Development Team

Paper No. : 13 Research Methods and Field work Module : 09 Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy

Development Team

Principal Investigator Prof. Anup Kumar Kapoor Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi

Dr. P. Venkatramana Paper Coordinator Faculty of Anthropology, School of Social Sciences, IGNOU, Delhi

Dr. P. Venkatramana Content Writer Faculty of Anthropology, School of Social Sciences,

IGNOU, Delhi

Dr. Rashmi Sinha Content Reviewer Faculty of Anthropology, School of Social Sciences, IGNOU, Delhi 1

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

Description of Module

Subject Name Anthropology

Paper Name Research Methods and Field work

Module Name/Title Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy

Module Id 09

Contents: 1. Introduction 2. Anthropometry 3. Somatometry 3.1 Instruments used in Somatometry 3.2 Guidelines for measurements of Somatometric parameters 3.2.1. Anatomical landmarks 3.2.2. List of Landmarks and their description 3.2.3. List of Somatometric parameters and instruments used 3.2.4. Indices 4. Somatoscopy 4.1. Somatoscopic parameters 4.1.2. Importance of ear in medical practice and forensic application Summary

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

Learning Objectives:  To discuss the definitions of somatometry and somatoscopy;  To study the importance, applications and instruments used in somatometry;  To understand the anatomical landmarks;  To know the list of somatometric parameters and indices used for studying physical status and instruments employed;  To understand the clinical and forensic application of information on external ear

1. Introduction Physical Anthropologists employ various tools to study human biological variation such as anthropometry, serology, dermatoglyphics, mitochondrial haplotypes, single nucleotide polymorphisms, gene and genome sequencing. Anthropologists used anthropometry and morphological traits (hair, skin, ear lobe etc.,) in earlier research studies to classify humans in to races but still reported in research journals as tools to study population variation in nutritional status assessment and in association with disease conditions.

2. Anthropometry Anthropometry refers to the measurements of the human body. Anthropometry is categorized into three groups for convenience. They are somatometry (measurement on living human body), osteometry (measurement on skeletal long and short bones) and craniometry (measurement on the skull).

3. Somatometry Measurements on the living human is made using well defined anatomical landmarks. Somatometry is useful to compare different populations, designing aircrafts, space ships, furniture and uniforms to defense and paramilitary personnel; assessment of nutritional status; to study the effect of interventions; developing non-invasive markers for diagnosis; to formulate policy and; to understand micro-evolutionary process as they are reflected in genetic and morphological traits in human

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

populations (Bhasin, 2006). Variations in human body dimensions are hypothesized to be due to interaction of environment with biological, nutritional, economic and cultural factors (Bhasin, 2006). Somatometric studies in India have shown that on an average Indians have medium height (163.06 cm), mesocephalic (Cephalic index: 76.06); mesorrhine (nasal index:75.53) and mesoprosopic (facial index:86.34); (Bhasin,2006).

3.1 Instruments used in somatometry Anthropometer: This instrument consists of four calibrated segments. First segment is called Rod Compass. All segments when combined show the scale of 200cm. It has two sleeves i.e. upper fixed sleeve and a movable sleeve. Cross bars are inserted through the sleeves and the measurements are made (Figure1).

Rod compass

Figure1: Anthropometer Source: http://www.seritex.com/gpm-anthropometer-100/)

Spreading Caliper: This instrument is available in two sizes i.e 25 cm and 60 cm. The spreading calipers are made with blunt or rounded ends and sharp or pointed ends. The spreading caliper with rounded or blunted ends is used to make measurements on living human being, whereas, the spreading caliper with sharp or pointed end is employed to record measurements on skeletons (Figure 2 and 3). 4

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

Figure 2: Spreading caliper with blunt or rounded ends Source: http://dksh.com/cs/dksh_id/en/industries/business-line/tec-ai/anthropological-instruments

Figure 3: Spreading caliper with sharp or pointed ends Source: http://dksh.com/cs/dksh_id/en/industries/business-line/tec-ai/anthropological-instruments

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

Sliding caliper: The slider caliper is used for measuring breadths of short distance. The fixed and sliding arm have both sharp and blunted ends. The sharp ends and blunted are for measurements on skeleton and living human being, respectively (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Sliding caliper Source: http://dksh.com/cs/dksh_id/en/industries/business-line/tec-ai/anthropological-instrument

Skinfold caliper: The caliper is used for measuring thickness of skin fold at various sites of the body and provide information about the amount of subcutaneous fat at each measurable site. A pressure of 10gm/mm2 is used at the contact surface of the arms ranging from 20-40mm2 (Figure 5).

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

Figure 5: Skin fold calipers Source: : http://www.slideshare.net/ektabelwal/nutritional-anthropometry

Tape: It has a width of 1 cm and graduations in mm. The tape is made up of steel. All girth measurements are made using the tape.

Goniometer: This instrument has round upper shape and bottom straight base. On the round shape graduations are given in mm. It has a movable needle. A protractor is attached to the base. The

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

Presence of slot with spring and screws allows the attachment with instruments like sliding or spreading calipers (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Goniometer Source: http://www.exportersindia.com/supertechsurgicals/goniometer-new-delhi-india-305697.htm

3.2.Guidelines for measurements of somatometric parameters: Measurements are recorded in standing position with minimal clothing without shoes and head should be in ear-eye plane (Frankfurt plane). Measurements are generally made on the right side of the body unless there is evidence of extra musculature in which case, measurements should be made on left side. In case of infants or children, measurements can be made by advising them to sit on a stool of 40 cm height. The allowed personal errors for various measurements are of the following: head measurement (0.5-1.0mm); head height (2.0 mm); most of the body measurements (3.0-5.0mm), weight (0.1kg); stature, arm span (10.0 mm) and skinfold thickness (1mm). It should be ensured that zero is set while taking measurements on weighing scale and skinfold caliper.

3.2.1. Anatomical landmarks: It may be defined as any anatomic feature such as fold, prominence, duct, vessel consistently present in a tissue that serves to indicate a specific structure or position (Medical dictionary). These anatomical landmarks are used to make measurements of somatometric

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

parameters. There are several landmarks used in Somatometry. Some of the landmarks are given below:

3.2.2. List of Landmarks and their description: Landmark Description Acromion Lateral point on the lateral margin of the acromial process Acropodion Distal point on the toe-cap of the first or second toe Alare Lateral point on the nasal wing Euryon Lateral point on the sides of the head Glabella Point between the eye brow ridges above nasal root Gnathion Point on the lower margin of the lower jaw at mid-saggital plane Gonion Lowest posterior and most lateral point on the angle of the lower jaw Inion Point on tuberculum linearum on posterior protuberance in mid-saggital plane Mesosternale Point on the anterior border of the sternum in mid-saggital plane Metopion Point on the highest projection of the frontal protuberance in mid-saggital plane Nasion Point on the nasal root in mid-saggital plane Pronasale Anterior point on the tip of the nose Prosthion Point on the lower margin of the gums of the upper jaw in mid-saggital plane

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

Pternion Hind most point on the heel of the stretched foot Radiale Highest point on the upper margin of the radiale capitulum Subnasale Point at the lower margin of the nasal septum meets the integument of upper lip Substernale Lowest point at the lower edge of the sternum in mid-saggital plane Thelion Point at the middle of the nipple Tibiale Highest point on the inner glenoidal margin of the head of tibia Tragion Point on the upper margin of tragus 1-2 cm below the helix spine Vertex Highest point on the head Zygion Lateral point on the zygomatic arch

3.2.3 A list of some of the somatometric measurements with land marks and instruments used is presented below: Mesurement Landmarks Instrument used Height Vertex or Stature Vertex-Floor Anthropometer Arm Span Dactylia of one arm-dactylia of other Anthropometer arm Sitting Height Vertex Vertex-Sitting surface of the subject Anthropometer Sitting Height Acromion Acromion-Sitting surface of the Anthropometer or Shoulder Height subject Sitting Biacromial Breadth or Distance between two Acromia Rod Compass

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

Shoulder Breadth Traverse Chest Breadth Laterally placed points of the ribs at Rod Compass the height of mesosternale Sagittal Chest Depth Mesosternale-Horizantally placed Rod Compass point in the vertebral column Waist Breadth Straight distance between the two Rod Compass most laterally placed points on the contour of the tunk when abdomen is relaxed Bi-Cristal Breadth Straight distance between the two Rod Compass iliocristralia Hip Breadth or Straight distance between the most Rod Compass Bitrochanteric Breadth lateral points on the bumps Total Arm Length or Straight distance between acromion- First two segments of Length of the Upper dactylion Anthropometric Rod Limb Arm Length without Straight distance between acromion Rod compass Hand and stylion Length of Upper Arm Straight distance between acromion Rod compass and radiale Length of Forearm Straight distance between radiale and Rod compass sternum Length of Hand Straight distance between the Sliding caliper midpoint of line joing the two stylion and dactylion of the middle finger Length of Thumb Straight distance between phalangion Sliding caliper I of the thumb and dactylion of the

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

same Hand Breadth Straight distance between metacarpal Sliding caliper radialis and metacarpal ulnare Length of Foot Straight distance between metatarsal Sliding caliper tibiale and metatarsal fibulare Breadth of Foot Straight distance between metatarsal Sliding caliper tibiale and metatarsal fibulare Chest Girth Circumference of the chest when Tape breathing normally. Recorded at both 1.Chest Girth Inspiration inspiration and expiration. Recorded when subject inhale as 2.Chest Girth much as possible and highest value is Expiration noted Recorded when subject exhale and the least value is noted Waist Girth Circumference of the abdomen at the Tape most lateral contour of the body between the ribs and intestine Hip Girth Circumference of the hips at their Tape widest portion Maximum Girth of the Circumference of the upper arm at Tape Upper arm the maximal development of biceps muscles Maximum Girth of Maximum circumference of the Tape Forearm lower arm under the elbow joint Least Girth of the Least cricumferne of the forearm Tape Forearm or Girth of proximal to the styloid process

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

Wrist Maximum Girth of Circumference at the lowest point in Tape Thigh the gluteal furrow and horizontal to the thigh Maximum Calf Girth Circumference where calf muscles Tape are most developed Body weight Total body weight. Measuring should Weighing machine be avoided in post meal Biceps skin fold Back of upper arm Skin fold caliper thickness Triceps skin fold Back of upper arm over the triceps Skin fold caliper thickness muscles Subscapular skin fold Below the inferior angle of scapula Skin fold caliper thickness Chest skin fold thickness Long axis running from the top Skin fold caliper of the anterior axillary fold to the nipple Suprailiac skin fold Above iliac crest Skin fold caliper thickness Abdomen skin fold 1 cm below umbilicus and 3cm Skin fold caliper thickness lateral Maximum Head Length Straight distance between glabella Spreading caliper with and opisthocaranion blunt ends

Glabella-Inion Length Straight distance between glabella Spreading caliper with and inion blunt ends Maximum Head Breadth Straight distance between the two Spreading caliper with

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

eurya blunt ends Minimum Frontal Straight distance between the two Spreading caliper with Breadth frontotempoalia blunt ends Bi-Auricular Breadth or Straight distance between the two Spreading caliper with Bi-Tragion Breadth tragia blunt ends Breadth of Bizygomatic Straight distance between the two Spreading caliper with Arch zygia blunt ends Bi-Gonial Breadth Straight distance between the two Spreading caliper with gonia blunt ends Nasal Breadth Straight distance between the two Sliding caliper with flat alaria arm Auricular Height or Projective distance between tragion Rod compass with head Head Height and vertex height needle Total Head Height Projective distance between vertex Rod campass and gnathion Physiognomic Facial Straight distance between trichion Sliding caliper Height and gnathion Morphological Facial Staright distance between nasion and Sliding caliper Height or Total Facial gnathion Height Physiognomic Upper Straight distance between nasion and Sliding caliper Facial Height stomion Morphological Upper Straight distance between nasion and Sliding caliper Facial Height prosthion Nasal Height Straight distance between nasion and Sliding caliper subnasale Nasal Depth Projective distance between tip of the Sliding caliper

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

nose and hind-most of the nasal septum Nasal Length or Length Straight distance between nasion and Sliding caliper of Nose pronasale

Landmarks are given in Figures 7.

Figure 7. Land marks Adapted from Singh and Bhasin (1989)

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

Using the somatometric measurements, a number of indices can be calculated. Some of the important indices are specified below:

3.2.4. Indices Relative Upper Extremities Indices or Upper Extremities-Stature Indices: a.Arm Length without Hand X100 Height Vertex

b. Lenth of Upper Arm X 100 Height Vertex

Relative Lower Extremities Indices or Lower-Extremities – Stature Indices:

a. Leg length without Foot X 100 Height Vertex

b. Length of Thigh X 100 Height Vertex

Relative Biacromial Breadth Index or Biacromial Breadth-Stature Index:

Biacromial Bredth X 100 Height Vertex

Relative Chest Girth Index or Chest Girth-Stature Index:

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

Chest Girth X 100 Height Vertex

Circumference of Arm Index:

Maximum Girth of Upper Arm X 100 Maximum Girth of Fore arm

Mammillo-Acromial Index :

Bithelion Breadth X 100 Biacromial Breadth

1. Ponderal Index:

1000 X 3

Height Vertex

Cephalic Index:

Maximum Head Breadth X 100 Maximum Head Length Physiognomic Facial Index: Physiognomic Facial Height X 100 Breadth of Bizygomatic Arch

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

Morphological Facial Height: Morphological Facial Height X 100 Breadth of Bizygomatic Arch Morphological Upper Facial Index: Morphological Upper Facial Height X 100 Breadth of Bizygomatic Arch Upper Facial Index: Physiognomic Upper Facial Height X 100 Physiognomic Facial Height Sagital Naso-Facial Index: Nasal Height X 100 Morphological Facial Height Jugo-Mandibular Index: Bigonial Breadth X 100 Breadth of Bizygomatic Arch Vertical Cephalo-facial Index: Morphological Facial Height X 100 Head Height Nasal Index: Nasal Breadth X 100 Nasal Height

4. Somatoscopy Somatoscopy is the observation and description of morphological features of individuals (Singhai, 2014). Somatoscopic observations earlier were used to classify humans in to races and to study variations among human populations. Somatoscopic observations are human traits which cannot be presented in numbers and but can be described using standard charts and models developed by pioneers like Brown, Steindamm, Ackermann, Martin, Saller, Erhardt, Schultz, Ziegelmayer,

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

Weninger, Topinard. Morphological triats have forensic application such as identification of suspected person; clinical applications like reconstruction of deformed body parts and identification of abnormalities for example Edward’s cleft lip/cleft palate syndrome (Singh and Purkait, 2009). Morphological methods are useful to study the correlation of structure and function of human body (Singh and Bhasin, 1989). For studying the morphological traits among human populations, close-up photographs are taken and humans are classified.

Human beings can be classified into different groups based on somatoscopic variables like body postures, upper and lower extremities with hand and foot, fingers, foot, toes, skin colour, hair, head and face, eyes, nose, lips, etc.

4.1. List of Somatoscopic parameters Skin Colour: To study the skin colour on human subjects, the observable body parts are forehead, cheeks, chest, abdomen above the navel, shoulder blades, axis of the upper arm, inner side of the upper arm, palm and inner side of thigh and sole. If for some cultural reasons the above body parts are not allowed to be seen by the researchers, the investigator can make observations at least on forehead and inner side of the upper arm. Human skin colour differs from dark in Africans to very light or weight in Celtics. Various factors influence the skin colour such as melanin, hemoglobin, the level of blood oxygenation, chromophores, oils, soaps, presence of wrinkles, larger growth of hair, disease, malnutrition and change of climate has been shown to affect skin colour(Singh and Bhasin,1989; Treesirichod et al., 2014). Skin colour of the subject can be determined by matching with shades in chart developed by Taylor, Luschan, Broca, Fritsch, Hintz and Schultz. Skin colour can also be determined spectrophotometrically (Minolta chromameter and Mexa meter) (Treesirichod et al., 2014) and also using photographs. In Felix von Luschan skin color chart, the skin colour ranges from 1 to 36. (Figure 8).

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

Figure 8. Felix von Luschan skin color chart adapted from Treesirichod et al., 2014

The skin sites evaluated for skin colur include midpoint between the elbow and the wrist on the medial aspect of the volar regions and the medial aspect of the dorsal regions of both forearm (Treesirichod et al., 2014). The codes used for skin colur in this chart include (1, 2: Yellowish White; 3: Carmine White; 4,5: Yellowish; 6: Light Brown;7,8: Fawn White;9-11:Carmine White; 12,13: Pinkish White;14-29: Light Brown to Brown;30,31: Dark Brown;32: Reddish Brown; 33,34:Dark Brown;35:Greyish Black and 36: Black) (Singh and Bhasin, 1989). Hair: Form, colour, texture, quantity and presence of whorls in hair can be used to classify human subjects. The body parts where hair can be observed includes hair on head, beard, genitals, eye lashes, eye-brow ridges, face. If for some cultural reasons, subjects may not be allow certains parts of the body too be seen by the investigator then the research can make observations on head and face. 20

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Hair Colour: Several researchers have proposed hair colour charts such as Fischer and Saller, Tisserand and Fischer and Schultz. According Fischer and Saller hair colour table there are 30 different shades of natural hair colour. Factors like hair oil, perfumes, dyes, malnutrition,light, air and sea water have been observed to influence the hair colour. Fischer and Saller hair colour classification (Figure 9)

Figure 9: Hair colour classification given Fischer and Saller Source: https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/lab/forensic-science- communications/fsc/july2000/ubelaker.htm/ubelake1.htm

Blond Dark Brown Red

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

A: Ash Blond M-O: Dark Blond I-IV: Red B-E: Light blond P-T: Brown V-VI: Reddish Brown F-L: Blond U-Y: Dark Brown

Hair Form: There are three hair forms like straight or sleek, wavy and Frizzly.Water, soap and artificial curling have been shown to influence hair form (a)Staight (Thicker) or Sleek (thinner) (Lissortrichous) (b)Wavy(Cymatotrichous): Flat or Broad or Narrow waved or curly (c) Frizzly(Ulotrichous): Closer or Wider knit or Pepper-corn or Spiral Hair Texture : It is of three types i.e Coarse or Medium or Fine Quantity: Based on quantity, humans can be classified as Thin or Medium or Normal or Thick or Dense. Presence of hair whorls: Presence of hair whorls can be categorized based on quantity or direction (a) Quantitity: Single or Double or Multiple (b) Direction: Clockwise or Anticlockwise

Head and Face: Human beings can be classified in to different somatscopic groups based on vertex, occiput, total face and forehead features in head and face. (1) Vertex (a) Curve: Flat or Slight or Medium or Well-arched (b) Shape: Ovoid or Pentagonoid or Elliptical or Sphenoid (2) Occiput : (a) Projection: Flat or Moderate bulging or Strong bulging (b) Shape: Barrel or Gable shape (3) Total Face: (a) Height: Long or Medium or Short (b) Diameter: Narrow or Medium or Broad or Very Broad 22

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(c) Shape: Quite Flat or medium or Arched or Projected (d) Frontal Outline of the Face: Eliptical or Oval or Round or Square or Quadrangular or Rhomboid or Trapezoid or Pentagonoid (Figure 10)

Figure 10: Face shapes (Source: https://www.tumblr.com/search/face%20shapes)

Eyes: Human beings can be classified based eye opening axis, direction and folds of the eye. (a) Eye Opening Axis: Horizontal or Slanting or Oblique (b) Direction: Outwards or Inwards (c) Eye folds: Slight or Heavy or Deckfalte or Mongoloid or Epicanthous (Figure 11)

Figure 11: Epicanthic fold Source: http://s1.zetaboards.com/anthroscape/topic/4840284/1/

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1. Nose: There are seven observable variables in nose structure such as nasal root, nasal bridge, tip of the nose, nasal wings or alae, nasal septum, nasal cavity or surface of nasal cavity (Figure 12).

1. Nasal Root: (a) Height above Inner Angle of Eye: High or Medium or Low (b) Depth from Glabella: High or Medium or Deep (c ) Breadth: Broad or Medium Broad or Narrow ( d) Shape: Quite Flat or Flat or Medium or High or Very High 2. Nasal Bridge: (a) Projection: Upwards or Downwards (b) Shape from Profile: Concave or Verticle or Convex (c ) Nasal Bridge Profile: Continuous or Wavy or Angular

Figure 12: Nose Source: http://shieldgraft.blogspot.in/2010/12/nomenclature-of-nose-this-could-be.html 24

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

3. Tip of Nose: (a) Projection: Upwards or Downwards (b) Profile of Tip: Rounded at point or Fully Rounded or Flat 4. Nasal Wings or Alae: (a) Thickness: Thick or Medium or Thin (b) Height: Height or Low (c ) Bulge: Slight Flat or Slight or Strongly Bulging

5. Nasal Septum: (a) Size: Long or Medium or Short (b) Breadth: Narrow or Broad (c ) Direction: Upwards or Downwards or Horizontal ( d) Profile: Septum Visibible or Not

6. Nasal Cavity: (a) Shape and Size: Very Narrow or Narrow or Long Oval or Short Oval or Round or Broad or Very Broad (b ) Size and Length: Small or Big

7. Surface of Nasal Cavity: Horizontal or Projecting Downwards or Upwards

2. Lips: For classification of human beings, both upper and lower lip are studied separately. Within each lip, three features namely form, mebral lip and mentolabial fold are observed. The meaning of integumentary meaning is pertaining to or composed of skin. (1) Integumental Upper Lip: (a) Form: Straight or Convex or Concave (b) Membral Lip: Thin or Medium or Thick or Puffed-up (c) Mentolabial Fold: High or Medium or Low

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

(2) Integumental Lower Lip: (a) Form: Straight or Bulging Downwards (b) Membral Lip: Thin or Medium or Thick or Puffed (c) Mentolabial Fold: High or Medium or Low (1) Prognathism (Figure 13) ( https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-iCbxbgzsuE): (a) Type: Alveolar or Facial (b) Size: Slight or Medium or Marked

Figure 13: Prognathism Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-iCbxbgzsuE

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

3. External Ear (Figure 14):

Figure 14: External ear Source: http://health-advisors.org/outer-ear-diagram/outer-ear-diagram-2/

(1) Ear Lobe: (a) Presence: Present or Absent (b) Size: Long or Medium or Short (c) Shape: Tongue-shaped or Triangular or Square or Arched (d) Thickness: Thick or Medium or Thin (e) Attachment: Free or Attached (f) If Attached: One quarter or Half or One Third or Two Third or Three Quarters or Fully Attached (2) Darwin’s Tubercle: Present or Absent (3) Antihelix Curvature: Strong or Medium or Weak

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(4) Antitragus: Strong or Weak or Angularly Developed (5) Helix and Antihelix: Equal to each other or Narrower or Broader (6) Tragus and Antitragus: (a) Size: Small or Weak or Medium (b) Shape: Long or Round or Knob-shaped (7) Scaphoid: (a) Size: Broad or Middle or Narrow (b) Shape: Flat or Medium or Deep

4.1.2. Importance of ear in medical practice and forensic application: Low set ears defined as upper edge of the auricle is below the exocanthion level and lower edge below the chelion level. Low set ears are used for diagnosis of congenital anomalies like Patau syndrome and Edward syndrome. Ear provide the supplementary information about the person’s identity and also serve as biometric triat to strengthen the primary biometric system. The famous sandalwood smuggler Veerappan’s dead body, was confirmed by observation of ear available in the ante and post-mortem photographs by forensic people. It was reported that Veerappan had unique ear characteristic such as a flat tragus contiguous with the curved portion of the helix and enlarged and squarish lobule, which served as marker to identify him (Singh and Purkait, 2009).

Summary  Physical anthropology is a study of human biology within the frame work of evolution. Physical anthropologists study human variation to obtain clues about how humans adapted to the environment over time. Various tools are employed by physical anthropologists to understand variation like anthropometry, serology, dermatoglyphics, mitochondrial haplotypes, single nucleotide polymorphisms, gene and genome sequencing. Physical anthropologists used anthropometry earlier to classify human beings into races. Physical anthropologist employ somatometric and somatoscopic approaches to study human variation.

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology

 Somatometry is defined as measurement on living human body and somatoscopy is the description of visible morphological traits.  Measurements on the living human is made using well defined anatomical landmarks.  For somatometric measurements, various instruments are used and they include anthropometer, head height needle, spreading caliper, sliding caliper, skinfold caliper, tape and goniometer etc.,  Measurements are made on standing position with minimal clothing without shoes and head should be in ear-eye plane (Frankfurt plane). Measurements are generally made on the right side of the body  In human body, 55 landmarks are well defined starting from acromion to zygion.  One hundred twenty six somatometric parameters are reported on living human body.  Fifty indices are reported using somatometric parameters to classify human beings into different groups.  Somatoscopic observations are visible morphological traits which can be confirmed by using models and charts. The somotoscopic traits have clinical applications for describing congenital anomalies and forensic applications. The list of somatoscopic traits includes skin colour, hair, head and face, cheeks, eyes, nose, lips, mouth, teeth, lip etc.,

Techniques of Somatometry & Somatoscopy Anthropology