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Locating Diaspora: Afro-Caribbean Migrations and the Transnational Dialectics of Race and Community in North America, 1910-1929

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Locating Diaspora: Afro-Caribbean Migrations and the Transnational Dialectics of Race and Community in North America, 1910-1929 Locating Diaspora: Afro-Caribbean Migrations and the Transnational Dialectics of Race and Community in North America, 1910-1929 by Jared Glen Toney A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of History University of Toronto © Copyright by Jared Glen Toney, 2014. ABSTRACT Locating Diaspora: Afro-Caribbean Migrations and the Transnational Dialectics of Race and Community in North America, 1910-1929. Doctor of Philosophy, 2014 Jared Glen Toney Graduate Department of History University of Toronto This dissertation examines the migration of West Indians from the Anglophone Caribbean to the U.S. and Canada in the early twentieth century. It focuses on the transnational negotiations of racial community and conceptions of blackness, a process enacted through Afro-Caribbean migration networks and the encounters between peoples of African descent in North America. The comparative element considers how conceptions of race, and specifically blackness, were differently constituted and expressed among communities in three different locales: New York, Montreal, and Toronto. The transnational dimension illuminates the connective elements between those sites and the mediation of ethnic and national difference among black Canadians, Americans, and West Indians. It proposes three scales by which to analyze formations of community and diasporic conceptions of race in North America. The first scale of analysis is the nation. In their migrations, Afro-Caribbean immigrants encountered different constructions of blackness within the respective national contexts; black peoples themselves expressed multiple and sometimes conflicting identifications with nation, state, and empire in Canada and the U.S. Second, this dissertation evaluates communities at the local level, identifying the characteristics of urban sites that framed the West Indian experience and the formulations of racial communities therein. The third scale of analysis is the transnational. Here, it focuses ii on how different expressions of race in the respective local and national contexts were mobilized between sites and across space, and how the terms of blackness traveled and translated across geographic, political, and cultural borders. Ultimately, this dissertation illustrates the process and practice of diaspora among peoples in the respective U.S. and Canadian cities, and their transnational engagements with a broader racial community. In the early twentieth century, the category of blackness had increasing resonance among an otherwise diverse, disparate, and ethnically heterogeneous community. Diasporic blackness was rooted in the North American experience, and routed through West Indian migration networks between New York, Toronto, and Montreal. It not only incorporated differences among peoples of African descent, it was contingent upon them. As a result of these cross-border encounters and interactions, racial, ethnic, and national communities were remade through diaspora. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS & DEDICATION For years now I’ve been looking forward to the day when I could sit down and properly acknowledge all the people who have in one way or another helped me through my years of graduate school at the University of Toronto. Now that I am finally in a position to do so, I’m finding the words do not come easily. In these, the very last steps of a long journey, I reflect back on the past years and think about the indelible mark so many have left not only on this dissertation, but on me personally. While researching and writing is indeed a solitary endeavour, I would have neither completed this dissertation nor survived graduate school without the continuous support and generosity of many people across the U.S., Canada, the Caribbean, and around the world. I wish first to gratefully acknowledge my committee members, all of whom are extraordinary scholars and wonderful people. Russell Kazal, Franca Iacovetta, and Melanie Newton offered continuous and critical feedback on drafts of my thesis, and were always eager to discuss ideas and push me in new directions. Russ has in every way been an ideal advisor who has given generously of his time, exhibiting an active and earnest interest in my work and acting as a tireless advocate on my behalf. Franca and Melanie too have provided a great deal of both professional and personal support. I am truly fortunate to have had the opportunity to work with all of them. I wish also to thank Michael Wayne and Sean Mills, both of whom took an enthusiastic interest in my work and have in the process become good friends. Michael Wayne and Sandra Tychsen (and Spot, too!) were always very kind and generous to me, and have become like family. David Austin kindly agreed to serve as the external appraiser on my defense committee, and offered helpful and insightful feedback for which I am most grateful. iv I wish also to thank a number of other faculty and staff at the University of Toronto who made my graduate school experience an enlivening, enriching, and enjoyable one. Many of them have become friends over the years as well as important intellectual influences. Steve Penfold, Alissa Trotz, Carol Chin, Elspeth Brown, William Nelson, Dan Bender, Rick Halpern, Ian Radforth, and Natalie Davis have each, in various ways, left their imprints on this project. Davina Joseph, Christine Leonardo, and the staff in the History Department front office endured my frequent requests, unscheduled visits, and occasional emergencies with great patience and aptitude. From my first day in Toronto to my last, I have been fortunate to be a part of a community of graduate students who have become great friends. They truly made the city feel like home. In particular, I would like to thank Peter Mersereau (time of our lives!), Bret Edwards, Lilia Topouzova, Paul and Rose Lawrie, Vanessa McCarthy, Julie Anderson- Cohen, Sam Cohen, Brandon King, Camille Begin, Nick Neufeld, Holly Karibo, Chris Drohan, Nathan Cardon, Meaghan Marian, and Sylwia Szymanska-Smolkin. These are all extraordinary people with great minds and warm hearts. Nadia Jones-Gailani deserves special mention here. While our history is a complicated one, she remains my best friend, and it is no exaggeration to say that I would never have survived the past eight years (and in particular these last six months) without her continuous and enduring (though often undeserved) love and support. Others outside of Toronto have enriched my life in innumerable ways. Dennis Halpin and Troy Thompson in particular have been dear friends for many years now, and, while we’ve long been separated by geography, they remain in other ways very close. After taking an early interest in my academic work, Fraser Ottanelli continues to be an invaluable mentor, confidant, comrade, and friend over the years. Katia Rostetter, though oceans away, will always be close to my heart. v My dog Henry deserves a special acknowledgement here. He spent many hours lying in bed on his back snoring away blissfully while I worked at my computer. He also listened very closely and attentively to me as I talked to him while I wrote. His demands for long walks were good for both of us as they forced me to take breaks, and helped keep me sane during the final stages of this project. While he may not understand or appreciate the contents of this thesis or the labour that went into it, he certainly derives a great deal of satisfaction from eating the pages. I also wish to think those people who very generously offered their time to speak with me and share their lives. Indeed, they helped me to formulate some of my initial ideas for this project, and are central to its story. Inez Adams, Carlton and Beverly Baird, Richard Lord, and Stanley Grizzle all opened up their homes to me and patiently indulged my endless questions and inquiries. I met with Claire Clarke many times over the years, and am privileged to have known her. Unfortunately she passed away before I finished this thesis; I hope she would be pleased with the finished product. I have been fortunate to teach and work with some outstanding students during my years at the University of Toronto. Because the nature of this work demands so much solitary time in the archives and in front of the computer, meeting with them was always a highlight of my week. In particular the students of NEW428 and HIS294 were enthusiastic, interesting, smart, and entertaining groups, who often challenged and always inspired me. I truly learned a great deal from them. They have indeed made teaching a true passion of mine, and one from which I derive tremendous satisfaction and fulfillment. I am also blessed to have four incredible parents, all of whom are unconditionally loving, generous, patient, and supportive. Words cannot possibly express the gratitude and love I feel for them. They have always believed in my abilities, even when I most doubted vi myself. They have sustained me in immeasurable ways, and continue to be a constant source of strength and inspiration. My dear nephews, David and Martin, have grown into remarkable young men during my years in Toronto. I’ve been in university their entire lives, and they’ve frequently wondered whether that would ever not be the case. My sister often joked that David would graduate from high school before I finally finished my doctorate. She was right: he did … by two months. This thesis is dedicated to the memory of my sister, Sonya, who reminds me that there are far more important things in life than work. I
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