Project Education of Roma | History Roma Children Council Conseil of de l´Europe in Europe Arrival 2.0 in Europe

Arrival in Europe compiled by the editors

Earliest Accounts from South- | Early Sources from | Roma as Organised Groups of Pilgrims | Reasons for the Westward Migration | First Wave: Arrivals from 1417 to 1421 | Letters of Safe Conduct | Further Arrivals until 1435 | Distrust and Reproaches – Buying Out, and Expulsion

The Roma had probably already been living in the , in the area of today’s , before 1200. Thanks to a rising number of accounts about Roma by the settled population from 1400 onwards, their routes within Europe can today be traced quite precisely. In 1450, the Roma had travelled almost the whole of Europe. In Central Europe, the first and expulsions were already taking place at that time. Soon this would lead to organised .

First MENTIONs of Roma in Europe until 1600 Abo Oslo Uppsala Ill. 1 (based upon Tcherenkov/Laederich 2004, p. 83) 1540 1512

Aalborg Dublin york Moscow skanör 1505 1513 1417 Vilnius 1407 London Hamburg 1501 amsterdam Antwerp 1417 warsaw 1421 1420 kiev 1418 1427 1444 oRLÉANS Nuremberg 1419 1418 1402 1501 1428 Constance Vienna 1436 1414 1413 BordeAux Vigo 1419 1419 1414 Avignon 1423 1425 Florence 1385 saragossa Lisbon 1422 VARNA DUBROVNIK 1462 Valencia Seville Salonika

1386

Palermo 1381 Athens Modon

Introduction rope for the first time. In this regard, European parts of the Byzantine Empi- the period from 1200 to 1500 brings re before the 13th century. However, it There are no relieable accounts of the about important changes: from the remains unclear, when exactly the first Asian and early European history of the 14th century onwards, at the latest, the Roma moved northwards from their Roma, but only hints, the interpretati- contemporary evidence states without settlements in Greece. Similarly, we on of which, to a large extent, is still a doubt that the people and groups men- do not know why and in what numbers topic of scholarly discussion. Perhaps tioned were definitely Roma. they left the Byzantine Empire. we will never know for sure why, how, It is generally agreed that the probably, single groups had been mo- or even when the Roma settled in Eu- Roma had already been living in the ving north from the mid-14th century Earliest Accounts from South-Eastern Europe Early Sources from Central Europe Roma as Organised Groups of Pilgrims

Ill. 2 It has been said that one of the first accounts of the Roma in Eu- rope could be found in the Old Czech Dalimil‘s Chronicle. This chronicle, dated at about 1310, mentions “Tartar scouts”. As in several other cases, the connection of this account with Roma is not undisputed. (This copy of the Dalimil‘s Chronicle is kept in the National Library in Vienna)

Ill. 3 Roma with helper, around 1600. (from Gronemeyer / Rakelmann 1988, p. 122) (Detail)

onwards. At first, the documents do not Knowledge of the newly arrived they were meant to see. Or what they necessarily point to Roma, and could people did not increase in the same way wanted to see: Many of the earliest be read as evidence of other groups of as the number of accounts about them. sources accuse the Roma of immorality people. From 1385 onwards, however, There are mentions of letters of safe and godlessness, or of espionage for the we have reliable evidence of the Roma conduct by emperors, kings, and the Turks, and, in general, paint a picture in , in today’s . From pope, and about pilgrim legends, which of a “treacherous” and “disloyal” peo- that time on, the Roma are mentioned were to assure a friendly reception in ple, however, without any evidence. The more and more frequently; these docu- the late , strongly shaped earliest European accounts thus shape a ments show how groups of Roma ex- by . Services like fortune clear picture of the Roma; it is, however, plored the European mainland. Already telling and or dishonest skills a distorted picture, a caricature, which in 1435, the Roma were well-known in like pickpocketing are also mentioned still shapes the non-Roma’s picture of most European cities. [Ill. 1] – the settled Europeans saw only what the Roma until today.

trade was mentioned: in medieval Serbi- derived from Slavic, equal in meaning Earliest accounts from an, “c’ngar” meant “shoemaker”. [Ill. 2] to “salash”) of “Tigani” and 12 tents of South-Eastern Europe Documents from the old Roma- “Tartars” to the monastery of Bistrita. nian Principalities and Wal- Contrary to earlier documents, it is defini- From the mid-14th century onwards, lachia, which repeatedly mention gifts tely the Roma who are being talked about. South-Eastern European documents oc- consisting of whole societies, are the first Consequently, it can be concluded that casionally mention groups of people who to definitely talk about the Roma. Dan I, the Roma settled on the in the se- had wrongly been thought to be Roma by of Wallachia, for instance, con- cond part of the 14th century at the latest. earlier scholars. There is, for instance, a firms some gifts to the Convent of the Vir- In the Serbian document in which King Stefan gin Mary, Tismana, in 1385, which also they were welcomed because of their IV handed over tailors, smiths, saddle-ma- included 40 “salashe” (a term derived skills. In order to permanently preserve kers, and some “C’ngari” to the monastery from Turkish, denoting families or tent the essential economic factor the Roma of in 1348. It has been said that communities) of “Atigani” (“Gypsies”). represented, authorities and the Church the latter were “Gypsies”. It seems more In neighbouring Moldavia Alexander the soon prevented them from travelling. conclusive, however, that simply another Good made over 31 “chelyadi” (a term Over time, the Roma became the property

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Ill. 4 “Die Zigeyner nicht inzuladen noch zu gedulten” (“Not to invite nor to tolerate the Gypsies”): This letter issued in 1529 by a federation of German cities, duchies and counties (“Schwäbischer Bund”) ordered that “Zigeyner” (“Gypsies”) be banned from its territories. (from Gilsenbach 1994, p. 137)

of the state, the Church or big landow- variations appears as a , but this and weapon making made them much ners and became slaves or bondsmen for does not necessarily mean that those who sought-after, and they were protected by centuries, until slavery was abolished in used this name were Roma. Independent the king. Private use of their services had Romania in 1856. from the time of the first Roma’s arrival to be approved of by the king. For example, The arrival of the Roma in the in , it has to be said that the Roma in 1476 the citizens of the town of Herr- cannot be pinpoin- were received with a greater degree of to- mannstadt had to ask Matthias Corvinus ted to a precise date either. From 1370 lerance in Hungary than in other countries. for permission before they were allowed to onwards, the word “Cigan” in several Their knowledge about metal processing have the Roma work in the suburbs. [Ill. 3]

tioned in this note most probably were followed, however, the term “heathen” Early sources from not Roma. However, the name “Tar- was without doubt used as synonym for Central Europe tars”, which had been used for the Roma “” in the German-speaking area. at least from the 15th century onwards, The “Gypsies” also appeared A note in the “Hildesheimer is still used in Northern and in Hesse in 1414. The entry about their Stadtrechnung” (book of expenses), da- Scandinavia. arrival into the “Hessische Chronik” ting from 1407, is commonly thought In 1414, the “Wochenausgabebü- (Hesse chronicle) about their arrival to be the oldest piece of evidence of the cher” (book of weekly expenses) of the had, however, been made only 200 years Roma’s appearance in Germany. It says city of Basel mentions a “heathen” who, after the event, so the date not be that “am 20. September den Tataren ... “by the grace of God”, had been given completely accurate. According to the für einen halben Stüber Wein gegeben 10 shillings by the city. Also in this case “Meißner Chronik”, which had also been wurde” (on the 20th of September, the it is not sure if this refers to a Rom, as at written at a later date, the “Zigani” had Tartars were given some wine). Recent that time all foreigners were called “he- already been expelled from the margra- research has shown that the people men- athens”. In the years and decades that vate by 1416.

From 1417 onwards, chroniclers of called – depending on the chroniclers’ Roma as organised numerous European countries noted knowledge and on the information groups of pilgrims down the arrival of the Roma, who were given by the new arrivals – “tartars”,

  Reasons for the Westward Migration First Wave: Arrivals from 1417 to 1421 Letters of Safe Conduct

BLACK LIKE THE TARTARS seems that the letters of safe con- duct were not sufficient to protect the According to the Dominican monk, Roma against reprisals in the Hansa Hermann Korner, there were about towns in case of assumed or proven 300 people, men and women, calling theft. Whether the authorities impo- themselves “Secaner”, who were sed stricter punishment or whether “terrible to look at” and “ like the population sought revenge is not the tartars”. They were – said the clear. In any case, a part of this group monk – led by a duke and a count moved on to Southern Germany in who had jurisdiction over them. the first months of 1418. It is stated Those “Secaner” had shown letters that the city of Frankfurt gave “those of safe conduct by princes, mainly wretched people from Little ” from Sigismund, Holy Roman emper- 4 pound and 4 shillings for bread or, and had thus been treated “in a and meat in June that year. The cor- hospitable way”. The chronicler ex- responding note is, by the way, the plains the fact that they settled out- earliest mention of “Little Egypt” as side of the city’s walls: many of them the Roma’s home country. Ill. 6 were thieves and would have run the Ill. 5 (excerpted and translated from Gilsenbach Roma pilgrims. Engraving by Jacques Callot, 1622. risk of being arrested in the city. It 1994, p. 49f.) (from Hancock 1987, p.15) (Detail)

“Egyptians”, “Egiptleut”, “heathens”, tion for their journey enabled them to Peloponnese on their journey to the Holy “” or – already – “Gypsies”. be received in a friendly and hospitab- Land. Also “Little Egypt” which, in the In Central and European le way. In this respect, the obligation to sources from 1418 onwards, was consi- cities the Roma appeared in big groups, supply pilgrims with food, lodging and dered the Roma’s country of origin, goes led by people with noble , and clai- money, an obligation which was taken back to a “Gypsy” settlement “Gyppe” med a pilgrim status. According to con- very seriously by medieval society, sui- near Modon (Peloponnese). “Little temporary descriptions, such “groups of ted them very well. Entries in various Egypt” (an area on Peloponnese) had, pilgrims” comprised of 30, 100 and so- books of expenses show that this Chris- for some time, been taken for the “real” metimes over 300 people, travelling on tian duty was fulfilled everywhere, at Egypt – the Nile country – by the chro- foot or on horseback. If they were denied least on the Roma’s first appearance. niclers. Connected to this mistake is the access to the towns, they camped in the In order to be credible pilgrims, erroneous term used to describe the Roma, open country near the towns. Their lea- the Roma performed stories of repentance “Egyptians”, a term with many variations ders called themselves “dukes”, “counts” which left a great impression. The Roma (“Gypsies”, “Gitans”, “Egypter”) that is or “voivode”. They had jurisdiction over often justified their wanderings as a se- still the most common term for Roma. their retinue, wore better clothes than the ven-year penitential pilgrimage which It is likely that at first only a li- rest of their group, and always travelled had been imposed on them because they mited number of Roma travelled Europe: on horseback. [Ill. 6] had temporarily broken with Christiani- entries on Roma in neighbouring cities According to the chronicles, the ty. Later, two reasons were added: the re- and regions occur for short intervals of leaders presented themselves officially fusal to take Joseph and Mary in, and the time, and the leaders’ names (Andreas, to the cities’ governors on their arrival. Israelites‘ flight from Egypt. Michael) stay the same. The varying ent- Often, they could show letters of safe The idea to present themselves ries on their numbers lead to the assump- conduct or of recommendation by reli- – to their advantage – as pilgrims when tion that only the group’s nucleus stay- gious and secular rulers, which assured leaving Greece most probably derived ed together all the time. Smaller groups them safe conduct and protection against from contact with those Christians who seem to have split from the rest and have attacks. The allegedly religious motiva- temporarily stayed in Epirus and on the taken different routes.

Turk’s invasion in South-Eastern Eu- were particularly affected by the war. Reasons for the rope. In the course of the conquest of The majority of the Roma, westward migration the Balkans the Turks destroyed cities, however, remained in the areas which towns and monasteries. Whole areas came under Turkish reign. One reason The Roma’s migration to Central and were ravaged. It seems only logical for this was that Roma were enslaved Western Europe coincides with the that the Roma left the areas which in the Danubian Principalities. Also

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BLACK LIKE THE TARTARS seems that the letters of safe con- duct were not sufficient to protect the According to the Dominican monk, Roma against reprisals in the Hansa Hermann Korner, there were about towns in case of assumed or proven 300 people, men and women, calling theft. Whether the authorities impo- themselves “Secaner”, who were sed stricter punishment or whether “terrible to look at” and “black like the population sought revenge is not the tartars”. They were – said the clear. In any case, a part of this group monk – led by a duke and a count moved on to Southern Germany in who had jurisdiction over them. the first months of 1418. It is stated Those “Secaner” had shown letters that the city of Frankfurt gave “those of safe conduct by princes, mainly wretched people from Little Egypt” from Sigismund, Holy Roman emper- 4 pound and 4 shillings for bread or, and had thus been treated “in a and meat in June that year. The cor- hospitable way”. The chronicler ex- responding note is, by the way, the plains the fact that they settled out- earliest mention of “Little Egypt” as side of the city’s walls: many of them the Roma’s home country. were thieves and would have run the Ill. 5 (excerpted and translated from Gilsenbach Ill. 6 risk of being arrested in the city. It 1994, p. 49f.) Roma pilgrims. Engraving by Jacques Callot, 1622. (from Hancock 1987, p. 15) (Detail)

the Roma’s situation probably had not migration is highly improbable, parti- Roma used the religious motivation, gotten worse under Ottoman reign cularly because the Ottomans were far fleeing from the “infidels”, primarily as (compared to earlier rulers). Notwith- more tolerant towards those of different a means to make sure they were recei- standing corresponding entries in sour- faith than, for instance, the Christian ved in a friendly way by the Christian ce texts, a religious motivation for the kingdoms in Europe. Most probably the population.

16th century, the year 1418 is reported 1419, the “Saracens”, led by “Duke André First wave: Arrivals as the year of the “Zeyginger” ’s arrival; of Little Egypt” appeared in Chatillon-en- from 1417 to 1421 they “had enough money and didn’t hurt Dombes. In January 1420, “Duke Andreas” a fly”. They had come – according to the and 100 companions arrived in Brussels. In 1417, a group of Roma travelled through chronicler – from “Epirus”, “called Little In March of the same year, their arrival is Lueneburg, Hamburg, Luebeck, Wismar, Egypt by common people”. reported in Deventer (the ). It Rostock, Stralsund, and Greifiswald. More reliable and precise informa- is possible that this group is the same as Dominican monk Hermann Cornerus re- tion comes from Colmar. This city was the one reported in . However, we ports about foreign, up to then completely visited by about 300 “heathens” in August cannot be absolutely sure. In 1421, arri- unknown, travelling people who had come 1418, followed by 100 more three days vals are reported in Bruges and Mons, the in great numbers from the east into Ala- after the first group’s departure. Apart from latter had even been visited twice. On Oc- mannia, and travelled on to the German already known observations, the Roma’s tober 8, 80 people, led by “Duke Andreas coast. Thus, his “Chronicon” offers the earrings, the particular costume worn by of Little Egypt”, arrived, and produced a first extensive report about the arrival of the women and the latter’s skill at palmistry letter of safe conduct issued by Emperor a large group of Roma. [Ill. 5] were recorded for the first time. Sigismund. On October 20, a second group At about the same time, the “Gyp- For 1418, there are also notes on followed, whose leader was called Michael sies” appeared in Alsace. In the city chro- arrivals in ; then, the numbers and who claimed to be the brother of the nicle of , only written in the of arrivals in France rose. On August 22, aforementioned Andreas. [Ill. 1]

arrival. Such documents preceded the se letters can be questioned. But even Letters of safe conduct passports of today and were issued to though such letters were duplicated and one person (in this case the duke or voi- passed on from group to group, or – as vode) and guaranteed a free, and more- was common in the Middle Ages – fake Sources often report that Roma leaders over, a safe journey to the bearer and documents were circulating, there can carried letters of safe conduct on their his entourage. The authenticity of the- be no doubt that the Roma also had ge-

  Further Arrivals until 1435 Distrust and Reproaches – Buying out, Deportation and Expulsion

From the letter of safe conduct by King Si- gismund, issued on April 17, 1423, in Zips ():

“Our faithful Ladislaus, Gypsy Voivode, and those who depend on him, have most humbly asked Us to show them Our particular good- will. It pleases Us to hear their respectful request, and not to deny them the letter at hand. When the aforesaid Ladislaus and his people appear in any town of Our empire, we recommend showing them your faith towards Us. You will afford them protection of any kind, so that the Voivode Ladislaus and the gypsies, his subjects, can stay within your walls without encountering difficulties. Should other people be among them, or should any unpleasant in- cident occur, then it is Our wish and We or- der explicitly that only the Voivode Ladislaus excluding all of you has the right to punish or acquit.” Ill. 8 (translated from Mayerhofer 1988, p. 13) Ill. 7

nuine travel documents in their posses- ces were advantageous, particularly in Regensburg in 1421. It was – probably a sion. the areas outside of the Holy Roman Em- genuine – letter of safe conduct by King An undoubtedly genuine and re- pire, where royal letters were not valid. Sigismund, issued in Zips in 1423 to peatedly mentioned letter of safe conduct In view of Europe’s disunity and Voivode Ladislaus and his “Gypsies”. In is the one issued by King Sigismund the ensuing obligation to ask for pro- this letter, Sigismund not only grants the during the Council of Constance (1414 tection in many independent principali- aforementioned Ladislaus his personal – 1418). In this document, the highest ties and kingdoms the Roma were soon protection, but he also confirms Ladis- secular ruler of Christianity granted the looking for a letter of recommendation laus’ jurisdiction over his retinue. There Roma, who said about themselves that which would be valid anywhere. Such a is also further evidence that there was “their ancestors had broken with the faith document could, at the time, be issued no connection between this group and in Little Egypt”, “escort and a free jour- only by a representative of the second the ones mentioned before. The name ney through his countries and cities”. Se- universal power – the pope. The first of the voivode, who is explicitly called bastian Münster, who saw a copy of this report of a papal letter of recommen- a faithful follower of the king, usually letter decades later, reports Lindau as the dation dates from 1422. Independent of appears in Hungary and ; there place of issue in his “Cosmographia uni- its genuineness, many copies must have is no indication of the pilgrimage or the versalis”, published in 1550, but does not been made. The changing names of the origin of the “Gypsies”; this leads to the mention a precise date. addressee and inconsistencies as regards assumption that they had already been in Apart from royal letters of safe content make these allegedly papal do- Hungary for some time. Probably they conduct, the Roma also had such letters cuments appear very suspect. [Ill. 10] were part of a second wave of immigra- from other secular dignitaries at their dis- A new document was carried by tion which took place in a very different posal. Guarantees from individual prin- the first group of Roma who arrived in context. [Ills. 7, 8]

he describes how, on August 17, 1427, fess their sins – they had broken with Further Arrivals until at first 12 “penitents” – “one duke, one their faith and had thus been expelled 1435 count, 10 people, all on horseback” – ar- from their home country. The pope’s pe- rived at the city gates of Paris, at that nance had been to wander the world for One of the most extensive and vivid time occupied by the English, and pre- seven years “without sleeping in a bed”. reports of these early times was provi- sented a letter of safe conduct by Pope [Ill. 9] ded by an anonymous citizen in Paris. Martin V. They said that they had made Only 3 weeks after that, a In his “Journal d’un bourgeois de Paris” a pilgrimage to Rome in order to con- “Count Thomas”, accompanied by ap-

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Ill. 7 Letter of safe conduct by King Friedrich III for ACCOUNT BY AN ANONYMOUS CITIZEN OF PARIS Count Michel, April 15, 1442. (from Gilsenbach 1994, p. 81) According to the “bourgeois” ‘ explanations, the vanguard of 12 was followed on August 29 by a big group of more than 100 men, women and children. The authorities denied them entry into the capital, but assig- ned them a place to camp near the chapel St. Denis, at that time situ- ated north of the city. Apparently, the Roma aroused a lot of attention; the writer of the diary also mentions that curious people from all over Paris came to goggle at them. He complements an extensive description of their looks with an enumeration of all the accusations that had been made against the foreigners (fortune telling, theft, magic,...) – but he says that he cannot confirm them. When rumours of the Roma’s “anti- Christian” practices reached the bishop of Paris, he hastened to the Roma’s camp and excommunicated all those who had shown their hands to the fortune tellers. Excommunicating the Roma seemed unnecessary, as the bishop considered them – notwithstanding the papal letter of safe conduct – to be “heathens”. They were simply expelled from La Cha- Ill. 10 pelle. The description of these events concludes with the note that the One of the papal letters of safe conduct for Roma moved on towards Pontoise on September 8, 1427. Roma, this one allegedly issued by Pope Martin Ill. 9 V in 1483. (excerpted and translated from Gilsenbach 1994, p. 68f.) (from Hancock 2002, p. 30)

proximately 40 people, coming from that this Count Thomas and the leader this term has been the common deno- a “foreign and very faraway country”, of the Roma near La Chapelle, who had mination for Roma. appeared near Amiens. After a thorough not been described in detail, was one The visits in Thüringen stand examination of the papal letter of safe and the same person out from the other arrivals on German conduct the council decided to allow In 1429, the Dutch city of De- ground. The Roma who arrived in Er- the foreigners into the city and to give venter, and other Dutch local authori- furt (in 1432) and in Meiningen (in them “8 livres parises” from the city’s ty districts lodged people from “Little 1435) do not seem to have any connec- coffers as alms. The date, the almost Egypt”. The corresponding note in the tion with the groups mentioned before. identical wording of the story told, and books is interesting in so far as for the Possibly, they also belonged to the se- the letter by Martin V, which is menti- first time, the term “heathen” was used cond wave of immigrants coming from oned once again, led to the assumption in the Netherlands. From that time on, Hungary.

are very few neutral descriptions, but was immediately stylised as ethnic cha- Distrust and Reproaches numerous and repeatedly mentioned ne- racteristic, there is no evidence that the – Buying out, Deportation gative ones. Roma had worked as spies for the Turks, and Expulsion Already in the earliest sources the as was often claimed. Even though not a Roma were presented as wild people, la- single Rom could be convicted of espio- Declaring their journey a pilgrimage, cking manners and being godless. Smal- nage, the picture of the Roma as a “tre- as well as their letters of safe conduct, ler offences against property and deceits acherous and unfaithful” people came assured the Roma a friendly reception were at the of the Roma’s bad re- into existence and continued to exist at their first appearance in Central and putation as “cunning thieves”. Fortune over centuries. Western Europe. However, the “Gyp- telling, which had apparently been a Even on their first arrival, the sies” were considered suspect from the cover-up for pickpockets, aroused the Roma were only tolerated by the settled very beginning by the settled population, displeasure of the religious authorities. population for a short period of time. Af- particularly by those in German-spea- Church representatives assumed “witch- ter a short period in which the strangers king countries. Very soon, their foreign craft and wizardry” behind the Roma’s had been received in a (more or less) hos- appearance, such as the “black” skin tricks and feared for the spiritual salvati- pitable way, the settled population tried and their “terrible” looks were associ- on of their faithful. to keep them from the cities. The much- ated with negative character traits and Whereas theft and fortune telling cited alms “to honour God” changed into socially inappropriate behaviour. There was often recorded in the sources and a sort of “buying out” of the pilgrim’s

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Ill. 11 The Visit of the Gypsies. Maker unknown, c.1490. Wool tapestry. (from Fraser 1992, p. 101)

irksome presence. The first such case When the “Gypsies” returned ties and the state took drastic steps. Elec- was in Bamberg. The city’s chronicle – notwithstanding entry bans, notwith- tor Albrecht Achilles of Brandenburg’s reported that, in 1463, the “Gypsies” standing threatened and later also exe- 1482 edict, which forbade the “Gypsies” were given a present of 7 pounds, “dar- cuted excommunications, notwithstan- to stay in his territory, and the declara- um, dass sie von stund an hin wegschie- ding deportation and being “bought out” tion during the “Reichstag” (Parliament den und die gemein unbeschädigt lies- – the first forcible expulsions took place. session) in Lindau, 1497, which made sen” (so that they would leave the city Because of a growing distrust and the the “Gypsies” outlaws, were the first within an hour and not bring harm to population’s increasingly hostile stance steps towards “Gypsy prosecution” on a the city). towards the foreigners, the local authori- large scale. [Ill. 4]

Bibliography

Fraser, Angus (1992) The Gypsies. Oxford / Cambridge: Blackwell | Gilsenbach, Reimar (1994) Weltchronik der Zigeuner. Teil 1: Von den Anfängen bis 1599. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang | Gronemeyer, Reimer / Rakelmann, Georgia A. (1988) Die Zigeuner. Reisende in Europa. Köln: DuMont Buchverlag | Hancock, Ian (1987) The Pariah Syndrome. An account of Gypsy slavery and persecution. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Karoma Publishers | Hancock, Ian (2002) We are the . Ame sam e Rromane džene. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press | Mayerhofer, Claudia (1988) Dorfzigeuner. Kultur und Geschichte der -Roma von der Ersten Republik bis zur Gegenwart. Wien: Picus Verlag | Tcherenkov, Lev / Laederich, Stéphane (2004) The Rroma. Volume 1. History, and Groups. Basel: Schwabe Verlag | Vossen, Rüdiger (1983) Zigeuner. Roma, , , Gypsies zwischen Verfolgung und Romantisierung. Frankfurt am Main: Ullstein

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