“Playing Heavy Metal”: a Comparative Study of the Role of the Tuba in the Orchestra, Brass Band and Wind Ensemble

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“Playing Heavy Metal”: A Comparative Study of the Role of the Tuba in the Orchestra, Brass Band and Wind Ensemble

Submitted by Alexander Rowan Taylor, BMus(Hons), AMusA

In fulfilment for the requirements of the degree of Master of Philosophy

School of Creative Arts, University of Newcastle December 2013

Statement of Originality

This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. I give consent to the final version of my thesis being made available worldwide when deposited in the University’s Digital Repository, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968

Signed:

Date:

Table of Contents

Abstract vi List of Tables vii List of Illustrations vii Acknowledgements ix Glossary x

Chapter One – Introduction: An Historical Context 1 1.1 An Historical Perspective of the Tuba’s Development in the Nineteenth Century 1

Chapter Two – Literature Review 7 2.1 History 8 2.1.1 History of the Tuba 8 2.1.2 History – Symphony Orchestra 9 2.1.3 History – Brass Band 9 2.1.4 History – Wind Ensemble 10 2.2 Orchestration and Instrumentation 11 2.2.1 Instrumentation in the Orchestra 11 2.2.2 Instrumentation in the Brass Band 13 2.2.3 Instrumentation in the Wind Ensemble 14 2.3 Ensemble Performance 15 2.3.1 Performance in the Orchestra 15 2.3.2 Performance in the Brass Band 19 2.3.3 Performance in the Wind Ensemble 20 2.4 Questions Arising from the Research 22

Chapter Three – Orchestral Repertoire 24 3.1 Introduction 24 3.2 Instrumentation and Orchestration 24

iii

3.2.1 The Usage of Different‐Pitched Instruments in the Ensemble 24 3.3 Performance Aspects 30 3.3.1 Tuning 30 3.3.2 Articulation 32 3.3.3 Mutes/con sordino 34 3.4 Performance Stamina 37 3.4.1 Technical Requirements 38 3.5 Genre/Styles 40 3.6 Compositional Techniques 40 3.7 Tutti Performance 43 3.8 Conclusion 43

Chapter Four – Brass Band and Wind Ensemble Repertoire 45 4.1 Introduction 45 4.2 Brass Band Repertoire 45 4.2.1 Orchestration 46 4.2.2 Technical Requirements 48 4.2.3 Compositional Devices 50 4.2.4 The Culture of the Brass Band Player 53 4.3 Wind Ensemble Repertoire 57 4.3.1 Orchestration 58 4.3.2 Technical Requirements 59 4.3.3 Compositional Devices 61 4.3.4 Competitions 63 4.4 Differences of Tuba Performance Between the Brass Band and Wind Ensemble 64

Chapter Five – Comparison of the Roles of the Tuba 66 5.1 Introduction 66 5.2 Instrumentation and Orchestration 67 5.3 The Role of the Tuba in Ensemble Performance 70 5.4 Performance Aspects of the Tuba in the Ensemble 72 5.4.1 Tuning 74 5.4.2 Articulation 76 iv

5.4.3 Mutes/con sordino 78 5.4.4 Performance Stamina 82 5.4.5 Genre of Repertoire/Styles 85 5.5 Compositional Techniques 88 5.5.1 Articulation 88 5.5.2 Chords (Performing in 5ths, 6ths etc.) 90 5.6 Tutti Performance 93 5.6.1 Individual Preparation for Performances 93 5.6.2 Sectional Rehearsals 95 5.7 Conclusion 98

Chapter Six – Preparation for Solo Performance: A Case Study 99 6.1 Philip Sparke, Tuba Concerto (2006) 99 6.2 First Movement “Lento” 100 6.3 Second Movement “Allegro” 103 6.4 Ensemble Preparation 104 6.5 Conclusion 105

Chapter Seven – Conclusion 107 7.1 The Different Roles the Tuba Player Fulfils in Performing as an Ensemble Member in the Orchestral, Brass Band and Wind Ensemble Contexts 107 7.2 How Each Ensemble Shows the Tuba in a Different Role 108 7.3 How Performing in One Ensemble’s Role Affects the Tuba Player’s Approach and Interpretation of their Role in Another’s, and How Understanding these Roles Contributes to the Expertise of Today’s Tuba Player 109

Bibliography 111 Appendix – Philip Sparke Tuba Concerto, Solo Part 118

Abstract

As an Australian tuba player, I draw on my experiences as a member of orchestra, brass band and wind ensemble in my country. Through my experiences in filling the required roles expected of the tuba player in each ensemble type, I noticed how the roles differed from each other, and that they impacted on my own approach to performing in ensembles. To that end, I detailed the differences between the roles and compared them to each other

This thesis comprises an exploration of this subject, based on study of tuba scoring and instrumentation through methods of orchestration as well as scores for each type of ensemble. From my reading of texts, theses and journal articles that covered tuba/brass playing within these ensemble types as well as performance in general, I noticed that there was not a great deal of literature highlighting the differences of the tuba’s role comparing one ensemble type to another. My research found that due to the tuba’s role in each ensemble type, it gives the tuba player a set of individual skills and abilities that can positively affect their performance in the other ensemble types, and these different skills can complement each other. As a result, the tuba player who performs in each ensemble type gleans skills that can be beneficial in other ensemble types. This is particularly useful for the aspiring professional tuba player, as they can use the skills they have learned to perform as a more flexible and sound musician.

List of Tables Table 3.1 List of Wagner works and the instrument (tuba) named in the part/score 29

List of Illustrations Chapter 1 Figure 1.1 Excerpt from Wagner Götterdämerung 3

Chapter 2 Figure 2.1 Excerpt from Holst Second Suite for Military Band, IV – ‘Dargason’ 21 Figure 2.2 Excerpt from Holst Second Suite for Military Band, IV – ‘Dargason’ 22 Figure 2.3 Excerpt from Holst Second Suite for Military Band, II – ‘Song Without Words “I’ll My Love”’ 22

Chapter 3 Figure 3.1 Excerpt from Tchaikovsky Symphony No. 6 ‘Pathetique’, movement 4 25 Figure 3.2 Excerpt from Mussorgsky (orch. Ravel) Pictures at an Exhibition, movements 2 through 4 27 Figure 3.3 Collection of various size/brand tuba mouthpieces 28 Figure 3.4 Example of natural intonation on a typical brass instrument 31 Figure 3.5 Excerpt from Berlioz Symphonie Fantastique, movement 5 33 Figure 3.6 Example of brass straight mutes 35 Figure 3.7 Excerpts from Bernstein Candide 36 vii

Figure 3.8 Excerpt from Strauss Don Quixote, Introduction 37 Figure 3.9 Excerpt from Tippett Symphony No 4 38 Figure 3.10 Excerpt from Tchaikovsky Symphony No. 6 ‘Pathetique’, movement 2 39 Figure 3.11 Excerpt from Mussorgsky Night on Bald Mountain 41 Figure 3.12 Excerpt from Sibelius Finlandia 41 Figure 3.13 Excerpt from Prokofiev Romeo and Juliet Suite no. 2 – Montagues and Capulets 41 Figure 3.14 Excerpt from Berlioz Roméo et Juliette, Recitative 42

Chapter 4 Figure 4.1 Excerpt from Downie St Magnus 47 Figure 4.2 Excerpt from Glinka (arr. Parkes) Overture – Russlan and Ludmilla 49 Figure 4.3 Excerpt from Sparke Between the Moon and Mexico 51 Figure 4.4 Excerpt from Sparke Dances and Alleluias 52 Figure 4.5 Excerpt from Wilby Dove Descending, Part 2 53 Figure 4.6 Excerpt from Barnes Third Symphony, movement 1 62 Figure 4.7 Excerpt from Barnes Third Symphony, movement 4 63

Chapter 5 Figure 5.1 Example of tuba mutes 79 Figure 5.2 Excerpt from Barnes Third Symphony, movement 2 81

viii

Acknowledgements

There are so many I would like to thank and acknowledge for their assistance in preparing this thesis.

I first have to thank and acknowledge my postgraduate supervisors Associate Professor Rosalind Halton and Dr. Ian Cook for their seemingly endless tolerance, insights, support, constructive criticism and persistence in continuously prodding me along to ensure I actually wrote this thesis. I cannot deny that without their help this thesis would be nowhere near the standard it is at.

I have to thank the University of Newcastle Wind Orchestra for my experiences with them for the last ten years. They also accompanied my performance of the Philip Sparke Tuba Concerto for my case study, with my good friend Daniel Murray conducting. I should also like to thank the staff of the University of Newcastle Library for ordering the sheet music and score, and the back‐of‐house staff of the Conservatorium for organising the recording of the performance.

Thanks go to Waratah Brass – Newcastle for access to their sheet music library and for giving me performance and contest opportunities for many years.

I would like to thank my tuba teacher, Brendon Lukin, for all his wisdom over the years and for suggesting I do my masters degree in the first place.

Finally I need to thank my parents Bill and Sighle for their indefatigable love and support in all my musical endeavours. They have been incredibly patient, driving me (and my cumbersome instruments) to performances and rehearsals, and putting up with my boisterous Wagnerian‐style practice at home. I would like to thank my sister Hannah also for her love and support.

Glossary

There are a number of terms used within this thesis that will require definition due to the confusing synonymous nature of words, titles and phrases used in music and these ensembles.

Tuba:

• The tuba can be referred to in a number of ways in ensembles. It is not uncommon to see parts written for ‘Bass‐tuba’, ‘Contrabass‐tuba’, ‘tuba’, ‘bombardon’. These terms refer to what is essentially the same instrument). • A typical example of the range of the tuba is the following:

Orchestra:

• Orchestra, Symphony orchestra, philharmonic orchestra are, unless specified, synonymous with a musical ensemble comprising strings, woodwind, brass and percussion sections.

Brass Band:

• Brass band is a musical ensemble consisting principally of brass instruments – cornets (one soprano in E‐flat, the rest in B‐flat), flugelhorn, tenor horns, baritones, euphoniums, trombones, basses (see below) and percussion. • By tradition, brass bands refer to the tuba as ‘bass’ (eg. ‘E‐flat bass’ instead of ‘E‐flat tuba’). In brass bands the word ‘bass’ is synonymous with ‘tuba’ and there are some performers/conductors who will refer to the instrument as ‘tuba’, however in scores and instrumentation it is called ‘bass.’ Brass band tuba parts are written in transposed treble clef based on the pitch of the instrument (i.e. E‐flat bass parts are in E‐flat transposed treble clef):

x Wind Ensemble:

• Wind ensemble, wind band, concert band, military band, [symphonic] wind orchestra are in this thesis synonymous for an ensemble consisting of woodwind, brass and percussion sections (with a double bass and occasionally cello section also scored). These terms have slightly different meanings ensemble‐wise (in general more to do with the number of players than the instrumentation) but are essentially the same ensemble: • Wind ensemble ‐ 1 player per part (with the exception of clarinet sections where the numbering is usually 2‐3 per part. Example: Eastman Wind Ensemble • Military band – usually a professional ensemble of the armed forces. Similar in number of members as a wind ensemble • Concert band/wind band – Generic term for the ensemble type • [Symphonic] wind orchestra ‐ Usually 80+ or 120+ players total in the ensemble. Commonly found in Europe e.g. in Spain. • In some cases, wind ensemble repertoire will refer to the tuba as ‘bass’ rather than ‘tuba’ in the score and on the parts, though this is practice is not very common, especially when there is a double bass scored which can also be referred to simply as ‘bass’ and cause confusion. This occurs more so in older works for the ensemble, and is rare to observe in works post 1945.

General:

• Single/double/triple tonguing: Articulation techniques. Single tonguing is when the player uses a constant “T” syllable to start the note, using the front part of the tongue; double tonguing is an alternation of “T” and “K” syllables to start the note, using the front and the back of the tongue to articulate the beginnings of notes and allowing the player to play notes at a faster rate; triple tonguing uses an alternation of “T‐K‐T” syllables. Double and triple tonguing are used when the performer has to play faster than mere single tonguing articulation will allow.

Definition of terms used in this thesis:

• “m” or “mm”: Measure refeerence in musical works. E.g. “Mozart, Symphony No 40, mm. 1‐12” • The following system of pitch notation is used in this thesis:

xi Chapter One

Introduction: An Historical Context

The tuba, having been originally conceived as an instrument for the orchestra, has a variety of different uses and interpretations of use in its repertoire for this ensemble.

Its use differs depending on the country the repertoire comes from and the type of ensemble: German orchestral music tends to focus more on the lower register than

French music. This is mainly due to the ways in which the instrument was received in the different countries.

1.1 An Historical Perspective of the Tuba’s Development in the Nineteenth Century

The tuba is the most recent addition to the modern symphony orchestra. Its development followed instruments of the early nineteenth century such as the valved‐ trumpet and valved‐horn after the prototype valve was invented c. 1815. Bevan gives examples of claims and counter‐claims to be the true inventor of the valve, and with his affirmation Heinrich Stölzel is the most probable. The early valves were small and fragile and were unable to be produced at the time to be accommodated in larger‐ bore instruments. The only brass instruments benefiting at this time from them were the trumpet and horn, as well as instruments such as Stölzel’s Tenorhorn, an early version of the modern baritone1.

1 Clifford Bevan, The Tuba Family (London: Faber and Faber Limited, 1978). pp.72‐73 1

Up until the invention of the tuba, the bass instrument of the brass section was usually either the ophicleide or the serpent. These instruments use tone‐pads and/or tone‐ holes to chromatically alter notes in the scale, and were not considered unsatisfactory for their contemporary orchestras (serpent being less popular than ophicleide because of the latter having a strong sonority and the ability to blend with the trombone section).2 However, inherent problems arose from usage of tone‐holes/pads when compared to valves. Bevan cites Berlioz’s opinions on the ophicleide:

‘… [Its] low tones are rough... but... under a mass of brass instruments, it works miracles. The highest tones are of a ferocious character... I believe it should rarely be used without the cover of other instruments.’3

Following the development of the rotary‐valve by Josef Riedl in 18324 as well as the

Berliner‐Pumpe (piston valve with a larger diameter than previous piston valves) by

Johan Moritz and Wilhelm Wieprecht in 1835, the “Bass Tuba” was invented By Moritz and Wieprecht.5 This instrument was akin in size and construction of its modern counterpart. Bevan continues, stating that within approximately 10 years the instrument had adopted a shape and appearance similar to the modern tuba.6

Since the tuba was invented in Germany it is not surprising that the instrument itself quickly rose in popularity there. By 1840 Wagner had discovered the tuba and began scoring it in his operas, first specifying it in Eine Faust‐Ouvertüre. Not long after

(c.1844), confusion arose as to what was intended for use by way of instrumentation and orchestration. The experimentation of instrument‐makers and composers using

2 Ibid. p. 64 3 Ibid. p. 62 4 Ibid. p. 75 5 Ibid. pp. 76, 84 6 Ibid. p. 133 2 the tuba compounded this confusion with Wagner himself, no less, contributing to it

(cf Chapter 3, section 3.2.1).

To add to this confusion Wagner also employed and developed what became known as the Wagner tuba. In essence, the name ‘Wagner tuba’ is a misnomer, for it is used as an extension of the horn family and is played by horn players and not tuba/euphonium players. Furthermore, Wagner Tuben are built for horn players, complete with left‐ handed valves.7 8

Figure 1.1 – Excerpt from prologue of Götterdämmerung – Scoring for Wagner Tuben and tuba

Please note: The main reason for the confusion over the terminology of these instruments is because in Wagner’s scores the Wagner tuben are labelled as just ‘tubas’ (or ‘tuben’) with the “normal” tuba labelled separately and scored on a separate stave.

Despite the uncertainties caused by Wagner’s specification of his orchestration, he is understandably lauded as one of the first composers to utilise the instrument in appropriate ways. His tuba parts in Ritt der Walküre, Die Meistersinger, and Lohengrin have the instrument play with dexterity and clarity, requiring the player to blend with the other orchestral sections as well as standing out as a soloist when necessary.

Excerpts from his tuba parts – especially the three mentioned above – are almost

7 Samuel Adler, The Study of Orchestration, 2 ed. (New York: W. W. Norton & Company Limited, 1989, 1982). pp. 319‐20 8 Donald Grantham Kent Kennan, The Technique of Orchestration, 4 ed. (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice‐Hall, Inc., 1990). p. 348 3 always included in orchestral auditions for tuba players. His usage of the instrument influenced contemporary German composers Bruckner and Brahms, and later Mahler.9

While Wagner, Moritz and Wieprecht were extolling the virtues of the tuba in

Germany, France had its own champions of the instrument: Berlioz and instrument makers father and son Charles and Adolphe Sax10. Berlioz first heard the tuba in 1843 in Germany and delighted in the tone of the instrument because the valve‐system did not impede the tone quality of the instrument, unlike the tone pad/hole system of the ophicleides he would use in his larger orchestral works. Indeed, his usage of two ophicleides in Symphonie Fantastique were specified for one in B‐flat and one in C, allowing the strength of each instrument to compensate for the weakness of the other’s.11

Despite Berlioz’s praise for the tuba, French orchestras took some years to fully adopt it into their orchestras to replace the established ophicleide.12 French composers seemed to prefer the sound of the tuba to be more similar in tone quality and volume to the ophicleide. To this end, as more French orchestras and bands began including the tuba in their instrumentation, the instrument was a great deal smaller than its

German counterpart. So much so that it was pitched a whole octave above the CC tuba used by Wagner, and is known now as the Small French Tuba in C.

The tuba was integrated into the British musical culture later than the rest of Europe, seemingly more musically conservative when it came to assimilating new musical concepts. Bevan gives evidence of the ophicleide being used in wind ensembles,

9 Bevan, The Tuba Family. pp. 138, 139, 141 10 Ibid. pp. 101, 151 11 Gene Pokorny, Orcestral Excerpts for Tuba, (Summit Records, 1996).Track 5 12 Bevan, The Tuba Family. p. 152 4 orchestras and brass bands by the first decade of the twentieth century;13 a practice virtually unheard of in Europe by this time, given the tuba’s popularity with respected and established orchestrators and composers.

Over the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, wind ensembles and brass bands were developed through the establishment of small military and wind chamber ensembles of royal courts. Battisti cites Goldman’s suggestion that the modern wind ensemble has its roots in the French Revolution, giving the example of the French

National Guard Band (1765‐1858).14 As a result of the Industrial Revolution, musical instruments became more affordable for the working classes with community ensembles being formed, particularly in England, as a way to entertain local populations by performing popular and recognisable music of the time. Competitions became popular as a way to create a friendly rivalry between counties and villages (not unlike sporting teams). Consequently, industrial infrastructures such as mines and mechanical institutions initiated their own ensembles as a way of entertaining their workers. Some would offer monetary incentives such as apprenticeships if a worker would learn an instrument and play in the band.15

Battisti outlines how the American professional band movement (1880‐1930) became an integral part of American musical culture, giving the example of John Philip Sousa as an archetype of the American wind ensemble composer and orchestrator. The founder of the Eastman Wind Ensemble, Frederick Fennell states:

13 Ibid. p. 167 14 Frank Battisti, The Twentieth Century American Wind Band/Ensemble (Fort Lauderdale: Meredith Music Publications, 1995). p 2 15 Roy Newsome, The Modern Brass Band: From the 1930s to the New Millennium (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2006). p. 31 5

‘[Sousa was] the god of the American concert band world… the imperishable

repertory of marches he composed… [was]… his most important contribution

to the development of the band in America.’16

During the nineteenth century in the United States, Bevan suggests the musical activity was ‘not orchestral… [but more so]… concert band.’17 It should be noted during this time that the marching version of the tuba, the sousaphone, was developed. For the purpose of my thesis the sousaphone, along with the Wagner tuba, is mentioned in passing only because the instrument and its use in ensembles is not relevant to the topic discussed in this thesis.

The twentieth century was a time of noticeable development for both the brass band and wind ensemble. Composers began experimenting with different styles and tone colours, with the numbers of each ensemble type growing. For wind ensembles this was the case in many secondary and tertiary education centres (particularly in the

United States), for brass bands it was in localities and industrial centres such as mines or factories.

Due to the growing number of both ensemble types, it became necessary for a more standardised instrumentation/scoring system to be implemented, to allow composers to have a template ensemble to work with for their writing.

The aim of my research is to explore the different aspects of tuba playing and the tuba player’s role in these different ensemble genres (orchestra, brass band, wind ensemble), highlighting the context of the player’s role as an ensemble member.

16 Battisti, The Twentieth Century American Wind Band/Ensemble.p. 2 17 Bevan, The Tuba Family. p.159 6

Chapter Two

Literature Review

The focus areas of this research covers:

• the history of the tuba • its development and implementation into orchestras, wind ensembles and brass bands • orchestration/instrumentation within each of the ensembles • ensemble performance including idiosyncrasies for a tuba player performing within each ensemble • the usage of more than one instrument by the performer/ensemble • performance techniques including varieties of articulation, tonguing, breathing, performance with other players in the tuba and low brass section • understanding the context of the works being performed and interacting with the other performers at the time

A number of topics overlap with regard to orchestration/instrumentation and ensemble performance.

The function of this literature review is to identify current texts on the subjects listed where there are specific issues not covered when approaching tuba performance within each ensemble (orchestra, brass band, wind ensemble). Sources include journal articles; research theses; books/texts; scores and instrumental parts from works; audio recordings of lectures/masterclasses, teaching material, performances and published interviews.

2.1 History

An understanding of the history of the instrument’s development, including early to contemporary usage, demonstrates how the role of the instrument has developed over the period on which I am focusing. It gives the context to changing ideas regarding the instrument as brought about by economic and/or social changes.

2.1.1 History of the Tuba

Clifford Bevan’s The Tuba Family (1978) is a comprehensive text covering the history of the tuba, detailing the instruments used prior to the tuba’s development and going on to describe how the instrument was used by composers in various countries – Germany, France, Russia and so on. He discusses the usage of the tuba in orchestral works, cites composers’ opinions and gives musical examples from either scores or individual parts to support his arguments. In providing valuable historical information, Bevan focuses predominantly on orchestral performance. Wind ensembles and brass bands are referenced and while there is some detail given, principally with instrumentation and numbers of instruments, his main discussion is focused on orchestral performance. Bevan briefly comments on the technical demands required of the band player with less emphasis on the importance of tone production, though does not go into detail about the different styles of playing within the three different ensembles on which I am focusing.

2.1.2 History – Symphony Orchestra

An early treatment of the subject of brass instruments in the orchestra is the important treatise The Orchestra (1860) by Hector Berlioz, in which the French composer gives his opinion as to the orchestral structure and instrumentation for concert hall performance. He includes a table of instruments and respective numbers for the ensemble specifying ‘1 Ophicleide in B‐flat (or a Bass‐Tuba).’ His recommendation of the tuba, second to ophicleide, demonstrates the instrument was

8 not widespread throughout Europe at this time. Indeed, later in the treatise when he discusses instrumentation of ‘the orchestra of the grand opera’ he mentions the ophicleide only, implying the tuba was not at this time a standard opera bass brass instrument. Berlioz does not go into the characteristics of specific instruments or how to utilise them, merely the instrumental combinations used in orchestral makeup. It should be noted that Berlioz is one of few major composers to write about orchestration.

Adam Carse’s The History of Orchestration (1925) is technically more concerned with orchestration rather than specifically with the history of the tuba. It details the historical use of the instrument as opposed to giving advice to composers and arrangers in how to score for the orchestra.

2.1.3 History – Brass Band

Cyril Bainbridge’s text Brass Triumphant (1980) delves into the historical development of the ensemble, focusing on its cultural evolution as well as the historical context. Bainbridge’s focus is primarily Britain‐based, though he does on occasion refer in passing to brass bands from other countries such as Norway or Sweden. He details the history of the competition aspect of brass banding, composers and original compositions, ensembles of the twentieth century and the bands of the Salvation Army. This results in a useful text on the historical side of the genre.

In his thesis The Evolution of the Brass Band and its Repertoire in Northern England (1970) Jack L. Scott discusses the historical aspects of the ensemble and its repertoire, giving a detailed account of the implementation of instruments and the standardisation of the instrumentation of the ensemble. In discussing the bass end of the ensemble he touches upon the development of the tuba from the serpent and ophicleide. He mentions the instrument’s naming in brass band (“bass” rather than “tuba”) and discusses the instrument’s seeming separation from orchestral and wind ensemble playing (and thus the division of the instrument titles).

The British Brass Band (ed. Trever Herbert, 2000) is a collection of scholarly essays by specialist authors, organised into a comprehensive text, extremely relevant and useful to my research in a number of areas: this includes the historical aspects of the development of the ensemble through the nineteenth century (Trevor Herbert), the cultural reception and changes of perception of the ensemble through the first half of the twentieth century (Dave Russell), a detailed essay on the role of the brass band in the Salvation Army as well as in Australia and New Zealand, referred to as the antipodes in the text (Duncan Bythell), original compositions for the ensemble and aspects of performance (Trevor Herbert and John Wallace). The meticulous detail and documentation throughout this publication make it an informative and a definitive text for anyone studying this genre of ensemble performance. While the authors draw on similar material as Bainbridge in Brass Triumphant, each topic is presented in greater depth, reflecting the growing scholarship in the area of brass ensemble playing during the twenty years separating the two publications.

Roy Newsome’s The Modern Brass Band: From the 1930s to the New Millennium (2006) details the brass band and its role throughout the 20th Century. Newsome focuses on England and highlights the brass band personalities, specifically conductors, soloists and influential patrons. However, he does look at the instrument development, including the changes (especially after WWII), the repertoire and composers and lastly contesting. Newsome demonstrates participating in competitions is a core role of the ensemble’s focus, analogous to local sporting teams.

2.1.4 History – Wind Ensemble

Frank Battisti’s book (1995) The Twentieth Century American Wind Band/Ensemble covers the history and repertoire of the American Wind Band. Battisti does not explore a great deal of detail on the tuba itself but does provide extensive information outlining the wind ensemble genre, the different types of commissioned repertoire and the performance practice of the ensemble. The text provides useful background historical information detailing the wind ensemble’s history and performance relevant to this area of study. 10

2.2 Orchestration and Instrumentation

Researching orchestration and scoring for the three ensembles (orchestra, wind ensemble, brass band) allows me to compare the differences between tuba’s role within each ensemble and investigating the technical aspects of performance, again, within each ensemble.

2.2.1 Instrumentation in the Orchestra

In general, most texts that approach the role of the tuba within the context of orchestration specifically concentrate on orchestral scoring. There is a tendency for references to be generic regarding the use of the tuba.

Charles MacLean (1895) provides an interesting and in‐depth discussion of instrumentation in the orchestra in On Some Causes of the Changes of Tone Colour Proceeding in the Most Modern Orchestra. MacLean gives viewpoints on each instrument used in the orchestra and discusses the use in their section describing the characteristics, strengths and weaknesses respectively. He describes the ‘Bass‐Tuba’ as a ‘trustworthy foundation to the brass group’1 and comments on its ability to cover the French horn on their weaker lower notes within their sections. I believe it should be noted that the timbre of the tuba, in this context, would be more effective in softer dynamics as the tone qualities are less homogenous between horns and tuba at higher dynamic levels. McLean discusses the use of tuba as an independent bass working not just for the brass section but able to function as a bass line for other sections in the orchestra.

Cecil Forsyth’s Orchestration (1935) examines closely the different limitations of the tubas in different pitches, specifically the E‐flat, B‐flat and F instruments. He gives historical information about the usage of the instrument and discusses technical demands and disadvantages of the instrument.

1 Charles MacLean, "On Some Causes of the Change of Tone Colour Proceeding in the Most Modern Orchestra," Proceedings of the Musical Association (1895). p. 91 11

Gordon Jacob’s Orchestral Technique (1940), although regarded as a classic in the field of orchestration manuals, contains a number of inaccuracies regarding the tuba: he specifies for example that it is in the key of F (not even mentioning E‐flat or B‐flat, which might be expected from a British orchestrator, given the common usage of the tubas in Britain). Jacob recommends the tuba to be kept generally in the low register.2 He does, however, recommend the scoring of the tuba be an octave below the bass trombone. This is a common and effective technique in orchestral scoring and a similarity is observed with cello and double bass scoring when they play in octaves.

Kent Kennan and Donald Grantham’s The Technique of Orchestration (1952) refers to three of the tunings of tuba family – ‘C, F and BB‐flat’3 – coupled with examples of important tuba parts from standard orchestral works. The authors refers, in passing, to the use of double, triple and flutter‐tonguing on the instrument, as a curiosity rather than standard performance practice.

Walter Piston’s Orchestration (1955) details the tubas of the various pitches making references to all pitches; F, E‐flat, C and B‐flat. He does so in a descending order of pitch in a useful way so as to avoid confusion for composers and arrangers not be familiar with the idiosyncrasies of the instrument. When showing the ranges of the instruments, he demonstrates the harmonic series of each instrument as opposed to a generic lowest‐note – to highest‐note range, a practice that other orchestration books adopt. The advantage here being it demonstrates the use of partials and shows the technical requirements often left to those who are already familiar with the physical workings of brass instruments. Piston gives examples of other compositional and orchestration techniques such as tonguing, muting and agility, describing advantages to them as well as giving orchestral examples.

Samuel Adler’s The Study of Orchestration (1982) provides basic historical information on the instrument as well as giving details for composers/arranger of the characteristics of the instrument’s registers and when best to use them. He gives

2 Gordon Jacob, Orchestral Technique ‐ a Manual for Students (London: Oxford University Press, 1940). p. 64 3 Donald Grantham Kent Kennan, The Technique of Orchestration, 4 ed. (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice‐Hall, Inc., 1990). p. 156 12 examples of useful excerpts from orchestral tuba parts while referencing the different‐ pitched instruments available to the composer/arranger. He does not define advantages/disadvantages of each type, or even identifies if there are any. Adler’s text focuses strictly on orchestral scoring without consideration of other types of ensemble such as the brass band. This is not necessarily an expected focus, as the word “orchestration” does not strictly refer to orchestras – it is also accurate for other ensembles.

2.2.3 Instrumentation in the Brass Band

Bernard Smith’s journal article The Salvation Army Brass Band – Usual and unusual instruments blend to produce a perfect balance with specially written music (1950) touches on the use of scoring of E‐flat and B‐flat tubas in the brass band. He discusses the use of the two instrument types being used in unison as well as octaves, the use of one instrument part being used for accompanying a solo instrument (in practice this is usually on E‐flat), the use of two different parts written for ‘special effects.’ It should be noted this article was written in the American band publication The Instrumentalist.

A more performance‐based treatment of the brass band is encountered in Ray Steadman‐Allen’s Colour and Texture in the Brass Band Score (1980) in which specific information is given on the role of instruments in the brass band from an ensemble perspective. He goes into detail on the differences between E‐flat and B‐flat instruments, how they interact with the rest of the ensemble and each other, and how to incorporate them in scoring. Steadman‐Allen, being an experienced brass band composer/arranger, gives informed advice as to the range and tone limitations of each instrument as well as discussing orchestration techniques such as open fifths and octaves in the tuba parts. He provides numerous musical examples using either his own compositions or ones from other well‐known brass band composers.

2.2.2 Instrumentation in the Wind Ensemble

George Dyson dismisses the tuba in his article The Composer and the Military Band (1921). He does not view the instrument as a particularly useful member of the ensemble, giving it a rather backhanded compliment in his comment ‘The Tuba… is the least unsatisfactory of several deep brass instruments that have been tried [in the brass section.]’4 This opinion is particularly interesting considering it is made 90 years after the instrument’s development. Dyson is writing from a British perspective, a nation that took longer than the rest of Europe did when establishing the tuba as a conventional member of ensembles Up until that point the ophicleide was more commonly used right up until the early twentieth century. This is the only source cited that seemingly dismisses the instrument (or rather does not extol its virtues) regarding its role within the ensemble, and thus it is useful for its critical opinion in a similar way to Reed’s stated view of “less tuba sound in ensemble performance.”

Joseph Wagner in his book Band Scoring (1960) divides the tubas into higher and lower‐pitched instruments with descriptions for their deployment within the different ranges (low, middle and upper registers). Wagner separates them into E‐flat and B‐flat tubas specifically rather than all four keys. The main strength for including this text is because it specifically looks at the scoring of the tuba in wind ensembles as opposed to orchestras. It examines transcription techniques for the ensemble as well as original compositions.

In his article The Composer and the College Band, Alfred Reed (1961) refers to the use of the tuba in the wind ensemble setting. He discusses the use of low brass recommending the use of three tubas and suggests ‘a good deal of single instrument playing in both [euphonium and tuba] parts – especially in softer sections of the score.’5 Reed is in favour of reducing the amount of tuba sound in wind ensemble playing so as to ‘accomplish increased purity of the woodwind colors [sic.], as well as the overall brilliancy of the band in soft, not loud, passages.’6

4 George Dyson, "The Composer and the Military Band," Music & Letters Vol. 2 No. 1(1921). p. 61 5 Alfred Reed, "The Composer and the College Band," Music Educators Journal Vol. 48, No. 1(1961). p. 52 6 Ibid. p. 53 14

Reed, however, gives a contrary recommendation one year later in The Instrumentation of the Band, although both articles were published by the same journal. In the second article he recommends three tubas in the ensemble but often recommending only one tuba playing on occasion thus eliminating the concern of the tuba

‘effectively [blotting] out the delicate overtones of the flutes, oboes, clarinets and bassoons – even the trumpets and trombones on occasion – and thus robbing the band as a whole of brilliancy in the soft as well as the loud passages’.7

It is not completely clear as to why he puts forward a contradictory position though in this article his focus is directed to the impact of balance on secondary school‐age ensembles. Despite this unexplained inconsistency, Reed essentially reiterates his instrumentation advice from The Composer and the College Band.

2.3 Ensemble Performance

Performance within each of the ensembles is an important aspect of this research as the role of the instrument is demonstrated through chosen examples of specific repertoire. Researching ensemble performance allows me to quantify the role of the tuba within each of the ensemble types studied.

2.3.1 Performance in the Orchestra

Among tuba players of the modern age, one of the most respected and significant is the American Arnold Jacobs. His career and teaching have thus generated a number of different publications including interviews and a major biography.

7 "The Instrumentation of the Band," Music Educators Journal Vol. 49, No. 1(1962). p. 61 15

Brian Frederiksen’s Arnold Jacobs: Song and Wind (1996), a biography of a professional orchestral tuba player, gives unique insights into several aspects of professional tuba performance. Jacobs was the principal tuba player for the Chicago Symphony Orchestra (CSO) from 1944‐88. Over the course of his career his performance and teaching methods were influenced by his curiosity about human anatomy and the specifics of breathing and breath control in relation to performance. Frederiksen concentrates mainly on orchestral performance but alludes to the wind ensemble performancee because of Jacobs’ participation in Wind Band summer camps in the early 1960s. There is extensive information on performance of the instrument itself, including references to pitch and intonation onstage, range, warm‐ups, dynamics, vibrato, making mistakes in performance, phrasing, performance anxiety and recording sessions. Song and Wind refers to specific works within the orchestral repertoire giving examples of Jacobs’ practical experiences and opinions including some from recording sessions. Frederiksen draws on such sources as colleagues from CSO for his biography as well as Jacobs who was still alive when the book was written. Frederiksen himself was one of Jacobs’ own tuba students.

Jacobs discusses orchestral performance in his article Arnold Jacobs Master Class (1991), the psychology of brass players and makes suggestions on a number of technical aspects of playing. He details the breathing techniques needed for orchestral tuba players (and other brass instruments) for the overall quality of the performance to be consistent. His discussion of psychology among orchestral brass players details how they can develop mental ‘blocks’ that hinder their playing, especially when playing in the upper register. He provides effective strategies in how to deal with these He discusses the study of solfege, calling it ‘one of the finest studies a brass player can undertake.’ Jacobs demonstrates by assigning a word to a note or pitch a note is far easier to play because ‘as soon as we think of a word, we will hear a pitch.’8 This is incredibly useful for an orchestral player, especially after having taceted for one or more movements, or even after an extended rest‐section.

8 Brian Frederiksen, Arnold Jacobs: Song and Wind, ed. John Taylor, 3 ed. (WindSong Press Limited, 1996). p. 8 16

In Harvey Phillips’ The Evolution of the Chicago Symphony Brass Sound roundtable discussion/article (1989) Jacobs discusses the use of different instruments in orchestral works. Specifically, he refers to his use of different instruments and sometimes multiple mouthpieces to achieve different sounds for repertoire, stating the depth of the cup and the diameter of the rim can affect the sound of the instrument while allowing the player to stay comfortable in the range of the same instrument. Jacob argues that changing mouthpieces during a work is faster and easier than changing instruments.

The Audio CD compilations Portrait of an Artist and Legacy of an Artist both contain excerpts of radio interviews and masterclasses given by Jacobs where he expresses his opinions on a variety of brass‐performance topics. He discusses the ‘essential role’9 in the ensemble (while he does not specify what type of large ensemble he is speaking from an orchestral background) and covers different performance aspects of the instrument from breathing to air attacks and how to approach the tuba as a melodic musical instrument as opposed to playing an ‘[unhealthy] diet [of] oom‐pahs.’10 The CDs contain recordings of him practicing in his studio, solo performances with wind ensemble or orchestra as well as excerpts from recordings of standard repertoire played by the Chicago Symphony during his tenure as principal tuba.

Roger Bobo’s article Tuba: A Word of Many Meanings (1961) gives insights on a number of topics regarding the use of multiple tubas from the perspective of a professional orchestral tuba player. He discusses how to decide the type of instrument to use based on the context of the repertoire being played. He recommends using F or small French C tubas for ophicleide parts or French music, because of the narrower bore and smaller length of the instrument creating the lighter sound appropriate for the repertoire; Large CC tuba for works for larger orchestra or loud‐and‐low playing; and an in‐between‐sized tuba for works requiring a lighter sound but also to boost the bass and brass sections when necessary, specifying a ‘small‐bore CC‐tuba.’ Bobo examines the interpretation of ‘tuba’ in orchestral scoring, particularly the usage of ‘bass‐tuba’ (meaning F) and ‘contrabass‐tuba’ (meaning CC). Tchaikovsky’s use of

9 Arnold Jacobs, Legacy of an Artist, (Summit Records, 2007). Track 4 10 Ibid. 17 different instruments in his compositions is analysed through Bobo’s comparison of the tuba parts of his fourth and sixth symphonies and the noticeable differences between the ways that the instrument is used: the music of the fourth being more suited for larger CC‐type instrument and the softer tuba part of the sixth (the dynamic level going down to ppppp) being more appropriate for a smaller F‐type instrument.11

Bobo’s article Roger Bobo Talks Tuba (1977) shares experience of orchestral playing and technical exercises to benefit performers. He discusses the difficulty of ‘doing nothing’ in orchestral tuba playing, the challenges of ‘maintaining equilibrium’ in range and dynamics for different styles and specifies technical work exercises such as Kopprasch, Arban and Blazevich to focus on scales, arpeggios, and major/minor key signatures to maintain a high standard of playing. Bobo recommends mouthpiece buzzing practice for melody work, especially when an instrument is not available for practicing on – he uses his real‐life example of having to drive to work and buzzing in the car on the way.

Gene Pokorny’s Orchestral Excerpts for Tuba CD is aimed more for assisting players preparing for orchestral auditions, though he discusses different styles of articulation and details each work he is about to play the excerpts from by examining it from an ensemble perspective and pointing out instrumentation in sections. For example the doubling of the dies irae tuba soli in Berlioz’s Symphonie Fantastique by the bassoons – allowing the listener to understand the tuba’s role in relation to the rest of the orchestra as opposed to just their single part. Pokorny discusses the use of more than one instrument in works and performance issues arising in some works.

More recent developments in research into orchestral performance consider the role of stress in the profession. Warren Brodski’s 1995 thesis Career stress and performance anxiety in professional orchestra musicians : a study of individual differences and their impact on therapeutic outcomes (1995) discusses aspects of stress and performance anxiety – also referred to by the colloquial ‘stage fright’ – experienced by professional musicians. He discusses anxiety‐related symptoms such as ‘stage fright… depression…

11 Roger Bobo, "Tuba: A Word of Many Meanings," Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1961). p. 164 18 sleep disturbances… acute anxiety…and severe headaches’ and demonstrates that these symtoms are more often experienced by younger perfomers (under 30 years of age), female and brass musicians.12 Being a medical‐based thesis, it details methods to deal with stress and anxety experienced by musicians, as well as physical ailments that can affect professional musicians (such as carpal tunnel). While not being specific to a particular instrument group (such as strings or brass etc), and being extremely detailed and specialised in its medical field (it is not extremely easy for the reader to follow without some medical beckground), Brodski does highlight that stress and performance anxiety is a widespread phenomenon among musicians. This is especially relevant in view of his highlighting of female and/or brass musicians likelihood of this.

In his autobiography Mr. Tuba (2012), Harvey Phillips outlines his life experiences in the professional band and orchestral establishment in the U.S.A. Over the course of the text he relates episodes of his life of professional experience (going from 1948‐ 1997), amusing anecdotes illustrating perils that can befall professional musicians. Phillips discusses teaching styles and gives advice for musicians on topics ranging from solo performance to radio interviews to managing performance anxiety. Phillips’ range of experience is useful for the advice given to aspiring tuba players, given his knowledge and skill especially in the freelance professional scene.

2.3.2 Performance in the Brass Band

In his thesis Banding Together: Power, Identity and Interaction within the Concert and Contest Performance Contexts of the Brighouse and Rastrick Brass Band (2007), Richard Andrew Jones details the preparation of a brass band for a British national competition, preparation for concert performances and how the members of the band interact with each other from a social point of view. He describes specifically the development of the Brighouse and Rastwick band in relation to the general (though detailed) history of the genre, and details rehearsal processes and roles of instruments and players within the band. Jones describes the social reasons behind members

12 Warren Brodsky, "Career Stress and Performance Anxiety in Professional Orchestra Musicians: A Study of Individual Differences and Their Impact on Therapeutic Outcomes" (Keele University, 1995). p. 42 19 playing with the band, and aspects of performance including attitudes regarding competition and general concert performing.

2.3.3 Performance in the Wind Ensemble

Amateur Brass and Wind Bands in Southern England Between the Late Eighteenth Century and Circa 1900 (1990) by Michel John Lomas details the development of wind and brass bands through the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, discussing aspects ranging from instrument development and instrumentation, repertoire, contesting and social aspect behind performing. While he does not specify the role of the tuba much beyond the historical aspect – instead he details a more general ensemble focus providing useful insights comparing the make‐up of both wind and brass bands, and provides a general comparision of both types of ensemble.

Donald Hunsberger (ed.) in The Wind Ensemble and its Repertoire (1994) encompasses a number of useful areas for this research. It covers the history of the development of wind and brass bands and instrumentation for the wind ensemble ‐ focusing primarily on the United States – and explores wind ensemble‐specific repertoire. Considering both transcriptions and original works for the ensemble, this volume gives examples of repertoire performed and recorded by the Eastman Wind Ensemble. Particularly, Jon Newsom’s The American Brass Band Movement in the Mid‐Nineteenth Century gives detail on the history and development of the brass band in the United States, discussing performances and repertoire, as well as the differences between American and British brass banding:

‘In Britain, the brass band movement was, and still is, an amateur one. But in America, it was a relatively short‐lived phenomenon involving professional and amateur musicians alike.’

Newsome states the brass band movement did not achieve the same ‘intense social climate’ as its British counterpart.13

Robert Garofalo’s article Standard Works for Band: Gustav Holst’s Second Suite in F (1985) centres on the performance of Holst’s work as a whole from an ensemble perspective though he does specify individual sections and instruments. He discusses the original and revisions of the score in relation to performance practice. He highlights instrumental doublings used in the Boosey and Hawkes revised score as well as the original autograph score. He suggests the elimination of low single reed doublings of the euphonium and tuba lines in sections of the first, third and fourth movements so as to avoid ‘[distorting] the original intention of the composer.’14 He draws attention to the ‘effective’ antiphonal effect of the tuba/piccolo duet in the final section of the fourth movement (figure 2.1); the answering parts of the low brass in the fourth movement as the Dargason melody descends through each instrument grouping towards the final section (figure 2.2); and agrees with and quotes Frederick Fennell “without [this fermata]…, the conclusion comes too suddenly, too abruptly – especially when the trombones [and cornets] withdraw before the basses have secured their not‐so‐easy low F.” regarding the final few bars of the second movement (figure 2.3).15

Figure 2.1 Holst – Second Suite for Military Band, IV – ‘Dargason’ Tuba and piccolo antiphonal duet section

13 Multiple, The Wind Ensemble and Its Repertoire ‐ Essays on the Fortieth Anniversary of the Eastman Wind Ensemble, ed. Donald Hunsberger Frank J. Cipolla (New York: University of Rochester Press, 1994). p.79 14 Robert Garofalo, "Standard Works for Band: Gustav Holst's Second Suite in F," Music Educators Journal Vol. 72, No. 4(1985). p. 37 15 Ibid. pp. 39‐41 21

Figure 2.2 Second Suite for Military Band, IV – ‘Dargason’ ‘Dargason’ melody descending through the euphonium to tuba part

Figure 2.3 Holst – Second Suite for Military Band, II – ‘Song Without Words “I’ll My Love”’ Final bars indicating the descending tuba part.

The fermata Fennell refers to is an unwritten one on the final note in the accompanying parts that ensures the instruments do not end too early as the tuba needs slightly more time to allow the lower notes to resonate properly.

2.4 Questions Arising From the Research

From my research (and from my perspective as a tuba player who performs in all three ensembles specified), I have identified a minimal amount of literature containing comparative study into the roles of the tuba within orchestral, brass band and wind ensemble contexts. While some of the literature on the tuba and its performance practice discusses the instrument in relation to one type of ensemble (occasionally two), most references tend to focus on orchestration rather on the performance traditions and culture of specific ensemble types in which the tuba player performs. 22

Through my research it is my aim to contribute the the pool of knowledge in proposing answers to the following question:

Research Question – What are the different roles the tuba player has to fulfill in performing as an ensemble member in the orchestral, brass band and wind ensemble contexts?

From the principal question a set of subsidiary questions arise.

• How does each role differ from the other/s? • Does performing in one ensemble role affect the tuba player’s approach and interpretation of their role in another? • Can an understanding of these different roles and their interaction contribute to the expertise of today’s tuba player?

In my thesis I investigate these questions using both research and my own experiences to support my discourse.

Chapter Three

Orchestral Repertoire

3.1 Introduction

The tuba was conceived originally as an orchestral instrument to fulfil the role of completing the brass section in the same way the bassoons completes the woodwind section and the double bass for the strings. This chapter examines this role in focusing on orchestration and instrumentation including the use of the tuba within the ensemble. Performance requirements such as general technical requirements of the instrument, the employment of different size/pitch instruments and the issues arising for the player in the ensemble during performance are discussed.

3.2 Instrumentation/Orchestration

There are established approaches to orchestration for the ensemble use of the tuba. Composers make use of the tuba through instrumentation within the brass section, usage of the instrument in different dynamics, utilising the tone colour and timbre of the instrument. Tuba players will use differently‐pitched instruments (e.g. C, F etc) in works for a variety of reasons and contexts. There are various examples used in the following sections to highlight this.

3.2.1 The Usage of Different‐Pitched Tubas in the Ensemble

The tuba underwent varying receptions of its inclusions into the orchestra, depending upon the nationality of the orchestra e.g. Germany or France. The contemporary tuba player is expected to perform repertoire on appropriate instruments.

There is some evidence that E‐flat tubas were used in Russia during Tchaikovsky’s lifetime1 through the composition and orchestration observed in the 1812 Overture as well as Symphonies No 5 and 6. The tuba parts in 1812 and Symphony No 5 appear to be carefully written in the range of an E‐flat tuba. The 1812 Overture range starts from A‐flatI to a‐flat, a range comfortable for an E‐flat instrument.

Tchaikovsky’s Symphony No 5’s, also‐two‐octave range from F‐sharpI, would be suitable for both E‐flat and C tubas, though most of the tuba’s part sits in the more comfortable mid‐to‐upper part of the octave, and generally not often going below C. An E‐flat instrument is more stable on this part because of its higher pitch, though the symphony’s key of E minor, – and later E major of the fourth movement, would be more appropriate on C tuba. The decision for instrument use is considered by the performer and director.

The tuba part of Tchaikovsky’s Symphony No 6 has a wider range than that of 1812 or Symphony No 5, going from G‐sharpI through nearly two‐and‐a‐half octaves to dI. The part shifts octaves within sections after rest periods being in the upper part of the work’s register. The upper parts, especially in the second movement, are weaker and more difficult to pitch on a larger C tuba than an E‐flat or F. In the fourth movement from section L there is a chorale section of the trombones and tuba that is more difficult to balance ensemble‐wise with a larger tuba than a smaller one. Especially given when the dynamic level of this section starts at p and goes down to ppppp.

Figure 3.1: Tchaikovsky Symphony No 6 ‘Pathetique’, movement 4, section L Trombone/tuba chorale

1Clifford Bevan, The Tuba Family (London: Faber and Faber Limited, 1978).pp. 145,146

Berlioz’s tuba parts are traditionally played on the smaller F tubas – or E‐flats if F tubas are not available, because his use of ophicleides was standard before the tuba’s invention. They are often written in the mid‐to‐upper range of the instrument, essentially from the bottom of the stave to f, and rarely go below the stave. These consistently higher‐pitched parts are more secure on smaller tubas because they blend more securely with the closely‐scored trombone parts. The tuba part often doubles the bass trombone part in unison. Examples of this are found in orchestral works such as Symphonie Fantastique (two tubas), La Damnation de Faust (two) and Roméo et Juliette (one). Each work has part/s that stay consistently near the top or above the stave – a characteristic now normally limited to solo works such as concertos. Often times these parts are not solos and are almost always scored with the trombone section. The ranges used make the tuba/s function more akin to another member of the trombone section with the tuba frequently playing in unison with the second and/or third trombone. An observation here highlights the role is not too dissimilar to how a euphonium would be scored in the same context because of the timbre of the ophicleide and its associated range.

Ravel’s transcription of Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition is an excellent example of how the more than one instrument is needed by one performer for a single work. Pokorny highlights potential intonation issues between a CC tuba and a bass trombone in B‐flat in the Gnomus and third Promenade movements;2 and suggests ‘find[ing] an instrument that has some good in‐tune “slots” for the highest notes’ of Bydlo. Traditionally, Pictures at an Exhibition is performed with the bulk of the work on a large CC or B‐flat instrument, with Bydlo performed on F or sometimes euphonium – Pokorny uses euphonium in his recording of the Bydlo excerpt and recommends to ‘decide who can make more music out of the piece – one of your tacet trombone colleagues or yourself’, which gives the tuba player a chance to avoid having to change instruments and mouthpieces mid‐work.

2 Gene Pokorny, Orcestral Excerpts for Tuba, (Summit Records, 1996).Track 13 26

Figure 3.2: Mussorgsky (arr. Ravel) – Pictures at an Exhibition movements 2 through 4

Frederiksen relates how Arnold Jacobs would commonly use one tuba though use several different mouthpieces in the instrument depending on the situation, due to the variable nature of mouthpieces, quoting him ‘It’s cheaper to have one tuba and many mouthpieces than one mouthpiece and many tubas.’3 As a general rule, a deeper‐cup

3 Brian Frederiksen, Arnold Jacobs: Song and Wind, ed. John Taylor, 3 ed. (WindSong Press Limited, 1996). p. 163 27 mouthpiece highlights the lower fundamentals of the instruments natural harmonics (i.e. better for lower register playing), while a shallower‐cup mouthpiece decreases the lower fundamentals and highlights the overtones (i.e. better for higher register playing).

Figure 3.3: Collection of various size/brand tuba mouthpieces. Left to right: Back row: Conn‐Helleberg 7B, Denis Wick 3L, Jupiter 24AW, Unnamed brand, Besson 24 Front row: Kosikup 3, Perantucci PT‐50+, Perantucci PT‐65, Perantucci PT‐88

Photograph by writer

The tuba parts by Stravinsky for the French ballet scene follow the higher‐pitched writing for tuba parts. Despite scoring for two ‘Tuba bassa’ instruments in Le Sacre du Printemps, both parts are written in a range more suitable for a euphonium, or indeed the French C. The same can be said for the tuba parts in Petrouchka, where the tuba solo in the “Peasant and Bear” section is a favourite in tuba orchestral auditions to demonstrate high tessitura playing. However L’oiseau de Feu, composed one year earlier, has a considerable number of noticeably lower tuba parts, often playing more than an octave below bass trombone, and more into the range of the CC tuba. This is not always the case for the revised editions and the orchestral suites, suggesting Stravinsky rescored for the accessible French C.

Roger Bobo asserts that ‘Bass‐tuba’ specifies the F tuba, while ‘Contrabass Tuba’ refers to the CC tuba4. However, this does not necessarily always aligns with the performance traditions of some of these works: Siegfried’s Reinfarht, Ritt der Walküre and Meistersinger are traditionally performed on CC or Bb tubas, despite being scored for ‘Bass‐Tuba’. In these works, the smaller F would not be powerful enough to match the rest of the brass, and most likely the rest of the orchestra, at the louder dynamics, The low F‐sharps and E’s in Ritt would not be as secure because of the weaker tone of the instrument in that register compared with CC. Bobo does not mention Wagner’s use of ‘Tuba’, though most of them are traditionally played on F.

“Contrabass Tuba” “Basstuba” or “Bass‐Tuba” “Tuba” or “Tuba Contrabassa” Das Rheingold Lohengrin Rienzi Götterdammerung Die Walküre – orch. arr. of Ritt der Walküre Tristan und Isolde Siegfried Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg Eine Faust‐Ouvertüre Siegfried – orch. arr. of Siegfried’s Reinfahrt Der Fliegender Holländer Tannhauser Table 3.1: List of selected Wagner works and the instrument (tuba) named in the part/score

Frederiksen relates a story from Arnold Jacobs about a time during Fritz Reiner’s tenure (1953‐63) as conductor of the Chicago Symphony.5 After guest conducting with the Vienna Philharmonic, he decided to incorporate some of the sound characteristics from that orchestra, including gut strings, rotary valve trumpets, and the use of the small Viennese F tuba. The Chicago musicians all turned him down on these suggestions except for Jacobs who had worked with Reiner for many years and heeded his advice. Reiner brought back what was described by Frederiksen as a ‘six‐valved freak’ or ‘the brass accordion’ by a bass player of Chicago Symphony, due to its requiring of the player to use both hands to use the valves, and having to cross them over each other. Jacobs did not enjoy playing such an instrument and therefore decided to start bringing his York C tuba back to rehearsals instead, hoping that due to

4 Roger Bobo, "Tuba: A Word of Many Meanings," Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1961).p. 162 5 Frederiksen, Arnold Jacobs: Song and Wind.pp. 187‐88 29 his poor eyesight Reiner would not notice. Reiner didn’t notice, and once commented that he enjoyed the sound Jacobs was getting on the instrument. Jacobs decided to hide the Viennese F deep in the basement of Orchestra Hall so he could ‘[make] sure no other conductor ever saw it again.’

3.3 Performance Aspects

For professional orchestral tuba players performing with the ensemble is their main occupation, and thus their livelihood. As a result they are under an amount of pressure to perform at a high standard or face the possibility of being dismissed and replaced. Because of this, orchestral tuba players are required to be highly skilled in a number of performance areas, especially those of tuning and articulation within the ensemble and the brass section.

3.3.1 Tuning

Intonation is a matter for consideration for the orchestral tuba player. Issues that arise in performance can stem from the repertoire itself by the key signature of the work through to the natural tuning of the instrument. The tuba player must be aware of these issues to be able to compensate for them.

Due to extended tacet sections in repertoire, intonation issues can occur due to temperature changes of the instrument. The orchestral tuba player is expected to compensate for these issues when they occur. Arnold Jacobs would leave his tuba onstage to acclimatise to the ambient temperature of the room before and during performances which he would tacet. It is advantageous for a tuba player to blow warm air through their instrument (with all valves down) a short time before their entry to ensure the instrument is at a nominal performance temperature. The orchestral tuba player should be aware of “cold starts” when performing, i.e. playing after an extended period of rests or tacets. If they are unprepared they run the risk of mispitching the note, particularly when the note is in the upper register of the instrument – an issue not helped by an instrument that is cold and possibly out of tune. 30

Doane discusses the idiosyncrasies of the brass instruments’ natural harmonic series when compared to the equal temperament system.6 While his article is aimed more so towards trumpet playing (he specifically refers to ‘physical limitations of three‐valve brass instruments’), it is relevant to tuba playing also, since the natural tuning issues he refers to occur in all brass instruments. He demonstrates that certain partials of the harmonic series (on which all brass playing is based) are naturally sharp or flat, which can be an issue when performing with other instruments. He further emphasises issues caused by different instrument manufacturers and points out that one company will develop an instrument able to compensate for certain note weaknesses while another will focus on a different note issue. As a result, performing on different brand instruments within the ensemble can result in intonation issues within the brass section itself. The orchestral tuba player needs to be aware of these issues, especially when performing alongside the trombone section, and be able to compensate for them either through alternate fingerings, moving valve slides for certain notes on occasion or minutely altering pitch through lowering or raising the pitch of the note within the margin available on each note when playing.

Figure 3.4: Example of natural intonation on a typical brass instrument.

Note how the fifth partial is naturally flat, the sixth is naturally sharp and the seventh and eleventh partials are naturally very flat.

6 Christopher Doane, "Intonation on Brass Instruments," Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1987).p.789 31

One possible issue that should be noted is the difference in the natural key‐tuning of instrument itself. Both brass and woodwind instruments in the orchestra are usually in “flat” key tunings such as B‐flat, E‐flat, F or C, whereas the string instruments’ open string tunings are those of “sharp” keys such as G, D, A and E. This can conceivably cause intonation issues between sections of the orchestra with the brass and woodwind players suspecting they are playing too flat and attempt to compensate. In the case of the tuba player when having to perform with the double basses and cellos, the natural “flat” tuning of the tuba compared with the open “sharp” tuning of the strings can be a hindrance to the overall ensemble performance and the tuba player should be aware of these problems.

3.3.2 Articulation

Due to the size and bore type, the tuba player is required to be familiar with different styles of articulation to compensate for the ambient sound quality of the tuba, as well as the rhythmic and sound requirements of the composer.

Pokorny discusses the usage of articulation in Berlioz’s Symphonie Fantastique in relation to the ‘Dies Irae’ section of the fifth movement, stating ‘articulation is often called into discussion at this place’ and commenting that a tuba player should be not only ‘capable of reproducing different types of articulation but should feel comfortable as well.’ He further performs examples of ways articulation can be used to enhance the ‘demonic’ feeling of the section by articulating the notes via sforzando‐piano, forte‐ piano, no accent, dotted crotchet followed by dotted crotchet rest, sforzando‐ mezzoforte with diminuendo.7 In this matter I am personally inclined to prefer his final example, as I find that dropping the dynamic to mezzoforte is more subtle than dropping to piano, while in addition the diminuendo creates a bell‐toll sound to the notes, adding to the demonic quality Berlioz wanted.

7 Pokorny, Orcestral Excerpts for Tuba. Track 5 32

Figure 3.5: Berlioz, Symphonie Fantastique, Dies Irae section from mm. 127‐145

There are a number of different ways to articulate notes on the tuba. Articulation sounds created by pronouncing the letter T or D create different effects in performance. The “to” syllable is a hard and clear articulation, which is advantageous for the tuba player waning to perform accented and marcato notes with a strong, clear beginning, especially at louder dynamics. The “do” syllable is a softer articulation, more suited to long notes and softer dynamics. Rex Connor recommends the use of the “do” syllable for ‘practically all purposes on tuba’ especially to avoid ‘the “cracking sound” tuba players often get when playing marches fortissimo’ and ensure the ‘beginning of the tone will sound more like the middle and the end of it.’8 I personally find the use of the articulation syllable “no” to be useful for some tuba playing, particularly extremely legato and smooth playing, by virtually eliminating the hard attack at the beginning of notes. It should be noted however, that due to the tuba’s sonorous sound quality, when performing repeated pitches the articulation for the beginning of the repeated notes should be exaggerated to some extent to highlight the rhythm of the passage, lest the instrument’s inherent sound quality obscures a softer articulation and causes the notes to unintentionally merge to sound as though they are a single long note.

8 Rex Connor, "The Tongue and the Tuba," Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1958). p. 171 33

3.3.3 Mutes/con sordino

The use of muted tuba is seemingly sparing in orchestral repertoire. When the mute is specified on parts for other brass instruments it is used for different tone colours and sound effects, most orchestration technique texts do not discuss the effects created by the tuba’s mute, but instead usually describing it as ‘muffled’ and recommending its use ‘chiefly as a means of reducing the volume of sound.’9

Bevan criticises German serialist composers of the early‐to‐mid twentieth century for their lack of fastidiousness when approaching aspects of tuba performance, stating

‘[They] seemed sometimes to be so taken up with their permutations as to forget that a tuba mute needs more than a quaver rest for insertion or removal and that the lips are vibrating so slowly when producing the lowest notes that it is not feasible to rearticulate rapidly.’10

This difficulty associated with mute insertion and removal is one commonly overlooked by composers more familiar with the easily and quickly inserted/removed trumpet and trombone mutes than the cumbersome tuba mute. This is not covered in most orchestration books, even when mute usage is discussed. Adler, however, does mention this problem, and recommends allowing for time to be allowed, describing the feat as ‘Herculean’.11

9 Walter Piston, Orchestration, 10 ed. (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1955,1982).p. 287 10 Bevan, The Tuba Family.p. 142 11 Samuel Adler, The Study of Orchestration, 2 ed. (New York: W. W. Norton & Company Limited, 1989, 1982).p.323 34

Figure 3.6: Example of brass straight mutes. Left to right: Tuba mute, trombone mute, trumpet mute

Photograph by writer

A misconception with tuba mutes is that there is only one type available. Orchestration texts mention this, though will not always specify what type of mute it is. In reality there are in fact a number of mutes available for the tuba. While the most common is the straight mute, the cup mute is also available, as is bucket mute. While not being orchestral repertoire, William Schmidt makes use of all three mutes in his tuba/trumpet duet Tony & the Elephant or Jim & the Road Runner (1984), composed for Tony Plog and Jim Self – indicating that at least by that time the three mute types were available, though it is not in my experience that cup or bucket mutes are specifically called for in orchestral music. In my experience, when mute is required the part will be marked ‘mute/muted’ or con sordino though in Bernstein’s Candide, tuba

35 mute is specified twice: once as ‘straight mute’ and the other merely ‘mute,’ implying two different mutes could be used, though this could also be an oversight in the publication. When I performed it, the music director and I concluded to use straight mute for both times as straight mute was the only one specified, as well as the fact that two tuba mutes onstage would be cumbersome and too space‐consuming for the occasional muted parts.

Figure 3.7: Bernstein Candide Left: 18a Ballad of El Dorado, final bar. Note tuba part labelled ‘mute’ Right: 19 Words, Words, Words, m. 53. Note tuba part specifically labelled ‘st. mute’

Composers can make use of the mute for visual effect. In the case of Britten, he makes use of the entire brass section being muted in his Young Person’s Guide to the Orchestra, though this is for merely a single‐note chord from the section before requiring them to remove their mutes immediately for the next section. Considering Young Person’s Guide was composed as a way to educate and inform people of the different sections of the orchestra, it is conceivable he specifically scored this chord for the audience to see mutes being put in the instruments and to hear the effect created (especially considering the brass section is in the back row of the ensemble and often within easy view for the audience). In the case of the tuba mute, because of its large stature, the act of placing it in the bell is a very noticeable act in this context. Indeed, once when during a performance of this work, when placing the mute into the bell of my instrument a child asked his mother (rather loudly), ‘What’s that thing, mum?’ much to the amusement of the orchestra and members of the audience.

Bevan, when discussing the use of mutes, cites Strauss’ Don Quixote (1897) as ‘possibly the first time’ tuba mute was called for in an orchestral work. It would appear that Strauss did not intend to use the mute as merely a means to reduce the sound, as during the introduction section a majority of the brass are muted yet play at loud dynamics such as fortissimo, implying the composer was seeking the reedy, tinny aural effects that are created. Throughout the parts where the tuba plays muted, it is frequently in conjunction with the trombone and the tenor tuba (euphonium) parts, often doubling the bass trombone and tenor tuba parts either in unison or an octave lower.

Figure 3.8: Strauss’ Don Quixote, Introduction – mm. 112‐15

The brass section. Note all parts except trumpet 1 and trombone 1 are all marked ‘with mute’ yet also performing at fortissimo. Tuba doubles tenor tuba in unison.

3.4 Performance Stamina

Orchestral tuba players are required to have an appropriate level of stamina when performing works with the ensemble to ensure they can adequately play works with satisfactory agility and virtuosity.

3.4.1 Technical Requirements

There are varying degrees of technical requirements for the orchestral tuba player, with some orchestral pieces being remarkably simple for the performer to prepare – some even being straightforward enough for a competent player to sight read the work with little‐to‐no problem while others ranging to very difficult and technically demanding. A number of pieces have a degree of both of these characteristics.

Tippett’s Symphony No. 4 is scored with two tubas requiring the first tuba player to be dextrous in technique in order to fulfil the composer’s requirements. Specifically at figure 36, there are awkward semiquaver runs from both the changing accidentals being used as well as the changing of time signatures from 2/4 to 5/8. These time changes would not normally pose much of an issue, though concentration is required because of the use triplet rhythms in the 2/4 sections. The section is written in the high register of the tuba, staying above the stave and going to a g‐flatI. The performer does have a saving grace in the fact that there are 2 and 4 bar phrases that are repeated.

Figure 3.9: Tippett Symphony No 4, Sections 36‐40

Some composers, when writing tuba parts, have the instrument change registers dramatically, often when the trombones are pitched higher and the tuba matches at a similar pitch, It is not uncommon for these register shifts to occur suddenly after extended rest sections. Examples of this kind of writing are Tchaikovsky’s Symphony No 6, Walton’s Crown Imperial and Jenkins’ The Armed Man.

In Tchaikovsky’s Symphony No 6 the tuba, after a comfortably‐ranged first movement, has to pitch from the top to above the stave after a 50‐bar tacet. This is followed by a similar‐length rest and then notes almost two octaves lower below the stave, followed again by extended rest and then similar upper register playing. This type of writing is susceptible for mispitching, especially in the upper register, for less‐experienced players, as well as forcing the player to deal with cold starts.

Figure 3.10: Tchaikovsky Symphony No 6 ‘Pathetique,’ second movement

Walton’s Crown Imperial’s register shifts are more sudden than Tchaikovsky’s Symphony No 6, in the sense that the rest periods between the shifts are shorter. In most cases the register shifts from below the stave to above the stave, usually around two octaves or similar after only four or eight bars’ rest, makes the shift slightly easier because the instrument having not cooled down. The Armed Man’s register are composed similarly.

Similar to the previous discussion regarding register shifts is the resting and taceting for the tuba player in works. While this phenomenon is not limited to the tuba – the brass section (indeed more so the low brass section) often has more resting than other sections of the orchestra in works, with the possible exception of percussion. This can be an issue for performer because of the requirement of playing a cold instrument onstage. It is not uncommon for tubas to tacet whole movements in symphonies. Examples such as Symphonie Fantastique, Dvorak’s Symphonies Nos 8 and 9, Mussorgsky’s/Ravel’s Pictures at an Exhibition and Tchaikovsky’s Symphonies Nos 5 and 6.

3.5 Genre/Styles

The orchestral tuba player’s repertoire progresses from nineteenth century through to present day. Genres and styles of repertoire vary from Romantic works to twelve‐tone, minimalist, film score/soundtrack, jazz etc. As a result, the tuba player must be flexible enough to comfortably shift from one style of playing to another.

3.6 Compositional Techniques

An accepted form of scoring the tuba within the brass section is in octaves below the trombones/bass trombone. This is common practice in Russian and Eastern European orchestral works, particularly in the works of Mussorgsky, Sibelius and Prokofiev. Examples of this include Night on Bald Mountain, Finlandia and Romeo and Juliet Suite No. 2. Similar orchestration is evident in works by Berlioz, demonstrating this method

of orchestration was implemented early on in the tuba’s existence. This form of instrumentation strengthens the foundation in the bass of the brass section.

Figure 3.11: Mussorgsky, Night on Bald Mountain, trombone and tuba parts

Figure 3.12: Sibelius, FInlandia, trombones 1, 2, 3 and tuba

Figure 3.13: Prokofiev, Romeo and Juliet Suite no. 2 – Montagues and Capulets, trombones 1‐3 and tuba parts

Berlioz’s works include the use of the tuba in unison with the bass trombone, especially in works where the tuba is performing in the upper register. In a number cases the tuba part moves higher than the bass trombone, though this could be attributed to the composer’s previous use of ophicleide, given that instrument’s range. It should be noted that the tuba moving higher than the bass trombone does occur occasionally in contemporary works also.

Figure 3.14: Berlioz, Roméo et Juliette, Recitative, trombones 1‐3 and tuba parts Note the tuba part written an octave higher than third trombone.

3.7 Tutti Performance

The tuba player, when performing with the orchestra, must be aware of their role within the ensemble. To that end, the tuba player needs to understand the context in which they are playing. Generally, the tuba is used either with the brass section or with other bass instruments such as double bass, bassoon etc.

When the brass section is performing, the tuba functions as the main bass instrument for the section, similar to the bassoon and/or bass clarinet in the woodwinds and the double basses in the strings. As shown earlier, the tuba commonly performs in conjunction with the trombones, particularly with the bass trombone, with the tuba’s strong, mellow tone enhancing the hard, brassy tone of the trombones.

When the tuba is performing with other low instruments (particularly the double basses) it enhances the tone of the ensemble, especially when accents and marcato‐ style playing is required, as the tuba’s articulation can be used to augment the beginnings of notes effectively. A notable example of this is the fourth movement of Tchaikovsky’s Symphony No 5, where the tuba adds an enhancement to the marked starts to the notes of the bass line.

3.8 Conclusion

The orchestral tuba player needs to be skilled in a variety of disciplines, from technical virtuosity and flexibility, to intonation awareness and intonation adjustment/ compensation, to being aware of the context of the work and the instrument/s required for performance. The tuba/tuba player’s role within the orchestra is not as the main bass instrument for the ensemble as a whole but as the main bass of the brass section and as a supplement to the bass section of the orchestra.

It should be noted, however, that the tuba, despite being not the main bass instrument, has the dynamic capacity to help support the ensemble from the bass position. This can be demonstrated by the orchestra generally scored with usually 4‐6

43 double basses in the strings and 2 bassoons and a bass clarinet in the woodwinds, yet only one tuba.

Chapter Four

Brass Band and Wind Ensemble Repertoire

4.1 Introduction

This chapter details the role of the tuba in the brass band and wind ensemble examining orchestration, technical requirements, articulation and compositional devices, and including the social culture of the ensemble. Study of these aspects contributes to a broader understanding of the role of the tuba in each ensemble, allowing for comparison and contrast in the following chapter.

4.2 Brass Band Repertoire

The tuba section is used as an individual section of the brass band, not just functioning as a member within a section. By contrast, in the symphony orchestra and wind ensemble the tuba functions primarily as the bass part of the brass section. In the case of the brass band being what is essentially a large brass ensemble/choir, the tuba functions not only as the bass for the whole ensemble but as a separate section on its own.

4.2.1 Orchestration

In the brass band the tuba section is divided into two separate and connected instrumental parts. There are E‐flat and B‐flat pitched instruments used with and each one filling both similar and different roles, depending on contexts. The E‐flat, being pitched higher, tends to perform in the middle to upper register of the instrument while the lower‐pitched B‐flat commonly stays in the middle to low register. This pitch separation results in unison and harmonic playing within the section.

The characteristic of brass band scoring results in the tuba section performing with all sections of the ensemble. However, given the lower‐pitch nature of the instrument the sections most commonly performed with are the trombones (specifically more so the bass trombone) and the euphonium/baritone section.

E‐flat and B‐flat parts are often scored an octave apart because the range comforts, providing consolidated support and texture to the ensemble.

The tuba is used on occasion to double thematic material in works, usually doubling one or more octaves lower than the higher instrument (e.g. soprano cornet or tenor horn).

This type of writing is more commonly found in the E‐flat part. I find this has the effect of reinforcing the volume and tone of the melodic line in a similar way to the use of octaves in piano music.

Figure 4.1: Downie – St Magnus m. 48‐49. E‐flat bass part doubling the tenor horn melody

A common practice in brass band scoring is the dovetailing of tessitura from E‐flat to B‐flat tubas (and vice versa), based on comfortable performance ranges of each instrument, and allowing for a smooth transition of the melody or accompaniment. E.g. a descending line may start in the E‐flat part and then be taken up by the B‐flat part when the line reaches a range more suitable to the lower pitched instrument. Steadman‐Allen recommends this method of orchestration.1

1 Ray Steadman‐Allen, Colour and Texture in the Brass Band Score (Wellingborough: Salvationist Publishing and Supplies, 1980). p. 14 47

4.2.2 Technical Requirements

The brass band repertoire contains virtuosic playing for the tuba and often fast passages written more so for E‐flat tubas rather than B‐flats. A specific technical requirement for the repertoire is more scale‐based. These parts often have fast scale passages and frequently doubling other parts in the score (usually euphoniums). As a result the brass band tuba player should be familiar with (among others) concert B‐flat, E‐flat and A‐flat major scales including chromatic scales and arpeggios. I have observed, however, that while many brass band musicians (not just tuba playing ones) can play scales and scale‐ passages quite proficiently, rather than learn them through tonality or key signatures, they tend to learn them as a pattern of fingerings and do not necessarily relate the scale with the key of the work they are playing. There are exceptions to this, of course.

Figure 4.2: Glinka/Parkes – Overture – Russlan and Ludmilla opening. Note the band playing largely in unison.

Brass band tuba playing makes use of techniques such as double and triple tonguing. As the ensemble is scored entirely for brass players this is understandable, for these techniques are standard skills with which brass players are required to be familiar. When performing fast repertoire or transcriptions their parts are often exposed requiring a 49 greater level of dexterity when compared to their orchestral or wind ensemble counterparts. As a result, the use of these techniques along with others such as flutter tonguing is more common.

4.2.3 Compositional Devices

The brass band composer makes more use of mutes compared to other ensembles. There are few examples of wind ensemble repertoire that have scored separate (or split) muted tuba parts whereas there are more brass band works where the entire tuba section being muted for effect and often in harmony. In general, more brass band works use mutes than those composed for wind ensemble or orchestral works. At the same time however, the tuba section in the brass band uses mute less than the other sections within the band.

Contemporary composers tend to use the muted tuba more for the aural effect and use it in conjunction with the rest of the band. Quite often when the tubas are muted it is in with tandem with other sections of the ensemble, rarely are the tubas muted on their own.

Figure 4.3: Sparke – Between the Moon and Mexico opening bars. All brass parts muted

Composers for brass band are aware of the differences in the pitches of the tubas in the ensemble and will, on occasion, score them in harmony, unlike in the orchestra or wind ensemble where the most one may expect them to do is to play in octaves or fifths. In brass band repertoire it is not uncommon to find tubas scored in 3rds, 4ths, 5ths, 6ths,

8ves and/or 9ths. This kind of writing is particularly common in contesting music and

51 modern original repertoire and as a result the tuba section can function as a small ensemble (specifically a quartet) within the larger, as well as providing a less‐ familiar/different tone colour from the harmonies played with instruments not normally associated with that type of playing. This in turn forces the players to become accustomed to blending and tuning within their own section, as well as becoming familiar with playing more than the root or the fifth of the chord.

Figure 4.4: Sparke – Dances and Alleluias mm. 142‐144. E‐flat and B‐flat bass parts splitting into a soli quartet

Contemporary brass band composers often make use of a tuba soloist in works, usually E‐ flat tuba while the rest of the section either tacets or accompanies with long chords

(usually a unison or in octaves) underneath the melody. In most situations it seems to be more of a transient melody as it moves to another instrument rather than an extended tuba feature. In quite a number of works the solo is technically very demanding, or pitched in the high register usually to display the player’s musicianship especially in the case of competition music.

Figure 4.5: Wilby – Dove Descending Part 2, opening bars. E‐flat bass part splits to the top stave solo and the rest of the section accompanying

Contesting repertoire is usually virtuosic and technically demanding for all players. It is designed to distinguish the competing bands’ skills and capabilities and this can be seen in the tuba parts of the repertoire. It is not unusual for a tuba part to have very fast runs (not always entirely scalic in nature), muted sections, solo passages or doubled in places with another instrument such as soprano cornet, section ensemble playing (ie playing in harmony as a section feature).Contesting repertoire occasionally contains uncommon seemingly bizarrely performance requirements such as vocalisations by performers, tone‐ clusters and performing percussive effects. These uncommon effects can prove to be rather challenging for the brass band tuba player.

4.2.4 The Culture of the Brass Band Player

As part of the brass band culture one of its defining objectives is that of competing – specifically local, state and national‐level band competitions. This stems from the

53 ensemble’s earliest days in the nineteenth century, where brass bands would compete in local competitions against rival brass bands, similarly observed in a community‐based sporting team.2 Regional and national competitions are prestigious with (very often) prize money being at stake, and communities often whole‐heartedly support their band. The tradition of competitive banding has permeated through to the present day, with band competitions still being held in England and Europe, Australia, New Zealand and North

America. As a result, competitions set a test piece that all bands are required to perform.

In the case of the Australian Championships an additional work of own choice is included.

In many circumstances (especially the high‐profile competitions such as British Open or

European Championships) a test piece is commissioned. On occasions a band commissions a new work for their ensemble to perform in their competition program. In Britain, brass band championships are a considerable element of the country’s musical culture. The

National Brass Band Championships of Great Britain (also referred to as the “National”) are held in the prestigious Albert Hall in London every year, with competing brass bands performing for a full house

Brass Band repertoire experienced a resurgence of interest because of the 1996 film

Brassed Off! that tells the story of the fictional Grimley Colliery Brass Band and the flow‐ on effects of the closure of the town’s coal pit on the brass band (based on the true story of the Grimethorpe Colliery Band – some of whom played members of the film’s band).

The film not only drew attention of the general public to brass bands, but created an

2 Bernard Smith, "The Salvation Army Brass Band ‐ Usual and Unusual Instruments Blend to Produce a Perfect Balance with Specially Written Music," Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1950). p. 41 54 interest in the repertoire and the genre: so much so that specific works from the soundtrack (also recorded by Grimethorpe) such as Floral Dance, a transcription of the

Aranjuez guitar concerto by Rodrigo for flugelhorn, the marches Death or Glory and

Florentiner March and Galop from William Tell are performed regularly by brass bands with reference in concert programs as “performed in the film Brassed Off!”.

The downside of the interest in this genre of repertoire, as seen in the film, is that audiences tend to expect this type of repertoire and in preference to other original works and not necessarily contest works, for they are not always audience‐friendly. Bands that have to woo their audiences to concerts in order to remain financially sustainable, are

‘forced’ to perform these or similar works to satisfy their audience. A philosophical downside of this direction is an aversion on the part of some of the band members who perform oft‐repeated repertoire when they would rather play other, more challenging and/or musically satisfying works. This, in turn, makes potential new members (often of the younger generations) less likely to join or stay a committed member to a brass band. I have found myself coming out from a concert performance dissatisfied not necessarily with how the ensemble has performed but with the repertoire that had been performed.

There is a trend for brass band concert audiences to be of an older age group. Since they are the band’s core audience the selection of works is tailored to entertain them. While this is understandable, it will impact on the viability of the brass band when the audience is longer there to support them, resulting in less successful concerts and the possible future reduction in the number of ensembles.

It should be reiterated that the brass band was originally a means of affordable/free entertainment for the lay person. The repertoire they would perform were popular or easily‐recognised works in public performances. This genre of performance and their audience is still that way today, with audiences attending concerts as a means of pure entertainment. Unlike orchestras or wind ensembles, whose audiences are more receptive to musically complex works (e.g. repertoire from the 12‐tone school), brass bands are not necessarily in a position to “educate” their audience since that is not why their audiences attend their performances.

Brass bands, being predominately amateur and community‐based ensembles, contain elements of family‐involvement. To that end, it is common for members of the same immediate family to perform with or support the band, which in turn reinforces the

“community” aspect of the genre, and can on occasion lead to professional musical and orchestral work. Examples of continual familial brass band involvement in Australia are the Walmsley family of the Willoughby Brass, the Saunders family of Warringah Concert

Brass, the O’Hearn family of Toronto Brass and the Grice family of Waratah Brass.

The Salvation Army is an example of the community brass band of high stature and discipline. Having come into existence in the nineteenth century, the Salvation Army Band has grown to have a musical influence in 103 countries worldwide as of 1997 (Newsome p.

295). The Salvation Army band’s main function within the church is to enhance the worship experience mainly through assistance in collective hymn singing, as well as

“offertories” and other special music presentations, either as a musical interlude during the service or as separate public performances.

Due to the discipline of brass band playing, as well as the brass band orientation of the

Salvation Army and its brass pedagogy for younger members, it is hardly surprising it has impacted upon professional brass playing, with a number of professional orchestral brass musicians coming from that background. Recent Australian examples include trombone players Ronald Prussing of the Sydney Symphony, Howard Parkinson of the Adelaide

Symphony Orchestra and Joshua Davis of the Western Australia Symphony Orchestra.

There has also been an emergence in recent years of tertiary music programs with a brass band focus, especially in Britain (e.g. University of York and the Royal Northern College of

Music), indicating that there is a noticeable influence on brass musicians with brass band involvement, and that it can lead to professional musical careers. It should be noted that often professional orchestral brass players who have been musically “brought up” through the Salvation Army stay active with local Salvation Army ensembles and churches, either as performers or conductors.

4.3 Wind Ensemble Repertoire

The tuba section of the wind ensemble functions as a collective section as opposed to the cooperative two‐part function of its brass band equivalent. To that end, there are not separate tuba parts, and the tuba section functions more as the double bass does in the orchestra. 57

4.3.1 Orchestration

Due to the ensemble’s lack of low string sections (an exception being large European wind ensembles with a double bass and cello section), the tuba is required to fill a more prominent bass line role than the symphony orchestra. The instrument’s capability of playing both loud and soft allows it to take more responsibility at the bottom end of the ensemble, especially when having to act as the harmonic foundation for the band. Tuba sections in wind ensembles usually consist of two to eight people, depending on the size of the ensemble and the availability of players.

While different pitch tubas are used in wind ensembles, the tuba parts do not reflect this in the same way that brass bands or orchestras do. In brass bands there are separate B‐ flat and E‐flat parts, with each one specifically tailored to that instrument, not necessarily merely transposed for the pitch, while in orchestras the tuba player determines the pitch/size instrument required for performance by the context of the repertoire. In wind ensembles it is standard to have one tuba part (even if there is a four or more‐strong section size), rather than a high and low tuba part. In recent times it has been the practice

(especially in European wind ensemble music) to have tuba parts in concert pitch and in transpositions such as B‐flat/E‐flat treble clef and B‐flat/E‐flat bass clef, so as to accommodate performers more used to these transpositions. However, these parts are merely transposed and are the same part, and do not have any differences, other than some small range shifts for ease of playing.

When performing in an ensemble, the tuba part often doubles with the bass clarinet, baritone saxophone and bassoon, these instruments being the other main bass instruments of the ensemble. At times these instruments double parts to add an extra depth to the music by combining the tone colours and having the assets of the instruments (eg. the warmth of the bass clarinet couples with the volume support of the tuba) working in tandem. It has been my experience in wind ensemble playing that of these three instruments the one that plays with the tuba is more commonly the baritone saxophone, presumably due to its similar timbre and range.

As in the symphony orchestra, the tuba functions as the bass foundation for the brass section, working with the trombones and euphoniums in particular. The addition of the euphonium to the wind ensemble orchestration allows the tuba to blend with a tuba‐ esque tone colour brass instrument in a pitch‐range matching that of the trombones. As a result the tuba may double in octaves, or work in harmony with the euphonium.

While the tuba, being a member of the brass section serves as a bass foundation for that section, on occasion it plays with saxophone section to function as an extra bass‐tone under the baritone saxophone, often at the lower octave. The tone colours of the tuba and the saxophones blend together well, and the tuba can add extra depth by playing lower than the baritone sax can and thus support the section with lower harmonies.

4.3.2 Technical Requirements

As the tuba has to fill a larger role in wind ensembles to compare with that of the orchestra (in which cello and double bass sections function as the principal bass line) the amount of playing for the tuba player increases. As a result the wind ensemble tuba player does more playing per work than that of an orchestral tuba player, requiring more performance stamina in this case. This is detailed in section 5.4.4 in Chapter 5 (cf. p. 81)

A major part of the wind ensemble repertoire consists of orchestral transcriptions. When works originally composed for orchestra are transcribed for wind ensemble, parts for orchestral instruments that are not part of the wind ensemble are redistributed among the other instruments (e.g. strings). In the case of double bass parts and, in a number of cases the cello parts, the tuba is given a bulk of the bass lines. The wind ensemble tuba player needs to be able to play for more extended periods of time and sometimes be just as flexible register‐wise when performing these pieces. The parts can be more dextrous and more technical in places, mostly due to the fact that the double basses and cellos can perform runs and similar fast passages.

Original works for the wind ensemble tend to contain more complex parts for the tuba than most orchestral works. Modern composers for the wind ensemble, working with an understanding of the instrument’s potential, utilise the instrument and performer to perform more significant parts. This type of writing can range from agile runs to melodic phrases, rather than functioning as the root of the chord or as exclusively as a bass

60 instrument. The use of harmonies within the tuba section and in harmony with other instruments such as euphonium does occur.

With the size of the tuba section of a wind ensemble varying from usually two to eight players, the section is capable of playing at louder dynamic levels with less effort on the part of the individual player than would be possible with a smaller section (e.g. the lone tuba player of an orchestra). As a result, the stamina required (especially at louder dynamics) is lowered, allowing the wind ensemble tuba player to be able to focus more on tone production than volume, contributing more to the timbre of the ensemble.

4.3.3 Compositional Devices

The tuba is more of a featured instrument in the wind ensemble – as the more powerful bass instrument its parts can stand out more so than the other instruments, with the possible exception of baritone saxophone’s tone colour, though that instrument is limited in terms of register. Solo/soli passages are far more common for the tuba in this ensemble type.

Figure 4.6: Barnes – Third Symphony first movement opening. Symphony opens with extended tuba solo marked ‘doloroso.’ Other examples of extended tuba solos in this ensemble medium are de Meij’s Venetian Collection (2002) and Holst’s First Suite for Military Band (1909).

The use of tubas in harmony with themselves (if numbers permit) or with the euphonium section as a larger section/ensemble of their own is a feature of wind ensemble writing.

When there are more players – usually three or more – parts in octaves or fifths can be used to create thicker texture and different tone colour within the ensemble. Use of other intervals (like thirds, fourths or sixths) is uncommon.

Figure 4.7: Barnes– Third Symphony fourth movement from m. 83. At m. 95 Barnes splits the tuba part into three notes, which is exceptional because of the fact the notes make up a ninth chord. The tubas are the only held notes at this point in the movement, with the remainder of the ensemble performing quaver pulse rhythms

4.3.4 Competitions

While wind ensembles do take part in competitions, it is not with the same intensity as brass bands. There are local, state, national and international competitions available to the ensemble, and as a result appropriate repertoire is developing to accommodate both the competitions and the competitors.

There are a number of reasons that explain the less‐intensely competitive nature of wind ensembles. While professional brass bands are allowed to take part in competitions, most professional wind ensembles are those of the armed forces and as such are not allowed to compete. Community/amateur wind ensembles quite often do not perform at a high enough technical level to take part in the higher levels of competitions, and often do not have the finance to pay for the transport and accommodation, which is more expensive due to the larger number of players in the ensemble when compared to those of the brass band.

4.4 Differences of Tuba Performance Between the Brass Band and Wind Ensemble

There are contrasting differences between the brass band and the wind ensemble and the role of the tuba also differs between them.

While there are a number of professional paid brass bands, the majority are amateur or community‐based ensembles, consisting of members who perform as a hobby. This contrasts with wind ensembles, where the majority are semi/professional with members being professionally trained musicians or tertiary music students. There are instances of amateur community‐based wind ensembles, though these tend to be smaller sized ensembles when compared to semi/professional ones, and often lack numbers of the uncommon instruments such as oboes and French horns.

Brass band concert repertoire is commonly audience‐friendly, ranging from light classical transcriptions to jazz/Latin and recognisable popular music such as those from films, aimed towards audiences as a means of straightforward entertainment. Wind ensemble concert repertoire is quite often original works or orchestral transcriptions, with concerts tending to be aimed towards those with more a more discriminating musical aesthetic.

Competing is a major established part of brass band playing and culture. Contrastingly, it is not as major a factor in wind ensemble culture.

One major difference between brass bands and wind ensembles is that of the tuba writing/scoring. Brass band scoring is specifically written with two different‐pitched and sized tubas to make up the section with distinctive and related roles for each pitched

64 instrument, with the ensemble requiring both instruments. Contrasting this is the wind ensemble, where the tuba part is written as one generic part with the composer having no specific size or pitched tuba in mind. The decision to use large and/or low tubas is more the purview of availability and the musical whim of the conductor and/or the tuba section leader. As a result, the tuba’s idiosyncrasies are highlighted to a greater extent than in brass band repertoire. The wind ensemble tuba player has a less distinctive role than their brass band counterparts, reminiscent of the role of the orchestral tuba player (though the wind ensemble tuba player’s role is more prominent than their orchestral equivalent).

Chapter Five Comparison of the Roles of the Tuba

5.1 Introduction

This chapter sets out to compare and contrast the roles of the tuba in its performance aspects, as both tutti and solo tuba, within each of the three types of ensemble. The ways in which these can affect the tuba player’s approach to performance are illustrated using my own playing experiences such as my solo performance with the University of

Newcastle Wind Orchestra (Sparke Tuba Concerto).

The previous chapters explored the role of the tuba in each type of ensemble. In this chapter the comparisons and contrasts are focused on each of the divisions outlined from previous chapters to demonstrate the differences between the roles of the tuba in these diverse settings. This chapter validates the view of the tuba as being not a “one‐size‐fits‐ all” instrument because it has a variety of responsibilities in the ensemble. It is desirable the tuba player adapts their role through awareness of these differences between the ensembles.

My own experiences in preparing for concert and solo performance are discussed, from the perspective of both individual practice and rehearsing with the ensemble, along with the performance and associated performance issues.

I differentiate between Orchestration (5.2) and Ensemble Performance (5.3) because the former explores the tuba’s usage as an instrument within the ensemble, whereas the latter centers on the performance aspect within the ensemble. The two topics are related, however the comparisons between the orchestra, brass band and wind ensemble can be treated more concisely when the topics are separated and therefore more detail can be given.

In this thesis the “role” refers to the function and responsibilities of both the instrument and the performer within the ensemble, and the research demonstrates how the tuba has taken on more than just one function through its evolution.

5.2 Instrumentation and Orchestration of the Tuba

The composer’s approach to the tuba within the three media (i.e. orchestra/brass band/wind ensemble) affects the technical demands and sound characteristics of the tuba. The following discussion outlines these differences and the strategies composers adopt when writing for the individual ensemble.

Orchestra

The role of the tuba is predominantly with the brass section (specifically the trombone section more so than horns or trumpets), along with the double basses and cellos. The tuba does have solos in tutti works, though these are not usually particularly lengthy and tend to focus more on the lumbering, hefty character of the instrument’s sound rather 67 than utilising the more dexterous potential of the instrument. The standard instrumentation of the orchestra provides for one tuba player, though there are exceptions for certain works depending on the aesthetic requirement of the composer or musical director for additional players/parts.

Brass Band

By contrast the instrumentation of this ensemble influences the role/treatment of the tuba within the lower sections. Due to the presence of separate E‐flat and B‐flat instruments in scores, the tuba performs as two sections within the ensemble – creating a high and low‐pitched section, similar to the cello/bass section in orchestra, as well as working as one section with other instruments. In the case of the former scenario, the E‐ flat and B‐flat tubas perform together in harmony in a similar way to the cornet or horn sections. In the case of the latter, the E‐flat and B‐flat sections often perform with the euphoniums and trombones. The tuba also serves in a solo capacity. In most cases this is done by one E‐flat instrument with the remainder of the tubas remain tacet.

The tuba parts in the brass band tend to be more virtuosic in nature than orchestral tuba parts, particularly those for the E‐flat tuba which, as the higher pitched of the two instruments, plays more of the solo/melodic lines. There tends to be more solo work in brass band repertoire compared to other ensemble types, given there are no other bass instruments to cover the solos. The orchestra and wind ensemble have the opportunity to use alternate bass instruments such cello, double bass, bassoon, bass clarinet and baritone saxophone to provide a wider palette of tone colours within the orchestration.

Wind Ensemble

In wind ensembles the tuba is more commonly aligned with the brass section; however it is used more prominently in the bass role of the ensemble because there are generally no cello and double bass sections. Although double basses can be, and often are orchestrated in wind ensembles, some (in particular amateur) do not have this luxury and in most cases a tuba player covers the part when it is required. There are instances in European scores where composers include cello parts, however this is not common. The tuba plays in combination with the other bass instruments of the wind ensemble, specifically the bass clarinet, baritone saxophone and bassoon, though the tuba functions as the primary bass instrument for the ensemble because of its powerful tone. When a composer requires a different timbre they may choose, for instance, a bass clarinet to perform with the wind section. The standard instrumentation of this ensemble requires more than one player in the tuba section: usually from two to four.

In considering all three ensemble types, it emerges that the perspective of the brass band tuba player has the most prominent role, followed by those of the wind ensemble and finally the orchestra. The stamina of the brass band tuba player is greatly developed through the considerable playing time in the typical score, requiring greater endurance.

5.3 The Role of the Tuba in Ensemble Performance

To gain a greater insight into the role of the tuba, the following section separates and discusses detailed aspects of ensemble performance highlighting the differences.

Specifically, it details the tuba’s function within each ensemble, as a member of the brass section and tuba/bass section (where appropriate) and compares and contrasts the similarities and differences between these functions.

Orchestra

The tuba provides the bass of the brass section, and as such the instrument provides a depth in the tone colour and timbre to the section. Due to its conical bore the tuba has a warmer and mellow tone contrasting with the brighter, brassy tone of the cylindrical‐ bored trumpets and trombones. The tuba does not function as the principal bass part of the orchestra, but rather is used more as a colour to be added to the ensemble. When additional volume is required from the bass section the tuba is often called upon, for example the doubling of double basses in the fourth movement of Tchaikovsky Symphony no. 5

Brass Band

The tuba section functions as the bass of the ensemble (though there is also the bass trombone). However the bass trombone serves more as a colour and as a support to the tuba/trombone sections in a similar way to the tuba’s relationship to the double basses in the orchestra. With the use of two different keyed instruments, and being of different

70 sizes, the section fulfils roles similar respectively to that of the cellos (E‐flat) and the double basses (B‐flat). The tuba blends well with other sections of the band, noting that all brass band instruments are conical bored besides the trombones. It is scored principally with the euphonium and the bass trombone, but can function as a separate section.

Occasionally the tuba plays as duet with other instruments in the band – horn or solo cornet or soprano cornet (e.g. Downie’s St Magnus)

The brass band tuba section consists of at least four tubas (two E‐flats, two B‐flats). Unlike the orchestra and wind ensemble, the brass band tuba section can therefore reduce their individual volume with the responsibility falling on each player to balance the ensemble.

This is beneficial as they then can focus on tone and sound, rather than the volume orientated balance of the other ensembles. There are instances of tutti and solo tuba playing in pieces for dynamic contrast

Wind Ensemble

The tuba serves as a principal bass part in this ensemble. While there are other bass instruments – bass clarinet, baritone saxophone, double bass, and bass trombone – the tuba has a stronger tone and volume and can support the whole ensemble more effectively, especially with additional players in the section. Within a larger section less volume is required from each instrument to attain the same balance compared to that of a one‐instrument section. As a result, care has to be taken to maintain a balance within the section itself, especially when playing divisi when parts are spaced in fifths.

The tuba has unique roles that complement each type of ensemble in which it plays.

Volume and tone required can affect the sound output of the players and how they approach their specific role.

5.4 Performance Aspects of the Tuba in the Ensemble

This section focuses on the performing priorities of the members of the ensembles, specifically the differences between the professional and amateur ensembles.

Orchestra

In the case of musicians belonging to a professional symphony orchestra, membership of the ensembles is their main source of income. They work towards professional concerts, tours, live broadcasts and studio recordings. Because it is a professional position all members are required to stay in top performance condition or risk losing their income through being replaced within the ensemble. Members have normally studied performance at a tertiary level or equivalent.

Brass Band

Brass bands are almost exclusively amateur ensembles or community bands. There are a small number of professional bands in the UK (e.g. Grimethorpe, Black Dyke) that remunerate their members; otherwise most bands require members to pay fees to help cover band operational expenses. Ensemble members work towards concerts to help

72 continue the band, to acquire new repertoire and pay for venues, uniforms etc. A main part of the ensemble’s focus is the preparation for contests: many bands prepare for state and national championships and give concerts to help raise funds to help the band members get to these events. The ensembles often perform community engagements

(e.g. playing at fetes or community events etc.) to establish a supporter base to ensure more people attend major concerts ensuring their sustainability.

Wind Ensemble

Members of these ensembles range from amateur to semi/fully‐professional musicians.

Wind ensembles are often student ensembles in universities, community ensembles or professional military bands (e.g. army band). It is sometimes a paid job, depending on circumstances – amateur ensembles do not pay, professional/semi‐professional ones do.

They work towards concerts and occasional tours, preparing occasional recordings. These ensembles, on occasion, take part in band competitions at local, state and/or national levels.

Each type of ensemble has different priorities and motivation for their players’ involvement. Orchestral players put their ensemble playing as a high priority because it is how they earn their living. For wind ensemble and more so brass band players it is a passionate hobby for the performer. Often the performers in these latter ensembles do not have formal training in music (e.g. a music degree) and may have other non‐musical occupations such as being lawyers, doctors, accountants etc.

Tuba performance in the three types of ensemble relies on a number of different technical work skills, and these can vary because of the different nature of the instrument’s role within each ensemble and the character of the ensemble itself.

5.4.1 Tuning

The instrumental make‐up of each ensemble, coupled with the amount of playing and the instrumentation groupings the tuba plays in, means the tuba player approaches tuning differently depending on the ensemble.

Orchestra

Tuning can be an issue for orchestral tuba players due to a lack of playing brought on by tacets and extended rests. This raises intonation issues due to temperature changes of the instrument. Methods employed by some orchestral players to combat this include leaving the instrument onstage to acclimatize to the ambient temperature; blowing warm air through the instrument silently to warm it up (with all valves down so as to warm all the tubing) before playing; and listening to the other instruments and adjusting tuning accordingly. Orchestral players learn to cope with these kinds of changes merely through necessity. Orchestral tubas, like all orchestral instruments, tune to the A given by the oboe.

Brass Band

Tuning in these ensembles comes more from listening to the other sections while playing and adjusting accordingly. Intonation is addressed during ensemble warm‐ups of hymn‐ tune or similar playing e.g. chorale exercise. Bands will tune individually to B‐flat and E‐flat for instruments in those keys often before concerts and contests. Section leaders usually tune to the solo cornet player and then continue to tune through the rest of each section, with the ensemble then playing in unison. Tubas often play in octaves and fifths and at times sixths, for both harmonic reasons and for the tone colour created by the instruments when playing these notes. The use of sixths requires the player to concentrate on the intonation of the chord, due to the interval of the sixth being most often the root of the chord, the lower note being the third of the chord and needing to be darker in pitch, with the fifth of the chord (if also played) needing to be brighter in pitch

(i.e. avoiding sharpness and flatness respectively).

Wind Ensemble

Wind ensemble do not have as many tacet‐related tuning issues compared to that of an orchestral tuba player, due to the fact that there is commonly more playing in works performed within this type of ensemble. Intonation issues occur more commonly from rising temperatures of all instruments within the ensemble while performing, and the temperature of the performance space. Intonation within the bigger section of usually two to four players, along with divisi intervals of fifths and octaves between tubas need to be adjusted – octaves solidly in tune, fifths having to be brighter (i.e. slightly sharper) than

75 the root of the chord. This ensemble usually tunes to B‐flat due to the majority of instruments being in the keys of B‐flat or E‐flat. Some ensembles tune to both B‐flat and/or A. Wind ensembles generally tunes to the tuba, with intonation grounded from the bass note produced, though when works are performed with instruments of fixed pitch

(such as piano) the ensemble will tune to that instrument.

Tuning‐wise, the tuba player in each ensemble has an advantage from performing with each of the different aspects – those from orchestral backgrounds have experience with cold‐starts in performances and can adjust tuning quickly; those with brass band experience can tune chord‐wise very efficiently. These practices are beneficial for playing in all contexts of performances to assist ensemble/chord/divisi intonation.

5.4.2 Articulation

Articulation usage is another aspect for tuba players that depends on the ensemble he/she is playing in, given the variety of instruments with which the performer can couple.

Orchestra

Standard articulation requirements for orchestral tuba players include legato, staccato, as well as some double and triple tonguing, and very occasionally flutter‐tonguing. Clear articulation is required to match that of the other instruments: the tuba, being a large instrument, requires very concise and an almost exaggerated articulation at the start of notes to be clear due to the overall indistinct quality of the sound. The tuba’s inherent 76 acoustic nature means that when notes are played the instrument “speaks slowly” – in that there is a short delay from when the performer starts the note to when it is projected. As a result tuba players learn to adjust their articulation of notes so the notes played will sound at the correct time and thus are not late.

Brass Band

Due to the tuba’s major role in filling the bass section in this ensemble, more virtuosic playing is required from the instrument. Given that numerous works in the brass band repertoire have faster tempi with rapid runs, the performer is expected to be technically proficient, especially with double and triple tonguing (Russlan and Ludmilla is an excellent example). Exaggerated articulation is required, though with instruments such as euphonium and baritone with similar acoustic properties in the ensemble, it is not so obvious an issue as it would be in the other ensembles.

Wind Ensemble

This ensemble requires the same kind of articulation as required in orchestral playing. At times it uses more double and triple tonguing. It has the same requirements for exaggerated clarity of articulation brought about by the instrument’s natural acoustic tendencies.

Overall, each ensemble type requires articulation exaggeration. Dexterity is a requirement though it is more noticeable in the tuba parts in wind ensembles and especially brass band music – particularly in contesting music where the objective is also to display performers’

77 playing capabilities. This is also related to technical expectations in the context of brass band contest music.

5.4.3 Mutes/con sordino

Composers make use of muted tuba/s in works for special timbral effects for both a visual impact as well as the effect of the tone colour. Some composers, however, approach composing music with mute changes for the tuba without taking into account its cumbersome nature, a tuba mute cannot be inserted or removed as quickly or easily as a trumpet or trombone mute.

Figure 5.1: Example of my personally‐owned tuba mutes. Left to right: cup mute, straight mute. The stands the mutes are in were made for me by a friend for storage and performances

Photo by writer

Orchestra

Muted tuba is used sparingly in orchestral repertoire. Typical examples of muted tuba can

be heard in Bernstein’s Symphonic Dances from West Side Story where the tuba is muted

for several bars, to match the sound of muted trombones and trumpets earlier in the

section. Britten uses a muted tuba for one note in The Young Person’s Guide to the

Orchestra with the rest of the brass section. My belief is this is done merely for the visual

impact of seeing mutes put in rather than for the actual tone colour produced.

Brass Band

Muted tuba is widely used in contest repertoire often in conjunction with the other sections of the ensemble. Brass band players tend to have more experience in performance with mutes and have a better understanding intonation issues that arise from using it – insertion of a mute makes the instrument’s general pitch sharper. Mutes are used more for the timbral effect than as a visual feature or novelty. Most brass bands provide tuba mutes for players, as not all tuba players in brass bands possess their own.

Muted tuba is used in harmony in 5ths, octaves etc on occasion. There are instances when a composer may not understand the difficulties inherent with muted tuba, and not realise that insertion of a tuba mute is a more cumbersome procedure than for a cornet or trombone. As a result there are times when a tuba player is required to remove a mute with one or two beats only before playing senza sordino, creating a difficult situation of either having one player stop playing early so they can remove the mute and continue playing while the other/s do the same, or attempt to remove the mute while performing.

Wind Ensemble

Mutes are used in wind ensembles more so than orchestral repertoire, but less so than in brass bands. Similar to brass bands its use is more so for the aural effect than visual impact. Muting is not necessarily used in contest repertoire. When used, the muted tubas play mostly in unison, occasionally in 8ves. Once in my experience it has been used in wind ensemble repertoire in 5ths (e.g. Barnes Third Symphony)

Figure 5.2: Barnes– Third Symphony second movement mm. 117‐183. Tuba part muted and playing in fifths throughout this section. At this point in the movement all the brass are muted.

Muted playing is more the purview of brass band performers. In the orchestra and wind ensemble its use is as more of a novelty. Despite this it is important for a tuba player to be familiar with the idiosyncrasies of mute usage. In most instances, the tuba mute’s use is for small amounts of time – usually for no more than a couple of phrases or long notes – though this is not due to any stamina or performance difficulty reasons.

5.4.4 Performance Stamina

The extent of performing the tuba player does in each ensemble varies from one to the other. As a result, the tuba player’s stamina for performance can be affected, as can the style in which they play. As such, the extent to which the tuba player does not play in works with each ensemble is relevant to this study, given the differences between the ensembles in playing requirements, and how it can affect factors of playing within that ensemble

Orchestra

Generally, in most orchestral performances the tuba is used far less than other low instruments such as double basses, cellos and bassoons. As a result of this, less stamina is required of the tuba player to be able to make it through the performance, and they are then able to focus more on sound/volume production. It should be noted that while there are exceptions to this rule, it is generally the case that tuba parts are used less than other bass instruments.

Compared to most other bass instruments of the orchestra (double bass, cello, bassoon etc.) the tuba does remarkably less playing in the majority of works. It is not uncommon for the tuba to tacet for entire movements – or a number of movements – in a work, and this can affect specifically the intonation of the instrument. Orchestral tuba players learn to adapt their playing to correct their intonation because of a number of cold starts. The tuba player must keep a keen awareness of their next entry in extended rest bars and not rely entirely on a conductor’s cue. Examples of this include Berlioz’s Symphonie

Fantastique (tubas tacet movements 1‐3 and perform movements 4‐5); Dvorak’s

Symphonies No. 8 and 9 (No. 8: tacets movement 2 No. 9: performs movement 3 only).

Brass Band

The brass band uses the tubas to function as the principal bass section for the ensemble and consequently the players are continually engaged in playing for longer periods when compared to the symphony orchestra and wind ensemble. This requires a great deal of stamina from the players to be able to play constantly and at a consistent level throughout performances. In this ensemble type there is a greater focus on the virtuosic and intonation elements, because of the four player‐strong tuba section supporting an ensemble of approximately 30 players.

By contrast, tuba writing in the brass band context has far less tacet passages than the other ensembles, resulting in fewer intonation issues and typically developing a stronger stamina in the player (cf. 5.3.3). The constant playing keeps the instrument at a constant ambient temperature assisting the instrument’s intonation to remain stable. As a

83 consequence of fewer rest periods in the repertoire, the brass band tuba player can concentrate more on other factors of their performance. Examples of this quantity of playing include works such as Sparke’s Music of the Spheres (tubas playing through the majority of the work with only a small number of sections taceting) and Harrison’s Dream

(majority playing with only a small number of tacet bars).

Wind Ensemble

With no low string section to support the ensemble, the tuba assists in taking on a prominent role in projecting the bass part. Thus the tuba player in this setting requires more endurance than in the context of orchestral performance. This is assisted by having more than one instrument in the section so that the sound and volume production requirements is lessened for each player. The stamina required by the tuba player in this ensemble type is less than that of a brass band counterpart because of the alternative bass instruments available in the wind ensemble (bass clarinet, bassoon etc).

The wind ensemble tuba player does not experience the same degree of intonation issues from extended rest bars as the orchestral performer, because of its more prominent performing role. These issues can still occur as the use of other bass instruments in this ensemble does result in more extended rests than a brass band’s tuba part/s. A wind ensemble tuba player must still have an awareness of their place within long passages of rests similar to that of the orchestral player, though this is typically less of an issue than wind ensembles than orchestras. Examples include de Meij’s Symphony No. 1 (tuba plays in all movements, though large quantities of movements 2 and 4 are rests), Barnes’

Variations on a Theme By Paganini (tuba does play throughout though there are sections where tuba is not used for reasons of tone colour).

The stamina requirements for each ensemble differ due to the amount of playing presented over a given length of playing time. Players with experience in more than one type of ensemble would find it beneficial when performing due to the different aspects of playing that can be utilized and drawn upon at once – e.g. an orchestral player employing the brass band player’s performance stamina to support the sound control required in orchestral playing.

An advantage of rests/tacets for an orchestral player is that they develop the ability to compensate for the intonation of their entries. A performer moving from playing in this ensemble to one of the others would find it beneficial for ensemble playing generally.

5.4.5 Genre of repertoire/styles

The tuba player must be able to switch between playing and genre styles when performing with any type of ensemble. The three different ensembles have specific styles that the tuba player is accustomed to performing.

Orchestra

The majority of orchestral repertoire for the tuba consists of art or “classical” music from the mid‐nineteenth century through to present day. To that end, works such as

85 symphonies and concert pieces comprise the core repertoire, although orchestral tuba players are expected to be able to perform in more modern styles from the 12‐ tone/atonal school through to film score music. There are performances where the orchestra is required to perform music from less “art” based backgrounds, such as jazz‐ style accompaniment for soloists, or music from video game soundtracks, though in these cases the orchestral members (usually professionally trained) are capable of adapting to these styles of repertoire regardless of their familiarity with the genres.

Brass Band

Performance genres vary for brass band concerts as many have concert themes, such as

“Rhythm and Blues” or “Latin”, as well as straightforward concerts of mixed repertoire. It is not uncommon for a brass band to perform works from a wide array of various styles and genres, ranging from hymns/sacred items, original concert works, jazz‐style works

(e.g. Sing, Sing, Sing or Birdland), marches, classical/orchestral transcriptions solos and fanfare‐style works. In preparation for contests, a brass band must prepare sacred items, and contest works and (occasionally) marches. Brass band tuba players are required to be familiar and comfortable playing within an assortment of varying styles, very often in the one concert/performance. As a result, the brass band tuba player is well‐grounded in a large number of musical styles and is able to perform comfortably within and change between them.

Wind Ensemble

The wind ensemble, in its concert programs, often performs repertoire consisting of original works, concert transcriptions and solos. Occasionally works of other styles (such as latin or jazz works, arrangements/medleys from films/musicals, marches) are performed. Wind ensembles commonly perform in contests similarly to brass bands, so the wind ensemble tuba player is familiar with styles of sacred items (hymns), marches and contest works.

While tuba players need to be familiar with a variety of different styles of performance genres, the brass band tuba player is more versatile than those of wind ensemble and orchestras, due to the varying styles required by the concert performances. It is an intriguing paradox that the brass band performer (essentially an amateur musician) is often required to be more technically versatile and agile when performing repertoire than is often required of an orchestral musician (usually professional), though the orchestral musician is trained with a specific range of technical skills not always taught to brass band performers (such as scale/arpeggio study, dominant and diminished sevenths, harmony/theory training). Despite this, the technically demanding style of brass band performing is useful when crossed over to orchestral playing, allowing a tuba player performing in both ensembles to benefit from the more technical aspect. It has been my experience that, at least anecdotally, there are a number of professional orchestral brass musicians (especially lower bass) who come from originally a brass band background. It

87 can be argued that performance in a brass band provides a pathway towards professional orchestral performance.

5.5 Compositional techniques

The tuba player encounters a range of compositional techniques and devices, depending on the ways that the composer/arranger wants to use the sound quality of the instrument.

5.5.1 Articulation

Composers and performers make use of different articulation techniques either for dexterity and clarity in faster tempos, or for timbral special effects. They do so through the use of double/triple tonguing and flutter tonguing.

Orchestra

A majority of orchestral tuba playing requires the use of single tonguing, as the more virtuosic playing in bass parts is usually carried out by the double basses or cello sections – instruments that are more dexterous. Despite this, the orchestral tuba player does on occasion make use of double or triple tonguing when the repertoire requires faster articulation, be it for several notes, or a whole passage. Orchestral tuba players are required, nevertheless, to be proficient with these articulations because being 88 professional musicians it is a mandatory skill for them to possess regardless of the rate of occurrence. Flutter tonguing is rare, being seen in few circumstances, which is not wholly surprising as it is more of a timbral effect than a necessary articulation for clarity.

Brass Band

Being what is essentially the only bass‐part instruments in the brass band, the tuba’s parts reflect the previously established more virtuosic requirement in playing, and make use of double and triple tonguing noticeably more frequently than in the context of the orchestra or wind ensemble. This may occur in fast passages or works, and brass band composers/arrangers appear to place similar technical expectations on tuba players as they do on cornet and euphonium players – instruments that are easier to articulate and play faster due to their shorter length of tubing and their smaller valves capable of being moved more rapidly. (See Russlan and Ludmilla.) The use of flutter tonguing is as more of a special timbre effect and is practically as rare in this ensemble’s playing as the others’.

Wind Ensemble

Wind ensemble repertoire makes similar articulation demands on the tuba player as their orchestral counterparts – a majority of their playing is with single tonguing, and the faster tempo works usually make use of the tuba in ways that do not require double or single tonguing, such as less rapidly‐moving or less virtuosic passages, as in marches. Flutter tonguing occurs very rarely.

Orchestral and wind ensemble playing make noticeably less use of double and triple tonguing than brass band playing. As a result of this, the brass band tuba player will be more comfortable with these different articulations and can end up being more proficient.

I have found in my experience that better proficiency with double/triple tonguing also results in greater proficiency and clarity in single tonguing. Flutter tonguing is used primarily as a rare timbral effect in the repertoire of all three ensembles.

5.5.2 Chords (Performing in 5ths, 6ths etc.)

Composers make use of tubas in harmony with other tubas within their section and other low brass instruments (euphoniums, trombones) for harmonic, timbral and special effects.

Specific intervals that are primarily used are octaves and fifths– fourths are used when enough tubas are orchestrated to perform an open chord of tonic‐fifth‐tonic.

Orchestra

Since the use of more than one tuba in standard orchestration is rare, the occurrence of tubas performing in harmony is a similar rarity. The tuba is most commonly scored in unison with or in octaves below the bass trombone, rarely playing at a higher pitch than that instrument. This is particularly the case in Russian music – particularly noticeable in the music of Mussorgsky – when the tuba is almost always exclusively an octave below the bass trombone for the majority of the time. When there is more than one tuba (e.g. in many of the works by Berlioz), the tubas are generally either in unison or in octaves. This

90 is indicated by either having a separate tuba part (e.g. Symphonie Fantastique, Strauss’

Eine Alpensinfonie) or by having the part written divisi. Of the two methods listed, the more common in my experience is the former. In the score, the tuba parts are written on the one stave with notes for the conductor as to the unison or octave requirements at the time (e.g. ‘ottava’ etc.)

Brass Band

Because of the larger number of the tuba section, there is more opportunity for harmonies to be used within the section. It is extremely common for the E‐flat and B‐flat bass parts to be scored in octaves for a majority of the time. When fifths are scored they are usually in the E‐flat part, with the lower of the E‐flat scored notes doubled either in unison or an octave lower by the B‐flats. Fourths are practically exclusive to the E‐flat part, as they are usually scored to complete the tonic of the chord, with the fifth in the lower E‐ flat part and the root in the B‐flat part. The usage of other intervals such as seconds, thirds, sixths are in my opinion used more for aural and special effect, given the tuba’s timbre when these intervals are harmonised on the instrument – the darker, mellow tone produced by the conical bore, coupled with the lower range of the instrument makes the usage of such interval harmony muddy, in a similar way to how similar intervals sound when played in the lower octaves on a piano.

Wind Ensemble

Wind ensemble composers are typically more conservative in orchestration in regards to interval spacing in the tuba parts compared to brass band repertoire. When the tuba is 91 used in harmony it is almost exclusively in octaves or fifths. It is extremely rare in my experience for other intervals to be played on the instrument in this type of ensemble. It is also the case that when the tuba part is split, i.e. divisi, it is practically always into two parts, though there is at least one exception to this (c.f. Chapter Four, figure 4.7 p 62).

The sound of tubas playing in harmony is more exclusive to the brass and wind ensemble repertoire. Despite this, I believe it is in the player’s interest to be accustomed to performing in harmony with other tubas, as it does occur in all types of ensemble scoring.

In my own experience, however, it is not always the case for tuba players to have practiced playing in harmony with other tuba players outside of ensemble rehearsals or sectionals. When working with my tuba sections in ensembles (brass and wind ensembles) or with private students, I will have them warm up with simple‐to‐challenging duets or melodic studies, requiring them to transpose at sight in fifths or octaves so as to be more familiar with the different tone colour of non‐unison playing. It can be rather disconcerting for a player who is unfamiliar with this kind of playing, and can mistake the character of the sound created by the openness of the interval for bad intonation or playing an incorrect note

5.6 Tutti Performance

In this section I draw primarily on my own experience to illustrate how a tuba player may prepare for concert performances with each type of ensemble, both individually and within the brass/tuba sections (where appropriate, ensemble‐wise).

5.6.1 Individual preparation for performances

Tuba players prepare for performances depending on expectations placed upon them by the context of the ensemble for which they play. A number of techniques and exercises are practiced by the tuba player.

Orchestra

I personally feel very exposed as an orchestral player, being the only representative of my instrument. As a result I feel pressured to appear competent at my part when coming to rehearsals and prepare for this by studying the tuba part and score of the work/s being performed, as well as listening to or watching recordings of them. This results in an enhanced understanding of the orchestration of the individual work, familiarity with the other orchestral parts (especially those of the rest of the brass section) and knowing how my part is supposed to be played. This is the case in all levels of orchestral playing – from amateur/student through to semi/full professional – though there is higher pressure in the semi/full professional ensembles, due to the added expectation of being professionally technically competent. 93

Brass Band

Even though there is more than one member in the tuba sections in a brass band, it has been my experience that when receiving repertoire to perform I am expected to learn and prepare the work for performance rapidly. Given that a brass band habitually rehearses once weekly, I feel required to learn my part by the next rehearsal, or at the very least be somewhat familiar with how it is supposed to go, so as not to squander rehearsal time.

Preparation for performances for this ensemble type also includes (in my case) studying recordings and the score to better understand the structure of the orchestration and where my part fits into it. In brass bands competitions the consideration of the added stress in learning one’s part to an advanced standard in a short time‐frame is paramount when the ensemble is required to perform at competition level.

Wind Ensemble

The wind ensemble tuba player does not have the pressure placed upon them as the brass band player, though more so than their orchestral counterpart/s. Though wind ensembles do occasionally compete, this is not one of the main endeavors for the ensemble. In general, the requirements of learning the tuba part is as not as pressing as observed in a brass band player. I find being the main bass instrument for the ensemble still requires the tuba player to be familiar with their part, and as a result I listen to recordings and study the score as well as the parts of other instruments in the lower brass to better acquaint myself of the music. A consideration is the need to cover other parts. Specifically, in works where there is a significant double bass part as well as a tuba part the double bass part

94 can be covered by a tuba player if a bass player is not available. In this case the tuba player has to be able to sight‐transpose the part (in this case merely an octave s not much challenge for a competent tuba player), as well as mimic certain string‐centric aural effects such as pizzicato, arco. Most tuba players, including myself, find col legno rather a challenge for tuba to mimic!

It is my opinion a tuba player should prepare for performances firstly by familiarising themselves with the score from an orchestration point of view. Secondly, the tuba player needs to be competent with the technical performance requirements as well as an understanding of their function within the ensemble.

5.6.2 Sectional Rehearsals

An important part of preparing for performances is scheduling sectional rehearsals as part of the preparation process. It allows the players from a specific section (in my case, the brass section) to consolidate the technical and musical issues pertaining to individual sections within the ensemble. The strategy of isolating sections (this can be any of the three ensembles being discussed) allows players to become secure with their role in both the section and the ensemble as a whole.

Orchestra

Most of my orchestral experiences have been in situations where the ensemble has been put together for a specific project, or I have been called in to perform with an orchestra 95 when a tuba player is required for a certain work. In such circumstances, it is expected that the brass section should attend rehearsals (often closer to the performance date than, for example the string section) prepared for performing the set repertoire with only minor issues for the conductor to deal with. As a result, I feel sometimes the brass section does not function as a homogeneous group but more as a collection of individuals performing their own parts. I have noticed when the brass players undertake sectionals

(either run by the conductor or one of the lead brass players, such as the first trumpet or trombone) the section becomes aware of what occurs in the repertoire around them and is able to work collectively rather than as individuals. This ensures a higher level of playing both from a technical and dynamic balance point of view creating a conducive playing environment for all. From a tuba player’s perspective this is useful from a balance point of view. I find I unconsciously play louder with an orchestra when compared to brass or wind ensembles because being the only tuba player in the brass section there is a tendency to overcompensate for a lack of a tuba section, compromising a balanced sound. In most professional orchestras, however, it is not uncommon for sections to have been playing together for ten or more years, resulting in a settled and homogeneous section with the members being aware of the others’ performing idiosyncrasies and their inherent performance tone, allowing them to better blend with during performance.

Brass Band

Given the pressures of brass band competitions it is common to incorporate sectionals into the rehearsal process. It allows a section the opportunity to work on technical

96 portions in a closed environment rather than in full rehearsal (so to avoid embarrassment in front of other players). This is a more efficient use of rehearsal time. There is an advantage brought about by the necessity of having a part prepared prior. In a sectional it is difficult for a less‐prepared player, no matter what instrument, to cover inadequate preparation because they are placed in a situation where they cannot be masked by the whole ensemble.

Wind Ensemble

In my experience of playing in all three ensemble genres sectional rehearsals for wind ensembles are more common than their orchestral counterparts but less so than their brass band ones. They are conducted in a style similar to orchestral sectionals rather than brass band because of the overarching “brass section” concept for wind ensemble as opposed to the separate “tuba” or “horn” or “cornet” divisions of a brass band. There are the similar advantages for wind ensemble sectionals as for both orchestral and brass band counterparts. The smaller ensemble environment allows the players to rehearse more difficult section parts without taking up tutti rehearsal, again making the best use of available preparation time.

In my opinion scheduled sectional rehearsals are useful techniques for members of all the ensembles being discussed. The isolated environment created by the rehearsal allows for a more coherent performance from the section (whether a whole brass section in the case of orchestra or wind ensemble or an instrument section in the case of brass band) both as an individual unit and as a component of the whole ensemble

5.7 Conclusion

The role of the tuba is distinct within each of the three ensembles. The ensembles’ technical, sectional, performance and orchestration aspects engage the tuba player in different ways. My experience and research demonstrates there are advantages for a tuba player to perform in all of these groups. The experiences and role requirements have a positive impact upon the player’s performance.

Chapter Six

Preparation for Solo Performance: A Case Study

6.1 Philip Sparke, Tuba Concerto (2006)

Individual Preparation for Performance given June 4 2011, in the Newcastle Conservatorium Concert Hall, accompanied by the University of Newcastle Wind Orchestra, con. Daniel Murrray

I. Lento II. Allegro

I first prepared the work for my Associate Diploma in Music, Australia (AMusA) in 2008. I spent several months preparing it for the examination, to be accompanied by piano only.

I began preparation four months before the wind orchestra performance by playing through the work to gain an overall sense of what to expect when performing it. I penciled brackets around sections to be practiced at a later point, highlighting sections of the work reflecting my initial impressions of the work. This included sections with rhythmic difficulties, melodic phrases in the upper register (with pitching problems to be focused on), interval leaps and awkward fingering sequences or melodic lines. This approach of initial preparation has been a standard part of my practice regime, and forces me to be aware of my own performance weaknesses in regards to what is expected for the performance. When studying the work I had only the solo part and piano accompaniment to use for my analysis. I had one recording of the concerto performed with brass band (the ensemble orchestration for which the concerto was originally written) which gave me a

99 valuable insight on how to interpret aspects of the concerto, especially the cadenzas.1

In the case of the Sparke concerto, the challenge I noticed first was the amount of high‐ register playing required by the composer. Personally, I am more comfortable at the mid‐ to‐low register performance on the tuba. However being a solo virtuosic work it sits more so in mid‐to‐upper register playing than in the case of most tuba writing. I was able to call on my brass band E‐flat tuba playing experience to help prepare for this aspect of the performance, due to the nature of the instrument's role in that ensemble. One practice technique I used for the high‐register sections were to play the phrases an octave lower at a comfortable pitch in order to gain a better aural grasp of the melodic line. I also practicing the phrases using a piano to play the notes at pitch. Another technique I utilized was to record myself practicing and listening back to it either immediately after recording or at a later time to compare for errors and intonation issues.

The performance of the concerto took place in the 400‐seat Newcastle Conservatorium Concert Hall. I am fortunate to have performed there many times and am aware of the rather “boomy” acoustic a solo tuba has when playing there. During the period of time when I was preparing the solo part, I was able to take opportunities of trying out the acoustic and how it impacted on the sound. While practicing the part on my own I would occasionally practise it in the Concert Hall to listen to how it sounded with the hall’s acoustics. I would occasionally ask someone to sit towards the back of the audience section to gauge the sound and clarity from that position, as well as the type of articulation needed.

6.2 First Movement, “Lento”

I was able to prepare for the first movement at the marked tempo due to the slow tempo of the movement. Due to this, issues that arose were of a more lyrical and phrasing nature

1 Black Dyke Band, cond. Nicholas Childs. Music for Battle Creek (2008). Anglo Music 100 than of technical work. The movement is broken into distinct sections either through extended rests or tempo changes: opening “Lento (crotchet = 52)” (bars 1‐9); cadenza 1 (16‐27); “a tempo (crotchet = 52)” (28‐38); “Piu mosso (crotchet = 60)” (39‐45); “Andantino (crotchet = 63)” (51‐56); cadenza 2 (66‐85); closing “Lento (crotchet = 52)”. I would practice each of the seven sections separately before then joining them together for performance. Due to the relatively short nature of each section (generally between 10‐20 bars) I was able to prepare the movement with relative security in tone production, given the first movement is based more in mood and in a lyrical nature as opposed to technical virtuosity.

There were some issues with interval‐playing – the very first interval is a major 9th (C‐d), and to be played slurred. It can be observed that the opening three notes are eerily reminiscent of Sparke’s Dances and Alleluias, written for brass band in 2006 – the same year in which Sparke composed the concerto. The same interval is also slurred, and proved to be more difficult to prepare than I had originally anticipated. With the opening phrase unaccompanied, I felt some pressure to be able to get the notes to sound smoothly without accidentally playing any intervening partials along the way. Within the first four bars there are ascending or descending intervals of a 9th, 6th and both major and minor 7ths. Coupled with having to play at a dynamic level of piano, I would struggle when practicing to keep the notes centered and in tune, as well as keeping the melodic phrase smooth and in the marked “cantabile” style. As a result it was not uncommon for me to break the first eight bars of the concerto into one‐ or two‐bar sections to practice individually with a tuner, playing pitches without rhythm before playing them with rhythm and then playing through the whole section.

The first cadenza has a vocal quality about it, more so than the second cadenza. Its dynamic range of primarily mostly mezzo piano to forte makes it much easier to play than the opening, and the final two bars diminuendoing to piano and pianissimo are made slightly more comfortable by being pitched in the lower register below the staff – a register in which I (and tuba players in general) would feel more comfortable playing. The

101 main challenge for this section was more in learning the part and getting it under my fingers, which was achieved by learning it at a strict slower tempo with a metronome and then adding the accelerandos and rallentandos after becoming more comfortable with the passages.

The a tempo section from bar 28 sees a return to the opening theme, though at a comfortable mezzo piano dynamic before moving into a flowing ascending passage from bar 34. This section, along with the più mosso section from bar 39 remains in the upper register of the instrument for a majority of the time. This means maintaining stamina and breath control up in the high register. I would prepare for this by forcing myself to play both these sections either separately or together repeatedly, as well as practicing other pieces such as studies or simple melodies (such as a hymn or nursery rhyme) in my upper register, eventually reaching my limit and being unable to support playing that high any more. This resulted in my being able to sustain playing higher for longer and making these sections easier to sustain in performance. It was particularly useful during the rehearsals with the Wind Orchestra when these sections would need to be rehearsed more than once. A priority was not to rush or crush the grace notes in this section and the rest of the movement, but to leave them a bit longer to correspond with the cantabile style.

The second cadenza is more technically demanding than the first. Most of the first half is based on an ascending pentatonic pattern beginning on c, which would get faster as it continued. It then finishes with an extended reference to the opening three notes of the movement (C, D, C). I prepared this cadenza mainly with the metronome and gradually increasing the speeding up of the accelerando sections, so I could maintain a clear melodic line.

The sudden shift back to the upper register if the final lento section at bar 85 brings up pitching issues, specifically when leaping to the fI and gI. I would practice these bars by playing the rhythm of the phrase on the top note of the phrase several times before then playing the phrase as written. This exercise, through repetition of the difficult‐to‐pitch notes, places the player physically in the position to play the difficult note (through muscle 102 memory) as well as the short‐term memory aural advantage of having the pitch already being thought of when playing the phrase as written afterwards. Invariably I would have little to no problem pitching these sections after that exercise. I often use this technique of separating the rhythmic articulation from the pitch line of the passage when preparing higher parts in orchestral, wind band and brass band works.

6.3 Second Movement, “Allegro”

In some respects, the second movement was easier to prepare than the first. The overall difficulty of this movement came from the quick tempo (dotted crotched = 126), however the use of repetition made sections easier to prepare as they were identical or remarkably similar and thus simpler to learn. Indeed of the nine lines of the final page, seven of them were a recapitulation of much of the first page with only some minor changes.

Noticeable difficulties are presented by sudden register shifts, such as a drop of two octaves over bars 151‐2. Bars 196‐199 proved difficult due to the fast movement in the low register ‐ particularly the low D and E natural: notes difficult to play short and fast cleanly on an E‐flat tuba.

Specifically practicing scales and arpeggios in f and g minor, and E‐flat, D‐flat, A‐flat, F and G‐flat major were useful, with a majority of the melodic line being either scalic or arpeggiatic in structure.

From the experience of playing marches in brass bands and wind bands, coupled with the 6/8 time signature, I found myself pushing the tempo forward, even when practicing with a metronome. It was important to discipline myself to play it slower in order to maintain a steadier feel and clearer articulation. In my interpretation I found this movement brought about an element of wanting to contrast it with the rather slow tempo of the first movement at play.

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I gave special attention to the final bar of the movement. The difficulty of the fast semiquaver patterns with the awkward interval proved to be more of a challenge to play clearly than originally anticipated. To achieve clarity in this part I would rehearse the important notes of the part (d‐flat, a‐flat, f) on the subdivision and then play the phrase slowly to get each pitch correct before working it up to tempo. I would then play the ending several times in succession before practicing the final sections as a whole in order to raise the level of accuracy and clarity for the performance.

6.4 Ensemble Preparation

I began the preparation of the ensemble performance by discussing the score with the conductor. We analysed each bar of the score to determine tempo changes, points where the ensemble and soloist may get out of sync or where rubato playing might cause an issue as well as the ensemble entries after the cadenzas. In the case of the second cadenza, the final bar created a slight issue. When playing on my own or with piano only, the tutti entry at bar 85 is not as difficult to synchronise, as the accompanist can also see in his/her part where the tuba part has reached.. In the ensemble situation the performers needed a clear indication of the new tempo, as did the conductor, so I had to give a visual cue for him to be able to follow in the up‐beat before bar 85.

I prepared for the ensemble performance by listening to a recording of the concerto to hear the ensemble and solo parts from an external point of view. While these did give me insights as to interpretation of certain parts of the solo the exercise was to listen to the ensemble and hear how their parts related to the solo.

When we began rehearsals with the Wind Orchestra, it would include playing sections with the soloist and without the soloist – sometimes in parts where the soloist is not playing and in parts where the soloist does lay so as to rehearse the accompaniment parts. Sparke’s compositional style makes the accompanying parts when the tuba is playing have to work with the solo as a counter melody or similar, and do not function as 104 mere chords or harmony underneath a solo. The rehearsals usually took place with me standing in front of the ensemble where I would be performing it in the concert so as to familiarise the ensemble and conductor as to the overall final effect. I took brass sectionals for the concert performance, where we looked at individual sections of the piece for ensemble balance and to work out any issues that may have arisen, such as entries, tempo, intonation, technical problems and timing.

Generally tutti tuba playing is done in balance dynamically with the rest of the band. In the case of the concerto the solo part had to project above the band, so I would ask people (usually Ian Cook, the Wind Orchestra’s music director) to sit in the audience section of the hall during the rehearsal and after rehearsing query how the balance and dynamics between myself and the band sounded. During the rehearsals closer to the performance date it felt to me that I was holding my dynamics back. This is due to a residual tutti‐playing habit of balancing with the ensemble. I would remind myself to play louder to project my sound over and compensate for the larger ensemble. When I did this I found it easier to perform the work with the ensemble, especially the softer sections of the first movement, for instance the opening thematic material. This did result in a diminished contrast between the softer and louder dynamics of the solo part, as I could not play the louder sections much louder than I already was without sacrificing the tone quality of my playing. I chose to have the less contrast. This is not a criticism of the Wind Orchestra’s playing – it is merely an acknowledgement of the fact that solo performance with a large ensemble is more restrictive on the soloist’s dynamic playing than when unaccompanied or with a small/chamber ensemble or piano.

6.5 Conclusion

I found that my experiences in the orchestra, brass band and wind ensemble greatly assisted my preparation and performance of the Sparke concerto. Orchestral aspects included sudden range shifts from low to high (and vice versa), dealing with cold starts (as

105 the concerto was first item in the concert after interval as well as the extended rests between the first and second movements). Brass band aspects included soloistic performing (exposed passage playing and performing solos in concerts is common for brass band tuba players), familiarity with the performance style of the composer (Philip Sparke being well established as a brass band composer) and technically virtuosic/demanding sections, such as awkward non‐scalic or arpeggatic passages. Wind ensemble aspects included performing with a wind ensemble specifically, projecting sound over a wide array of instruments and tone colours.

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Chapter Seven

Conclusion

It is hoped that through this thesis I have clarified the aspects of the proposed questions pertaining to the role of the tuba in the orchestra, brass band and wind ensemble.

7.1 The Different Roles the Tuba Player Fulfils in Performing as an Ensemble Member in the Orchestral, Brass Band and Wind Ensemble Contexts

As has been demonstrated, the tuba has a distinct role within each ensemble context. In the orchestra the tuba functions as the main bass member of the brass section, though not as the principal bass instrument of the ensemble as a whole. More often its use is as a tone colour within the ensemble or to strengthen the sonority of other bass instruments when required.

In the brass band, due to the use of two different pitched/sized instruments as well as no other bass instruments in the ensemble, the tuba’s role is as the main bass section for the ensemble, filling parts of the roles covered by the double basses and cellos in the orchestral setting.

In the wind ensemble the tuba’s role, due to the natural dynamic strengths of the instrument, is that of the main bass instrument of the ensemble. However, due to other bass instruments as part of the instrumentation (such as the bass clarinet, baritone saxophone, double bass and bassoon) the tuba can be supplemented and even be substituted in certain contexts when is appropriate tone colour‐wise.

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7.2 How Each Ensemble Shows the Tuba in a different Role

The main difference between each role is that of the tuba’s importance to the ensemble. In the case of the orchestra, I would consider the tuba to be a secondary (though essential) bass instrument, with the double bass/cello sections filling the primary bass role. Despite this, the tuba fills the main bass role for the brass section in the way the double basses do for the strings and the bassoon/bass clarinet for the woodwind. Within this role the tuba player needs to be aware of the context of the repertoire being performed and have to choose their instrument and dynamic/tone colour presence accordingly.

In the case of the brass band the tuba is the primary (and essentially the only) bass instrument of the ensemble, with a far more prominent role in regards to soloistic presence and the technical agility required within the repertoire. Due to there being two separate tuba parts within the orchestration the tuba player needs to be aware of the individual instrument’s role (whether it is E‐flat or B‐flat tuba) in relation to the context of both the tuba section and to the ensemble as a whole.

The wind ensemble tuba player functions as a primary bass instrument for the ensemble, though is also supplemented by a number of other bass instruments from the other instrument families within the instrumentation of the ensemble. While more than one pitched/sized tuba can be used within the wind ensemble, the repertoire is not written with these instruments in mind, and instead has a generic tuba part, with composers not going into that sort of detail in the way brass band composers would. The wind ensemble tuba player does not necessarily need to have the same awareness of their instrument’s role in regards to size or pitch in relation to the context of the repertoire being performed.

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7.3 How Performing in One Ensemble’s Role Affects the Tuba Player’s Approach and Interpretation of their Role in Another’s, and How Understanding these Roles Contributes to the Expertise of Today’s Tuba Player

It has generally been my experience that it is rare for a tuba player to perform in all three types of ensemble, rather they end up performing in just one or two types. I have found that I have benefited from having experienced each of the roles for myself and have taken skills and experiences I have gleaned from one ensemble to another.

An excellent skill the tuba player learns within their role in the orchestra is that of cold starts. The benefit of this skill when performing in the other ensemble types is that it makes it far easier to begin performances with little‐ to‐no warming up beforehand – something that can very easily occur before a concert and could hinder the opening of a performance. Another advantage of cold starts experience is that of prompt intonation compensation – since orchestral tuba players have to be able to compensate for intonation issues that can occur due to cooled instruments when taken in the context of the other ensemble types, the tuba player is able to resolve intonation issues.

Being (generally) the only one of its instrument in the scoring, the orchestral tuba player must be capable of playing at louder dynamics and balance within the ensemble as a whole. As a result, the tuba player can take this skill to the other ensembles and have a greater array of dynamic capabilities without necessarily having to sacrifice their tone quality to play at fff for example.

The brass band tuba player gains a great deal of performance stamina through their experience with the ensemble. Since the tuba is the main bass instrument for the brass band, the tuba player must be able to play for long periods of time (usually a majority of the concert/contest performance, which could be up to two hours. The tuba player can take this skill to the other ensemble types and be able to perform with greater comfort in concerts without tiring as easily.

Due to the virtuosic nature of brass band tuba writing, the tuba player must be technically proficient, capable of performing rapidly with clear articulation and flexible enough to

109 perform in harmony within their section and (in the case of some contesting repertoire) perform dissonant and aurally difficult harmonies. As a result of these experiences the tuba player can take these skills to the other ensemble types and perform the less common, technically difficult repertoire with more relative ease and comfort.

Due to the size of the tuba section of the brass band (typically 4‐6 players), the brass band tuba player does not have to work extremely hard to maintain higher dynamic levels because they can take advantage of the terrace dynamic effect brought about by the larger section. As a result the brass band tuba player is able to concentrate more on tone and sound production because they do not have to sacrifice the tone quality of their playing to play louder and balance with the rest of the ensemble. The tuba player can take this skill to other ensemble types and add a full, sonorous sound quality to the performance.

The nature of the tuba’s role in the wind ensemble is what I would describe as a fusion of both the orchestral and brass band tuba roles. In essence the tuba fills the role of the main bass instrument (similar to the brass band), though does not necessarily require, to the same degree, the virtuosic nature of the brass band tuba player. As a result, the wind ensemble tuba player carries similar aspects from the other two ensemble types. The main difference between wind ensemble performance and the other ensemble types is that the wind ensemble contains a larger number of woodwind instruments (especially clarinets, flutes and saxophones), resulting in the tuba player being experienced in playing a more prominent role with a wider variety of tone colours within the ensemble to blend and work with.

Overall, it is advantageous for a tuba player to perform in all three ensemble types, as the skills gained from being aware of the different roles in each can positively affect the player’s performance in the others. This is particularly useful to the aspiring professional orchestral tuba player, as they will gain skills that will benefit them in the long term in their musical development.

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Adler, Samuel. The Study of Orchestration. New York: W. W. Norton & Company Ltd, 1982, 1989. Bainbridge, Cyril. Brass Triumphant. Tiptree: The Anchor Press Ltd, 1980. Balliett, Whitney. "Goodbye Oompah: A Profile of Harvey Phillips." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1994). Battisti, Frank. The Twentieth Century American Wind Band/Ensemble. Fort Lauderdale: Meredith Music Publications, 1995. Bevan, Clifford. The Tuba Family. London: Faber and Faber Limited, 1978. Bierley, Paul E. The Works of John Philip Sousa. Westerville: Integrity Press, 1984. Bird, Gary. Program Notes for the Solo Tuba. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1994. Bobo, Roger. "Tuba: A Word of Many Meanings." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1961). Brodsky, Warren. "Career Stress and Performance Anxiety in Professional Orchestra Musicians: A Study of Individual Differences and Their Impact on Therapeutic Outcomes." Keele University, 1995. Carse, Adam. The History of Orchestration. New York: Dover Publications, 1964. Connor, Rex. "The Tongue and the Tuba." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1958). Daniel and Morris, R Winston (ed.) Perantoni Guide to the Tuba Repertoire: The New Tuba Source Book. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2006. DiGaetani, John Louis (ed.). Penetrating Wagner's Ring: An Anthology. Cranbury and London: Associated University Presses, 1978. Doane, Christopher. "Intonation on Brass Instruments." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1987). Dobroski, Bernard. "Preparing for a Life in Music: An Interview with Harvey Phillips." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1991). Dyson, George. "The Composer and the Military Band." Music & Letters Vol. 2 No. 1 (1921).

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Erb, Richard H. "The Arnold Jacobs Legacy." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1987). Faulkner, Maurice. "Wagnerian Brass Style." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1969). Field, Douglas. "The British Are Coming ‐ Again." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1989). Forsyth, Cecil. Orchestration. London: Macmillan and Co. Ltd., 1935. Frederiksen, Brian. Arnold Jacobs: Song and Wind. ed. John Taylor: WindSong Press Limited, 1996. Garofalo, Robert. "Standard Works for Band: Gustav Holst's Second Suite in F." Music Educators Journal Vol. 72, No. 4 (1985). Hasselmann, Ron. "The Arnold Jacobs Legacy." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1988). Hazelman, Ron. "The British Brass Band." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1961). Hepola, Ray. "Roger Bobo Talks Tuba." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1977). Herbert, Trevor (ed.). The British Brass Band ‐ A Musical and Social History. Oxford: Oxord University Press, 2000 Jacob, Gordon. Orchestral Technique ‐ a Manual for Students. London: Oxford University Press, 1940. Jacobs, Arnold. "Arnold Jacobs Masterclass." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1991). Jones, Grahame O. "British Wind Band Music." Adelphi Institute for Creative Arts and Sciences, 2005. Jones, Richard Andrew. ""Banding Together": Power, Identity and Interaction within the Concert and Contest Performance Contexts of the Brighouse and Rastrick Brass Band." University of Sheffield, 2007. Joseph Mackliss, Kristine Forney. The Enjoyment of Music. 1999. Kent Kennan, Donald Grantham. The Technique of Orchestration. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice‐ Hall, Inc., 1990. Kuehn, David. "Toward Better Tuba Players." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1966).

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Lomas, Michael John. "Amateur Brass and Wind Bands in Southern England between the Late Eighteenth and Circa 1900." Open University, 1990. MacLean, Charles. "On Some Causes of the Change of Tone Colour Proceeding in the Most Modern Orchestra." Proceedings of the Musical Association (1895). Martin, James A. "Gene Pokorny: Climbing New Peaks." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1989). Multiple. The Wind Ensemble and Its Repertoire ‐ Essays on the Fortieth Anniversary of the Eastman Wind Ensemble. edited by Donald Hunsberger Frank J. Cipolla New York: University of Rochester Press, 1994. Newsome, Roy. The Modern Brass Band: From the 1930s to the New Millennium. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2006. Perantoni, Daniel. "Contemporary Systems and Trends Fr the Tuba." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1972). ———. "Tuba Talk: Part I ‐ Technical Information." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1983). ———. "Tuba Talk: Part Ii ‐ Performance Tips." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1984). Philip Fine, Anabela Bravo. "Rehearsal Away from the Instrument: What Expert Musicians Understand by the Terms "Mental Practice" and "Score Analysis"." In International Symposium on Performance Science Auckland: AEC, 2011. Phillips, Harvey. "Brighter Horizons for the Tuba World." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1995). ———. "The Chicago Brass Sound." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1990). ———. "The Evolution of the Chicago Syphony Brass Sound." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1989). ———. Mr. Tuba. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2012.

Piston, Walter. Orchestration. London: Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1955,1982. Pitts, Larry P. "Using the First Valve Slide to Adjust Tuba Intonation." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1975).

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Popiel, Peter. "The Tuba: Concepts in Low‐Register Tone Production." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1979). R. Winston Morris, Daniel Perantoni. Guide to the Tuba Repertoire. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006. Reed, Alfred. "The Composer and the College Band." Music Educators Journal Vol. 48, No. 1 (1961). ———. "The Instrumentation of the Band." Music Educators Journal Vol. 49, No. 1 (1962). Robert Pallansch, Roger Bobo, Don Butterfield. "Tuba Design ‐ Improvements Are Needed." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1972).

Rosenfeld, Paul. Musical Portraits: Interpretations of Twenty Modern Composers. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co. Ltd., 1922. Russo, Bill. "An Interview with Arnold Jacobs." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1973). Scott, Jack L. "The Evolution of the Brass Band and Its Repertoire in Northern England." University of Sheffield, 1970. Self, Jim. "The Studio Tubist." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1988). Smith, Bernard. "The Salvation Army Brass Band ‐ Usual and Unusual Instruments Blend to Produce a Perfect Balance with Specially Written Music." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1950). Stanbury, Donald A. "Breathing Techniques for the Tuba Player." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1975). Stanley, Donald. "Legato Techniques for the Tuba." Brass Anthology ‐ A collection of brass articles published in The Instrumentalist magazine from 1946 to 1999 (1969). Steadman‐Allen, Ray. Colour and Texture in the Brass Band Score. Wellingborough: Salvationist Publishing and Supplies, 1980. Vinton, John (ed.). Dictionary of Twentieth Century Music. London: Thames and Hudson, 1974.

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Scores/Sheet Music

Ball, Eric. Journey Into Freedom. 1967. UK: Boosey & Hawkes.

Ballantine, Leonard. Song Setting – I know thou art mine. 1993. UK: Salvationist Publishing and Supplies Ltd.

Barnes, James. Fantasy Variations on a Theme by Niccolo Paganini. 1989. San Antonio: Southern Music Company.

———. Third Symphony. 1997. San Antonio: Southern Music Company.

Berlioz, Hector. Roméo et Juliette. 1839. Orchestral Excerpts for Trombone and Tuba vol. 1‐10. Brown, Keith (ed.). New York: International Music Company.

———. Symphonie Fantastique. 1830. Orchestral Excerpts for Trombone and Tuba vol. 1‐10. Brown, Keith (ed.). New York: International Music Company.

———. Symphonie Funebre et Triomphale. 1840. New York: Edwin F. Kalmus (no date).

Bernstein, Leonard. Candide. 1955. USA: Boosey & Hawkes.

Brown, Keith (ed.). Orchestral Excerpts for Trombone and Tuba vol. 1‐10. New York: International Music Company.

Downie, Kenneth. St Magnus. 2004. Hailsham: Salvationist Publishing and Supplies Ltd.

Glinka, Mikhail (Parkes, Peter arr.). Overture – Russlan and Ludmilla (brass band arr.). 1842. Date, location and publisher of this arrangement unavailable.

Graham, Peter. Journey to the Centre of the Earth. 2005. Cheadle Hulme: Gramercy Music.

Heaton, Wilfred. Contest Music. 1982. UK: Boosey & Hawkes.

Mussogrsky, Modest/Ravel, Paul (arr.). Pictures at an Exhibition.

Mussorgsky, Modest. Night on Bald Mountain. Orchestral Excerpts for Trombone and Tuba vol. 1‐10. Brown, Keith (ed.). New York: International Music Company.

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Prokofiev, Sergei. Romeo and Juliet Suite No 2. Orchestral Excerpts for Trombone and Tuba vol. 1‐10. Brown, Keith (ed.). New York: International Music Company.

Reed, Alfred. The Hounds of Spring. 1981. USA: Piedmont Music Company

———. El Camino Real. 1986. USA: Piedmont Music Company.

Sibelius, Jean. FInlandia. Orchestral Excerpts for Trombone and Tuba vol. 1‐10. Brown, Keith (ed.). New York: International Music Company.

Sparke, Philip. Between the Moon and Mexico. 1998. London: Studio Music Company

———. Dances and Alleluias. 2006. Wembley: Anglo Music Press.

———. Hymn of the Highlands. 2002. Wembley: Anglo Music Press

———. Music of the Spheres (brass band version). 2004. Wembley: Anglo Music Press

———. Music of the Spheres (wind band version). 2004/2005. Wembley: Anglo Music Press.

———. Orient Express. 1987/1994. London: Studio Music 1994.

———. Tuba Concerto. 2006/2007. Wembley: Anlgo Music Press

Strauss, Richard. Eine Alpensinfonie. 1915. Leipzig: FEC Leuckart

———. Don Quixote. 1897. Munich: Jos Aibl Verlags

Tchaikovsky, Peter. Tchaikovsky, Peter. Symphony No 5. Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Symphonies in Full Score. USA: Dover Publications. 1979.

———. Symphony No 6 “Pathetique.” Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Symphonies in Full Score. USA: Dover Publications. 1979.

Tippett, Michael. Symphony No 4. 1977. London: Schott & Co

Van der Roost. Poème Montagnard. 1997. Heerenveen: De Haske Publicartions.

Waignein, Andre. Reminiscencia Gitana. 1995. Kontich: Scherzando.

Wilby, Philip. … Dove Descending. 1999. London: Novello and Company.

Wagner, Richard (ed. Schott). Götterdämmerung. 1876/2003. USA: Eulenberg. 116

Discography Music for Battle Creek (2008). Black Dyke Band – Childs, Nicholas J. Anglo Music.

Portrait of an Artist (2000). Jacobs, Arnold. Summit Records.

Legacy of an Artist (2007). Jacobs, Arnold. Summit Records.

Barnes: Third Symphony, Op. 89 – Reed: Othello (1999). Japan Ground Self Defence Force Central Band – Nonaka, Toyokazu. Fontec.

Orchestral Excerpts for Tuba (1996). Pokorny, Gene. Summit Records

Chicago Symphony Orchestra Trombone and Tuba Sections Play Concert Works and Orchestral Excerpts (1971). Friedman, Jay; Gilbertson, James; Crisafulli, Frank; Kleinhammer, Edward; Jacobs, Arnold. Educational Brass Recordings

Keystone Wind Ensemble – Music of Alfred Reed (2006) Keystone Wind Ensemble – Stamp, Jack; Reed, Alfred. Klavier

117

Appendix

Philip Sparke, Tuba Concerto, Solo part