reinforcing its geography to imagined destinations and futures, but it tends also to obscure the with an “ideological cul-de-sac” tendency16. The military presence fact that space is still experienced physically in every other way in a in San Diego is reflected by the city’s legendary political/economic scale proportional to our senses, which operate at various registers to conservatism, even as it is socially liberal. The sea, historically, was San give space “depth;” while sight operates at distance, hearing and smell Diego’s most important medium of transportation. It was by nature measure middle-distance phenomena, while touch and taste function extensive rather than the intensive roads carved out in Eastern cities, at the immediate borderland of the skin. As mountains, canyons and the long, curving trajectories of ships through the water. and oceans are flattened to the screen, physical sensory deprivation occurs as sense is flattened to the visual. For this reason, Situationists The Situationists’ “drift” was a nautical metaphor for the movement developed the derive, wandering on foot through urban space, as a of the derive; “the city imagined as a psychogeographic sea, pushing technique to re-connect sight with actual experience. Situationists and pulling the sensitive soul along its eddies and currents.”17 Drift sought to separate the form of the city from its function as a body that facilitates commerce that sustains human life and instead see it as the

Schizophrenia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987), 474. The Situationist City (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1999), 88. 16 Mike Davis, Under the Perfect Sun: The San Diego Tourists Never See (New 18 Lefebvre, The Production of Space, 294 York: New Press, 2005), 29. 19 Guy Debord, The Society of the Spectacle [Société du spectacle.English], 17 Simon Sadler, “Itinerary for a New Urbanism; Re-Thinking the City” In trans. Ken Knabb (London: Rebel Press, 1994), 11. 36 37 Pavement

04/01 flow of traffic The sea, historically, was San Diego’s most important medium of transportation. It was by nature extensive – in contrast to the intensive roads carved out in Eastern cities. The long, curving trajectories of ships through the water are similar to those of today’s superhighways – speed and directness of the route were the principles on which the freeways were also built. Transportation organizes the city, permits access, and on the ground, it effectively reproduces the border in multiple, forming semi-porous walls across the city. While zoning represents an attempt at bordering and striation in the city, the roads and highways which cut the space as effectively as tori, (large wooden-frame gates used by the Japanese to signify passage) separating the city in lines of pure movement and direction. Speed itself – the synthesis between striated infrastructure and smooth trajectory - has come to represent new ways of conceptualizing architecture; speaking of the Bye House by John Hejduk, Michael Bell and Sze Tsung Leong write, “Architecture is here sped up beyond its commonly purified domain to create subjective, spatial, and programmatic effects within the multivalent velocities and milieus of the contemporary city.”1 The acceptance of transportation infrastructure as the dominant force within the city, and the effect that configuration continues to have, is a positive by-product of recognizing the symbiosis of smooth and striated space represented there.

In architecture, this is more complicated – transportation tends to reinforce stringent zoning codes, vestiges of the region’s freeway-dependent past, in which residential and commercial zones were separated to insulate the privileged from the poor in the industrial the city.2 San Diego is physically and operationally gridded, and is the regional locus of political power and control, however the city has never been a nerve center in the way Eastern

1 Michael Bell and Sze Tsung Leong. “347 Years: Slow Space” Slow Space, ed. Mi- chael Bell and Sze Tsung Leong (New York: The Monacelli Press, 1998): 22. 38 2 Bradly C. Grogan, “Betting on Change,” Urban Land 59 (2000): 77. 39 through the city becomes blocked anywhere, the collective body suffers a crisis of circulation like that an individual body suffers during a stroke when an artery becomes blocked. 3 The “health” of the city in this respect was a matter of political expedience; in dense French or Italian cities, inhabitants could mob the narrow streets, blocking and barricading them against militias. In Baron von Haussmann’s restructuring of Paris, “…traffic flow… created a wall of moving vehicles, behind which the poor districts lay in fragments…The street width permitted two army wagons to travel abreast, enabling the militia, if necessary, to fire into the communities lying beyond the sides of the street wall.”4 This strategy of prioritizing flow can be extended to dynamics of exchange in general. Sennet notes that Adam Smith, in Wealth of Nations, hypothesized that the free market of labor and goods required a similarly freely circulating 5 cities are because it’s development occurred along the avenues of the system; ownership was actually less profitable than exchange. As freeways instead of within the reach of feet. Like Los Angeles, San Sennet points out, motion requires both investments and, by extension, Diego’s city “center” could only be discerned by the bunching of tall people, to operate relatively freely of constraint and allegiance. It buildings, but until recently the street level was the haunt of the city’s precludes lasting connections to an environment or a stake in the dispossessed. The city continues to create its own smooth space at the long-term wellbeing of a place, and designates connection, density, very base of the grid. and proximity of human bodies and uses as threats to political order and control. Considering the duration and extent of connection as a variable of 04/02 bloodletting speed, infrastructure like fiberoptics and flightpaths assume the form California from the 1930’s and into the postwar period was a frontier of uninterrupted corridors, while roads and railways must adapt to to be conquered with the industrial progress, and something of a various levels of intersection to be negotiated with proportional similar momentum and aggression, that contributed to the wartime speed; “[lines of flight] produce phenomena of relative slowness and effort. Even with traces of Chicano and Hispanic culture intact, it viscosity, or, on the contrary, of acceleration and rupture. All this, and 6 was relatively free of the weight of historic European architecture measurable speeds, constitutes an assemblage.” Pedestrian movement and urban morphology. The arrival of the International Style is both the slowest and the most “connected;” physical access to in San Diego signaled the postwar transformation of that edge interpersonal exchange, space and services benefits from a high from strictly a military/immigration port to a cultural port. San level of crossing and interchange. Seen another way, this is freedom Diego was developed thereafter as a place of dispersion, flow, and of choice, which operates in dissimilar ways at each level of flow. exchange of culture, fashion, politics, capital, and industrial output. Foucault identifies the nature of this negotiation in built space; In architecture, the International Style’s free plan prioritized I do not think that there is anything that is functionally – by its dematerialization of boundaries for open freedom of movement, a very nature – absolutely liberating. Liberty is a practice. So there deliberate reinforcement of regional planning that glorified highways may, in fact, always be a certain number of projects whose aim is to speed and technology. The concept of “flow” as beneficial is not a modify some constraints, to loosen, or even to break them, but none neutral paradigm, it emerged logically from post-war awareness of of these projects can, simply by its nature, assure that people will the importance of communication and the dismantling of political have liberty automatically…The liberty of men is never assured by boundaries that had led to the war. The flow/stasis dichotomy has the institutions and laws that we intend to guarantee them.7 (Italics long been a spatial paradigm for the negotiation between entrenched local interest and larger territorial/international access that we see today with globalization. As Richard Sennet describes, Napoleon’s 3 Richard Sennett, Flesh and Stone :The Body and the City in Western Civiliza- tion, 1st ed. (New York: W.W. Norton, 1994), 264. street-widening on the one hand corresponded with William Harvey’s 4 Ibid, 330. medical discoveries about human blood circulation on the other; 5 Ibid, 256. 6 Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, “Introduction: Rhizome” In A Thousand Instead of planning streets for the sake of ceremonies of movement Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, trans. Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: Uni- versity of Minnesota Press, 2005), 4. toward an object, as did the Baroque planner, the Enlightenment 7 Michel Foucault, “Space, Knowledge and Power (Interview Conducted planner made motion an end in itself…they thought that if motion with Paul Rabinow)” In Rethinking Architecture: A Reader in Cultural Theory, ed. Neil Leach, 1st ed. (London: Routledge, 1997), 433. 40 41 lane roads, the iceplant freeway embankment, and the bleak freeway underpass are appropriately scaled to serve industries that operate via high-speed, uninterrupted trajectories for large-scale production and exchange on the global and military market.

Urbanistically, these corridors constitute thresholds that provide access for industry and high-speed travel, but are barriers at the scale of the body; “…the way one gains access to the city is no longer through a gate, an arch of triumph, but rather through an electronic audiencing system whose users are not so much inhabitants or privileged residents as they are interlocutors in permanent transit.”8 Paul Virilio’s view that telematics as the principal media of exchange and movement somehow diminishes privilege fails to address the fact that access to these systems in itself requires privilege. The way that privilege actually operates has more to do with the segregation that privileged access exacerbates.

his) The narrow sidewalk along parts of Washington Street disappears Liberty as a verb is also suggested by Deleuze and Guattari’s smooth altogether along these streets; there are no buildings, and no and striated space; it occurs as a destabilizing force that originates barrier negotiating between the body and the road other than long within the constraints of striated space itself, but it relies on these crosswalks. India Street, with two lanes going one direction and limits for points of reference. The usefulness of this theory is its another lane of parking, is relatively narrow; the sidewalk, wide and emphasis on the interdependence between fluidity and stasis, its well-populated by pedestrians; and the architecture has relatively small resistance to prioritizing or demonizing; “liberty” does not exist and vertical footprints, right up against the sidewalk. The architectural without constraint but in the prospect of negotiation. From the specific heterogeneity, the layered and dense uses, material verticality, and standpoint of Washington Street, application of this theory helps limit smaller scale all signal to cars to move slowly and for people cross oversimplified attacks on the networks of flow and zoning regulations. haphazardly between the sides of the street, ramble and pause on the In actuality, the extreme divisiveness of these barriers points to sidewalk, to consider their path up the various passageways, stairs and connection as a tactic of balancing instead of defeating; feminist small courtyards that are woven into this dense block. dualism resists oppositional stances against as functioning within the paradigm of polarity. On Washington Street, prioritization of traffic The effects of street width on communities are well studied; as a and rapid individual movement ultimately supplies the conditions for component of urban hierarchy, width is proportional to the need for its transformation. These corridors are varied transportation networks speed versus exchange, interaction and choice. Southern California’s that connect the area to downtown San Diego and, by dint of rigid prioritization of high-speed networks of flow precludes pedestrian zoning regulation, have left an open gap, an opportunity to establish use of the city, both in terms of reasonable traveling distance and a different development paradigm for the city. extreme scalar mismatch of the body and the freeway. This physically jarring sensation of being “out of place” when on foot constitutes an effective planning strategy to contain pedestrian access and travel. In 04/03 foreign bodies postwar America, suburbs were insulated from the city poor who did From the trolley and bus stops, a pedestrian must travel west on not own cars; collective space in these areas was limited to the six- Washington street across several five-lane roads and walk through a foot-wide sidewalk – literally the margin – between the city street dark, narrow, concrete freeway overpass to reach the mixed-use India and the private residence, a strip so small and exposed as to be easily Street district. The wide roads here signal a shift in scale between controlled by residents and the police. the industrial zone that lies between the two freeways, where the trolley and bus stops and a small outpost business district lie, and Even in reasonably dense areas, wide roads and freeways separate the residential neighborhood/India street neighborhood. The five- whole sections of the urban fabric from necessary services and amenities (many American cities follow this patter, Detroit and

8 Paul Virilio, “The Overexposed City” In Architecture Theory since 1968, ed. K. Michael Hayes (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1984), 543. 42 43 Cincinnati are good examples). The metaphor of fabric is material- that isolation. specific; Deleuze and Guattari point out that the matted fibers of felt relate to informal interconnectedness (smooth space) achieved through pressure, whereas rugs and knits require specific rhythms 04/04 slow scale of warp and weft (striated). In the first case, integrity of the fabric The section of Washington Street that lies between the freeways was requires pressure and density, in the second, a tear results when too at one time a critical cross-axis connecting industries (many of which many consecutive threads are ruptured or when too much pressure populated the swath of land between I-5 and Pacific Highway) with is applied to single threads rather than spreading evenly throughout downtown San Diego Naval Base, Lindberg Field, and San Diego the fabric. Neither instance requires hierarchy, both rely on serial and harbor. However, a study of the current building occupants reveals local conditions of crossing and intertwining; a quality Deleuze and that it has undergone a post-industrial shift similar to many North Guattari relate to the rhizome, as opposed to trees/roots, which are American cities; where the buildings have not been torn down, they hierarchical andpropagate themselves by reproducing that hierarchy; have been replaced with strip clubs, heavy machinery rentals, auto repair shops, and storage businesses. The large, anonymous-looking …the rhizome connects any point to any other point, and its traits structures are cinderblock or concrete, metal clad or stuccoed, with are not necessarily linked to traits of the same nature; it brings small signs adorning the facades. They are set back from the street by into play very different regimes of signs, and even nonsign states. hedges, slivers of grass between curbs, chainlink fences and parking The rhizome is reducible neither to the One nor the multiple…It lots. These site planning and cladding choices that render them opaque has neither beginning nor end, but always a middle (milieu) from and unreadable from the casual observer; one has to “have business” which it grows and which it overspills.9 there, and a type that does not rely on local visibility or access. 11 If cities traditionally “grew” in an arborescent pattern; from the center outwards, hierarchically, suburbs are not necessarily rhizomatic. The In this context, the setback, along with low density, is revealed as an question is whether they actually “connect” at all, even at the local insulating tactic: the buildings’ remove from the street is indicative of level. Glue triumphs over the joint and the integrity of materials; their disconnectedness from the local community. This exists in stark “Like everything else in the Generic City, its architecture is the contrast to the connoisseurship of the “well-trained eye,” conditioned resistant made malleable, an epidemic of yielding no longer through by extensive reliance on the spectacle to visually identify a wide range the application of principle but through the systematic application of of signs, and representing upmarket consumers that cities attempt to the unprincipled.”10 Rem Koolhaas, like Deleuze, has moved beyond attract, employing flashy architecture to compete with each other assigning values to spatial organization, extending an even-handed in what _____ calls the “spectacle stakes.”12 California writer Mike tone to his discussion of the ex-urban and suburban Generic City. Davis identifies this as a “strip-mall mentality,” evidence of suburban In contrast to many architects and urbanists, Koolhaas makes no chainstore principles imported to the city as urban spaces are effort to criticize or offer remedies to the Generic City, but instead redeveloped.13 This also has much to do with In suburban areas, the embraces it as an inevitable and increasingly dominant model of “the setback signaled the removal of the home from public contact. This good life.” The article, part of S,M,L,XL, which in itself is large and privacy was rendered completed by the shift of habitable outdoor not always dense, asks readers to confront their assumptions about space to the back yard, and of the garage from the side to the front identity, progress, architecture, and the city. Koolhaas observes that elevation of most homes. While a matter of convenience, San Diego the Generic City simply responds to “what works” and abandons architecture firm Studio E notes that it also eliminates the need to what doesn’t; considerations of power imbalances aside, the Generic ever set foot on public space or in view of the community, and have City quickly dispenses with whatever has outlived its use. In many made the re-location of the garage and yards in relation to the street instances Koolhaas is neutral to the point of capitulation; his work is a defense of suburbs and, by extension, of the forces that created and 11 I spent an hour looking for a way to get this photo of a 20-lane freeway continue to support them. “Whatever grows in place” of “blacktop interchange near the Washington Street site; I could drive by, but the boule- idealism” is not a question of entropy, but is capitalist production in vards had no street parking or sidewalks and the flanking business parks and an extreme form; to pretend that sprawl is an admission of some sort residences had gated entrances. Ultimately, I convinced a security guard to let me park temporarily, then climbed over a glass noise barrier to a vantage point. of natural state of social space is to gloss over the very real impact of The photo was intended to show the scale of flow networks in the area; my experience as a “foreign body” there simply reinforced the extent to which the human body is codified, excluded and contained by infrastructure and complicit architecture. 9 Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, “Introduction: Rhizome” In A Thousand 12 John Urry, “The Power of Spectacle” In Visionary Power: Producing the Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, trans. Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: Uni- Contemporary City, eds. Christine de Baan, Joachim Declerck and Veronique versity of Minnesota Press, 2005), 21. Patteeuw (Rotterdam: Nai Publishers, 2007), 135. 10 Rem Koolhaas, “The Generic City” In S, M, L, XL (New York: The 13 Cathy Lang Ho and Mike Davis [1946-], “Scared? Mike Davis Thinks You Monacelli Press, 1996), 1261. should be [Interview],” Architecture 88, no. 1, pp. 41-43 (Jan, 1999), 43. 44 45 a central focus of their residential design practice.

As Washington Street crosses between I-5 and Pacific Highway, the Mission Brewery, several architecture and design offices, a yoga studio and a gym cluster around the trolley stop. These few businesses occupy older brick buildings that come right in line with wide sidewalks, and have archways leading the way to quieter courtyards off the main thoroughfare. The large signs, frequency and human scale of the windows and glass doors, the ungated, brick-paved passageways, and the lack of hedges or parking lots indicate that these buildings are in some way dependent on local, “slow” traffic and business. Currently, the area’s industrial zoning designation would not permit new buildings with these characteristics; combined with the decline of industry, the city’s planning actively deters revitalization of empty space. Stringent Lining zoning in San Diego belongs to other two-dimensional categories of reading space; its utter failure to accommodate vertically mixed use or allow for change such as post-industrial decline is a result of planning principles that encourage facile separations of land use. The 05/01 curtain wall corridors of freeways, major roads and rail lines are physical extensions The splitting of interior from exterior is architecture’s basic, protective of zoning’s diagrammatic simplicity; the freeway “naturally” forms function; beyond physical protection, however, this enclosure marked the zoning boundary between the mixed-use/residential portion of the spatialization of organized social structure: Washington Street and its industrial zone. The use of wickerwork for setting apart one’s property, the use of In the city’s maps, this occurs literally as a thin black line further mats and carpets for floor coverings and protection against heat and defining the “white” (industrial) zone from the “red” (mixed-use) cold and for subdividing the spaces within a dwelling in most cases area; on the site, the freeway is not only not reducible to a line, its preceded by far the masonry wall… Hanging carpets remained the thickness expresses in both horizontal and vertical dimensions as it true walls, the visible boundaries of space. The often solid walls lifts itself above the city to allow passage beneath. It is significant behind them were necessary for reasons that had nothing to do with that the skateboarders chose this boundary to build the skatepark: the creation of space; they were needed for security, for supporting a their detournemont was staged precisely “in between” zones that, load, for their permanence, and so on.1 psychogeographically speaking, a barrier condition should be read Gottfried Semper’s view that architecture’s original role of enclosure by pedestrians. The presence of the skateboard park indicates a was achieved through textile relates it directly back to clothing. thickening of the line, literally a crack in the code of the city. Similarly, Colomina notes Loos’ conceptualization of the interior of the house as an extension of clothing (p. 92), not a skin. For Loos, architecture was an arm of “emergent metropolitan culture”, in which individual identity is constantly at stake, and fashion thus becomes a way of both staking out and masking identity. At the same time, both references to clothing point to the extreme intimacy of the interior; psychologically, physically, and socially, the interior interface is a membrane with texture with softness proportional to the level of vulnerability or sensitivity permitted in the space. The sensory deprivation experienced in mass-produced suburbia is rooted in the utter sensual homogeneity of its inner spaces; drywall, carpet, linoleum and tile are the total range of surfaces normally featured. Semper’s hypothesis that spatial separation and differentiation grew out of cloth and textile – out of a desire to identify, organize, and line

1 Gottfried Semper, The Four Elements of Architecture, trans. Harry Francis Mallgrave and Wolfgang Herrmann (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 102. 46 47 – prioritizes the inward-facing and immediate over the mediation of 05/03 containment external forces. From the dualistic standpoint of feminism, interior thresholds and delimitations are not simply obstacles to be destroyed, but re-purposed; 05/02 homestead “The tomb and I were separated by the high locked portal, and it was Where the cladding forms a perimeter of stillness and control against good. Desire and fear answered together was unhoped-for. I clutched 2 environmental and social pressures and flows, the interior’s stillness the bars.” Cixous’ comment (and much of her writing) illustrates relates more to its regulatory function as it reinforces coded social a side-step from the dialectics of inside/outside, access/denial; the behaviors. The outside/inside pressure difference extending from tomb, the bars, are part of a needed containment or delineation, just Western hierarchical object/subject epistemology was reflected in the as the facades of buildings define the edges of a public plaza. As coded façade communicating status and use, and a clear inner hierarchy such, feminist and postcolonial analysis can help deconstruct (literally) of space and use. This was challenged by Modernist architecture’s free architecture that reinforces hierarchical norms. plan, asymmetrical and unadorned façade, and structural lightness that carefully choreographed the separation from the site. Frank For example, Beatriz Colomina’s analysis of Adolf Loos’ residences Lloyd Wright’s conviction that the architect could exert total control shows how design renders interior and exterior hierarchies. In Loos’ (gesamptkustwerk) over the entire inside-outside transition, however, houses, Colomina argues, spaces are oriented so that attention is required the relative dispersal of collective inner spaces into the “outer always focused inward – windows are not for gazing out of but for space” of sprawl. In this way, the singularity of architectural objects illuminating; reinforcing human subjects as individuals in the frontier actually To say that ‘the exterior is always the interior’ means, among other entrenched the subject/object relationship in Southern California things, that the interior is not simply bounded territory defined architecture, coming full-circle with Rem Koolhaas’ own conviction by its opposition to the exterior… The window in the age of that in the architect actually has no control or oversight whatsoever. communication provides us with one more flat image. The window The frontier embodies the American entrepreneurial spirit, where is a screen… Of course, this screen undermines the wall…The fortunes are made in wild terrain, set against a protected homestead. organizing geometry of architecture slips from the perspectival cone of vision, from the humanist eye, to the camera angle.3 Today, gated communities and driving distances keeping danger at bay, and isolate the domestic (feminine) realm from the economic. The line between aesthetics and security is blurred into viewing as However, this containment is complicated by the rising number of surveillance; taking for given that the shell of the house fortifies it from women who must travel to jobs in addition to traditional female the outside, Loos is concerned with fortifying the inside, arranging roles. For example, bus routes have been built into wealthy suburbs the plan so that occupants can view multiple rooms from a seated purely to transport Mexican female domestics from other parts of the position of a main room. In this reading “comfort” has as much to city. As poorer residents are shunted to outer neighborhoods where do with control as it does with physical pleasure in the interior of the such services do not stretch as adequately, however, their jobs (mostly house; the conventional dialectic of inside/outside, secure/dangerous in the service industry) shift to the city. Shutting these residents and subject/object is complicated. As long as security has largely to out of the city they serve cannot be viewed as a purely economic do with social interaction, any socially shared space becomes a theater phenomenon; in a real sense, suburban, isolated, nuclear-family- where lines of sight allow acts of protection, evasion, admission, based housing fundamentally undermines the multi-generational and obfuscation, and inclusion play out. Control over the line of sight extensive networks of Mexican-American families. To the extent among occupants and guests is a central determinant of subjectivity; that residential architecture reflects cultural ideals, the segregation as both actors and spectators, the subject/object relationship becomes of dense families and communities into the suburbs – the realm convoluted. of domestics and gardeners – constitutes a spatialized statement of cultural domination in the city. Mixed income housing becomes one In contrast to visually heterogeneous urban space, suburbia’s “privacy” of the strongest tools available to allow for flexible combinations of is also what Bachelard characterizes as inner “homogeneous and space and to encourage strengthen social networks.

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